CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction
The consumption in energy around the world is estimated to increase over the next decades. The
traditional methods of energy production are contributing to serious environmental effects that
are still unknown. The energy sector is looking into a potential opportunity in the renewable
energy. In the dynamic evolution of the renewable energy industry the harnessing of the energy
from the oceans in its waves and currents forms is emerging. Relatively the technology of energy
from the sea is new. Presently it is not competitively economic in comparison to wind energy for
example; however the interest is there and is steadily increasing, as we shall show in this report.
It is imperative to sensitize at the grass root level and increase the interest of government,
industry and academia from the present level. An important feature of sea waves is their high
energy density and it is recognized by some as being the highest among renewable energy
sources. The idea of converting the energy whether of ocean waves or ocean currents into useful
energy forms is not new.
Leishman and Scobie (1976) have documented the development of wave power devices.
According to them the first British patent dates back to 1855, while Girard and Son in France
patented their ideas back as early as 1799. They have also counted about 340 patents in the
period from 1855 up to 1973. It would be interesting to survey the patents of the last 30 years
alone. Several configurations and set ups have been actually designed and tested at model scale.
As it will be shown in this report some have been even deployed and operated in the sea.
Recent impetus to modern research and development of ocean energy conversion happened after
the sudden increase in oil prices in 1973. Earlier the harnessing of the energy of the tides and its
energy have been considered and followed the principle of accumulating the water movements in
creating a small head behind a dam. The La Rance power generation was built around 1969
followed by the Annapolis valley plant in 1984. Both are still running today and using the motion
of the waters activated like clockwork by the tides. Several research programs started then and
are still running on an on and off basis since that date in Europe depending on the support
available from governments, national research centers, universities and private sources. The
recent activities in the field come from the UK, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, Ireland and
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Sweden. These programs aim at developing wave power conversion that could be industrially
exploitable in the medium and long term. Not only specific European governments public sector
funding have been involved but also an increasing interest from the European Commission has
been observed. Research Programs sponsored by the commission started around 1994
significantly contributing to stimulating and coordinating the activities carried out by
universities, research centers and the industry. It is difficult right now to mention a precise dollar
figure on the funds involved in ocean systems developments; however estimates could be found
in the literature and will be reported.
As mentioned above in the past thirty years energy from the ocean has gone through cycles of
enthusiasm in concentrated effort of development, disappointment and back to the drawing board
reconsideration stages. However, a vast amount of experience has been gained and added to
improved designs and performance of ocean power techniques. This effort in Research and
Development is bringing wave/current energy ever closer to commercial utilization. A number of
commercial plants are being built in Europe, Australia and elsewhere. A number of devices have
proven their applicability on a large scale in harsh operational environments and other are in
different stages of their Research and Development cycle with different levels of their
implementation. These will be reported herein. From studying the experts reports it is concluded
that extensive R&D work is needed at both fundamental and application levels with the objective
of improving the cost estimation, performance, and feasibility of ocean energy systems to
establish their position in the renewable energy market. The societal, political, industry and
academic sectors are converging towards a need and demand for more "green", renewable
energy.
Renewable energy has lately been receiving a lot of attention all over the world, in particular,
from the media, government policy makers, energy industry, environmental and other interest
groups. However, despite expectations and many efforts by governments to promote and
subsidise the use of renewable energy resources, renewable still face high entry barriers in
energy markets. There are many reasons for this, but the most important barrier in many cases
appears to be the perceived poor economics of renewable compared to fossil fuels. This is often
due to the traditional pricing structures, which do not internalise social and environmental costs
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and other externalities of energy provision and use. There also are financial and institutional
barriers related to the typically small size of renewable installations, etc.
The recent International Energy Agency Fact Sheet, "Renewables in Global Energy Supply"
published in November 2002, shows the share of renewable of the World Total Primary Energy
Supply (TPES) as 13.8%. This includes both commercial and non-commercial energy and covers
all major renewable energy resources. Combustible renewable and waste account for nearly 80%
of the renewable share, hydro for 16.5% and "new" renewable: geothermal, solar, tidal, wave,
wind and other, together account for 0.5%.

Figure 1.1 Fuels Shares of World Total Primary Energy Supply

The domination of the energy supply by fossil fuels is set to continue for a foreseeable future,
since their resource base remains adequate and the adverse environmental impacts are attracting
a considerable effort to identify and deploy cleaner fossil fuel technologies, an area in which
World Energy Council (WEC) has been active for several years.

In its Millennium Statement, "Energy for Tomorrows World Acting Now!", the report of the
World Energy Council, presents three principles for energy development: Accessibility is the
provision of reliable, affordable modern energy services for which payment is made under policy
specifically targeted on meeting the needs of the poor.

Availability addresses the quality and reliability of the service

Acceptability addresses environmental goals and public attitudes, specifically local

pollution and global climate change.

These principles are underpinned by ten policy actions which include keeping all energy options
open and ensuring adequate and appropriate research funding. (World Energy Council, 2000).
See also International Energy Agency, Ocean Energy Systems Annual Report (2003). Keeping
with the recommendation of keeping all energy options open, the present document reports on
Energy from the Ocean. To put this energy source in perspective we note that this new renewable
is part of the Other sources making the 0.5% of all the renewables, See Figure 1.1.
The Present Situation of the Wave Energy in Some Different Countries of the World
Development of renewable energy technology (RET) was started primarily as a response to the
energy crisis of the 1970s world over. This early experience helped in identifying wave energy
source which have been developed to a great extent. In this paper, a discussion has been
presented wave energy for electrification, giving emphasis on the existing systems in some
countries of the world. Different projects are reviewed, along with early implementation
experience. Bangladesh has an energy crisis.
Many countries of the world research in renewable energy because modern people knows that
the limitations of non-renewable energy. Thats why modern scientists worked hard for more
utilization of renewable energy. Ocean waves represent a major resource, estimated by the world
energy council to be in encases of 2 Trillion Watt worldwide. Wave power harnesses the energy
of waves and converts it into electricity. Wave power devices harness directly from surface wave
motion or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave-power rich areas of the world

include the western costs of Europe, northern Canada, southern Africa, Australia, and the
northeastern and north western coasts of the United States. Wave power could supply 10% of the
worlds electricity current supply levels. Several methods of extracting energy from waves are
being researched. One of the most effective ways is using the rise and fall of wave action to
compress air in a chamber.
The compression and release of air pressure is used to drive a turbine and a generator. Its benefits
are ones installed, wave systems should not be expensive to operate or maintain and offshore
locations are unobtrusive and the environmental and social impact should below. Wave energy is
reliable which needs appropriate site with consistently strong wave action. Equipment must be
durable enough to withstand rough conditions and salt water. Wave energy systems could
significantly alter flow patterns of sediment on the ocean floor. According to the U.S.
Department of energy, renewable energy analysts believe there is enough energy in the ocean
waves to provide up to two terawatts of electricity.

CHAPTER II
WAVE ENERGY STATUS

2. WAVE ENERGY STATUS

2.1 WAVE ENERGY IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (U.S.A)
2.1.1 Background
The State of Oregon Taps the Brakes on Commercial-scale Wave Energy development on March
7, 2008, Ocean Power Technologies Ins. (OPT)- 52 days after a major public meeting in coast
country to discuss a 20-buoy wave energy pilot project-announced they had been submitted to
the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) a Notice of Inter and Preliminary
Application Document (NOI-PAD) to do a 200-buoa commercial-scale wave energy park off
coasts country.
Since March 7, 2008, theres been a swift reaction from the State of Oregon and FERC. In the
State of Oregons MOU with FERC, the parties recognize its in their mutual interest to
coordinate their activities, and, to hold off approving commercial scale projects until modest
sized pilot projects have had time to develop further information. In the MOU, the parties also
recognize the State of Oregon intends to prepare a comprehensive plan for the sitting of wave
energy developments and marine reserves in the Territorial sea.
Preparing a state plan for wave energy/marine reserves is something many people on the Oregon
coast have called for since wave energies companies and two coastal countries began filing for
Preliminary Permits in the Territorial seas.
Heres the bottom line. Members of the Coastal Caucus that OCZMA Director Onno Husing has
talked to support developing placeholder budgets for the 2009 Legislative Session with generic
information. They agree its premature (plus unnecessary and counterproductive) to press for a
full-blown marine reserve nominations process at this time. State agencies also develop
placeholder POPs (policy option packages) in the Governors proposed budget of the 2009
session.
8

Fig. 2. Buyae of Oregon, U.S.A.

To do any or all of these things will require substantial resources. Because of the present
situation of the economy, getting any money from the Oregon Legislative session to support a
marine reserves/wave energy planning process will be tough.

Fig. 3. The first stage of deployment and testing of the new Pelamis P2 generator.

2.2 Wave Energy in United Kingdom (U.K.)

The British coast line is 11,072 miles long and has some of the highest tidal ranges in the world.
The tidal range in the Severn Estuary that creates the Severn Bore can be as much as 50 feet
(15.4 metres), the second highest in the world. Despite these natural advantages marine
renewables are only just developing towards the point where they can be deployed commercially.
After testing at the European Marine
Energy Centre (EMEC) in Orkney, Pelamis Wave Powers P1 wave generators have been used to
establish a 2.5MW wave farm off the Portuguese coast. Pelamis have several projects around
Europe, and are currently in the first stage of deployment and testing of the new Pelamis P2
generator.
European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) was established to help the evolution of marine energy
devices from the prototype stage into the commercial market place and has established full scale
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testing sites for wave energy systems at Billia Croo and a testing facility for tidal generators off
the island of EBay. To date, Government and other public sector organizations invested around
15 million in the creation of the centre and its two marine laboratories.
In Scotland funding is also available from Scottish Enterprises Marine Energy Collaboration
Fund. The United Kingdom (U.K.) government has recently set up the 50 million Marine
Renewables Deployment Fund to support the continued development of the marine renewables
sector.

2.3 Wave Energy in France

The largest tidal power station in the world (and the only one in Europe) is in the Rance Estuary
in northern France has been generating 240MW since 1966. This barrage works like a hydroelectric scheme using the huge volumes of water flowing through the tidal estuary to drive
turbines built into the barrage. Particularly on an high tide the barrage traps water behind it
releasing it slowly as it generates electricity.

Fig. 4. The largest tidal power station in the world (and the only one in Europe) is in the
Rance Estuary in northern France.
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2.4 Wave Energy in Germany

Germanys first wave power generation plant will be installed by Energie baden-Wrttemberg
Ag (EnBW) in cooperation with Voith Siemens Hydro Power Generation GmbH & EnBW sees
potential for wave power on the North Sea coast. The German pilot plant will rely on the only
technology producing wave power in practical today. The Limpet power plant installed by
Wavegen (a UK based subsidiary of Voith Siemens) currently feeds a nameplate 500kW into the
network.
The technology uses the Oscillating Water Column (OWC) principle to convert wave energy
into compressed air which drives turbines. The plans for a German pilot plant target a 250kW
capacity, enough to power about 120 households. A small start, but nonetheless a step towards
providing the technology for more ambitious projects.

Fig. 5. Wave energy convertor device in Germany.

Advantages of the Wavegen power plantinclude its low profile so that visual disturbances from
coastal energy projects are minimized. EnBW envision implementing energy projects in
cooperation with coastal conservation projects or port construction, which should further
minimize the loss of natural beauty on the coastline while optimizing the energy creation
potential.

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2.5 Wave Energy in Italy

The participation of the WavEC in European projects has given us the opportunity to work in
collaboration with universities receiving students from different countries of WavECs team.

2.6 Wave Energy in Spain

Iberdrola Renewables has begun the testing of a wave energy pilot plant in Santoa, Cantabria,
Spain which became the first of this kind to be installed in Europe. The company has begun onshore testing of the operation of the internal components of the first PowerBuoys from Ocean
Power Technologies (OPT). OPTs PowerBuoy wave generation system uses the rise and fall of
waves to move a piston-like structure inside the buoy column to pump hydraulic fluid that drives
a generator anchored on the ocean floor. Generated power is transmitted ashore via an
underwater power cable. The tests consist of the inspection of the components, evaluation of the
individual functions of each of the systems and a final resistance test, in which the units are
interconnected and the real operating conditions the buoy had to face in the sea were simulated,
at varying surge intensities.
The installation was located four kilometers from the coast of Santoa and comprised 10 buoys.
In a first phase a 10- meter, 40 kW buoy were anchored to the seabed some 50 meters down. The
remaining 9 buoys, planned for a later phase, had an initial capacity of 125 kW. When all 10
buoys were in operation, the electricity produced the approximate equivalent to the domestic
consumption of some 2,500 homes. The joint company that is developing the plant, named
Iberdrola Energas de Cantabria, S.A., is owned by the Iberdrola Renewables (60%), TOTAL
(10%), OPT (10%), the IDEA Institute for Energy Diversification and saving (10%), and the
Sodercan Cantabria Development Society (10%). The budget for the first phase, which included
the marine electrical infrastructure, which includes the marine electrical infrastructure, comes to
some 3 million (US$4.6 million). In addition to the Santoa Wave Energy Project, Iberdrola is
developing a wave energy plant off the Orkney Islands in the North of Scotland, which will
become the worlds largest by installed capacity (3 MW). This complex will comprise four
floating Pelamis generators with a capacity of 750 kW each.
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2.7 Wave Energy in Portugal

It is the modest quantity, but it is the first stage of the first power plant in the world to use
waves as a source of renewable energy, engineer Rui Barros explained to IPS. In the renewable
energy field Portuguese company vast experience in the use of wave energy. The Portuguese
wave farm was planned and built offshore, eight kilometers from the beach at agucadoura, by
Ocean Power Delivery (OPD), a Scottish firm which, Barros said, has operated in this market
since 1997, and has achieved a level of know-how that is unrivalled in the world.

Fig. 6. The front of the Pelamis machine bursting through a wave at the Agucadoura Wave
Park of Portugal.
The first assembly phase was carried out in naval shipyards at Peniche, 120 kilometers north of
Lisbon. Three enormous Pelamis tubes were assembled, 142 metres long and 3.5 metres in
diameter, which have been installed eight kilometers from the coast to capture wave energy, to
transmitted to the mainland via submarine cables. The hydraulic action starts the three
generators, each of which can produce 750 kilowatts of electrical energy when operating
14

optimally. This is first accumulated, and then transmitted by submarine cables to mainland,
where it is fed into the EDP grid. Arguments in favor of developing wave energy are based on
Portugals geographical location and conditions.

Fig. 7. Point Absorber Wave Energy Farm.

Fig. 8. Rendition of a Wave Farm Made Up of Permanent Magnet Linear Generator Buoys
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2.8 Wave Energy in Russia

Dr. Rob Carver has done a detailed analysis of the remarkable Russian heat in his latest post, The
Great Russian Heat wave of July 2010. A persistent jet stream pattern has set up over Europe,
thanks to phenomena known as blocking. A ridge of high pressure has remained anchored over
Russia, and the hot and dry conditions have created helped intensify this ridge in a positive
feedback loop.

2.9 Wave Energy in Canada

BC Hydro is investigating the potential of wave power on Canadas west coast.

2.10 Wave Energy in Australia

While Australia is home to world-class wave energy resources, there are no commercial scale
ocean energy projects at an advanced stage of development. Australia rides the waves
EcoGeneration, Rachel Purchase, 4 August 2010 water covers over 70 percent of the Earth, and
Australia is particularly lucky to be surrounded by a lot of it. However, the ocean power
available down under remains a largely unharnessed resource. Australia is home to worldclass
wave energy resource, there are no commercial scale wave energy projects at an advanced stage
of development. Industry experts Michael Ottaviano of Carnegie Wave Energy, Colin Parbery of
Oceanlinx, and Gilbert Geotge of Ocean Power Technologies Australia agree that ocean
technology requires a stable policy and regulatory environment to encourage large-scale
investment in new technology.

2.11 Wave Energy in China

The main body funding comes from the State Science and Technology Committee which is
aiming to develop offshore wave power stations. Fundamental research on wave power is
continually supported by the Natural Science Fund of China and the Chinese Academy of
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Sciences. A shoreline is OWC. This is being undertaken by Gunagzhou Institute of Energy

Conversion of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. After problems encountered in considering the
device device for Nanao Island, the latest planes are for it to be built at Shanwei city in
Guangdong province and will be a two chambered device with total width of 20m and rated at
100 kW. A shoreline pivoting flap device (Pendular) is being developed by Tanjin Institute of
Ocean Technology of the State Oceanic Administration. An Experimental 3 kW shoreline OWC
was installed on Dawanshan Island in the Pearl river estuary. This supplied electricity to the
Island community and, following its good performance, it is being upgraded with a 20 kW
turbine. China also produces mini-wave power devices for navigation buoys with a rating of 60
W. Over 650 units have been deployed in the past 17 years, mainly among Chinese coast with a
few exported to Japan.

2.12 Wave Energy in India

The Indian wave energy program started in1983 at the Institute of Technology, Madras and has
concentrated almost exclusively on the OWC with harbor walls was built onto the breakwater of
the Vizhinjam Fisheries Harbor, near Trivandrum in India in 1991 (Ravindran et al, 1995). This
scheme has functioned well, producing data that have been used to design and build an improved
demonstration scheme at the same site.
This will have the following new featuresThe squirrel cage induction generator will be superseded by a slip ring, variable speed induction
generator with an improved performance under fluctuating load conditions. The previous device
suffered from losses of 15 kW, which had to be supplied from the grid under low wave energy
conditions. The new scheme will comprise two power modules, only one of which will run under
low power conditions. The fixed chord blade turbine will be replaced by one where the blade
chord varies along its length for improved efficiency.
Following the successful testing of this, it is proposed to build a commercial scheme of 10
caissons, each 21m wide, at Thangassery, on the west coast of India. Each caisson will have two
17

power modules, both with a 55 kW rating, leading to an overall rating of 1.1 MW. These caissons
will be spaced at an optimum distance apart, in order to increase their overall capture efficiency
to above that of a single caisson.

2.13 Wave Energy in Japan

Japan is surrounded by the sea. The average wave power level around Japan is 6-7 kW/m of
coastline. The total wave energy around Japan is estimate to be 31,000 MW-36,000 MW. The
open-sea test of the Mighty whale concept completed in 1987 at JAMSTEC was last in the
series of experiments with wave energy devices in Japan. Most of wave energy devices in Japan
were shoreline concepts. These concepts were intended for incorporation to breakwaters. Most of
the concepts operated on the Oscillating Water Column principal. The sizes of generated output
of these devices were relatively small and were in the range 10-100 kW.

2.14 Wave Energy in Indonesia

A feasibility study has been carried out by Groner AS (Norway) on deploying a TAPCHAN
scheme at Baron on the Island of Java. Discussions have since taken place between interested
parties, but the demonstration has not yet been taken forward despite the projects technical
feasibility.

2.15 Wave Energy in South Africa

Scottish company Ocean Power Delivery, which develops technology to generate power from
waves, is considering a R7-billion development off the coast of Mossel Bay that could generate
700 megawatts of electricity, according to business Report. The company is talking to the South
African Department of Minerals and Energy and a potential local partner, Port Elizabeth-based
Genesis Eco-Energy, about developing a pilot plant at Mossel Bay, 400 kilometers east of Cape
Town. South Africa currently has the capacity to generate about 40,000 megawatts of power, but
is looking to cut its dependence on coal and rely more on renewable energy sources. Ocean
Power Delivery is an Edinburgh- based company set up in January 1998 to develop the Pelamis
wave energy converter, which is then transferred to the shore through a cable.
18

CHAPTER III
OCEAN WAVES AND MARINE
CURRENTS

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3. Ocean waves and marine currents

3.1 Origins and generation of wind waves
3.2 Wave energy resource distribution
3.3 Description and modification of waves
3.4 Real sea characteristics
3.5 Data about waves
3.6 Marine currents origins
3.7 Marine currents resource

3.1 Origins and generation of wind waves

There are many kinds of waves in the ocean. They differ in form, velocity and origin. Some
waves are too long and low to see, also there exist waves that travel on density interfaces below
the sea surface. Waves may be generated by ships or landslides or the passage of the moon or by
earthquakes or changes in the atmospheric pressure. The waves which are of interest in this
report are those mainly raised by the winds.
The energy in the waves comes from the sun through the winds as they blow over the oceans due
to the differential heating of the earth. The winds transfer their energy to the surface of the sea
creating waves. Wave energy is hence considered as a concentrated form of solar energy. The
mechanism of the transfer of energy from the atmosphere to the surface of the sea is complex.
The main phenomena can be reduced to:
Air flowing over the free surface of the water activates a tangential stress on the water surface
and result in the formation and growth of the waves. Variable shear stresses and pressure
fluctuations are created by turbulent air flowing on the sea surface. Further wave increase and
development happens when these oscillations and fluctuations are in phase with the waves. Some
kind of resonance effect.

20

Wave reaching a certain height will be directly affected by the wind forcing on the upwind face
of the wave causing further growth. At each of the above steps energy in transferred to the water.
The amount of energy transferred and hence the size of the resulting waves is a function of the
wind speed, the length of time it blows and the distance over which it blows called the fetch.
As the wave continues to grow the surface facing the wind becomes higher and steeper and the
process of wave building becomes more efficient. However up to a point because there is a limit
on how steep a wave can be. Steepness is the ratio of the height of the wave (distance between a
crest and the following trough) to its length (distance between a crest and the following one) is
approximately 1:7 in deep water. In the generating area, often a storm, wind waves form what is
called a "sea". At the upwind end of the fetch the waves are small but with distance they develop
i.e. their period and height increase and eventually they reach maximum dimensions possible for
the wind that is raising them. The sea is then said to be fully developed. The waves have
absorbed then as much energy as they can from wind of that velocity. An extension of the fetch
or a lengthening of the time would not produce larger waves. See Figure 2.1 for a schematic of
waves development and propagation stages.

Figure 9. Concept of wave generation and propagation. The fetch is within the dashed line.

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3.2 The wave energy resource distribution

At each of the above steps energy in transferred to the water. The amount of energy transferred
and hence the size of the resulting waves is a function of the wind speed, the length of time it
blows and the distance over which it blows called the fetch. It is found that at each step power is
concentrated and that solar power levels of about 100W/m2 can eventually be transformed into
waves with power levels of over 1000 kW per meter of wave crest .
The distribution of the wave energy resource over the globe and its daily and seasonal variability
during the year are dependent on the major wind distributions and systems that are the main
cause for the generation of ocean waves.
The main wind systems are due to extra-tropical storms and trade winds. Ocean currents like the
Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic and the Kuroshio current in the pacific feed energy into extratropical cyclones creating low pressure systems with wind speed that can reach up to 25 m/s and
blow over a thousand kilometer fetch for two to four consecutive days before subsiding by
hitting the coast. The storms are most frequent during the winter. Figure shows the geographical
distribution of coastal wave power levels.

Figure 10. Approximate global distribution of time-average deep water wave power.
Wavepower is given in kW/m of wave front.
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3.3 Description and modification of waves

Waves in the ocean are generally irregular. They are short-crested as opposed to long-crested,
directional and more or less random in nature. No two waves have exactly the same height and
they travel across the surface at different speeds and in different directions. Techniques for the
coping with the chaotic nature of these waves on the real sea surface are discussed in the next
section. It is first necessary to give an overview of the characteristics of ideal regular waves.
Such waves rarely occur in the real ocean environment although they can be produce in
laboratory wave tanks. They are important also because of the fact that the theory of irregular
waves is based on the assumption that they can be represented by superposing or adding together
a suitable number of regular waves.
In order to discuss waves we use a standard set of definitions and terms for parts of the wave.
The principal ones are defined as follows:
Crest: The high point of a wave
Trough: The low point of a wave.
Wave height: Vertical distance from trough to crest.
Wave length: Horizontal distance between adjacent crests.
Wave period: The time in seconds for a wave crest to travel a distance equal to one wave length.
Wave frequency: The inverse of the wave period.
Wave celerity: The ratio of wave length and wave period.
Note that there is a direct relationship between wave period and wavelength but wave height is
independent of either.

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Figure 11 The important features of water surface waves.

In the offshore deep water regions waves vary slowly over space. However, as they approach
towards the coast interaction with the seabed and currents could lead to significant changes in the
characteristics of these waves. There also exist wave-coast line interactions resulting in what is
called focusing, defocusing and sheltering of the waves.
These changes in the wave climate will affect the energy densities and characteristic. In general
near shore wave systems carry less energy than their offshore counterparts. Water phenomena are
generally classified according to their features in maintaining energy or not. Hence we classify
wave changes phenomena as conservative or non-dissipative and dissipative.

The main conservative processes include:

shoaling and refraction

diffraction and reflection

Shoaling is defined as the variation of wave height due to changes in water depth. As the water
depth decreases the wave height first decreases then would increase very rapidly. The sudden
increase in wave height causes the wave to break. Refraction like shoaling is caused by a varying
depth seabed resulting in the focusing and scattering of waves and the turning of the wave crests
becoming parallel to the bottom contours lines. Refraction can also be caused by the interaction
24

of the waves with currents. Refraction in the form of focusing of the waves can be a positive
factor in wave energy extraction.
Diffraction is a negative factor. In wave energy extraction applications diffraction affect the
smoothing of the distribution of wave energy in space. The main dissipative processes of interest
include a reduction of the total amount of wave energy by converting it into current, water
turbulence, sediment transport or heat.
Also included in such dissipative phenomena are wave breaking, bottom friction, wave reflection
from sloping or rough surfaced structures or beds and percolation. Waves loose energy by
friction at the sea bottom. This is more important once the waves travel in shallower waters. The
losses increase with travel distance and bottom roughness.

3.4 Real sea characteristics

Waves range in size from the ripples in a pond to the great storm waves of the ocean and the
tides whose wavelength is half the distance around the earth. Waves are classified according to
their period (or frequency) that ranges from less than one second to more than hundred thousand
seconds (tides). The energy spectrum diagram of Prof. Munk shows that the energy in the ocean
is distributed among several major groups of waves each with a characteristic range of periods.
At the lower end of the spectrum with the very short period waves we have:
Ripples: of periods of fractional seconds
Wind chop: of periods between 1 to 4 seconds
Fully developed seas: of periods ranging between 5 to 12 seconds
Swells: of periods ranging between 6 to 22 seconds
Surf beats: of periods ranging between 1 to 3 minutes
Tsunamis: of periods ranging between 10 to 20 minutes
Tides: with periods of 12 or 24 hours.

25

Each are generated and developed in a special way. The above waves are also called gravity
waves, since once they are created gravity is the force that drives them by attempting to restore
the original flat surface. Also the small tiny ripples of one or two millimeters in height, generated
by a small breeze are sometimes also called capillary waves because they are controlled by
surface tension. Tsunamis and tides are generated by different mechanisms than the wind.

Figure 12 Types of waves that occur on the oceans classified by their wave period. The red
bars indicate the mean wave period for each type and the yellow bars show the range of
wave periods.

Figure 13 shows the relative amount of energy in each of the wave systems described above.
26

Real seas include waves that are random in height, period and direction. It is usually assumed
that within a short length of time the characteristics of real seas remain the same hence defining
what is called a sea state. Statistical parameters derived from the wave spectrum are used to
describe such sea states and characteristics relevant to their energy content.
The following wave height and period parameters are most often used:
The significant wave height Hs : is the average height of the highest one-third waves.
The energy period Te : is the mean wave period with respect to the spectral distribution of
transport of energy. Tp the peak period is defined as the period corresponding to the peak in the
variance density spectrum of sea surface elevation. It is the harmonic frequency component
having the greatest amount of energy at a place passed by a random wave system. Some ocean
energy systems can be tuned to this frequency. It resembles the tuning of a radio circuit to an
electromagnetic field.
In deep water the power in each sea state P is given by as:
P = 0.5 Hs2Te kW/m
Where Hs is expressed in meters and Te in seconds and density of water taken as 1000 kg/m3.
The annual average wave power level can be determined from the scatter diagram in the form:
Pwave = Pi Wi / Wi
Where sea states of power level Pi occur Wi times per year.
Some of the properties of wind waves are shown in. In the figure the wave period is plotted
against the amount of energy contained for three wind velocities. Each curve (spectrum)
represents the distribution of energy between various periods in a fully developed sea. The area
under each curve gives an estimation of the total energy.

27

As an example we can consider a 20 knot wind (10 m/s). A knot is about 0.5 m/s. This relatively
modest wind raises waves whose average is 5 feet or 1.52m and whose energy is spread over a
range of periods ranging between 7 to 10 seconds (or frequencies between 0.15 Hz to 0.1 Hz).
If the wind increases to 30 knots (15 m/s) the waves increases substantially and the period gets
longer. There is more energy available and these longer waves store it better, (Kinsman 1984).
The average height of the waves are now 13.6 feet or 4.14 m and the maximum energy is
centered around a period of 12 seconds or frequency of 0.08 Hz. See Figure 2.6. For a 40 knots
( or 20 m/s) wind the spectrum shows a sharp peak at 16.2 seconds ( or 0.062 Hz) and the
average height of the waves are now in this case 28 feet (or 8.53 m).

Figure 14 Wave spectra for fully developed seas for winds of 20, 30 and 40 knots.
28

The following Table shows the important characteristics of seas that are fully developed for
winds of various velocities. An important point to note here is that a particular wind at a certain
speed must blow for at least some time (shown in the table) along a minimum fetch length to
raise fully the waves it is capable to generate.
From the table for a 50-knot or 25 m/s wind blowing for 3 days over a 1500 miles fetch the
highest tenth of the waves would average about 100 feet (about 30 m) high. Storms rarely reach
such dimensions or durations.

Table 1 Conditions in fully developed seas

3.5 Data about ocean waves

For the evaluation and estimation of long-term series of wave data two methodologies have been
suggested. The first is based on measurement and observations and the second on building time
series with numerical wind-wave models. A wide variety of on site and remote sensing
measuring methods are available that produce accurate wave data. Visual observations made
from sea-going ships are the earliest type of wave data for the oceans. Wind-wave models are
mathematical algorithms encapsulated in computer programs that numerically generate and
propagate wave energy based on input wind data or other relevant data. The accuracy is good for
29

open ocean resource assessment in large basins such as the North-Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
These models are implemented at most meteorology centers. The available wave data is not an
easy task to collect since the data are archived at several institutions that have different
procedures to access it.

Measurements and Observations of ocean (wave/current) climate:

Measurements
A wide choice of measuring systems exists. The choice of a system depends on a number of
parameters, namely: on depth, access and wave conditions of the measurement site and of the
required details, for example directionality. Figure 2.7 shows a diagram of several wave
measurement systems. Figure 2.8 shows a sketch of an in situ measuring system based on a buoy
with local data storage as well as transmission to an on-shore processing data station.

30

Figure 15 Diagrammatic Sketch of several measurement systems

Figure 16 Diagrammatic sketch of an in situ wave measuring system.

Some devices can provide wave directional information by their own or when coupled with other
devices. In situ devices can store information or transmit by cable or telemetry to an on-shore
data processing stations. Remote sensing could use laser or radar devices mounted on a satellite,
aircraft, ship, or could be based on land. Studies comparing device accuracy have been
performed and could be found in the literature.
Generally, the types of measurements are classified as:

In situ measurements
Remote sensing measurements

31

Wave-recording buoys are used extensively in the open-sea. Their data are generally in the form
of time series of sea surface elevation from which wave height, period and direction parameters
could be calculated. Spectral and direct analyses of the time series are used for this purpose.
Beside buoys other devise are used. For example in coastal areas submerged or suspended
pressure and acoustic probes, wave staffs, current meters could be used to obtain non-directional
information about wave activities characteristic.
When such probes are used in arrays directional information could be calculated. Energy devices
utilizing Oscillating Water Column principle would generally include some measuring system of
the water surface inside the chamber. Difficulties could arise in the presence of water spray. For
resource assessment long period measurements are needed. However these are not easy to find.
Short-term wave data acquisition is usually performed for coastal engineering projects as well as
for offshore oil platforms.
Remote sensing systems are used to provide spatial information about the sea surface in contrast
to the information gathered at one point (in situ) as described above. The simplest remote-system
measuring devices rely on aerial photography. These could be used for studies of wave refraction
and diffraction near and along coastlines. They would be important for optimizing near-shore and
shoreline plants sites.
Satellites have also been advanced as a means to remote sensing wave on the surface of the
ocean. The main limitation with this technology is that the data would only be intermittent. This
strongly limits the data available in a specific zone. The positive side of it is that the method is
statistically unbiased since the satellite sampling method is not under the effects of the sea
conditions they try to measure. Altimeter data values have been used.
The cost of performing and collecting wave data is not discussed in this report. This is by no
means an exhaustive review and evaluation of the methods used for wave data collection.

Observations

32

Earliest types of wave data resulted from visual observations made from travelling ships. These
have been archived from 1850s onward. Presently the visual observations are performed using
well-defined procedures and techniques. Reference is here made to the world Meteorological
Organization publications and standards. Several authors studied the accuracy of visual data. The
report on these studies is outside the scope of this report. However, a number of reports conclude
that in general, visually wave directions are most reliable, wave heights are considered
satisfactory but wave periods are much less accurate. Visual data are considered to supplement
the data obtained from measurements. Several global and regional atlases of visual wave
climates could be found in the literature. They would also be relied upon wherever measurements
are not available.
Theoretical and computational models have been used to assess shoreline, near-shore or offshore
wave power resource. Deepwater models are available to simulate and compute the propagation
of deepwater waves and their energy transport. Calculations of the transformation of deepwater
wave systems when they approach shallower depth are also required. The size of the coastal area
in these studies can vary depending on the seabed topography and the length the coastal line.
Scaled physical models are supplemented with computational computations that are based on
mathematical models of wave propagation and transformation. This is an ongoing area of
research in offshore and coastal engineering and the results could well suit the application
discussed in this report. Such models except perhaps wave breaking and some other complex
interactions can satisfactorily describe a wide range of wave propagation phenomena. Simplified
representations are hence used in these cases. The purpose being to evaluate and determine the
amount of ocean (wave/current) energy transported and dissipated.
Without being exhaustive present an example of an attempt to classify computational shallow
water wave models that are found to be appropriate for the assessment of ocean energy resource.
The information in the tables follow the criteria presented by Southgate (1987, 1993). These
tables help to illustrate only the vast amount of studies on waves and currents, their generation,
propagation, forecasting and modeling. A separate study of the resource evaluation methodology
is needed to assess the progress in this field of research and development.

33

Table 2 Wave processes incorporated in shallow water computational models

Note: All models require reasonable gentle depth variations
(1) Except for intersecting wave trains
(2) Approximate energy loss in shallow water only
(3) Backscattered waves cannot be modelled

Table 3 Shallow water computational models: model suitability parameters

34

Note: All models require reasonable gentle depth variations

(1) Full spectrum S(f) may be covered by multiple runs.
Wave-current interaction models have also been studied. The review of this topic is beyond the
scope of this report. However, the work of Baddour et al (1990, 1991) on this particular subject
of wave-current interaction and more recently in 2003- 2004 on nonlinear wave generation and
propagation is worth noting, see Appendix 3. These models also allow the development of a
computational tool for energy flux estimations in deep and shallow water for specified sea states.
Other CFD tools and computer programs could theoretically be used for such purposes. An
evaluation campaign of these tools are perhaps in order.

3.6 Marine currents origins

Currents within the oceans are determined, for the most part, by the large scale structure of
atmospheric circulation; currents at the surface of the oceans are dictated by the prevailing winds
that blow over the water surface. Surface waters move due to friction between the moving air
and the water surface. Figure 2.9 shows the major surface currents of the worlds oceans. This
displacement of water at the surface, in turn, contributes to the generation of currents that extend
to great depth within the oceans.
We are here interested in locally generated currents due to tides that are simply the rhythmic
rising and falling of the surface of the ocean over the course of a day. Tides are not currents,
themselves, but as the water surface rises and falls along a coast the water must flow to
accommodate the geometry and topography of the coastline. The rising and falling of the ocean
surface is due to the rotation of the approximately spherical Earth that is covered by a slightly
elliptical ocean. The form of the surface of the oceans is dictated by gravitational interaction
between the Earth, the Sun and the Moon.
The centrifugal force about the earth (due to its rotation) acts outward from the centre of the
Earth and is equal in all directions. The presence of the Moon, in a circular orbit around the
Earth, results in a gravitational attraction between the two bodies. Gravitational attraction is
strongest at the closest point between the two bodies and diminishes away from that point. Thus,
35

the moons gravitational attraction is strongest on the side of the Earth that faces the moon and
weakest on the opposite side of the Earth. The average gravitational force exerted on the Earth by
the moon is balanced exactly by the centrifugal force of the spinning Earth. On the side of the
Earth facing the moon the gravitational force is strongest and exceeds the centrifugal force so
that the ocean surface is pulled slightly towards the moon (creating a bulge on the ocean
surface). On the opposite side of the Earth the centrifugal force exceeds the gravitational force,
pushing the ocean surface slightly away from the Earth (creating a second bulge on the ocean
surface). The result is an ocean surface with two bulges at 180 degrees to each other (and
shallower water at 90 degrees to each of the bulges).
The position of these two bulges are fixed with respect to the position of the Moon while the
Earth rotates about its polar axes and the oceans ellipsoidal axis is the line that joins the moon
and the Earth. The tides are produced as the Earth rotates through these two bulges on the ocean
surface. Every 24 hours a point on the ocean will rotate through the bulge twice, creating two
high tides, and through the relatively shallow areas at 90 degrees to the axis of the bulge,
creating two low tides. The water level at any point varies in a constant manner from high to low
tide and back again twice over every day.

Fig 17: Major surface currents

36

3.7 Marine current resource

The global marine current energy resource that we are interested in, is mostly driven by the tides.
Other technologies would be interested in currents driven by thermal and density effects and are
not presented here. As discussed above the tides cause water to flow inwards twice each day
(flood tide) and seawards twice each day (ebb tide) with a period of approximately 12 hours and
24 minutes (a semi-diurnal tide), or once both inwards and seawards in approximately 24 hours
and 48 minutes (a diurnal tide). In most locations the tides are a combination of the semi-diurnal
and diurnal effects, with the tide being named after the most dominant type.
The strength of the currents varies, depending on the proximity of the moon and sun relative to
Earth. The magnitude of the tide-generating force is about 68% moon and 32% sun due to their
respective masses and distance from Earth (Open University, 1989). Where the semi-diurnal tide
is dominant, the largest marine currents occur at new moon and full moon (spring tides) and the
lowest at the first and third quarters of the moon (neap tides).
With diurnal tides, the current strength varies with the declination of the moon (position of the
moon relative to the equator). The largest currents occur at the extreme declination of the moon
and lowest currents at zero declination. Further differences occur due to changes between the
distances of the moon and sun from Earth, their relative positions with reference to Earth and
varying angles of declination. These occur with a periodicity of two weeks, one month, one year
or longer, and are entirely predictable

37

CHAPTER IV
OCEAN ENERGY HARNESSING
SYSTEMS

38

4. Ocean energy harnessing systems

4.1 Wave energy harnessing technology
4.2 Wave energy developments and activities

4.1 Wave energy harnessing technology

Wave power developments face a number of difficulties. Basically, they include the following:
Large loading in extreme, harsh weather conditions, corrosive environment, randomness in
power input or low transmission frequencies. The design of a wave energy harnessing system to
be efficient and competitive has to deal with these difficulties in an efficient way. This means
that the system must be beneficial and\ economically reasonable.
Starting with a conceptual idea a wave energy device goes through a long evolution: usually
starting with theoretical analyses and design the project goes through extensive experimental
R&D work in the wave tanks at small and intermediate scales.
This R&D work is required before the first prototype can be deployed in the sea. Freak loads in
the sea may exceed the estimated values and are difficult to predict. High degree of knowledge
and sophistication are needed so that the design of a wave energy system may operate safely in
extreme conditions and be economically viable. This knowledge and sophistication could be
found nowadays in the offshore engineering industry. In ocean energy resource utilization, in
contrast to other renewables, there are a large number of ideas and concepts for wave energy
harnessing or conversion. In Japan, North America and Europe there are over a 1000 wave
energy harnessing techniques patents.
Harnessing wave energy could involve three levels:
The first level called primary conversion of wave energy is gained by an oscillating system.
These systems include for example: a floating body, an oscillating solid element or oscillating

39

water within a structure. The system will then be able to store some kinetic and/or potential
energy extracted from the wave.
A second level called secondary conversion may be required to convert the stored energy into
some useful form. In this level devices for control and power take off involve controllable
valves, hydraulic rams and various hydraulic and pneumatic components as well as electronic
hardware and software. This secondary conversion is usually obtained by means of a turbine
through rotation of a shaft.
Tertiary conversion could be needed if electric generators are used for the conversion of the
harnessed power into electricity.
Classification:
In the literature a number of ways are found to classify wave energy converters (WEC).
According to their horizontal size and orientation: If the size of the system is small compared to
the typical wavelength then the WEC is called a point absorber. See Budal and Falnes (1975).
On the other hand if the extension is large and comparable to the typical wavelength then the
WEC is called a line absorber. Terminator and attenuator have also been used to denote these
WECs. A WEC is a terminator if it is aligned along the prevailing direction of wave crests and is
an attenuator if aligned normal to the prevailing wave crests.
According to their different location with respect to the coastline:
WECs may be located onshore, nearshore or offshore. Onshore WECs are on the coast line,
however nearshore is the designation given to WECs if located in shallow waters and within 1015 km distance from the coastline, while offshore systems are the ones which would be
developed beyond that.
According to their locations with respect to the mean water level:

40

WECs are found partly above and partly below the mean water level. They may be completely
submerged and placed on the seabed below the mean water level. Devices may be moored in a
floating on the free surface or partly submerged either nearshore or offshore. Some systems
could be called hybrid in the sense that nearshore units could be pumping fluid in a closed loop
to an elevated reservoir on the shore from which energy would be extracted. Figure 3.1 from
Hagerman (1995) identifies twelve distinct process variations.
The main features that distinguish one concept from another are the mode of oscillation for
energy absorption, type of absorber, and type of reaction point. Hence energy can be absorbed
from heave motion, surge, pitch and yaw or combinations of these as shown in Figure 3.1. Table
3.1 is a modification of Hagerman (1995) classification and presented in Brooke (2003).
The wave energy conversion is described as follows. See Brooke (2003). The wave force acts on
a movable absorbing member which reacts against a fixed point on land or sea-bed based
structure, or against another movable, but forceresisting structure. Heave forces may be reacted
against a submerged horizontal plate. Wave forces may also be reacted against a long spine.
The wave force results in oscillatory motion of the absorbing member. The product of wave force
and corresponding motion represents absorbed wave energy.

41

Figure 18 Classification of Wave Energy Converters Systems.

42

Table 4 Classification of wave energy devices processes

The main generic types of wave energy harnessing schemes could hence be listed as:
1. The Oscillating Water Column systems: which in general include a partially submerged,
hollow structure open to the sea below the water line.
2. Overtopping systems: that collects the water of incident waves to create a head to drive one or
more low head turbines.

43

3. Point absorbers systems: these are either floating or mounted on the sea bed and provide a
heaving motion that is transformed by mechanical and/or hydraulic subsystems into linear or
rotational motion to drive electric generators.
4. Surging devices : these devices use the particle velocity in a wave to drive a deflector or to
generate pumping effect of a flexible bag facing the wave.
5. Other devices: that do not fall under the above 1-4 classes. These include important
developments of which we find: the Salter duck, the Cockerell raft and the McCabe Wave Pump.

4.2 Wave energy developments and activities

Recently there has been a renewed interest in ocean wave and tidal current energy. Recent
WATTS conferences attest to that. See WATTS 2004 conference proceedings for more details
and status of recent developments.

Table 5 Shoreline wave energy systems:

44

New ocean energy companies have been involved in the development of new technologies.
Examples of these are the Pelamis, the Archimedes Wave Swing and the Limpet. The plan is to
increase the worldwide ocean energy capacity to 6 MW in the near future. See also Thorpe
(2000). As of 2002 the installed capacity (around the world) was about 1 MW, mainly from
demonstration projects. See the following tables from the same sources.

Table 6 Nearshore wave energy systems

45

Table 7 Offshore wave energy systems

46

CHAPTER V
PROJECT WORK

47

5. The Construction of Near shore Surging Wave Energy

Converter
5.1 Concept Description
The WEC comprises an Oscillator flap mounted on a Sub-frame Support Structure. The
oscillating action of waves on the flap drives hydraulic pistons, which pressurise seawater. The
pressurised seawater is pumped to shore through the high pressure pipelines. At shore the
hydroelectric plant converts the hydraulic pressure into electrical power via a pelton wheel,
which turns the electrical generator.
The use of an oscillating flap type wave energy converter is not a new concept and many patents
have been filed regarding this method of extracting energy from sea waves. One of the most
successful devices of this type is Pendulor, which was built and tested in Japan. The Pendulor
device consists of a flap or plate suspended from a horizontal shaft which spans a caisson. The
flap is positioned at the nodal point, one quarter wavelength from the back wall, to exploit the
local increase in particle motion due to reflection of the incident waves. In 2004,
Queens University Wave Research Group recognized that the costs associated with the
construction and installation of the caisson and back wall associated with the top hinged device
may limit its commercial viability. They investigated a bottom hinged flap with no back wall and
found that it demonstrated a number of excellent characteristics.
Not only was it efficient at collecting wave energy from the most commonly occurring seas, but
also its rotation allows overtopping; which naturally provided enhanced survivability in extreme
seas without an active control system. These characteristics stimulated a research programme of
both numerical and physical testing to understand how the performance of the device is
influenced by flap configuration, damping and water depth.

48

The results of the testing were promising enough for a group of investors to decide to develop
the concept commercially. To execute this, a new company called Aquamarine Power Ltd was
born and the device was named Oyster.

5.2 Design Overview

The prototype has been designed to capture wave energy and convert it into grid quality
electrical power. This process involves essentially four conversion systems, each with its own
piece of equipment that requires design optimisation.
The four conversion systems are:
1. Hydrodynamic to Mechanical (WEC Flap)
2. Mechanical to Hydraulic (Pistons)
3. Hydraulic to Mechanical (Pelton Wheel)
4. Mechanical to Electrical (Generator)
The design development of each one of these conversion systems is described below.

5.2.1 Hydrodynamic to Mechanical Conversion

The key wave power conversion parameters are water depth, flap geometry, buoyancy and
damping. The key capital cost parameters for a flap type converter are similar with the addition
of foundation loading. In simple terms, the design problem was to maximise the wave power
captured per tonne of device and foundations.

49

Figur 19 Flap 3d view

The way it extracts power from the waves is by modifying the horizontal (surge component)
acceleration of the water particle motions which generate forces on the flap. The forces are
maximised by making the flap penetrate the full water column and minimising leakage
underneath or from overtopping the device.
Widening the flap also increases the forces approximately in proportion to the square of the flap
width. However, as the width increases the maximum wave force reaches a limit due to phase
incoherence across the flap. Finally, as the water depth reduces the horizontal amplitude of the
water particle motion increases but the overall power reduces.

Figure 20 Flap drawing and dimensions

50

However, optimising the power take off is not the end of the design story, there are also other
considerations that if not properly taken into account in the design can significantly affect the
installation and operation costs, namely:
The location of the offshore site and seabed conditions.
The method of fixing the structure to the seabed.
The method of installation and removal of the WEC.
The method of converting the wave energy, where the components of the power take of system
are located and how they are to be maintained.
Various foundations systems were considered, including; gravity base, pad foundations with rock
anchors and bored piles. In principal, a gravity base solution provides the simplest option,
however given the uneven nature of the seabed and high surge and heave loads; the size of the
base was found to be impracticable. Therefore only the rock anchor and pile options were
pursued.
A key objective in the development of the prototype was to be able to install and retrieve the
WEC in littoral waters from a prepared foundation without the need to deploy expensive jack-up
or heavy lift barges or vessels. This is essential for keeping down operating costs and increasing
availability as specialist vessels are expensive to charter and not always readily available.
Therefore an installation process was developed that took advantage of the buoyancy of the
Oscillator flap and its ability to float and support the hydraulic cylinders and sub-frame during
the installation process.
However, the self installing strategy was found to be very difficult to achieve in practice. In
hindsight, it was obvious; the WEC device was specifically designed to actively respond to wave
motion and it was being installed in a highly active wave environment and unsurprisingly it was
found that it also actively responded during installation. A number of different self installing
strategies were investigated numerically and physically in the tank.

51

Unfortunately, even in seas not significantly greater than flat calm the device responded with
motions which would require a significant energy absorption system. The conclusion of the
assessment was that the most cost effective installation option would be to utilise the jack-up that
has installed the piles to also assist in the installation of the WEC. Working with offshore
installation contractors, a solution has been found to achieve this.
Finally the design of the WEC must take into account the layout and support arrangement of the
system used to convert from mechanical to hydraulic power. Wave Energy Convertors are
characterised by systems with large torques but relatively small movements. The consequence is
that the forces generated are large and change sign twice every wave period. This generates
significant fatigue loading and for a steel structure, many parts of the structure fatigue will be the
critical design criteria.

5.2.2 Mechanical to Hydraulic Conversion

Initial design effort focused on high pressure oil hydraulic power conversion system that
consisted of four submersible induction generators directly coupled to and driven by hydraulic
motors, valves, actuators, switchgear and controls mounted in an airtight subsea enclosure.
However, after detailed design proved the concept viable, it was found that there were residual
issues regarding reliability, maintainability, oil inventory, fault tolerance and cost that indicated a
better solution lay elsewhere.
This lead to the alternative strategy of delivering pressurised sea water to an above the water
generator, placed either on the shoreline or on an offshore support structure. This solution had the
added advantage that all the electrical generator, controls and switchgear could also be located
above the waterline. This solution was adopted; for the Oyster prototype it is planned to have all
the electrical equipment onshore.

52

Figure 21 Base
All the mechanical to hydraulic conversion takes place on the wave capture unit, in an aggressive
marine environment offshore, with little opportunity for routine maintenance let alone fault
correction. Therefore, at the early stages of the design a decision was taken to design a system on
the WEC that that had no active control systems and was fault tolerant. The basis of the design
was the flap connected to a hydraulic cylinder and a series of check valves. The pistons are
connected to the flap such that as it rotates the pistons are moved in the cylinders pressurizing
the water. The check valves ensure that the flow is in the same direction for either direction of
rotation of the flap.
The damping torque, critical to the power capture, is determined by the area of the cylinders, the
mounting eccentricity and the fluid operating pressure, so this had to be factored into the overall
system design. They also determined the cylinder force which has a big influence on the
structural design, especially fatigue design. Therefore, clearly getting the configuration of the
cylinders correct has a significant impact on the overall performance and cost of the WEC. The
main design decisions for the cylinders were type, material, number, and the method of
mounting. Of course these all fed into the cost. A number of cylinder types were investigated
including single acting, double acting, regenerative, displacement, fixed and rotating. Each type

53

has advantages and the final decision was to select a pair of double acting cylinders constructed
from mild steel coated internally. This balanced cost and durability.
The hydraulic system on the prototype is designed for three modes of operation. Initially the
system will consist of only the wave capture unit offshore, the pistons will pressurize a closed
hydraulic system using fresh water as the hydraulic fluid, the wave power being extracted by the
WEC will be calculated by the hydraulic fluid passing through an orifice plate. Following these
initial tests the system will be modified to include feed/return pipe lines to shore.
This system will initially use fresh water in a closed system and as such will not be subjected to
any significant particulate contamination. The final stage will be to use an open system with
filtered seawater drawn into the system from the area surrounding the WCU. This system will be
subjected to particulate contamination.

Figure 22 Hydraulic Circuit

The three stages are summarised below:
Stage 1 Closed loop freshwater system with no return to shore.
Stage 2 Closed loop fresh water and sea water system with return to shore.
Stage 3 Open loop sea water system with inlet filter located subsea.

54

5.2.3 Hydraulic To Mechanical Conversion

The challenge here was to design a mechanical and control system that could accept the water
that was being pumped ashore at variable flow rates and pressures, and efficiently convert it to
mechanical power. The choice was to use a marinised pelton wheel turbine directly coupled to a
flywheel and a variable speed induction generator.

Figure 23 Turbine
The challenge is that a pelton wheel operates most efficiently when running at a constant speed;
this requires a steady flow of water at a constant pressure. Whereas the Oyster WEC produces
water that typically changes from no flow to peak flow and back twice every wave period (7- 12
seconds). The solution developed was in three parts; the first part was to maintain and control the
system pressure; the second was to actively control the spear valves; and the third was to control
the braking torque from the generator.
For a set system pressure; there is an associated optimal speed for the pelton wheel. The change
in flow rates during a wave period is managed by cycling the effective flow area of the spear
valve from fully closed to open and back.

55

Figure 24 Turbine 3d
As the hydraulic power comes onto the pelton wheel it will try and speed up, this is controlled by
the flywheel which will store some of the energy, increasing the generator braking torque and by
throttling the flow.
The effect of throttling the flow has two effects; it slows down the pelton wheel and also diverts
some of the flow into an onshore accumulator, this in turn slightly increases the system pressure
which increases the water jet velocity to match the increased speed of the flywheel.
Clearly wave power is not constant so every 15 minutes the control system also changes the
system pressure to ensure a near optimal hydraulic to electrical conversion is achieved
throughout the day. There are a number of safety features in the control system.
For example, if the pelton wheel over speeds or any of the temperature, vibration or pressure
instruments read outside the normal range, all hydraulic power is dumped. Two valves on the
main high pressure line open to dump the flow directly to a phreatic tank, bypassing the pelton
wheel.

56

Figure 25 Final Assembly

5.2.4 Mechanical To Electrical Conversion
The electrical system provides the mechanical power on the common shaft between the pelton
wheel and the generator and the grid connection.
The power conversion system for the prototype comprises a variable frequency inverter coupled
to an induction generator. The primary purpose of this drive is to match the torque/speed
characteristics of the Pelton turbine.
The introduction of a flywheel between the pelton wheel and the generator not only stabilises the
electrical power generated, but also allows the generator to have a rating of about half the pelton
wheel power rating.

57

Figure26 OWEC

In Collaboration With

58

6. References
Ocean Wave Energy Conversion A Survey
Mitsuyasu H, Tasai F, Suhara T, Mizuno S, Ohkusu M, Honda T, Rikiishi K.Observations of the
directional spectrum of ocean waves using a cloverleafbuoy, Journal of Physical Oceanography
1975; 5: 750-760.
http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=ocean%20wave%20energy%20conversion
%20%E2%80%93%20a%20survey&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCUQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F
%2Fhomepages.cae.wisc.edu%2F~vining
%2FJVining_IAS06_WaveEnergySurvey.pdf&ei=Og3IToPgHYnJrQfPs7zADg&usg=AFQjCNF
PovEbX8cDfQU5N2BgCcHn7MDTBg&cad=rja
OCEAN WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS: OVERVIEW
Mitsuyasu H, Tasai F, Suhara T, Mizuno S, Ohkusu M, Honda T, Rikiishi K.Observations of the
directional spectrum of ocean waves using a cloverleafbuoy, Journal of Physical Oceanography
1975; 5: 750-760.
http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=ocean%20wave%20energy%20converters%3A
%20overview%2C%20legal%20and%20economic%20aspects%2C%20and%20direct-drive
%20power%20take-off&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCgQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F
%2Fhomepages.cae.wisc.edu%2F~vining
%2FJVining_MastersThesis.pdf&ei=lQ3ITrLpPNHLrQe89PisDg&usg=AFQjCNEOqL2fOKxM
C2nasNWO3Rse953F9g&cad=rja
Aquamarine power
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/
The oscillating wave surge converter
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2477/The%20oscillating
%20wave%20surge%20converter.pdf
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The performance of a wave energy converter in shallow water

http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2478/The
%20performance%20of%20a%20wave%20energy%20converter%20in%20shallow
%20water.pdf
The development of Oyster - a shallow water surging wave energy converter
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2474/The
%20development%20of%20Oyster%20%20a%20shallow%20water%20surging%20wave
%20energy%20converter.pdf
The construction of Oyster - A near shore surging wave energy converter
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2473/The
%20construction%20of%20Oyster%20%20a%20nearshore%20surging%20wave%20energy
%20converter.pdf
The design of small seabed-mounted bottom-hinged wave energy converters
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2475/Design%20of
%20small%20seabed-mounted%20bottom%20hinged%20wave%20energy%20converters.pdf
Advances in the design of the Oyster wave energy converter
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2471/Advances%20in
%20the%20design%20of%20the%20Oyster%20wave%20energy%20converter.pdf
Design of the next generation of the Oyster wave energy converter
http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Published%20papers/2653/Design%20of
%20the%20Next%20Generation%20of%20Oyster%20Wave%20Energy%20Converter%20%20C5.pdf
Extreme Value Analysis of Wave Energy Converters

60

http://www.aquamarinepower.com/sites/resources/Reports/2920/Extreme%20Value%20Analysis
%20of%20Wave%20Energy%20Converters.pdf

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