Interpretation of Fire Debrys

Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis
E Stauffer, Commissariat dIdentification Judiciaire, Police Cantonale Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

N NicDaeid, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Glossary
Aliphatic An organic compound which is not aromatic;
organic compounds that are alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
and their derivatives.
Alkane A saturated hydrocarbon compound having the
general formula CnH2n2.
Aromatics A class of unsaturated organic compounds that
have a benzene ring or that have chemical properties similar
to benzene as part of their structure.
Combustion products The set of products that are released
during the combustion reaction of materials. These products
are the result of both complete and incomplete combustion
but not of the pyrolysis process.
Crude oil Naturally occurring oil consisting primarily of
hydrocarbons with some other elements such as sulfur,
oxygen, and nitrogen. Source material of nearly all
petroleum products.
Fire debris A generic term commonly used to describe
material collected at a fire scene and submitted to the
laboratory for ignitable liquid residue analysis.
Gasoline A mixture of several hundreds of volatile
hydrocarbons ranging from C4 to C12 used in an internal
combustion engine.
Abbreviations
GC
IL
Gas chromatography or gas chromatograph

Ignitable liquid
Introduction
Once the chromatogram has been obtained, it is time to conduct the most difficult part of fire debris analysis: the interpretation of the results. It is necessary to distinguish the
interpretation of chromatograms obtained from neat liquids
from the ones obtained from fire debris samples. In the first
case, the neat liquid is simply diluted and injected. As such,
there are almost no influences to take into account in the
interpretation. In the second case, the debris is first subjected
to an extraction (passive headspace, solvent, etc.) and then
analyzed. In addition, interfering products are coextracted
with ignitable liquid residues (ILRs). Thus, the interpretation
of the chromatogram is much more complicated.
The goal of the interpretation of the results is to determine
whether or not ILRs are present in the fire debris sample. In
order to achieve this, one will have to study the chromatogram
for patterns exhibited by known ignitable liquids (ILs).
Because thousands of different ILs with different components exist, a system of organizing them into groups and
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Second Edition
Ignitable liquid A liquid fuel that is either flammable or

combustible.
Ignitable liquid residues The remaining portion of an
ignitable liquid on a substrate after undergoing physical
and/or chemical changes.
Interfering products The set of chemicals found in a sample
that interferes with the proper identification of ignitable
liquid residues.
Isoparaffinic products An ASTM class of
petroleum distillate almost exclusively composed of
branched alkanes.
Microbial degradation The decomposition of petroleum
products by bacterial action that can diminish some
components relative to others resulting in an altered
chromatographic pattern that may not allow for a definitive
characterization.
Petroleum distillates An ASTM class of products obtained
primarily from the fractionation of crude oil.
Pyrolysis products The set of products generated by the
process of pyrolysis only.
Substrate The sample material from
which a substance of interest (analyte) is removed
for analysis.
ILR
MS
Ignitable liquid residues

Mass spectrometry or mass spectrometer
finding common patterns exhibited within each group had to

be devised. This led to a classification system, now described in
the ASTM standard test method for ILR in extracts from fire
debris samples by gas chromatographymass spectrometry
(GCMS) E1618. As a result, these patterns are well known
and the process of interpretation is clearly described.
Classification
While one may think that hundreds of thousands of different ILs potentially used at fire scenes may exhibit as many
different patterns, this is not the case. First of all, most ILs
are petroleum based, that is, they are derived from crude
oil. As such, most of them are composed exclusively of
aliphatic and/or aromatic compounds. Second, because
the processes of transforming crude oil into refined products are not very diverse, patterns exhibited by petroleumbased ILs can be placed into six different classes of ILs, each
with a characteristic set of patterns. Finally, when dealing
with nonpetroleum-based ILs, even though all possibilities
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382165-2.00102-1
183
184
Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis
Table 1
ASTM E 161810 ignitable liquid classification scheme
Class
Light (C4C9)
Gasoline
Petroleum distillates (including
dearomatized)
Medium (C8C13)
Petroleum ether
Some cigarette lighter fluids
Some camping fuels
Heavy (C8C20)
Fresh gasoline is typically in the range of C4C12

Some charcoal starters
Some paint thinners
Some dry cleaning solvents
Kerosene
Diesel fuel
Some jet fuels
Isoparaffinic products
Aviation gas
Some specialty solvents

Some paint thinners
Some copier toners
Some commercial specialty

solvents
Naphthenic paraffinic products
Cyclohexane-based solvents/products

Some insecticide vehicles
Some lamp oils

Some lamp oils
Industrial solvents
Aromatic products
Some paint and varnish removers

Some automotive parts cleaners
Xylene-based products
Toluene-based products
Some automotive part cleaners

Specialty cleaning solvents
Fuel additives

Industrial cleaning solvents
Normal alkane products
Solvents: pentane, hexane, heptane
Some candle oils

Some copier toners
Some candle oils

Carbonless forms
Some copier toners
Oxygenated solvents
Alcohols
Ketones
Some lacquer thinners
Fuel additives
Surface preparation solvents
Some lacquer thinners

Some industrial solvents
Metal cleaners/gloss removers
Others/miscellaneous
Single-component products
Some blended products
Some enamel reducers
Turpentine products
Some specialty products

Some specialty products
Toluene
1 000 000
Abundance
800 000
C2-alkylbenzenes
600 000
C3-alkylbenzenes
Benzene
400 000
200 000
C4-alkylbenzenes
0
2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
8
10
11
9
12
10
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
18
19
14
20
21
22
15
Time
23
24 25
Carbon #
Figure 1 Chromatogram of a neat gasoline (unweathered). Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R (2008) Fire
Debris Analysis, p. 323. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
are open, these liquids usually consist of only a few different components. Thus, the resulting chromatograms are not
as complicated as those from petroleum-based ILs, which
can exhibit several hundreds of components.
ASTM standard E1618 proposes a classification system

based on eight different classes, as shown in Table 1.
The examples for each class are not exhaustive; they are just
the most commonly encountered products found in each
185
Abundance
Light petroleum distillate
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Medium petroleum distillate
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Heavy petroleum distillate
2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
7
10
11
12
10
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
18
14
15
Time
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 2 Chromatograms of light, medium, and heavy petroleum distillates. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R
(2008) Fire Debris Analysis, p. 328. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
particular class. In his/her findings, the fire debris analyst does

not report a finished product itself, but rather the ASTM class.
Then, products found in that class can be cited as examples, to
guide the fire investigator.
Because the difference between the classes relies on the chemical composition of the IL, the ASTM system introduces a second
dimension of classification to refine the different categories: the
boiling point range. By using the boiling point range, one can
186
Abundance
Light isoparaffinic product
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Medium isoparaffinic product
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Heavy isoparaffinic product
2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
7
10
11
12
10
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
18
14
15
Time
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 3 Chromatograms of light, medium, and heavy isoparaffinic products. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and
Newman R (2008) Fire Debris Analysis, p. 332. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
refine the different classes and create more pertinent categories.

In practice, the light subclass ranges approximately from 0 to
150 C, the medium from 120 to 240 C, and the heavy
from 120 C to more than 350 C. The only exception to
that subclassification is gasoline, whose boiling point range
does not vary greatly. This classification system works perfectly well with the separation and analysis obtained by
GCMS as this instrument separates the compounds based
on their boiling points and the MS provides identification of
their chemical nature.
187
Abundance
Light naphthenic paraffinic product
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Medium naphthenic paraffinic product
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Heavy naphthenic paraffinic product
2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
7
10
8
11
9
12
10
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
14
15
Time
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 4 Chromatograms of light, medium, and heavy naphthenic paraffinic products. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA,
and Newman R (2008) Fire Debris Analysis, p. 335. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
Interpretation of Neat Liquids

With petroleum-based products, the basic principle of
interpretation is to evaluate the chromatogram for the presence, distribution, boiling point range, and relative abundance of all saturated aliphatics and all aromatics. With
nonpetroleum-based products, the analyst looks at all compounds present in the chromatogram and evaluates whether
or not they could originate from an IL.
While an advanced knowledge of crude oil-refining processes
is necessary to fully understand the reasons behind the chemical
compositions of the different ASTM classes, this goes beyond the
188
Abundance
Light aromatic product
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Medium aromatic product
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Heavy aromatic product
2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
8
10
11
10
12
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
18
19
14
20
21
15
Time
22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 5 Chromatograms of light, medium, and heavy aromatic products. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and
scope of this chapter. Nevertheless, it is possible to provide a rapid

overview of the different classes and their compositions.
Gasoline is mostly composed of aromatic compounds ranging from C4 (4-carbonlong chain) to C12 (12-carbonlong
chain). It also contains some alkanes; however, they are normally not abundant. Figure 1 shows an example of a chromatogram of gasoline.
Petroleum distillates are the closest products to crude oil,

as they have undergone a minimum of refinement. They
contain both aliphatics and aromatics in a normal (Gaussian)
distribution with spiking n-alkanes. Some petroleum distillates said to be dearomatized have no aromatic content.
Figure 2 shows examples of light, medium, and heavy petroleum distillates.
189
Abundance
Medium to heavy normal-alkane product

ExxonMobil Norpar 12
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Heavy normal-alkane product

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Abundance
Heavy normal-alkane product

2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
7
10
8
11
9
12
10
13
11
14
15
12
16
13
14
15
Time
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 6 Chromatograms of light, medium, and heavy n-alkanes. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R (2008)
Fire Debris Analysis, p. 337. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
Isoparaffinic products are exclusively constituted of isoalkanes as shown in Figure 3. They have no aromatics, n-alkanes,
or cycloalkanes.
Naphthenic paraffinic products are comprised of cycloalkanes and isoalkanes (see Figure 4). Basically, a naphthenic
paraffinic product is a petroleum distillate in which the
n-alkanes and the aromatic content have been removed.
Aromatic products are composed exclusively of aromatic
compounds. As a matter of fact, such a product is constituted
of the aromatic fraction that was isolated from crude oil. In
general, they exhibit a narrow boiling point range, as shown

in Figure 5.
n-Alkane products represent the simplest pattern: a narrow
fraction of n-alkanes (usually not spanning more than four or
five carbons). Figure 6 shows an example of light, medium,
and heavy n-alkane products.
Oxygenated solvents include all ILs containing at least one
oxygenated compound in large excess of the rest of the components (at least one order of magnitude in the chromatogram). Oxygenated solvents may also contain other ILs such
190
n-Butyl acetate
Light to medium oxygenated solvent

DuPont fast dry acrylic lacquer thinner
Abundance
1-Butanol
2-Ethoxyethyl acetate
n-Butyl butyrate
2-Ethoxy
ethanol
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Toluene
Light oxygenated solvent + light aromatic product

USA Brand lacquer thinner
Abundance
2-Propyl acetate
n-Propyl acetate
n-Butoxy ethanol
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Toluene
Light oxygenated solvent + light aromatic product

Dyco solvent E-5
Abundance
2-Propoxyethanol
2
6
4
7
5
8
6
9
8
10
11
10
12
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
18
19
14
20
21
15
Time
22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 7 Chromatograms of light, medium, and heavy oxygenated solvents. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and
as medium petroleum distillates. Figure 7 shows three examples of oxygenated solvents.

Miscellaneous products include ILs that do not fit in any of
the categories previously described. Figure 8 shows an example
of a turpentine, which is classified as miscellaneous.
In summary, Table 2 shows the different components
found in each ASTM class and subclass.
While the interpretation and classification of chromatograms may appear relatively complex at first, it is in fact quite
easy with neat liquids. Figure 9 provides a guide to the proper
interpretation of chromatograms. If the analyst follows this
guide, there should be no problem in correctly identifying
neat liquids. Unfortunately, it is a whole other story with ILR
from fire debris samples.
191
d-Limonene
1,4-Cineol
Abundance
8 000 000
6 000 000
o-Cymene
a-Terpinene
4 000 000
g-Terpinene
Camphene
a-Pinene
2 000 000
0
2
4
7
5
8
6
9
10
11
12
10
13
11
14
15
12
16
17
13
18
14
15
Time
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Carbon #
Figure 8 Chromatogram of turpentine product, classified as miscellaneous. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and
Table 2
The different components found in each ASTM class and subclass
Class
Alkanes
Cycloalkanes
Aromatics (including indanes)
Polynuclear aromatics
Gasoline
Present, less abundant than

aromatics
Abundant
Present
Petroleum
distillates
Abundant, normal (Gaussian)

distribution
Isoparaffinic
products
Branched alkanes abundant,

n-alkanes absent or strongly
diminished
Branched alkanes abundant,
n-alkanes absent or strongly
diminished
Absent
Present, less
abundant than
aromatics
Present, less
abundant than
alkanes
Absent
Present, less abundant than

alkanes (absent in
dearomatized distillates)
Absent
Present (depending on boiling point range),

less abundant than alkanes (absent in
dearomatized distillates)
Absent
Abundant
Absent
Absent
Absent
Abundant
Absent
Absent
Abundant (depending on the boiling point

range)
Absent
Naphthenic
paraffinic
products
Aromatic
products
Normal
alkanes
products
Oxygenated
solvents
Abundant
Composition may vary, presence of oxygenated organic compounds
Interpretation of Ignitable Liquid Residues

When an IL is poured onto a substrate, and then set on fire,
extinguished, collected, and finally extracted, one can easily
imagine that it no longer exhibits the same chromatographic
pattern as when it was neat. This is the reason why the
interpretation of ILR is much more complicated than that
of mere IL, in addition to the fact that the analyst does not
know at first whether or not ILR are present in the debris.
There are several parameters influencing the composition of

the ILR extract from a fire debris as shown in Figure 10.
First, the substrate itself may already contain some IL, or
at least some compounds that are found in IL. These are
called precursory products and they may be due to the raw
material constituting the substrate, to its manufacturing process, to the setup in its final position/use, and to some
natural or accidental contaminations. For example, some
woods contain terpenes, compounds typically found in
192
Figure 9 Petroleum-based ignitable liquid flow chart. Every question related to the presence of specific compounds implies that these compounds
must be present in the proper pattern (as compared to a pattern of these compounds from a reference liquid analyzed on the same system). * Or Are
cycloalkanes distinctively present in the extracted ion chromatograms? Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R (2008) Fire Debris
Analysis, p. 345. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
thinners. Most outsoles are glued to the shoe and this glue
usually contains an aromatic compound, such as toluene. A
carpet is also often glued to the floor; however, this glue
usually contains a medium petroleum distillate. When one
sprays insecticides around a baseboard, these become contaminated with a naphthenic paraffinic or an aromatic product. These are all examples of precursory products that may
be found on a substrate before it is even deliberately contaminated with an IL used as an accelerant.
Second, once an IL is poured onto a substrate, it will undergo three effects, which will influence its composition:
weathering, diminution, and degradation. Weathering is the
effect of the evaporation of an IL. Because an IL is commonly
made of many different compounds of different boiling points,
not all compounds will evaporate at the same rate. As such, the
chromatographic pattern of a neat IL (unweathered) is different from that of its 50% evaporated version. As a matter of fact,
as the weathering increases, the chromatogram moves to the
right, meaning that the light compounds disappear and
the heavy compounds become more and more dominant.
Diminution represents the uniform loss of the different compounds of an IL. In practice, it occurs simultaneously with
weathering, but it may also be due to poor evidence collection
or to fire suppression activities. Finally, degradation occurs

when the substrate, mostly soil, contains proteobacteria,
which are capable of degrading petroleum-based IL. These
bacteria, depending on their type, will selectively degrade aliphatics or aromatics. As a result, the composition of an IL may
drastically change, not based on its boiling point range, but
rather on its chemical characteristics.
Third, when a substrate burns, pyrolysis and combustion
products are created. Pyrolysis products consist of compounds
that are often the same as the ones found in petroleum products. As a result, they strongly interfere with the chemical
composition of an IL, making it impossible in some instances
to properly identify an ILR. Most commonly encountered
pyrolysis products are toluene, styrene, naphthalene, benzaldehyde, ethylbenzene, indene, phenylethyne, m,p-xylenes, 1and 2-methylnaphthalene, acetophenone, and the series of
alkanealkenealkadiene ranging from C10 to C16. Figure 11
shows an example of pyrolysis products created with burned
polyethylene.
Combustion products usually do not interfere as much as
pyrolysis products with ILR because they are oxidized products,
which are not often found as IL components. Because they are
very light compounds, they tend not to be trapped in substrates.
193
Finally, fire suppression agents may also be used by the

intervening fire department. Some of these agents may also
contribute to the fire debris extract, such as some foams that
use D-limonene or some alcohol-based compounds.
Interfering products, then, are a set of products comprising
precursory, pyrolysis, combustion, and fire suppression products. When interpreting chromatograms of extracts from fire
debris samples, one must account for the presence of these
interfering products. In addition, one must not forget the
different effects occurring directly on the IL. This is why a
systematic approach was developed.
Raw material
Manufacture
Precursory
products
Set-up
Natural/accidental
contamination
Ignitable liquid
Deliberate
contamination
Weathering
Fire
Diminution
Fire suppression
Pyrolysis
products
Systematic Approach
Combustion
products
Because the interpretation of chromatograms for ILR identification is quite complicated, it is important to follow a systematic approach, which is constituted of the six following steps:
Fire
suppression
products
Collection
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Identify the sample and its substrate.

Estimate the typical contribution from that substrate.
Determine to which influences the substrate was subjected.
Estimate the effect of these influences.
Study the chromatogram from start to finish, including
peak identification.
6. Study extracted ions in the regions of interest, including
peak identification.
Transportation
Degradation
Analysis
Figure 10 The different steps (in the middle) to which the fire
debris sample is subjected from its creation to its analysis, along with
the influences (on the left) on the potential ignitable liquid present
in the debris and the different interfering products created
(on the right). Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R
(2008) Fire Debris Analysis, p. 443. Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
Elsevier.
Even if the fire debris analyst did not work on the fire scene,
he/she must have some clear basic knowledge about the sample in question, particularly in regard to its composition, its
environment at the time of the fire, and the different steps it
underwent. Knowledge of the samples history is crucial, too.
C16
Abundance
3 000 000
C14
2 000 000
C11
1 000 000
C8
C13
C10
C9
C18
C12
C15
C7
C6
0
2
6
C20
C17
3
4
7
6
8
7
9
8
10
9
11
10
12
11
13
12
14
15
13
16
14
17
18
15
19
Time
20
Carbon #
Figure 11 Chromatogram of polyethylene pyrolysis products. Time in minutes. Reproduced from Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R (2008)
Fire Debris Analysis, p. 459. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Elsevier.
194
The preliminary examination of fire debris samples is, thus, a

very crucial step that should never be undermined.
Significance of Findings
Fire debris analysis is an extremely complex science and the
reason is twofold. First, the interpretation of chromatograms is
rendered very difficult due to the numerous components of
many different IL and the presence of interfering products. The
second reason is that the simple presence of ILR in a debris does
not imply at all that it was used as an accelerant in the fire. This
last determination requires the experience of both the fire debris
analyst and the fire investigator, as well as a very good knowledge
of the fire scene and the circumstances surrounding the fire.
See also: Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation: Analysis of Fire

Debris; Chemistry of Fire; Thermal Degradation; Methods: Gas
Chromatography; Gas ChromatographyMass Spectrometry; Mass
Spectrometry.
Further Reading
ASTM International (2010) ASTM E1618-10 Standard Test Method for Ignitable Liquid
Residues in Extracts from Fire Debris Samples by Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry, Annual Book of ASTM Standards 14.02. West Conshohocken, PA:

ASTM International.
Byron DE (2002) The effects of surfactants and microbes on the identification of
ignitable liquids in fire debris analysis. Fire and Arson Investigator 53(1): 50ss.
DeHaan JD, Brien DJ, and Large R (2004) Volatile organic compounds from
the combustion of human and animal tissue. Science and Justice 44(4):
223236.
DeHaan JD and Icove DJ (2011) Kirks Fire Investigation, 7th edn. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Education.
Gilbert MW (1998) The use of individual extracted ion profiles versus summed
extracted ion profiles in fire debris analysis. Journal of Forensic Sciences 43(4):
871876.
Leffle WL (2000) Petroleum Refining in Nontechnical Language, 3rd edn. Tulsa, OK:
PennWell Corporation.
Lentini JJ, Dolan JA, and Cherry C (2000) The petroleum-laced background. Journal of
Forensic Sciences 45(5): 968989.
Mann DC and Gresham WR (1990) Microbial degradation of gasoline in soil. Journal of
McGee E and Lang TL (2002) A study of the effects of a micelle encapsulator fire
suppression agent on dynamic headspace analysis of fire debris samples. Journal of
Newman R, Gilbert M, and Lothridge K (1997) GC-MS Guide to Ignitable Liquids. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Nic Daeid N (2004) Fire Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Spreight JC (1999) The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, 3rd edn. New York,
NY: Marcel Dekker.
Stauffer E (2003) Basic concept of pyrolysis for fire debris analysts. Science and Justice
43(1): 2940.
Stauffer E, Dolan JA, and Newman R (2008) Fire Debris Analysis. Burlington, MA:
Academic Press.
Trimpe MA (1991) Turpentine in arson analysis. Journal of Forensic Sciences 36(4):
10591073.

Interpretation of Fire Debrys

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Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

E Stauffer, Commissariat dIdentification Judiciaire, Police Cantonale Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

Gas chromatography or gas chromatograph

Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Second Edition

Ignitable liquid A liquid fuel that is either flammable or

Ignitable liquid residues

finding common patterns exhibited within each group had to

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

ASTM E 161810 ignitable liquid classification scheme

Fresh gasoline is typically in the range of C4C12

Some charcoal starters

Some commercial specialty

Naphthenic paraffinic products

Some charcoal starters

Some insecticide vehicles

Some paint and varnish removers

Some automotive part cleaners

Some insecticide vehicles

Normal alkane products

Solvents: pentane, hexane, heptane

Some candle oils

Some candle oils

Some lacquer thinners

Some blended products

ASTM standard E1618 proposes a classification system

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

Light petroleum distillate

Medium petroleum distillate

Heavy petroleum distillate

particular class. In his/her findings, the fire debris analyst does

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

Light isoparaffinic product

Medium isoparaffinic product

Heavy isoparaffinic product

refine the different classes and create more pertinent categories.

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

Light naphthenic paraffinic product

Medium naphthenic paraffinic product

Heavy naphthenic paraffinic product

Interpretation of Neat Liquids

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

Light aromatic product

Medium aromatic product

Heavy aromatic product

scope of this chapter. Nevertheless, it is possible to provide a rapid

Petroleum distillates are the closest products to crude oil,

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

Medium to heavy normal-alkane product

Heavy normal-alkane product

Heavy normal-alkane product

general, they exhibit a narrow boiling point range, as shown

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

Light to medium oxygenated solvent

Light oxygenated solvent + light aromatic product

Light oxygenated solvent + light aromatic product

as medium petroleum distillates. Figure 7 shows three examples of oxygenated solvents.

Chemistry/Trace/Fire Investigation | Interpretation of Fire Debris Analysis

The different components found in each ASTM class and subclass

Aromatics (including indanes)

Present, less abundant than

Abundant, normal (Gaussian)

Branched alkanes abundant,

Present, less abundant than

Present (depending on boiling point range),