46

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

Online Detection of Loss of Synchronism

Using Energy Function Criterion
K. R. Padiyar, Senior Member, IEEE, and S. Krishna

AbstractMaintaining dynamic security of a power system subjected to large disturbances is of utmost importance. Fast and accurate online detection of instability is essential in initiating certain
emergency control measures. The techniques reported in the literature involve mainly the application of global phasor measurements
and heuristic algorithms. In this paper, an accurate technique for
the online detection of loss of synchronism based on voltage and
current measurements in a line is presented. The technique makes
use of the concept of potential energy in a line. The conditions for
the system instability are derived from energy function analysis.
However, no assumptions are made regarding the power-angle relationship in a line, nor are any data on the system equivalents necessary in implementing the detection scheme.
Index TermsCritical cutset, energy function, transient stability.

NOMENCLATURE
Rotor angle in centre of inertia (COI) reference.
Rotor speed in COI reference.
Inertia constant.
Mechanical power input to the generator.
Electrical power output of the generator.
Generator quadrature axis voltage.
Direct axis open-circuit transient time constant.
Direct axis reactance.
Direct axis transient reactance.
Generator direct axis current.
Generator field voltage.
Generator direct axis voltage.
Quadrature axis open-circuit transient time constant.
Quadrature axis reactance.
Quadrature axis transient reactance.
Generator quadrature axis current.
Automatic voltage regulator gain.
Exciter time constant.
Generator voltage reference.
Static active power load, assumed to be constant.
Reactive power output at the generator terminal.

Manuscript received March 1, 2004; revised July 5, 2004. This work was
supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of
India, under the project Dynamic Security Assessment and Control of Power
Grids. The paper is based on a contribution presented by the authors at the
IEEE Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, Atlanta, GA,
October 2001. Paper no. TPWRD-00104-2004.
K. R. Padiyar is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
S. Krishna is with the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore 560054, India.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.848652

Static reactive power load, assumed to be a function

of bus voltage.
th element of the network admittance matrix.
Bus voltage.
Bus angle in COI reference.
I. INTRODUCTION

HE occurrence of a large disturbance in a power system

may lead to uncontrolled tripping of generators and cascading outages and may finally result in a blackout if proper
actions are not taken. There are many discrete control measures
[1], [2] which can be initiated to maintain system stability. Some
of the emergency measures, such as generator tripping and controlled system separation, should be exercised only when there
is an absolute necessity. Hence, a fast and accurate method of
distinguishing between stable and unstable swings is necessary.
The conventional out-of-step relaying based on the
impedance measurement on a transmission line has many limitations. To overcome these limitations, an adaptive out-of-step
relaying scheme was proposed [3]; this scheme requires the
knowledge of the equivalent system parameters that have to be
reasonably accurate.
There are many techniques reported in the literature which
involve mainly application of global phasor measurements [4],
[5]; heuristic algorithms [6]; and use of intelligent techniques,
such as decision trees [7] and artificial neural networks (ANNs)
[8].
In this paper, a method of online detection of the loss of synchronism based on voltage and current measurements in a line
is presented. The conditions for system instability are derived
from energy function analysis. The potential energy with generators represented by a classical model can be expressed as
the sum of energies in the series elements (transmission lines,
transformers, and generator reactances) [9]. In this paper, it is
shown that such an expression is applicable even for the detailed (two-axis) generator model. Under certain assumptions, it
is possible to express the potential energy as the sum of energies
in the lines belonging to a cutset and the kinetic energy as a function of the rate of change of phase angle across a line belonging
to the cutset. The proposed technique makes use of the potential energy in the lines belonging to the cutset and the kinetic
energy. The technique has been tested by simulation studies on
the New England 10-generator system and the IEEE 17-generator system. The paper reports on these studies along with the
methods of speeding up the detection of instability based on the
prediction of system trajectories.

0885-8977/$20.00 2006 IEEE

PADIYAR AND KRISHNA: ONLINE DETECTION OF LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM USING ENERGY FUNCTION CRITERION

47

Fig. 3. Excitation system.

III. SYSTEM MODEL AND ENERGY FUNCTION

Fig. 1.

Single-line diagram of a 10-generator 39-bus New England system.

A power system with buses and generators represented

by a detailed (1.1) model (with static exciter) is considered. The
system is assumed to be lossless. The equations governing the
system are [2]

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Fig. 2. Angle across series elements for the critically unstable case.

II. CRITICAL CUTSET ASSOCIATED WITH

TRANSIENT INSTABILITY
When a power system becomes unstable, it initially splits into
two groups. It is observed in simulation studies that there is a
unique cutset consisting of series elements (connecting the two
areas) across which the angle becomes unbounded. This is illustrated by simulating a three-phase fault at bus 14 of the 10-generator New England system. The single-line diagram of the New
England system is shown in Fig. 1. The data for this system
are given in [2]. The angle across all series elements (transmission lines, transformers, and generator reactances) is bounded
for critically stable clearing time (0.270 s). For the critically unstable fault clearing time (0.280 s), generator 2 separates from
the rest of the system. The angle across all of the series elements for the unstable case is plotted in Fig. 2. The angle across
lines 18-19 and 11-12 becomes unbounded. Hence, for this case,
these lines form the critical cutset across which the system separates into two areas.

(9)

(10)
The static exciter is represented by the block diagram shown
in Fig. 3. An energy function
for this system [2], [10] is
defined as
(11)

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where

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

is kinetic energy and

is potential energy given by

Fig. 4.

Coherent areas.

where
is the number of elements in the critical cutset. It can
be shown that the variation of potential energy in all of the lines
in the critical cutset is similar. If a series element (line or transformer) in the critical cutset connects buses and
(14)
(15)
where and are the voltage magnitudes at buses (in area I)
and (in area II), respectively, and is the susceptance of the
series element. Due to the assumption of coherency, the variations of and are similar for all of the elements in the critical
and . Hence,
cutset. This is also true of the variations of
the variation of potential energy can be monitored from the energy in the individual lines in the cutset. Hence
(16)
where
is the reactive power output at the internal bus of generator . The energy function is defined for the postfault system
is zero along a postfault trajectory.
and the time derivative of
The subscript in the above expressions indicates quantities at
time .
can also be expressed as follows.
The potential energy
The proof is given in the Appendix.

(12)

where
is a constant and subscript
the cutset, and

refers to any element in

(17)
to properly account for the
The corrected kinetic energy
portion of the kinetic energy that contributes to system separation [11] is given by
(18)

is the power flow in the series element ,

is the
where
steady-state value of , is the phase-angle difference across
is the total number of series elements. This
the element, and
expression for potential energy is identical to the one derived in
[9] in which the classical model is assumed for generators.

where

IV. CRITERION FOR INSTABILITY

The system can be represented by two areas connected by
the critical cutset as shown in Fig. 4. The potential energy can
be decomposed into the energy within the two areas and the
energy along the critical cutset [9]. Assuming coherent areas,
the potential energy within an area is zero as all of the buses in
n is zero for all series
that area have the same frequency (
elements within an area). Hence, the potential energy given by
(12) can be written as follows:

(13)

By assumption of coherency, the rotor speeds of all the generators in an area are equal and the derivative of the angle across
all of the elements in the critical cutset are the same. Hence
(19)
where
is the angle across any line in the critical cutset. The
corrected kinetic energy is given by
(20)

PADIYAR AND KRISHNA: ONLINE DETECTION OF LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM USING ENERGY FUNCTION CRITERION

49

Fig. 5. Variation of power flow and rate of change of angle of the lines 11-12
and 18-19 for the critically stable case.

Fig. 6. Variation of power flow and rate of change of angle of the lines 11-12
and 18-19 for the critically unstable case.

The criterion derived for the detection of instability is based

on energy function analysis. The power system gains kinetic and
potential energy due to a disturbance. For transient stability, the
system must be capable of absorbing the kinetic energy completely. If the kinetic energy is not completely converted to potential energy, the system becomes unstable. Therefore, for a
stable swing, kinetic energy is zero when potential energy attains a maximum, and for an unstable swing, kinetic energy is
not zero (positive) when potential energy attains a maximum.
This criterion is used for the detection of instability. Since the
criterion checks whether kinetic energy is zero or positive when
potential energy is maximum, it is adequate to monitor
instead of the kinetic energy, and the potential energy given by
(17) can be used instead of (13).
The potential energy attains a maximum value when
or
. For stable cases,
( reaches
a maximum value) when potential energy attains the first maxwhen potential energy atimum; for unstable cases,
detains the first maximum. Hence, the system is unstable if
before
becomes zero. The detection cricreases to
terion requires
and . These two quantities can be obtained
by local measurements at one end of a line. is obtained from
the measurement of voltage and current at one end of a line with
the knowledge of line impedance.
For the 10-generator system, the three-phase fault is simulated at bus 14. For this case, the angle across the lines 11-12 and
18-19 becomes unbounded in case of instability. Fig. 5 shows
and
for the lines 11-12
the variation of
and 18-19 for the critically stable fault clearing time (0.270 s).
and
are plotted for the postfault system. The variation of
and
for critically unstable fault clearing
time (0.280 s) is plotted in Fig. 6. , which is the angle across
series element connecting buses and , is defined as
; and are chosen such that
increases during the
fault and
is the power flow from bus to bus . It can be seen
decreases to zero before
decreases to zero for
that
decreases to zero
both the lines when the system is stable;

is still positive for both the lines when the system

when
is unstable.
As the assumption of coherency within a group of generators
swinging together is not strictly correct, the instability criterion
is not satisfied for all of the lines within the cutset at the same
instant. If the system is unstable, all of the lines in the critical
cutset satisfy the instability criterion over a duration of time. If
it is observed that the lines satisfying the criterion do not form
a cutset, then the system is stable. This implies that to check for
system instability, it is essential to verify whether all of the lines
(which satisfy the instability criterion) form a cutset.
The presence of intermachine oscillations within an area can
affect the accurate detection of loss of synchronism using the energy-based instability criterion which neglects such oscillations.
Hence, for practical implementation of the instability criterion,
it is necessary to modify the criterion by choosing appropriately
the lower and upper limits on . The errors due to false alarms
for so that
can be avoided by choosing a threshold value
only those lines across which the angle exceeds the threshold
value are checked for instability. The error of false dismissals
such that instability is
can be avoided by choosing a value
assumed if the angle across a line exceeds this value.
The criterion for instability is refined as follows: The system
, or
and
decreases to
is unstable if
is still positive in all of the lines belonging to
zero when
a cutset; otherwise, the system is stable.
V. IDENTIFICATION OF CRITICAL CUTSET
The critical cutset depends on the operating condition and the
disturbance, and is not known beforehand. Therefore, the condition for instability is checked in all of the lines across which
. As soon as instathe angle exceeds the threshold value
bility is detected in a new line, it is checked whether the lines in
which the condition for instability is met up to that instant, form
a cutset. When the condition for instability is detected in a new
line, the information is transmitted to the central computing station where the identification of the critical cutset is carried out.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

bus and, hence, the set is still not a cutset. When instability is
detected in the last line belonging to the critical cutset, then no
path exists between buses and , and then the set is a cutset.
Whenever instability is detected in a line, the matrix
is
is defined. This is done because
updated and a new matrix
the fusion of buses reduces the number of buses and the original connectivity information is lost; the original connectivity
information is again required when instability is detected in a
new line. Therefore, the original connectivity information is preserved in the matrix and the fusions are performed on the matrix .
The fusion of the th bus to the
bus is accomplished by
OR-ing, that is, logically adding the th row to the th row as
well as the th column to the th column of the matrix . In
and
.
logical adding,
Then all of the elements of the th row and the th column of
are set to zero.
the matrix
Whenever instability is detected in a line, the maximum
number of fusions that may have to be performed in this
is a cutset or not,
algorithm in order to check whether
where
is the number of buses. The maximum
is
number of logical additions that may have to be performed is
. Therefore, the upper bound on the execution
time is proportional to
.
VI. PREDICTION OF INSTABILITY

Fig. 7. Flowchart for the identification of the critical cutset.

An algorithm based on the fusion of adjacent buses is used to

determine whether a given set of lines forms a cutset. The algorithm presented in this section is a modified version of the one
given in [12]; the algorithm given in [12] is to check the connectedness of a graph. The network connectivity information is
stored in the form of the adjacency matrix. The adjacency matrix of a network with buses is a by symmetric binary
element is 1 if there is a line connecting the
matrix whose
and th buses and 0 if there is no line between the th and
th buses. If there are two or more parallel lines connecting two
buses, then these lines are treated as a single line since the variation of angle and power in these lines is similar and, hence, the
detection of instability in these lines is at the same instant.
The postfault network is assumed to be connected initially.
Let be the adjacency matrix of the postfault network and
be an empty set. The flowchart for the identification of the critical cutset is shown in Fig. 7. Whenever instability is detected in
a line , this line is included in the set and the connectivity information about this line is removed from the adjacency matrix
by setting
; then, it is checked whether a path
exists between buses and . This is accomplished by fusing all
buses adjacent to bus (of the adjacency matrix ) repeatedly.
All of the buses with numbers equal to the column numbers (or
row (or
column),
row numbers) of the elements of the
which have a value of 1, are adjacent to bus . If a path exists
between buses and , then at some stage, bus is adjacent to

and is
For faster detection of instability, the variation of
predicted by fitting a polynomial curve to the postfault-sampled
measurements. The sampling period is chosen as one cycle.
The measurements separated by two cycles are used for curve
fitting. The algorithm for prediction of instability in a line is as
follows:
1) If measured at the current sampling instant is less than
that measured at the previous sampling instant, stability
reaches a maximum
is indicated in the line since
and
crosses zero during this sampling period.
and
, or
measured at the
If
, instability
current sampling instant is greater than
is indicated in the line.
measured at the current sampling instant is greater
2) If
, a quadratic curve is fit to the three sampled
than
and a cubic curve is fit to the four
measurements of
sampled measurements of . The samples of are mea,
,
, and
sured at the instants
where is the current sampling instant
is the fault clearing time.
is measured at the
and
instants
,
, and
(21)
(22)
3) The following two equations are solved for real positive
and the
values to obtain the instant at which
instant at which
:
(23)
(24)

PADIYAR AND KRISHNA: ONLINE DETECTION OF LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM USING ENERGY FUNCTION CRITERION

51

4) If
and
, or if (23) has a real positive
, and (24) does not have a
solution with
real positive solution, instability is indicated in the line;
otherwise, a new set of measurements is obtained at the
next sampling instant and the procedure from step 1 is
repeated.
The procedure is stopped as soon as stability or instability is
indicated in the line. It is to be noted that curve fitting and the
exsolution of the quadratic equations are required only if
. The condition
is used to limit the error
ceeds
due to extrapolation. As soon as instability is predicted in a line,
the information is sent to the central computing station. System
instability is predicted when the lines in which instability is predicted form a cutset.

When a fault is cleared by opening the line, the steady-state

in the elements belonging to the critical
value of power
.
cutset is different from the prefault steady-state value
can be obtained from the results of online static security assessis very large compared to
ment. Since the variation in
and
,
can be used in place of
.
The use of prefault steady-state power in place of postfault
steady-state power does not affect the determination of stability
for both critically stable and critically unstable cases. There is
is used instead
not much difference in the results obtained if
of
.
The results given in this section are for a critically unstable
fault clearing time. It is also tested by simulation studies that the
proposed method indicates stability for the critically stable fault
clearing time for all of the cases.

VII. CASE STUDIES

VIII. DISCUSSION

The proposed detection criterion is tested on the New England 10-generator system and the IEEE 17-generator system.
The single-line diagram of the New England system is shown in
Fig. 1. The data for this system are given in [2]. The data for the
IEEE 17-generator system are given in [13], [14]. The single
diagram of this system showing only the major lines is given
in [13]. For both systems, network and generator losses are neglected, and the loads are treated as constant impedances. The
proposed detection criterion is tested by simulating three-phase
faults at different locations; the fault is cleared at such an instant
is chosen as 50 for
that the system is critically unstable.
the 10-generator system and 55 for the 17-generator system.
is chosen as 200 .
The angle across the critical lines at the instant of detection/prediction is given in Table I. The instant of instability detection/prediction is also indicated in the table. The instant of instability detection/prediction is the instant at which instability is
detected/predicted in the last line belonging to the critical cutset.
The value in brackets, in the columns 4 and 5, is the time duration in terms of the number of cycles from the instant at which
instability is detected/predicted in the first line to the instant at
which instability is detected/predicted in the last line.
The proposed instability criterion indicates instability in all
of the cases studied. The average time taken for detection of
instability from the instant of fault clearing is 1.004 s for the
10-generator system and 0.333 s for the 17-generator system.
The corresponding values for the prediction of instability are
0.569 and 0.254 s. The average value of the angle across critical lines at the instant of instability detection is 159.2 for the
10-generator system and 128.0 for the 17-generator system.
The corresponding values at the instant of instability prediction
are 54.7 and 63.2 .
For a fault at bus 12 cleared without line tripping and fault
at bus 37 cleared by tripping the line 37-27 (of the 10-generator
system with the classical model of generator), there is a false dismissal with stability detection using the energy function. Therefore, instability is detected when a sampled measurement of
is greater than
. However, for both cases, the prediction
algorithm indicates instability at an earlier instant. There is no
false dismissal in these cases with prediction.

Unlike other techniques, such as E-SIME [5], the proposed

stability criterion does not require the knowledge of the mode
of instability and no assumptions are made regarding the powerangle relationship.
The only assumption made is that the system instability results in the initial separation into two areas. This assumption is
used implicitly in all of the methods proposed earlier.
The main objective of the proposed instability detection criterion is system protection as distinct from equipment protection.
If instability is detected, corrective actions need to be taken in
order to maintain system integrity.
A major feature of the detection criterion proposed in this
paper is that it is based on local measurements (of current and
voltage) within a line. Only logical data need to be transmitted
to the central location where it is processed to check for system
instability. This is different from techniques based on the use of
phasor measurements and their telemetering [3], [15]. The computational complexity in detection of instability can be reduced
from simplification of the system by identifying coherent groups
and the use of dynamic equivalents (from offline studies) [15].
For a given mode of instability, there are many possible cutsets connecting the two separating areas; but there is usually
a unique cutset across which the angle becomes unbounded in
case of instability. For the 10-generator system, there are few
critical cutsets. For many contingencies, generator 2 separates
from the rest of the system since its inertia constant is high compared to other generators. For this mode of instability, the critical cutset consists of lines 18-19 and 11-12.
The detection criterion derived from the energy function analysis is based on the assumptions of coherent areas and constant
power loads. The coherency assumption is made to neglect the
oscillations within the areas and account only for interarea oscillations which contribute to system separation. The detection
criterion is effective even when the loads are modeled as constant impedances.
The main requirements of a method to detect instability are
accuracy (no false alarms and false dismissals) and speed. The
proposed method is capable of distinguishing between stable
and unstable swings accurately. The stability criterion is accurate even for critically stable and critically unstable cases which

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

TABLE I
ANGLE ACROSS THE CRITICAL LINES AT THE INSTANT OF INSTABILITY DETECTION/PREDICTION

are considered in the case studies. Therefore, it is expected that

the criterion is able to perform accurate stability classification

for more stable and more unstable cases. The detection is sped
up by the extrapolation of system trajectories.

PADIYAR AND KRISHNA: ONLINE DETECTION OF LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM USING ENERGY FUNCTION CRITERION

Fig. 8.

Swing curves for a fault at bus 20 cleared by tripping the line 20-33.

The mode of instability is the same for both classical and detailed models for all of the cases studied. For a fault at buses 27
and 28 of the 10-generator system, the critical cutset is different
for classical and detailed models of the generator.
and
are decided based on simulation
The values of
studies. These values are the same for all of the cases for a given
system and the actual values used are not very critical. The detection/prediction procedure starts as soon as the angle across
. In most cases, instability is predicted as
a line exceeds
soon as the angle exceeds
. The method given in [15] involves only checking whether the angle between two areas ex, the value which is not specified.
ceeds
Transient instability may lead to uncontrolled tripping of generators and lines, and may finally result in the formation of islands. Controlled system separation is used as a protective measure in order to retain as much of the system intact as possible.
The proposed instability detection method can be used to initiate this emergency control measure by tripping the elements
of the critical cutset at the instant of instability detection/prediction. Fig. 8 shows the swing curves for the fault at bus 20 (of
the 10-generator system) cleared by tripping the line 20-33 at
0.23 s (critically unstable clearing time). Generator 3 initially
separates from the rest of the system; instability is first detected
in the transformer 20-3 which forms the critical cutset. Controlled system separation is simulated by tripping generator 3.
Fig. 9 shows the plot of swing curves of the group containing
nine generators when the system is separated at the instant of
instability detection/prediction (0.713 s). The system is stable
after tripping generator 3 though the swing curves show that
there is further loss of synchronism without controlled system
separation (Fig. 8).
The proposed algorithm can be readily applied for offline
studies. In most cases, the critical cutset and mode of instability can be detected/predicted within about a second. This is
quite fast as the application of energy function methods for direct evaluation of transient instability (using the potential energy
boundary surface method) involves about 1 s of simulation (unless shortcuts are used). Further, the algorithm presented in this

53

Fig. 9. Swing curves after system separation at the instant of

detection/prediction of instability (0.713 s) due to a fault at bus 20.

paper gives additional information about the mode of instability

and the critical cutset.
IX. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a method of detection of instability based
on energy function analysis. The method requires computation
of power flow and phase angle across lines belonging to the critical cutset. A computationally efficient method is used to identify the critical cutset. The stability detection method is accurate
and the detection of instability can be sped up by predicting the
variation of power and angle. The proposed instability detection
criterion can be useful in initiating emergency control measures
such as controlled system separation.
APPENDIX
PROOF OF EQUATION (12)
The right-hand side of (12) can be expressed as

(25)
In a lossless system, power flows satisfy Kirchhoffs current
law and bus frequencies satisfy Kirchhoffs voltage law. Hence,
an equivalent network can be obtained for the power system as
shown in Fig. 10, with power being considered analogous to
current and bus frequencies to voltage [16].
For any electric network, where the branch voltages and currents satisfy Kirchhoffs laws, Tellegens theorem can be applied, which states that at any time, the sum of the power delivered to each branch of the network is zero [17]. Under steadyis equal to
, and
is equal to
; the load
state,
are assumed to be constants. Tellegens theorem is
powers
also valid when branch voltages of one network and the branch
currents of another network are considered, provided the networks have the same graph. Applying Tellegens theorem to the

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

The sum of the last two terms on the right-hand side of (29) and
(30) gives half of the reactive power losses in the generator reac. Substituting the
tances and the network which is equal to
right-hand side of (29) and (30) in (28), the following equation
is obtained:
Fig. 10.

Equivalent network of the power system.

(31)

powers in steady-state and bus frequencies at any instant, the

following equation is obtained:
Equation (12) follows from (25), (27) and (31).
(26)
REFERENCES
By integrating (26) with respect to time, the second term on the
right-hand side of (25) can be expressed as follows:

(27)
The first term on the right-hand side of (25) can be separated
into terms corresponding to power flows in the generator reactances and those corresponding to power flows in the transmission lines/transformers as follows:

(28)
where is the number of lines and transformers, is the power
flow in the series element connecting buses and . The first
term on the right-hand side of (28) is evaluated by integrating
given by (9) with respect to
by
the expression for
parts. It can be shown that [18]

(29)
The second term on the right-hand side of (28) is evaluated by
with respect to
by parts.
integrating
It can be shown that [18]

(30)

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2003.

PADIYAR AND KRISHNA: ONLINE DETECTION OF LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM USING ENERGY FUNCTION CRITERION

K. R. Padiyar (SM91) received the B.E. degree in electrical engineering from

Poona University, Poona, India, in 1962, the M.E. degree from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, in 1964, and the Ph.D. degree from the
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, in 1972.
Currently, he is a Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, India. He was with the Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, India, from 1976 to 1987, prior to joining the Indian Institute of Science. His research interests include HVDC and flexible ac transmission systems
(FACTS), system dynamics, and control. He has authored three books and many
papers.
Dr. Padiyar is a Fellow of the National Academy of Engineering (India).

55

S. Krishna received the B.E. degree in electrical engineering from Bangalore

University, Bangalore, India, in 1995, and the M.E. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1999 and 2003,
respectively.
Currently, he is an Assistant Professor with M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore. He was with Kirloskar Electric Company, Bangalore, from
1995 to 1997. His research interests include power systems.