Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual

Government Girls Polytechnic, Bilaspur
Name of the Lab:Electrical&Electronic Measurement

Lab
Practical: Instrumentation & Process Control Lab
Class : 5th Semester ( ET&T )
Teachers Assessment: 10
End Semester Examination: 30
EXPERIMENT NO 1
OBJECTIVE : Displacement measurement using LVDT
MATERIAL REQUIRED : LVDT, MULTIMETER, CONNECTING WIRE
THEORY : Linear displacement is movement in one direction along a single axis. A position
or linear displacement sensor is a device whose output signal represents the distance an object
has traveled from a reference point. Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to
measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer. As shown in Figure 2,
an LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically mounted to a
stationary form, while the core is secured to the object whose position is being measured. The
coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow form. A core of permeable
material can slide freely through the center of the form. The inner coil is the primary, which is
excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two
secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil
1. Connect the circuit according to the diagram.
2. Switch on power supply.
3. The core is initially brought to null position.
4. First turn the nut in the in the clock wise direction i.e. from left of null position and take
respective reading in the voltmeter.
5. Now turn the nut in the anti clockwise direction i.e. from right of null position and again take
respective reading from voltmeter.
6. Plot the graph from observation taken.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)
General LVDT Assembly
Proportionally Linear LVDT Response to Core Displacement
Cross-Sectional View of LVDT Core and Windings

OBSERVATION TABLE :
SR NO
DISPLACEMENT
(MICROMETER)
DISPLACEMENT
ANALOG O/P
READING(mm)
1.
2.
RESULT: The graph is plotted between displacement and voltage.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. handle all equipment with care.
2. Make connection according to circuit diagram.
3. Take readings carefully.
4. The connections should be tight.
EXPERIMENT NO 2
OBJECTIVE : Weight measurement using strain gauge bridge
MATERIAL REQUIRED : Strain cantilever kit, multimeter, connecting wires.
THEORY : A strain gage is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts force,
pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be measured.When
external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the result. Stress is defined as the
object's internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as the displacement and deformation that occur.
The strain gage is one of the most important tools of the electrical measurement technique applied to the
measurement of mechanical quantities. As their name indicates, they are used for the measurement of
strain. As a technical term "strain" consists of tensile and compressive strain, distinguished by a positive
or negative sign. Thus, strain gages can be used to pick up expansion as well as contraction.
The strain of a body is always caused by an external influence or an internal effect. Strain might be
caused by forces, pressures, moments, heat, structural changes of the material and the like. If certain
conditions are fulfilled, the amount or the value of the influencing quantity can be derived from the
measured strain value. In experimental stress analysis this feature is widely used. Experimental stress
analysis uses the strain values measured on the surface of a specimen, or structural part, to state the
stress in the material and also to predict its safety and endurance. Special transducers can be designed
for the measurement of forces or other derived quantities, e.g., moments, pressures, accelerations,
displacements, vibrations and others. The transducer generally contains a pressure sensitive diaphragm
with strain gages bonded to it.
1.Connect the strain cantilever in the experimental kit.
2.Switch on power supply.
3.Give some time to stabilize the instrument.
4.Balance the cantilever bridge by corresponding zero.
5.Set the gain of the cantilever by SPAN , turn the trim point.
6.Now apply the weight at the cantilever beam and take readings.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Schematic
Typical metal-foil strain gages
OBSERVATION TABLE :
SR NO
WEIGHT
DISPLAY READING
ANALOG O/P(v)
SIGNAL(mv)
RESULT : Weight can be measured by using strain guage. Piezoelectric effect is studied with the help
of strain guage.
PRECAUTIONS :
1.handle all equipment with care.
2.Make connection according to circuit diagram.
3.Take readings carefully.
4.The connections should be tight.
EXPERIMENT NO 3& 4
OBJECTIVE : Speed measurement of motor using magnetic proximity switch.
Speed measurement of motor using photo electric pickup transducer.
MATERIALS REQUIRED : DC motor, proximity switch, connecting wire CRO.

THEORY : : Protocontrol make Proximity Switches that serve as a basic block of automation.
Find application for Position - Speed - Direction - Revolution -Liner Speed measurement.
We are proximity switches manufacturer and also offering sensing solutions for all applications.
You specify the requirement and we will help you to select suitable sensor from more than 2600
varieties we have. Every proximity sensor switches are designed for industrial application.
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an
electric motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. Asks are
often used on electrically-powered radio controlled models.An ESC can be a stand-alone unit
which plugs into the receiver's throttle control channel or incorporated into the receiver itself, as
is the case in most toy-grade R/C vehicles. Some R/C manufacturers that install proprietary
hobby-grade electronics in their entry-level vehicles, vessels or aircraft use onboard electronics
that combine the two on a single circuit board.
1.Connect the circuit according to the diagram and switch on power supply.
2. Adjust the speed of dc motor by the knob and wait until the motor the maximum speed at the
corresponding knob position.
3. measure the frequency from the output wave of CRO.
4.Find speed of motor by given formula.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
OBSERVATION TABLE :
SR NO
RPM SENSOR
DISPLAY READING
1.
2.
RESULT : The speed of dc motor is calculated by piezoelectric pick up and the piezoelectric
effect is studied.
Speed of sensor =(frequency *diameter disc)/No of segments
D=56.5 S=60
PRECAUTIONS :
EXPERIMENT NO 5
OBJECTIVE : Temperature measurement using Thermocouple.

MATERIAL REQUIRED :Thermocouple kit, water, thermometer, ice, heating arrangement.
THEORY : thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage
related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.
They are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and
can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of
less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.
Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which
have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different
alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion
may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is
far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension
wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are
usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical
instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying
temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the
varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of
measurements.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.
In 1821, the GermanEstonian physicist Thomas Johann See beck discovered that when any
conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as
the thermoelectric effect or See beck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily
involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also
experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose the
original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a
dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate different
voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That difference
increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (V/C) for
standard metal combinations.
The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather
along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature
gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same temperature gradient,
the end result is a measurement of the temperature at the thermocouple junction.
1.Connect the main power cord at the input main socket.
2.Switch on the power supply red LED will glow..
3.Connect the thermocouple sensor at pin the terminal.

4.Keep the thermocouple in boiling water and adjust the display ranging 100 by knob
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
OBSERVATION TABLE :
SR NO
TEMPERATURE
1.
TEMP WITH ICE POINT
2.
TEMP WITH BOILING POINT
DISPLAY
READING(mV)
RESULT :The temperature can be measured using thermocouple.
PRECAUTIONS :

10
EXPERIMENT NO 6
OBJECTIVE : Temperature measurement using resistance temperature detector
MATERIAL REQUIRED : Resistance temperature detector kit, ice, water, thermometer,
heating arrangement.
THEORY : Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) operate on the principle of changes in

the electrical resistance of pure metals and are characterized by a linear positive change in
resistance with temperature. Typical elements used for RTDs include nickel (Ni) and copper
(Cu), but platinum (Pt) is by far the most common because of its wide temperature range,
accuracy, and stability.
RTDs are popular because of their excellent stability, and exhibit the most linear signal with
respect to temperature of any electronic temperature sensor. They are generally more
expensive than alternatives, however, because of the careful construction and use of platinum.
RTDs are also characterized by a slow response time and low sensitivity, and because they
require current excitation, they can be prone to self-heating.
RTDs are commonly categorized by their nominal resistance at 0 oC. Typical nominal
resistance values for platinum thin-film RTDs include 100 W and 1000 W. The relationship
between resistance and temperature is very linear and follows the equation
o
For < 0 C RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT + cT (T - 100) ]

o
2
For > 0 C RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT ]
Where RT = resistance at temperature T
R0 = nominal resistance
a, b, and c are constants used to scale the RTD
o
The most common RTD is the platinum thin-film with an a of 0.385%/ C and is specified per
DIN EN 60751. The a value depends on the grade of platinum used, and also commonly
o
o
include 0.3911%/ C and 0.3926%/ C. The a value defines the sensitivity of the metallic
element, but is normally used to distinguish between resistance/temperature curves of various
RTDs.
3.Connect the RTD sensor at pin the terminal.
4.Keep the RTD in boiling water and adjust the display ranging 100 by knob.
11
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
OBSERVATION TABLE :
SR NO
TEMPERATURE
1.
TEMP WITH ICE POINT
2.
DISPLAY READING(mV)
RESULT : We have measured the temperature with RTD.Change in temperature give

electrical output.
12
PRECAUTIONS :
1.Handle all equipment with care.
13
EXPERIMENT NO 7
OBJECTIVE : Temparature measurement using thermistor.
MATERIALS REQUIRED : Thermistor kit, ice, water,thermometer, heating arrangement.
THEORY : Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature sensitive resistor. While the
thermocouple is the most versatile temperature transducer and the PRTD is the most stable,
the word that best describes the thermistor is sensitive. Of the three major categories of
sensors,the thermistor exhibits by far the largest parameter change with
temperature.Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor materials. Although positive
temperature coefficient units are available, most thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (TC); that is, their resistance decreases with increasing
temperature. The negative T.C. can be as large as several percent per degree Celsius,
allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in temperature which could not be
observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit. The price we pay for this increased sensitivity is
loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear upon process parameters.
Consequently, manufacturers have not
standardized thermistor curves to the extent that RTD and thermocouple curves have been
standardized.
3.Connect the thermistor at pin the terminal.
4.Keep the thermistor in boiling water and adjust the display ranging 100 by knob.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
14
OBSERVATION TABLE :
SR NO
TEMPERATURE
1.
TEMP WITH ICE POINT
2.
DISPLAY
READING(mV)
RESULT : We have measured the temperature with RTD.Change in temperature give

electrical output.
15
PRECAUTIONS :
16
EXPERIMENT NO 8
OBJECTIVE : Performance of piezo electric transducers
MATERIAL REQUIRED : Rochhele Salt, quartz, CRO
THEORY : Piezoelectricity from the Greek word "piezo" means pressure electricity. Certain
crystalline substances generate electric charges under mechanical stress and conversely
experience a mechanical strain in the presence of an electric field. The piezoelectric effect
describes a situation where the transducing material senses input mechanical vibrations and
produces a charge at the frequency of the vibration. An AC voltage causes the piezoelectric
material to vibrate in an oscillatory fashion at the same frequency as the input current.
Quartz is the best known single crystal material with piezoelectric properties. Strong
piezoelectric effects can be induced in materials with an ABO3, Perovskite crystalline structure.
'A' denotes a large divalent metal ion such as lead and 'B' denotes a smaller tetravalent ion
such as titanium or zirconium.
For any crystal to exhibit the piezoelectric effect, its structure must have no center of symmetry.
Either a tensile or compressive stress applied to the crystal alters the separation between
positive and negative charge sights in the cell causing a net polarization at the surface of the
crystal. The polarization varies directly with the applied stress and is direction dependent so
that compressive and tensile stresses will result in electric fields of opposite voltages.
1. Connect the circuit according to diagram.
2. Switch on power supply.
3. Plot thr graph according to the reading taken.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
17
RESULT : The performance of the piezoelectric transducer have been studied.
PRECAUTIONS :
1.Connect the circuit according to the diagram.
2. The connection should be tight.
18
EXPERIMENT NO 9
OBJECTIVE : Displacement measurement with help of light dependent resistor
MATERIAL REQUIRED : LDR kit, connecting wire, multimeter.
THEORY : photoresistor, light dependent resistor (LDR) or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a
resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be
referred to as a photoconductor.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of
high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons
enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole
partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own
charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only
available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to
excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called
dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the
electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for
conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
The sensitivity of a photodetector is the relationship between the light falling on
the device and the resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is
dealing with the relationship between theincident light and the corresponding
resistance of the cell. Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a
photoconductive cell is dependent on the wavelength (color) of the incident light.
Each photoconductor material type has its own unique spectral response curve
or plot of the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of light
1. Connect the circuit as shown and note all connection should be proper and tight.
2.Switch on the lamp and place the lamp such that light falls on LDR.
3. Move the direction of lamp and the variations in R.Make sure the movement is low.
19
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
OBSERVATION TABLE :
Sr no
Lux meter
Display reading
1.
2.
20
RESULT : The resistance of LDR decreases with increase in intensity.
PRECAUTIONS :
21
EXPERIMENT NO 10
OBJECTIVE : Displacement measurement using inductive pick up transducer

MATERIAL REQUIRED :Variable inductance kit, multimeter, connecting wires.
THEORY : The variable inductive transducer works on the same principle as LVDT.It consists
of core of ferromagnetic material.The displacement to be measured is applied to ferromagnetic
target.This target do not have any physical contact with the core on which it is mounted.The
core and target are separated by air gap.The displacement of the target allows the change in
output voltage which results in change of resistance of air gap. n Inductor is a passive
component used in electronic circuits. It stores energy in the form of magnetic
field.
1. Connect the circuit according ti the diagram and make sure all connections are tight.
2. Set the variable inductance knob to zero position and see that there should not be any error.
3. Now rotate the knob from zero and note the reading of multimeter.
4. Repeat the step 3 atleast 5 times.
5. Make a graph between voltage and displacement carefully.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
22
The graph below shows the output voltage/position characteristics.
RESULT : The graph is plotted between displacement and voltage.
PRECAUTIONS :

23
EXPERIMENT NO 11
OBJECTIVE : Pressure measurement using load cell
MATERIAL REQUIRED : Load cell, pressure guage,
THEORY : . A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a measurable electrical
output. Although there are many varieties of load cells, strain gage based load cells are the
most commonly used type. A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into
electrical signal. This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical
arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge converts the
deformation (strain) to electrical signals. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one strain gauge (quarter bridge) or two strain
gauges (half bridge) are also available. The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a
few millivolts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used.
The output of the transducer is plugged into an algorithm to calculate the force applied to the
transducer
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
24
25
RESULT : Pressure is measured using load cell.

PRECAUTIONS :
26
EXPERIMENT NO 12
OBJECTIVE : Liquid level measurement using capacitive type transducer
MATERIAL REQUIRED : capacitive type transducer,
THEORY : The capacitance between two conductive surfaces varies with three major factors:
The overlapping area(A) of those two surfaces
The distance between them(d)
The dielectric constant(o & r) of the material in between the surfaces.
If two out of three of these variables can be fixed (stabilized) and the third allowed to vary, then
any measurement of capacitance between the surfaces will be solely indicative of changes in
that third variable.The value of capacitance is determined by:
(a) The area of the plates
(b) The distance between the plates
(c) The type of dielectric between the plates
Some transducers work by making one of the capacitor plates movable, either in such a way as
to vary the overlapping area or the distance between the plates. Other transducers work by
moving a dielectric material in and out between two fixed plates:
Capacitive transducers can be classified as : 1. Variable capacitive transducer 2. Differential
capacitive transducer
Variable capacitive transducer varies according to:
(a) Area of overlap,
(b) Distance between plates,
(c) Amount of dielectric between plates.
Transducers with greater sensitivity and immunity to changes in other variables can be
obtained by way of differential design.
Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing:
(a) Area of overlap
(b) Distance between plates
(c) Dielectric between plates.
27
The differential devices shown above have three wire connections rather than two: one wire for
each of the end plates and one for the common plate. As the capacitance between one of
the end plates and the common plate changes, the capacitance between the other end
plate and the common plate is such to change in the opposite direction.This kind of
transducer lends itself very well to implementation in a bridge circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
RESULT :The height of liquid is calculated using capacitive transducer.
PRECAUTIONS :
28
EXPERIMENT NO 13, 14,&15
OBJECTIVE : Proportionate mode of control ,Proportionate + integral type control And

Proportionate + integral + derivative control
MATERIAL REQUIRED : controller with proportional,,PI and PID control.

THEORY : A proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control
loop feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems a PID is
the most commonly used feedback controller. A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the
difference between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint. The controller
attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate constant parameters, and is
accordingly sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the integral and derivative
values, denoted P, I, and D. Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of time: P
depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of
[1]
future errors, based on current rate of change. The weighted sum of these three actions is
used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the
power supply of a heating element.
[2]
In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller is the best controller.
By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control
action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can be
described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the
controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the
PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two actions to provide the appropriate system
control. This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller will be called
a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are
fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence
of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control
action.
Control loop basics

A familiar example of a control loop is the action taken when adjusting hot and cold faucet
valves to maintain the faucet water at the desired temperature. This typically involves the
mixing of two process streams, the hot and cold water. The person touches the water to sense
or measure its temperature. Based on this feedback they perform a control action to adjust the
hot and cold water valves until the process temperature stabilizes at the desired value.
Sensing water temperature is analogous to taking a measurement of the process value or
process variable (PV). The desired temperature is called the setpoint (SP). The input to the
29
process (the water valve position) is called the manipulated variable (MV). The difference
between the temperature measurement and the setpoint is the error (e) and quantifies whether
the water is too hot or too cold and by how much.
After measuring the temperature (PV), and then calculating the error, the controller decides
when to change the tap position (MV) and by how much. When the controller first turns the
valve on, it may turn the hot valve only slightly if warm water is desired, or it may open the
valve all the way if very hot water is desired. This is an example of a simple proportional
control. In the event that hot water does not arrive quickly, the controller may try to speed-up
the process by opening up the hot water valve more-and-more as time goes by. This is an
example of an integral control.
Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller
and will lead to overshoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make changes that were too
large and repeatedly overshoot the target, the output would oscillate around the setpoint in
either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. If the oscillations increase with time then the
system is unstable, whereas if they decrease the system is stable. If the oscillations remain at a
constant magnitude the system is marginally stable.
In the interest of achieving a gradual convergence at the desired temperature (SP), the
controller may wish to damp the anticipated future oscillations. So in order to compensate for
this effect, the controller may elect to temper their adjustments. This can be thought of as a
derivative control method.
If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the
controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the
process that impact on the process, and hence on the PV. Variables that impact on the process
other than the MV are known as disturbances. Generally controllers are used to reject
disturbances and/or implement setpoint changes. Changes in feedwater temperature constitute
a disturbance to the faucet temperature control process.
In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV),
a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect the
relevant PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate,
chemical composition, speed and practically every other variable for which a measurement
exists.
PID controller theory
This section describes the parallel or non-interacting form of the PID controller. For other forms
please see the section "Alternative nomenclature and PID forms".
The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the
manipulated variable (MV). Hence:
Where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID controller
from each of the three terms, as defined below.
Proportional term
30
The proportional term (sometimes called gain) makes a change to the output that is
proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by
multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain.
The proportional term is given by:
where
Pout: Proportional term of output
Kp: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
SP: Setpoint, the desired value
PV: Process value (or process variable), the measured value
e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If
the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (see the section on loop
tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a
less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action
may be too small when responding to system disturbances.A pure proportional controller will
not always settle at its target value, but may retain a steady-state error. Specifically, the
process gain - drift in the absence of control, such as cooling of a furnace towards room
temperature, biases a pure proportional controller. If the process gain is down, as in cooling,
then the bias will be below the set point, hence the term "droop".Droop is proportional to
process gain and inversely proportional to proportional gain. Specifically the steady-state error
is given by:
e = G / Kp
Droop is an inherent defect of purely proportional control. Droop may be mitigated by adding a
compensating bias term (setting the setpoint above the true desired value), or corrected by
adding an integration term (in a PI or PID controller), which effectively computes a bias
adaptively.
Despite droop, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term
that should contribute the bulk of the output change.
Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)
The contribution from the integral term (sometimes called reset) is proportional to both the
magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time
(integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously.
The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output.
The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined
by the integral gain, Ki.
The integral term is given by:where
31
Iout: Integral term of output

Ki: Integral gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error = SP PV
: a dummy integration variable
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of the
process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a
proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated
errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (cross over
the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding
integral gain tuning and controller stability, see the section on loop tuning.
The derivative term is given by:
Where Dout: Derivative term of output
Kd: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error = SP PV
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most
noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control is used to reduce the
magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined
controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this
term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to
become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are sufficiently large. Hence an
approximation to a differentiator with a limited bandwidth is more commonly used. Such a
circuit is known as a Phase-Lead compensator.:
where the tuning parameters are:
Proportional gain, Kp
Larger values typically mean faster response since the larger the error, the larger the
proportional term compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process
instability and oscillation.
Integral gain, Ki
32
Larger values imply steady state errors are eliminated more quickly. The trade-off is larger
overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away by
positive error before reaching steady state.
Derivative gain, Kd
Larger values decrease overshoot, but slow down transient response and may lead to
instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
A block diagram of a PID controller
Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)
RESULT: The controller as proportional, proportional derivative and proportional,integral and

derivative control is studied.
33
PRECAUTIONS :

34
EXPERIMENT NO 16
OBJECTIVE : Performance of data acquisition system.
MATERIAL REQUIRED : data acquisition system.
THEORY : Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real
world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital
numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems
(abbreviated with the acronym DAS or DAQ) typically convert analog waveforms
into digital values for processing. The components of data acquisition systems
include:
Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals.

Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to digital
values.
Data acquisition applications are controlled by software programs developed
using various general purpose programming languages such as BASIC, C,
Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal. COMEDI is an open source API (application program
Interface) used by applications to access and control the data acquisition
hardware. Using COMEDI allows the same programs to run on different
operating systems, like Linux and Windows.
Specialized software tools used for building large-scale data acquisition systems
include EPICS. Graphical programming environments include ladder logic, Visual
C++, Visual Basic, MATLAB and LabVIEW.
Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon or physical property to be
measured. Examples of this include temperature, light intensity, gas pressure,
fluid flow, and force. Regardless of the type of physical property to be measured,
the physical state that is to be measured must first be transformed into a unified
form that can be sampled by a data acquisition system. The task of performing
such transformations falls on devices called sensors.
A sensor, which is a type of transducer, is a device that converts a physical
property into a corresponding electrical signal (e.g., a voltage or current) or, in
many cases, into a corresponding electrical characteristic (e.g., resistance or
capacitance) that can easily be converted to electrical signal.
Signal conditioning may be necessary if the signal from the transducer is not suitable for the DAQ
hardware being used. The signal may need to be amplified, filtered or demodulated. Various
other examples of signal conditioning might be bridge completion, providing current or voltage
excitation to the sensor, isolation, linearization. For transmission purposes, single ended analog
35
signals, which are more susceptible to noise can be converted to differential signals. Once
digitized, the signal can be encoded to reduce and correct transmission errors.
DAQ hardware
DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC. It could be in the form of
modules that can be connected to the computer's ports (parallel, serial, USB, etc.) or cards
connected to slots (S-100 bus, AppleBus, ISA, MCA, PCI, PCI-E, etc.) in the mother board.
Usually the space on the back of a PCI card is too small for all the connections needed, so an
external breakout box is required. The cable between this box and the PC can be expensive The
ability of a data acquisition system to measure differing properties depends on having sensors
that are suited to detect the various properties to be measured. There are specific sensors for
many different applications. DAQ systems also employ various signal conditioning techniques to
adequately modify various different electrical signals into voltage that can then be digitized using
an Analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
Signals
Signals may be digital (also called logic signals sometimes) or analog depending on the
transducer used.
due to the many wires, and the required shielding.
DAQ cards often contain multiple components (multiplexer, ADC, DAC, TTL-IO, high speed
timers, RAM). These are accessible via a bus by a microcontroller, which can run small
programs. A controller is more flexible than a hard wired logic, yet cheaper than a CPU so that it
is permissible to block it with simple polling loops. For example: Waiting for a trigger, starting the
ADC, looking up the time, waiting for the ADC to finish, move value to RAM, switch multiplexer,
get TTL input, let DAC proceed with voltage ramp. Many times reconfigurable logic is used to
achieve high speed for specific tasks and digital signal processors are used after the data has
been acquired to obtain some results. The fixed connection with the PC allows for comfortable
compilation and debugging. Using an external housing a modular design with slots in a bus can
grow with the needs of the user.
Not all DAQ hardware has to run permanently connected to a PC, for example intelligent standalone loggers and oscilloscopes, which can be operated from a PC, yet they can operate
completely independent of the PC.
DAQ software
DAQ software is needed in order for the DAQ hardware to work with a PC. The device driver
performs low-level register writes and reads on the hardware, while exposing a standard API for
developing user applications. A standard API such as COMEDI allows the same user
applications to run on different operating systems, e.g. a user application that runs on Windows
will also run on Linux and BSD.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
36
37
RESULT : Performance of data acquisition system is studied.

PRECAUTIONS :
38

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Government Girls Polytechnic, Bilaspur

Name of the Lab:Electrical&Electronic Measurement

End Semester Examination: 30

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

General LVDT Assembly

Proportionally Linear LVDT Response to Core Displacement

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Cross-Sectional View of LVDT Core and Windings

RESULT: The graph is plotted between displacement and voltage.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

MATERIAL REQUIRED : Strain cantilever kit, multimeter, connecting wires.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Schematic

Typical metal-foil strain gages

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

MATERIALS REQUIRED : DC motor, proximity switch, connecting wire CRO.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

OBJECTIVE : Temperature measurement using Thermocouple.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

3.Connect the thermocouple sensor at pin the terminal.

TEMP WITH ICE POINT

TEMP WITH BOILING POINT

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

RESULT :The temperature can be measured using thermocouple.

1.handle all equipment with care.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

THEORY : Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) operate on the principle of changes in

For < 0 C RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT + cT (T - 100) ]

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

TEMP WITH ICE POINT

TEMP WITH BOILING POINT

RESULT : We have measured the temperature with RTD.Change in temperature give

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

TEMP WITH ICE POINT

TEMP WITH BOILING POINT

RESULT : We have measured the temperature with RTD.Change in temperature give

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

OBJECTIVE : Performance of piezo electric transducers

MATERIAL REQUIRED : Rochhele Salt, quartz, CRO

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

RESULT : The performance of the piezoelectric transducer have been studied.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

OBJECTIVE : Displacement measurement with help of light dependent resistor

MATERIAL REQUIRED : LDR kit, connecting wire, multimeter.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

RESULT : The resistance of LDR decreases with increase in intensity.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

OBJECTIVE : Displacement measurement using inductive pick up transducer

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

The graph below shows the output voltage/position characteristics.

RESULT : The graph is plotted between displacement and voltage.

1.handle all equipment with care.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

OBJECTIVE : Pressure measurement using load cell

MATERIAL REQUIRED : Load cell, pressure guage,

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual:5th semester(ET&T)

RESULT : Pressure is measured using load cell.

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual

Instrumentation & Process Control Lab Manual