Achomawi

Achomawi (also Achumawi, Ajumawi and Ahjumawi)

is a name used in the anthropological literature for the
northerly nine (out of eleven) bands of the Pit River tribe
of Native Americans who lived in what is now northeastern California in the United States. These nine autonomous bands (also called tribelets) of the Pit River
Indians spoke various dialects of one common language,
and the other two bands spoke dialects of a related language, called by anthropologists Atsugewi. Achomawi,
meaning river dwelling (from ajumma, river)[2] is actually just the name of the band whose territory was historically along the Fall River Valley and the Pit River from
the south end of Big Valley Mountains, westerly to Pit
River Falls.[3]
The other eight bands that shared the Achomawi language
had a historic homeland located along other parts of the
Pit River. Their territory extended from Big Bend to
Goose Lake. This land was also home to the Atsugewi
language group, which consisted two distinct bands of
what is now unied as the Pit River Tribe, and who lived
south of the Achomawi language bands in the Hat Creek
valley and Dixie Valley.[4]

Achomawi man (circa 1923)

Population

3 Historical culture

Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native

groups in California have varied substantially. Alfred
L. Kroeber estimated the combined 1770 population of
the Achomawi and Atsugewi as 3,000. A more detailed analysis by Fred B. Knien arrived at the same
gure. T. R. Garth estimated the Atsugewi population
at a maximum of 850, which would leave at least 2,150
for the Achomawi. Kroeber estimated population of the
Achomawi 1910 as 1,000 and three-fourths still full
blood.[5] Edward S. Curtis, a photographer and author
in the 1920s, gave a 1910 population of Achomawi at
984. The Achomawi population was estimated at 1,500
in 2000.[1]

3.1 Lodging and Villages

Each of the nine bands in the Achomawi language
group had dened separate territories up and down the
banks of the Pit River (which they called Achoma).
Within their respective territories, each band had several
villages, which were apparently composed of extended
family members, and had about 20-60 inhabitants per
village. The bands were organized by having one central village with smaller satellite villages. The lower Pit
River bands existed in a more densely forested mountain
zone, while the upper Pit River bands had a drier sage
brush and juniper zone. Their housing, food sources,
and seasonal movements therefore also varied. In the
summer, the Achomawi band, and other upper Pit River
bands usually lived in cone-shaped homes covered in tulemat[4] and spent time under shade or behind windbreaks
of brush or mats.[8] In the winter, larger houses were built.
Partially underground, these winter homes had wooden
frames which supported a covering made of a mix of
bark, grass and tule.[4]

Language

The proposal has been made that the Achomawi language

and the Atsugewi language should be classied together
as the Palaihnihan languages,[6] and more broadly in the
northern group of the proposed Hokan phylum with Yana,
the Shastan languages, Chimariko, Karuk, Washo, and
the Pomo languages.[7]
1

3.2

Family life

In marriage, the bridegroom lived in the brides home

briey, hunting and working for the brides relatives.
Eventually she would move with him to his family. A
patrilineal society, chiefdom was handed down to the eldest son. When children were born, the parents would
were put into seclusion and had food restrictions while
waiting for their babies umbilical cord to fall o. If twins
were born, one of them was killed at birth.[9]
Achomawi buried their dead in a exed position, on
the side, facing east and at times in baskets. They
also cremated those who died outside of the community,
bringing the ashes back for burial back home. The deads
belongings and relatives oerings were buried or burned
with the body and the deads house was born. There were
no special ceremonies or rituals. When women became
widows, they would crop their hair and rub pitch into the
stubble and on her face. A widow would also wear a necklace with lumps of pitch around her neck, with all being
worn upwards of three years. After her hair grew to her
upper arm, she would go on to marry her dead husbands
brother.[9]

HISTORICAL CULTURE

extreme moderation, as the community believed that too

much salt caused sore eyes.[10]

3.4.1 Fishing
Fishing was a major source of food supply for the
Achomawi. The Sacramento sucker was described as
being of paramount importance to the Achomawi.[13]
Salmon was scarce for eastern groups, while those in
the lower Pit River found it in abundance. The salmon
was sun dried, lightly roasted or smoked, and then stored
in large bark covered baskets in slabs or in crumbled
pieces.[14]

Fishermen used nets, baskets and spears to sh, and sh

traps to catch the Sacramento sucker. Ten sh traps were
found and are on display at the Ahjumawi Lava Springs
State Park. Made of stone, the traps consisted of a large
outer wall that connects two points of land on the lake.
The wall was built to the water level out of lava stones. A
central opening in the wall, which measured between 2050 centimeters, was supplied to allow the suckers to enter
the traps. The opening pulls in the spring water outow
For leisure, women within the community would play a that is strong enough to carry in the suckers. To entrap the
double ball game.[10] The Achomawi also built and used sh, a log, dip net or a canoe prow, and then they were
speared. The stones are described as labyrinths due to the
sweat lodges.[11]
many interior channels and pools they form.[13]

3.3

Dress and body art

Achomawi men wore buckskin with coats and shirts. A

deerskin with a hole cut out in the middle was put over the
heads after the sides were sewn together to provide armholes, and then it would be belted. Buckskin leggings with
fringe were rare but occasionally worn by Achomawi.
Moccasins of twined tule and stued with grass were
the most common type of footwear. Deerskin moccasins
were worn during dry weather. An apron like kilt was also
seen within communities, similar to the breechcloth of
Eastern communities. Women wore short gowns or tops
similar to the men, along with a deerskin skirt or a fringed
apron. Bucksin moccasins and a basket cap were also
standard among women. Both men and womens clothing
might be decorated with porcupine quill embroidery.[8]
Both men and women did have tattoos. Women would
have three lines tattooed under the mouth and perhaps a
few lines on the cheek. Men had septum piercings with
dentalium shell or other jewelry.[8]

3.4

Subsistence

The Achomawi shed, hunted and gathered from around

the area. Deer, wildfowl, bass, pike, trout, and catsh
were caught. Wild plant foods, herbs, eggs, insects and
larvae were also gathered.[12] The only meat avoided by
the Achomawi was the domestic dog and salt was used in

Aside from traps, other tools were made and used by

the community for shing purposes, including sh hooks
and spear points made of bone and horn. Achomawi sh
hooks were made of deer bone, and shing spears consisted of a long wooden shaft with a double-pointed bone
head with a socket in which the base of the shaft was installed. A line was fastened to the spear point which was
then held by the spearsman for control.[15] Hemp was also
used to make cords to make shing nets and rawhide was
used for shing weirs. The Achomawi made ve types of
shing nets, three of them were dip nets, one a gill net
and the fth a seine.[16]
The three dip nets were shaped like bags. One type,
called talka'yi, was suspended on the prongs of a forked
pole, and was used from a canoe, land, or from wading
and was used for catching suckers, trout and pike. Another dip net, a tamichi, was used only for shing suckers. The tamichi was four to ve feet deep and wide when
closed. The mesh at the lower edge of the bags opening
are threaded along a stick which is then placed in the water to catch the sh. The sherman would wade in the water while moving the net while women and children would
wade pushing the sh towards the sherman. When the
sh enter the net, the sherman releases the bag which
then closes. The third bag, the lipake, was small with an
oval hoop sewn into the opening. The sherman would
dive into the water and would hold the net in one hand
while driving the suckers in with his free hand. Upon
succeeding at capturing the sh, the sherman would then
ip the hoop over the net to close it for safe capture.[16]

3.5

Religion

The other two nets were generally used for capturing trout
and pike. The gill net, called tuwtifshi, was 40 to 60 feet
long and was weighted with stones to sink it. One end was
fasted to a tree and the other to a buoy; when a sh was
captured the buoy would move. The seine, talmmchi,
was six to feet in depth and extended across the stream
from one side to the other in calm water. Stones were
used to sink the lower edge, and buoys were used on the
upper edge. The sherman would sit in a canoe at one
bank, and a pulley was attached to the opposite shore.
When the net was tugged upon by the sh, the sherman
would haul in the oat line with the pulley to remove the
catch.[16]
[16]

Minnows were also caught for drying. They were captured with a sh trap made of willow rods and pine
root weft. Cylindrical in shape, the mouth of the trap
had splints converging inwards, which would prevent the
scape of the sh, were controlled by two weirs. A weir,
called tatpi, was placed in shallow streams to capture
trout, pike and suckers. A row of stakes were placed in
the bottom of the stream and stones, logs, stumps and dirt
was piled up against the stakes so that the water would be
dammed and have to pour over the weir and into a trap
on the other side. Another weir, the tafsifschi, was used
in a larger stream to catch allis (steelhead trout) when
they would return to sea in the fall. The tafsifschi consisted of two fence sections which extended from opposite river banks at a down-stream angle; almost meeting
mid-river. They were connected by a short section of wall
made by lashing horizontal poles close together across the
gap. This was the lowest point in the created dam, and
water would pour over carrying the sh into the basket
on the other side of the gap.[17] Salmon would be caught
by spear, seine, or in nets that hung above water falls or
dams.[14]

3.4.3 Gathering
Tule sprouts were gathered in the spring and acorns, a staple of California Natives, were obtained through trade,
due to the scarcity of oak trees in the area.[12][14] Acorns,
peanuts, pine nuts, seeds of wild oats and other grasses,
manzanita berries and other berries are prepared for either consumption, winter storage or for trade.

3.5 Religion
Adolescent boys sought guardian spirits called tinihowi
and both genders experienced puberty ceremonies.[12] A
victory dance was also held in the community, which involved the toting of a head of the enemy with women participating in the celebration. Elder men would fast to increase the run of sh and women and children would eat
out of sight of the river to encourage sh populations.[9]
Spiritual presences were identied with mountain peaks,
certain springs, and other sacred places.[19]

Achomawi shamans maintained the health of the community, serving as doctors. Shamans would focus on pains
which were physical and spiritual. These pains were believed to have been put on people by hostile shamans.
After curing the pain, the shaman would then swallow it.
Both men and women held the role of shaman. A shaman
was said to have a fetish called kaku[20] or qaqu.[21][22]
(The letter q was supposed to represent a velar spirant x,
as in Bach, in the system generally used at that time for
writing indigenous American languages.[23] The Achumawi Dictionary[24] does not have this word.) Dixon described the qaqu as a bundle of feathers which were believed to grow in rural places, rooted in the earth, and
which,when secured, dripped of blood constantly. It was
used as an oracle to locate pains in the body.[25] Quartz
crystal was also revered within the community and was
obtained
by diving into a waterfall. In the pool in the wa3.4.2 Hunting
terfall the diver would nd a spirit (like a mermaid) who
would lead the diver to a cave where the crystals grew. A
Due to the dry nature of the Achomawis land, deer
giant moth cocoon, which symbolized the heart of the
was not always abundant, hence their unique way of
world, was another fetish, and harder to obtain.[11]
hunting deer compared to other Californian Natives
Americans.[14] A deep pit would be dug along a deer trail,
covered with brush, the trail restored including adding 3.5.1 Puberty rites
deer tracks using a hoof, and all dirt and human evidence
taken away. The settlers cattle would also fall in these A girl would begin her puberty ritual by having her ears
pits, so much so that the settlers convinced the people pierced by her father or another relative. She would then
to stop this practice. The pits were most numerous near be picked up, dropped, and then hit with an old basket,
the river because the deer came down to drink and so the before running away. During this part, her father would
river is named for these trapping pits.[18] Deer hunting pray to the mountains for her. The girl would return in the
was always preceded by ritual. Rituals also existed that evening with a load of wood, another symbol of womens
did not involve the hunting process but involved the avoid- roles within the community, like the basket. She would
ance of deer meat. Adolescent girls would stu their nos- then build a re in front of her house and dance around it
trils with fragrant herbs to avoid smelling venison being throughout the night, with relatives participating; around
cooked while going through their maturity ceremony.[14] the re or inside the house. Music would accompany
Waterfowl, like ducks, were snared by a noose stretched the dance, made by a deer hoof rattle. During the ritacross streams. Rabbits would be driven into nets.[14]
ual time, she would have herbs stued up her nose to

avoid smelling venison being cooked. In the morning, she

would be picked up and dropped again, and she would run
o with the deer hoof rattle. This repeated for ve day
and nights. On the fth night, she would return from her
run to be sprinkled with r leaves and bathed, completing
the ritual.[26]
Boys puberty rites were similar to the girls ritual but adds
shamanistic elements. The boys ears are pierced, and
then he is hit with a bowstring and runs away to fast and
bathe in a lake or spring. While he is gone, his father
prays for the mountains and the Deer Woman to watch
over the boy. In the morning, he returns, lighting res
during his trip home and eats outside the home and then
runs away again. He stays several nights away, lighting
res, piling up stones and drinking through a reed so that
his teeth would not come into contact with water. If he
sees an animal on the rst night in the lake or spring or
dream of an animal; that animal would become his personal protector. If the boy has a vision like this, he will
become a shaman.[26]

3.6

War traditions & weaponry

The Achomawi used sinew-backed bows, that were noticeably atter than those used by the Yurok and other
California tribes. Body armor would be made of hard
elk or bear hide with a waistcoat of thin sticks wrapped
together.[10]

Arts

HISTORY

shapes are similar to those made by the Modoc[10] and

have slightly rounded bottoms and sides, wide openings
and shallow depth.[27] Baskets sizes and shapes depend
on the intended use. Some baskets are created for women
to wear as caps, some for cooking on hot stones, holding
semi-liquid food or water. Willow rods are used for the
warp and pine root is used for the weft. In the caps, only
tule ber is used. A burden basket was also made by the
Achomawi, as was a mesh beater which would be used to
harvest seeds into the burden baskets, made of willow or
a mix of willow and pine root.[27]
Most baskets are covered in a light white overlay of
xerophyllum tenax, though it is believed that those covered in xerophyllum tenax are for trade and sale only, not
for daily use. The xerophyllum tenax protects the baskets artwork and materials when used, helpful for when
boiling or holding water. Anthropologist Alfred Kroeber believed that by 1925 the Achomawi were no longer
cooking in baskets, and were merely making them for sale
and trade.[10]

4.2 Canoes
The Achomawi made simple dugout canoes of pine or
cedar. Longer, thinner and less detailed than the Yurok
redwood boats and Modoc canoes, the canoes were produced simply for transportation and hunting.[10]

5 History
5.1 Early history

Achomawi basket-maker in 1923

4.1

Basket-making

The Achomawi follow in the tradition of other California

tribes, with their skills in basketry. Baskets are made of
willow and are colored with vegetable dyes.[4] Their basketry is twined, and compared to the work of the Hupa
and Yurok are described as being softer, larger, and with
designs that lack the focus on one horizontal band. The

The Achomawi and Atsugewi were victims of slave raids

by the Klamath and Modoc, and other tribes of the
north. Captured people would be sold into slavery at
an inter-tribal slave market at The Dalles in present day
Oregon.[5][12] The Achomawi had positive relations with
the Atsugewi and Wintun. The Achomawi also served
as transmitters in trade between the Wintun, Modoc and
possibly the Paiute.[8] The Achomawi traded with people throughout the area, trading their own furs, basketry, steatite, rabbit-skin blankets, food and acorn in exchange for goods such as epos root, clam beads, obsidian
and other goods. Eventually they would also trade for
horses with the Modoc.[11] The Achomawi used beads for
money, specically dentalia.[8]

5.2 European contact

In 1828 fur trappers and traders visited Achomawi land.
It wasn't until the 1840s and the California gold rush when
outsiders began to arrive in large numbers and taking land
and disturbing the Achomawi lifeways. The Rogue River
Wars in 1855-56 brought a strong U.S. military presence
to the area, as well.[28]

5.3

Late 19th and 20th centuries

In 1871 community members participated in the rst

Ghost Dance movement, and other future religious revitalization movements after moving to a reservation.
In 1921, a small pox epidemic took its toll on the
Achomawis.[28]

5.4

Present day

The majority of Achumawi people are enrolled in the federally recognized Pit River Tribe. The Achumawi are
one of eleven autonomous bands: Ajumawi, Atsugewi,
Atwamsini, Illmawi, Astarawi, Hammawi, Hewisedawi,
Itsatawi, Aporige, Kosealekte, and Madesi, that since
time immemorial have resided in the area known as the
100-mile (160 km) square, located in parts of Shasta,
Siskiyou, Modoc, and Lassen Counties in the State of
California.[29]
There is a Housing Authority that through Government
grants has developed community housing projects, such
as housing for low income families and elders. The Tribe
operates a Day Care center, and environmental program.
The Pit River Tribe currently operates Pit River Casino,
a Class III gaming facility located on 79 acres (320,000
m2 ) in Burney, California.
Today there are around 1,800 tribal members enrolled
in contemporary Achumawi federally recognized tribes,
that are as follows:
Alturas Indian Rancheria[28]
Big Bend Rancheria[28]
Likely Rancheria[28]
Lookout Rancheria[28]
Montgomery Creek Rancheria[28]

7 References
[1] ACHOMAWI. Four Directions Institute. 2007. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
[2] Nevin, Bruce E. (1998), Aspects of Pit River phonology
(PDF), Ph.D. Dissertation (University of Pennsylvania)
[3] Merriam, C. Hart, The Classication and Distribution of
The Pit River Indian Tribes of California. Smithsonian Institution (Publication 2874), Volume 78, Number 3, 1926
[4] Carl Waldman (September 2006). Encyclopedia of Native
American tribes. Infobase Publishing. pp. 23. ISBN
978-0-8160-6274-4. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[5] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. p. 308. ISBN
978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[6] Mithun 1999:470-472
[7] Golla, Victor (2011). California Indian Languages. University of California Press. pp. 84111. ISBN 978-0520-26667-4.
[8] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the
Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 310
311. ISBN 978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November
2011.
[9] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. p. 313. ISBN
978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[10] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. p. 310. ISBN
978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[11] Achomawi. California Native American Page. San
Francisco State University. Retrieved 20 November
2011.
[12] Carl Waldman (September 2006). Encyclopedia of Native
American tribes. Infobase Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 978-08160-6274-4. Retrieved 21 November 2011.

The following three rancherias are shared with other [13] Subsistence. Achumawi. College of the Siskiyous. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
communities:
Roaring Creek Rancheria.[28][30]
Susanville Indian Rancheria[28]
XL Ranch[28]

See also
Achumawi language
Achomawi traditional narratives
Edechewe

[14] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the

Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 309
. ISBN 978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November
2011.
[15] Curtis, Edward S. The North American Indian. Volume 13
- The Hupa. The Yurok. The Karok. The Wiyot. Tolowa
and Tututni. The Shasta. The Achomawi. The Klamath.
~ Paperbound. Classic Books Company. p. 135. ISBN
978-0-7426-9813-0. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[16] Curtis, Edward S. The North American Indian. Volume 13
- The Hupa. The Yurok. The Karok. The Wiyot. Tolowa
and Tututni. The Shasta. The Achomawi. The Klamath.
~ Paperbound. Classic Books Company. p. 136. ISBN
978-0-7426-9813-0. Retrieved 21 November 2011.

[17] Curtis, Edward S. The North American Indian. Volume 13

- The Hupa. The Yurok. The Karok. The Wiyot. Tolowa
and Tututni. The Shasta. The Achomawi. The Klamath.
~ Paperbound. Classic Books Company. p. 137. ISBN
978-0-7426-9813-0. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[18] Stephen Powers * Tribes of California*, p. 269 (Regents
of the University of California, forward by R. Heizer,
1976)
[19] Merriam identied the character Annikadel with God in a
collection of stories, although his interactions with other
characters contradict that idea. Woiche, Istet. Annikadel:
The history of the universe as told by the Achumawi ndians of California (Reprint ed.). Tucson: University of
Arizona Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-8165-1283-3.
[20] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. p. 315. ISBN
978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[21] Dixon, Roland B.. Some Shamans of Northern California. Journal of American Folk-Lore 17: 2327.
[22] Kroeber relied upon Dixons work in this part of California (Golla, Victor (2011). California Indian Languages.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
pp. 3839. ISBN 978-0-520-26667-4.).
[23] Powell, John Wesley (1880). Introduction to the study
of Indian languages with words, phrases and sentences to
be collected (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Oce. p. 9.
[24] Olmsted, David L. Achumawi Dictionary. University of
California Publications in Linguistics 45. Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press.
[25] Dixon, op. cit.
[26] Alfred Louis Kroeber (9 July 2006). Handbook of the Indians of California. Kessinger Publishing. p. 314. ISBN
978-1-4286-4492-2. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[27] Curtis, Edward S. The North American Indian. Volume 13
- The Hupa. The Yurok. The Karok. The Wiyot. Tolowa
and Tututni. The Shasta. The Achomawi. The Klamath. ~
Paperbound. Classic Books Company. pp. 137. ISBN
978-0-7426-9813-0. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[28] Carl Waldman (September 2006). Encyclopedia of Native
American tribes. Infobase Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-08160-6274-4. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[29] Pit River Docket No. 347, (7 ICC 815 at 844), Indian Claims Commission; see also Olmsted and Stewart
1978:226.
[30] California Indians and Their Reservations. San Diego
State University Library and Information Access. 2009
(retrieved 15 Dec 2009)

EXTERNAL LINKS

8 Further reading
Evans, Nancy H.,1994. Pit River, in Native America in the Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia, ed.
Mary B. Davis (NY: Garland Pub. Co).
Garth, T. R. 1978. Atsugewi. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 236243.
Handbook of North American Indians, William C.
Sturtevant, general editor, vol. 8. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Golla, Victor. California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011. ISBN
978-0-520-26667-4.
Jaimes,M. Annette, 1987. The Pit River Indian
Claim Dispute in Northern California, Journal of
Ethnic Studies, 14(4): 47-74.
Knien, Fred B. 1928. Achomawi Geography.
University of California Publications in American
Archaeology and Ethnology 23:297-332.
Kroeber, A. L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of
California. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin
No. 78. Washington, D.C.
Mithun, Marianne. 1999. The Languages of Native
North America. Cambridge University Press.
Olmsted, D.L. and Omer C. Stewart. 1978. Achumawi in Handbook of North American Indians,
vol. 8 (California), pp. 225235. William C.
Sturtevant, and Robert F. Heizer, eds. Washington,
DC: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-0045789/0160045754.
Tiller, Veronica E. Velarde, 1996. Tillers Guide
to Indian Country (Albuquerque: BowArrow Pub.
Co.): see X-L Ranch Reservation, pp. 30809.
There is a new later edition, 2005.

9 External links
Ocial website of the Pit River Tribe
A bibliography for the Achomawi from Shasta Public Libraries
Achomawi Bibliography, from California Indian Library Collections Project

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Achomawi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achomawi?oldid=651950093 Contributors: Maximus Rex, Chris 73, Babbage, Cyrius,
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10.2

Images

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artist: ?
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PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

10.3

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