Lindsay Elgin

Center for Digital Scholarship

Brown University Library
Lindsay_Elgin@Brown.edu

Approaching Digital Imaging

A Practical Guide to Creating, Preparing and Managing Digital Images

Digital Images|Important Terminology

The following is a list of terms that are important for you to know to understand how digital imaging works. These
are very basic explanations, but should be enough to get you up and running. It's important to note that while you
certainly don't need to memorize these terms, understanding them will help you understand how a digital image is
created, so if you find yourself scanning or editing images on your own, you can make more informed decisions
about how to properly create and work with digital images.

Pixel:
Short for picture elements, pixels are the tiny dots of color that make up a digital image. If you zoom far enough
into any image, you will eventually see pixels as the blocks of color that comprise the image. The more pixels that
make up a digital image, the smoother the image will look, and the higher quality the image will be.

Resolution & Image Size:

Essentially, resolution refers to the quality of the image; in fact, the resolution of an image is perhaps the most
important determining factor in its quality. More specifically, resolution refers to how the pixels are organized in
your image, in terms of how many pixels fit into an inch of the document (called dpi, or dots per inch, or, more
accurately referred to as ppi, or pixels per inch). An image with a higher resolution, like 600 dpi, can be easily
enlarged and even printed at good quality. An image with a low resolution, like 72 dpi, is only suitable for use on
the web.
Resolution as a term in digital imaging is tricky because its meaning can shift depending on the context, and is
closely linked to the overall Image Size. In Photoshop in particular, Image Size refers to the dimensions of your
document, measured in pixels. The resolution simply tells you how those pixels are arranged as pixels-per-inch,
cm, etc. In Photoshop, you can rearrange the number of dots per inch to get higher resolution, but this will make
your image smaller (i.e. a 16x20 image at 300 dpi is the same image size, but a higher resolution, as an 8x10 at
600dpi). The resolution you will need will depend greatly on your final output, but to be safe you should digitize at
a higher resolution than you'll think you need to keep your options open down the line. If you end up needing a
higher resolution than what you have, you will have to rescan.

Bit Depth:
Bits are the smallest pieces of data that computers store, and are written in the binary language of computers. Bit
depth refers to the number of bits of information for each piece of data (in our case, each pixel). Just as digital
images are made up of a number of pixels, pixels are made up of a number of bits. And just as more pixels yield a
higher quality image, more bits yield pixels with more color and tonal information. An image with a bit depth of 1
is only black or white, with no shades of gray. An image with a bit depth of 24, however, is a full color image that
can accurately depict millions of colors. You always want to choose 24-bit color, which is generally the default
setting on most scanners.

Color Management - Calibration & Color Profiles:

One of the trickiest parts about digital imaging is managing color accurately. To get truly accurate digital
reproductions, you have to make sure that each device you use is reproducing color and tone as closely as possible
to the original. Digital scanning labs are careful to make sure that the hardware (monitors and scanners) are
properly calibrated, and that the software (scanning software as well as Photoshop) uses the proper color profiles,
 so that the color you see on the screen closely resembles your original. You do NOT need to worry about
calibrating or profiling anything on your own, although you should expect that your images will look different on a
calibrated machine vs. your home computer.

The one type of color profile you will have to be aware of is the profile that is attached to your document. Every
digital image has a color profile that tells your imaging software how to manage the color. Different color profiles
are used for different situations, but the main difference between color profiles has to do with how many colors
they are capable of reproducing. This is something called color gamut: a color profile with a wide color gamut will
more accurately depict more colors, particularly subtle shifts in color, than a profile with a smaller gamut. You
only need to care about two profiles: Adobe RGB and sRGB. Adobe RGB has a wide color gamut, and is the profile
you will use for scanning and saving your master images. sRGB is the profile used most often on the web, and is
how you will save your derivative images.

Color Targets:
Color targets are cards printed with specific colors (including shades of neutral gray from black to white) that are
used in digitizing to ensure color accuracy. For your scans, all you will need to do is include these cards in your
scan, next to your document/object. In the future, you can use these targets as references to confirm or correct
color accuracy.

File Type:
There are myriad types of files that you run into in computer, and a great number of file types exist simply for
saving as images. However, unless you are creating web graphics or doing a good deal of editing in Photoshop,
you'll really only need to be concerned with two: JPEG (file extension .jpg) and TIFF (file extension .tif). These are
very different types of files, and it's important to understand the difference.
TIFF: A file saved as a TIFF is a high-quality file, and is saved with no image compression. You will have a much
larger file, which will take up more room on your computer. All archived images should be saved as
uncompressed TIFFs.
JPEG: JPEGs are just the opposite of TIFFs; they compress your image (generalizing the information in the
image to give you a smaller file) and save on memory by losing quality. JPEGs are excellent for images intended
for a website or for email, but not for the original scans of an image. Derivative images from your master files will
generally be saved as JPEGs.

Creating the Digital Image|Making a Scan

This is to guide you through the basic steps of scanning a flat object (like a photograph or document) or scanning a
photographic negative or slide. Scanning is essentially another way of taking a digital photograph. A digital camera
uses a light-sensitive chip to record entering the lens; a scanner uses similar technology to record the light reflecting
off, or coming through, your object. There are several kinds of scanners, but the ones you are most likely to run into
are flatbed scanners and film scanners. There are also drum scanners, which produce extremely high quality scans
and are generally used in professional labs only.

Flatbed Scanner
A flatbed scanner is a scanner intended to scan two-dimensional, opaque images. Some flatbed scanners have
transparency adapters, which allow them to scan negatives and slides (although this will often not be as high
quality as using a dedicated film scanner). Mainly, flatbed scanners are used for two-dimensional images such as
photographs, prints, and items from magazines, newspapers and books. For images containing a great deal of
white, use a piece of black paper behind the image.

Film Scanner
Film scanners will scan negatives and slides in varying sizes (to accommodate 35mm, medium and large format
negatives). You always want to scan at a very high resolution when scanning film, because it is so much smaller
 than images we are used to dealing with. You also want to make sure that your negatives are as clean and dust-free
as possible before you scan them.

Making a Scan
1. You will be scanning through some kind of software: Scanners come with drivers, special software that allows
them to work with your computer. Very often, the scanner software is in the form of a plugin; a mini-application
of sorts that you use through another program (usually Photoshop). For our flatbed scans, we will use Silverfast
scanning software, accessed through Photoshop. Open Photoshop. Choose File>Import>Silverfast.

2. Place your document face-down on the scanner bed. Be careful not to scratch the glass with rings, watches, etc.
If the scanner glass seems dusty or dirty, clean it beforehand and allow it to dry thoroughly before placing your
object on the scanner. Next to the object, place your color checker cards so that they fit on the bed and will be
visible in your scan. (This step is for flatbed scanners only.)

3. Note the type of your original: reflective or transparent or type of film. (This step is for film scanners only.)

4. Set the type of scan you want: this is usually for color and bit depth. For flatbed scanning, you should always
scan in color and convert to black and white in Photoshop. Negatives and slides should be scanned as their
original format. You should generally use 24-bit color for regular scans.

5. Set the size of your scan: you can choose to enlarge the image or keep it the same. It is best to keep the size the
same: keep the target the same as the source.

6. Set the resolution of the scan: always scan high, especially since you are keeping the image the same size,
especially if you are scanning negatives. Good resolutions to scan at are 600-800 dpi flatbed; 2500-3000 dpi for
35mm negative/slide.

7. Determine if you need a de-screening filter. This is for flatbed scanners, and you use them when you are
scanning printed material (i.e. magazines, newspapers) so the printing screen will not appear in your image. Some
scanners allow you to specify what type of printed material you have (newspaper, magazine, art magazine, etc.) and
will apply a more specific de-screening filter based on your selection.

8. Remember to select the area you want to scan: you do this by drawing a marquee around your image. Multiple
images can be scanned at once: just use multiple marquees (this is called a batch scan).

9. Before you scan, do a preview: this lets you see how the scan will look. Make sure that the entire
object/document is selected, and that there aren't any obvious problems with focus, exposure or color.

10. Make your scan: When all your settings are set and you have done a successful preview. Go ahead and choose
"Scan." Higher quality scans take more time to create, so don't be concerned if the scan takes a few minutes. You'll
probably also hear the movement of the scanner head as it passes over the object.

Preparing Digital Images|Beyond the Initial Scan

Correcting the Master Image

Once you've made your scan, the image should automatically open in Photoshop. Check the image to ensure that
the color, exposure, focus, etc., all look correct, and that your scan has not cut off any of the original or the color
targets. Once you're satisfied with your scan, you'll want to make a few adjustments to ensure that the image is
oriented properly and that it's ready to be saved as a master image.
 1. Make sure the image is properly oriented. If you need to rotate the image by 90 or 180 degrees:
a. Under the "Image" menu, choose “Image Rotation” and choose the rotation you need.

2. Once you’ve done your major rotation, make any small rotations to get the image square:
a. Choose the Ruler Tool in the toolbox (it’s hidden under the eyedropper tool).
b. Using the Ruler, draw a line along a straight edge within the document.
c. Under the “Image” menu, choose “Image Rotation,” and pick “Arbitrary.”

3. Crop the Image as close to the targets and the object as possible:
a. In the toolbox, choose the Crop Tool. Draw a box around the object/document. You can hover your
mouse over the small squares along the sides of the box, and when you see the double-arrows on your
cursor, use the mouse to move the lines of your selection box and adjust your crop.
b. When you are happy with your selection, hit "Return" to crop.

4. Save as a TIFF:
a. Under the "File" menu, choose "save As."
b. Name your file, and under Format, choose TIFF.
c. Double-check that under Color, the box is checked that says "Embed Color Profile: Adobe RGB."
d. Click "ok."
e. When the "TIFF Options Dialog box comes up, make sure that you have not selected any type of Image
Compression.

Preparing Derivative Images

The master image that you keep for you archives is not all that practical for use in web and Powerpoint galleries, etc.
The changes you make to your image to create a derivative file are minor, and won't affect the image itself. What you
need to do is crop out the color targets, make the image smaller (so it's easier to post online or put in a gallery),
change its color profile (so the colors display accurately online), and save it as a JPEG (the preferred file format for
web, Powerpoint, emailing, etc.). The following are step-by-step instructions on creating a derivative:

1. Open the master image in Photoshop

2. Crop out the color targets:

a. Using the Crop tool (in the Photoshop tool box), draw a box around the object/document. You can
hover your mouse over the small squares along the sides of the box, and when you see the double-
arrows on your cursor, use the mouse to move the lines of your selection box and adjust your crop.
b. When you are happy with your selection, hit "Return" to crop.

3. Resize the Image:

a. Go to the "Image Size" menu item.
b. Make sure that the box marked "Resample Image" is checked.
c. Under "Pixel Dimensions," type in the size you would like the image to be. You may have been given
specific instructions for the size, or you may need to pick a close approximation. A good rule of
thumb is about 1500px on the long side for Powerpoint, and 800px on the long side for the web.
d. Click "ok."
 4. Convert to the correct color profile for the web:
a. Go to the "Edit" menu item.
b. Choose "Convert to Profile."
c. Under "Destination Space" choose "sRGB......."
d. Click "Ok."

5. Save as a JPEG:
a. In the "File" menu item, choose "Save As."
b. Under "Format," choose "JPEG."
c. A second dialog box will appear, asking you to choose the level of compression of the JPEG. Under
"Image Options," choose a number between 9-12 (the higher the number, the higher the quality of your
image, and also the higher the file size.)
d. Click "Ok."

Managing the Digital Image|Keeping Track of Your Files

The Master Image
A master image is essentially a digital negative. It is the original file that you scanned, with no adulterations other
than initial, minor corrections like rotation and color and exposure checks. Each master image should have two
color checker cards: the Gretag Macbeth color card for optimal exposure, contrast and color, and the Kodak color
checker, which includes a ruler. Both are extremely important for reference down the line. Keep track of these
master images, and make sure that they are backed up (exist in more than one location: on your computer and an
external hard drive, jump drive, or DVD). Master images are always saved as TIFFs.

File Naming & Organization

It's easy to take for granted that you'll know what a particular image is just by viewing it. It's also incredibly
important not to rely on your own memory to keep track of all your images. Develop some type of naming
convention before you begin, and stick with it. This will help you organize your materials, and correctly identify
images later on. In our system, we keep a record of each image using a specially-designed tracking system that
associates all the metadata for an object with its digital surrogate. An easy way to replicate this is to name your files
in such a way that clues you into what it is; the author's name, title of the piece, call number, etc. If it's from a
publication or book, you can put the title of the publication, followed by the page number. Regardless of the type of
object that you are scanning or photographing, either by hand or in a text document, you'll want to keep any
important information about each object you have scanned, and make sure that it is somehow associated with
whatever file name you have given it.
Although you want to be as descriptive as possible, it's important to also make sure your file names can be easily read
by any operating system or program you might be using. Don't let you file names get too long; try and keep them to
fewer than 20-25 characters. It's a good idea to avoid using punctuation marks of any kind, including spaces. Replace
spaces with an underscore (_) or hyphen (-) instead. Do NOT use periods, except to separate the file name from its
extension (i.e. filename.jpg). It's also a good idea to use the same name for master files and derivatives (i.e.
filename.tif, filename.jpg).