Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1. Get DNA sample from tissue, blood or semen as it will be easy to collect.
2. DNA must be cut into fragments using restriction endonucleases.
3. DNA fragments will underdo PCR alongside free nucleotides (Increase temperature
to 90'C to break the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands, decrease temperature to
55'C to allow annealing of primers to the DNA strands, Increase temperature to 75'C
as this is the optimum temperature for DNA polymerase to work as it will bind the free
nucleotides to the DNA fragments.
4. This process must be repeated several times to get many copies of DNA (many or
multiple are interchangeable here).
5. Put the DNA fragments into agarose wells.
6. Apply a potential difference from the negative electrode, causing the negatively
charged DNA fragments to move towards the positive electrode. (Longer fragments of
DNA will travel a shorter distance and shorter fragments of DNA will travel a longer
distance).
7. This will produce a DNA profile with a series of bands which may differ in size and
width.
8. Can be used to compare different peoples DNA and see if there is a genetic
relationship between the two.
How DNA profiles of two species are compared:
Compare total number of bands, their position and width.
How phagocytosis and lysosome action leads to APC by macrophages:
Bacteria taken in my macrophage.
Phagosome (vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis) fuses
with lysosome.
Enzyme e.g. protease from lysosome breaks down bacteria.
Part of the bacteria is presented on macrophages cell surface membrane.
How macrophages present antigens to T helper cells:
Macrophage binds to T helper cell as the MHC on the macrophage binds to the
CD4 receptor on the T helper cell.
How evolutionary race between some bacteria affects antigen presentation
to T helper cells:
A mutation has occurred in the DNA of the bacteria.
This has caused a change in the antigen of the bacteria.
The memory T helper cells wont recognise the new antigen.
Thus a new primary immune response is needed e.g. new antigen needs to be
presented to the T helper cell to activate another population of T helper cells.
Two greenhouse gases are:
Carbon dioxide.
Methane.
First generation biofuels could reduce global warming instead of
petrol/diesel because:
Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas.
Carbon dioxide is taken in for photosynthesis for carbon fixation during the
production of plants for biofuels thus there is no net change of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere when biofuels are burnt.
Biofuels are carbon neutral!
Why cellulose has to be treated with enzymes before bacteria can use it as
an energy source:
Bacteria cannot breakdown cellulose fast enough so enzymes like cellulase are
needed to break down cellulose into beta glucose by hydrolysing 1,4 glycosidic
bonds.
The changes in distribution of organisms after glaciers disappear are:
As time increases, the biodiversity of organisms increases.
Primary succession occurs whereby pioneer species such as lichens are the first
organisms to colonise bare rock.
These pioneers improve the conditions for plants by changing rock into soil.
There will be competition, limiting the species currently present e.g. newer
species outcompete previous species.
What a niche is:
The role of an organism within its ecosystem.
The specie the question is talking about is a producer (because its a plant) and
so it provides food for other organisms.
It also improves the soil e.g. holds soil structure together.
It provides shelter for organisms.
How
One abiotic factor that affects the abundance of the plant and how it can be
measured:
Light affects it
Can be measured using light probe and reading should be taken at the height of
the plant.
Take several readings and get an average.
Effect of temperature on decomposition (of leaves):
Increase in temperature would increase rate of decomposition up to an optimum
temperature.
Enzymes are used in decomposition.
Increased heat results in an increase in the number of collision between
enzymes and substrates thus increase rate of reaction.
Above a certain temperature, the rate of decomposition would decrease as
enzymes become denatured.
The role of RUBISCO in the production of GALP in the light-independent
reaction is:
RUBISCO is an enzyme in the Calvin cycle.
Its involved in carbon fixation to form GP.
GP is converted into GALP using ATP and reduced NADP.
How the membranes inside the chloroplast are involved in photosynthesis:
Thylakoid membranes are the site of light-dependent reactions.
Structure of enzymes:
Globular proteins with active site.
Has charged R groups on the outside that are hydrophilic.
How
GALP formed can be used to synthesise the cellulose in plant cell walls:
GALP converts to glucose, which is beta glucose.
Glycosidic bonds forms between carbon 1 and carbon 4 by condensation.
This forms straight chains of glucose.
Attenuated pathogens are put into the person, which stimulates an immune
response.
T helper cell activates e.g. macrophages become APCs as they engulf antigen
by endocytosis.
B cells activated as B cells become APCs and cytokines from T helper cells
stimulates.
T killer cells activate as they attack infected cells with APC and are stimulated
by cytokines.
Memory cells produce.
Why activity of bacteria e.g. TB and inhibition of T cells can lead to death:
Further lung damage and severe breathing problems e.g. cannot obtain enough
oxygen.
Mycobacterium gets into blood/lump leading to organ failure that leads to death.
Reduced immune response due to loss of T cells.
So no T helper cells that produce cytokines, no T killer cells so infected cells
wont be destroyed and no B cells so no antibodies produced.
Thus opportunistic infections can arise and cause death.
Why viruses cant infect cells if they land on unbroken skin:
Skin is a barrier made out of keratin.
There are also no receptors for the virus.
Why a common cold virus cannot infect cells if they enter blood through a
cut in the skin:
The virus only attached to specific receptors that arent present on blood cells.
Why
How
Species:
Organism that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Characteristic features of antibodies:
Y shape of 4 peptide chains with disulphide bridges between peptides.
Produced by plasma cells.
Is a glycoprotein.
How scientists can develop a means of producing active immunity to HIV
infection:
Artificial active immunity through vaccination containing synthetic antigen.
Humoral immune response to synthetic antigen.
Process of producing effector B cells e.g. clonal expansion of B cells through
cytokines released by T helper cells.
Why data about HIV infections are often estimates:
HIV infection doesnt always produce symptoms.
Test is needed to detect HIV and only those suspect of having it would have a
test.
Chemical reaction involved in digestion of cellulose by enzymes:
Hydrolysis.
Likely product of digestion of cellulose by bacteria:
Glucose.
What would happen if number of animals in a clear area in forests
decreased:
Taller growing plants could develop in the clear areas.
Loss of clear zones.
Different animals appear.
How
*DNA profiling has several stages and *artefacts/contamination can arise at any stage.
Furthermore as *only a few sequences/a small portion of DNA is analysed it is
*possible to get two identical profiles from unrelated individuals or for *identical
twins/closely-related individuals to show the same profile. Thus the minimum amount
to be analysed is 10STRs
Decomposition and forensics
The first stage in the decomposition of a cow pat is known as putrefaction.
Explain how carbon dioxide and ammonia are formed during this stage of
decomposition. (4)
*Microorganisms/microbes/bacteria/fungi are decomposers that *convert organic
compounds to carbon dioxide and *nitrogen compounds/proteins/amino acids/urea to
ammonia. *Aerobic/ anaerobic respiration *of the microorganisms/bacteria/fungi is the
process whereby this occurs.
Suggest why the time taken for a cow pat to decompose changes at
different times of the year. (3)
*Because in the warmer times of the year the process will be faster as more heat
energy is available and so kinetic energy is available for enzyme reactions/ to speed
up the metabolism but less is available in the winter months (temperature effect).
*There will also need to be sufficient water availability for the microorganisms to
survive (*e.g. If frozen it cannot be accessed) however *too much water can lead to
waterlogging which reduces oxygen availability and thus the amount of energy
produced for decomposition.
There may also be *more insects/decomposers in summer. The *rate at which the
microorganisms grow will also be a factor as it depends on how much food is available
and how long they will be there to decompose the pat.
Suggest how woodlice are involved in the recycling of carbon. (3)
*The carbon/organic compounds in plant material are broken down in *digestion to
provide respiratory substrates, *carbon dioxide is then released from them in
respiration. *This carbon dioxide is available for photosynthesis. The carbon consumed
may also become a part of the woodlices biomass until it is eaten or dies and
decomposes to release it.
Describe the role of microorganisms in the recycling of the carbon from
compounds in a dead animal. (3)
Decomposition/putrefaction occurs by microorganisms, they may digest the carbon in
the animal and then release the carbon into the atmosphere by *respiration where the
*carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis. *Methane is released in anaerobic
conditions and is *available as fuel.
Suggest three factors that could influence the rate at which a body cools
after death. (3)
*(Body) mass/ BMI / weight; *(subcutaneous) fat; *surface area; *ambient
temperature, *immersion in water; *age (of person at death); *skin colour; *thickness
of hair; *gender; *clothing; *blood loss; *humidity; *air movement; *{core / body}
temperature at time of death.
Suggest two environmental factors that influence the rate of progress of
rigor mortis in a muscle immediately after death. (2)
*Physical damage; *immersion in water; *(external) temperature; *burning;
*electrocution; *clothing; *wind/air movements; *(Presence of drugs in the body: bio)
D = antigens / (glyco)proteins ;
E = B {lymphocytes / cells} / plasma cells ;
F = antibodies / immunoglobulins ;
G = macrophage / phagocyte / eq ;
H = enzymes / lysozyme ;
Explain why the processes shown in the
flow diagram will only happen in
response to some types of bacteria. (3)
Because the protein nature of
antigens/antibodies is different, the
*antigens are specific to each bacteria strain and the *antibodies need to be
complementary/specific to the antigen so that binding can take place. *Some bacteria
will have different/changed antigens to another, they may also have different
*slime/mucus capsules or be *inside body cells, this changes the effectiveness of the
antibodies. This is also a *primary infection meaning some antibodies are already
present from passive immunity or breast feeding.
Describe how the production and action of interferon differs from the
production and action of lysozyme. (3)
*Interferon is involved in viral infections, whereas lysozyme affects bacteria only.
*Interferon is produced only by infected cells, but lysozyme is present in all secretions
(i.e. saliva/phagocytes/neutrophils/macrophages. They have different roles, *interferon
inhibits replication of viruses and lysozyme kills/ destroys bacteria.
Suggest why the protein structure of lysozyme is important to the way in
which it acts against pathogens. (4)
*lysozyme is an enzyme and so it *has an active site with a specific shape for binding
with our cell membranes. *The lysozyme acts on the cell wall *of bacteria so that cell
lysis occurs.
Explain why an insect bite, which breaks the surface of the skin, may lead to
inflammation around the injury. (3)
Because *histamine is released as a result of damaged tissue/cells, *it is released from
mast cells/platelets. *Histamine causes the arterioles to dilate (vasodilation), which
increases blood flow and makes the capillaries more permeable allowing phagocytes
to reach the site more easily. *Inflammation involves
oedema/swelling/redness/heat/pain at the site of injury.
In order to reduce inflammation, a cream containing antihistamines might
be applied to the skin, around an insect bite. Suggest why applying this
cream might be better than taking tablets containing antihistamines. (3)
Because inflammation is *only a local reaction produced/that histamines produced
around the bite area and so *cream that has been applied to actual site of production
of histamine *will be more effective and have more rapid/ immediate relief as it will
create a *higher concentration of antihistamine at the site. *The antihistamines will
not be digested (by enzymes)/destroyed (by acid or enzymes) if they are applied in a
cream and not tablet. The *tablets may lower the immune response generally/lead to
unpleasant side-effects.
Specific Immune Response
Natural
passive
Artificial
passive
Natural active
Artificial active
When MRSA enters the blood it can
stimulate the production of several
different clones of plasma cells. These produce a variety of antibodies
(polyclonal antibodies). Suggest an explanation for this. (4)
Because the *bacterium is made of many different polymers/chemicals *which can act
as different antigens, *individual B-lymphocytes will recognise specific
antigens/antibodies are specific and so only certain *B-lymphocytes are activated by
T-lymphocytes. These cells of *B-lymphocytes will then divide by mitosis *to form
genetically identical plasma cells that secrete specific antibodies.
so that the antibiotic is no longer effective. *Some infections cannot be treated with
antibiotics (ie viral infections)
Describe how you could investigate the effect of different antibiotics on
bacteria. (4)
*Bacteria could be distributed evenly by lawn spreading, *multidisks or wells in the
agar may then be placed at known positions to see the effectiveness of the antibiotic.
The *same concentration of antibiotics must be used and the petri dish must be set
using a sterile/aseptic technique/conditions. The dish must then be kept *incubated at
a suitable temperature (below 30C to prevent the growth of pathogens) and *the lid
of the petri dish not all the way fastened to prevent the growth of anaerobic bacteria.
You can measure the effectiveness by measuring the clear area/inhibition zone around
the antibiotic area. The investigation should be *repeated with both the same
conditions and bacteria and *different bacteria to asses overall effectiveness.
Suggest why medications, other than antibiotics, are needed to treat the
most severe cases of BRD (viral infection). (2)
Because the infection *involves both viruses (and bacteria via opportunistic
infections), and (usually) antibiotics are only effective against bacteria/do not affect
viruses. Thus *other medication will be needed to deal with viruses.
Suggest why it might be advisable to change the antibiotic being used, in
the treatment of (cattle), once a pathogen has been identified. (3)
Because the specified *antibiotic used is the most effective against the now known
bacterium. *None of the antibiotics are 100% effective/some bacteria may survive or
*be resistant or a *resistant strain may develop/be prevented by changing the
antibiotic.
Suggest how the constitution of blood may change if an ill person is treated
with antibiotic drugs. (2)
There will be *fewer lymphocytes as *the lymphocytes are no longer needed as the
*antibiotics have killed/destroyed the bacteria.
Or:
There are *more lymphocytes as there has been a *clonal expansion of lymphocytes
because the *antibiotics have not killed all the bacteria yet.
Suggest how the constitution of blood may change if an ill person is given a
placebo. (2)
*A placebo has no effect on the bacteria *so there will be more bacteria, and *thus
more lymphocytes due to *clonal expansion.
Vaccinations and prevention.
Suggest how scientists may be able to develop a means of producing active
immunity to HIV infection using synthetic HIV antigens. (5)
*This will be a method of *artificial (active) immunity, perhaps by using a
*vaccine/vaccination *containing the synthetic molecule/(synthetic) antigen/
(synthetic) glycoprotein.
*A specific/humoral immune response to the synthetic antigen will be stimulated, i.e.
*Effector B cells will be produced by clonal expansion of B cells, involving cytokines or
T helper cells will activate B cells. These will then *produce B memory cells that will
cause (2G12) antibodies to be produced faster/in greater concentration on reinfection
(secondary immune response).
State two ways in which the skin flora can help to protect a person from
infection by pathogenic bacteria. (2)
*They provide interspecific competition for nutrients and *for space. They also
*secrete chemicals/substances/lysozyme OR affects pH so the pathogenic bacteria
cannot survive there. They also *stimulate the (skin) immune system.
Suggest why the rate of MRSA infection in different hospitals differs. (3)
*One hospital may have stricter hygiene practices such as strict *hand washing
regimes for doctors/nurses/medical staff/visitors *particularly when dealing with open
wounds. *The nurses may also have to wear suitable clothing such as no ties or long
sleeves or have *antiseptic (solutions) readily available such as *gels, pastes, alcohol
rubs. Patients may also be *isolated if they are a suspected cases of MRSA or
screening of admissions to ensure they are clean. Better hospitals may also monitors
the use of antibiotics or have *fewer patients/visitors passing in and out.
In a study in a London hospital, it was found that pillows contaminated with
bacteria could spread infections between patients. Suggest how this
hospital could improve the prevention and control of the spread of
infections. (3)
*Hospitals will have to change a code of practice/protocol/policy/standards currently
present for dealing with hospital acquired infections. They may introduce *clothing
rules for hospital workers such as no long sleeves or jewellery (reduces places
pathogens can hide); they may also *improve laundry services of bed linen e.g.
increased washing frequency/higher washing temperature. They may also *use special
pillow cases/treat the pillow cases e.g. microfilters, treated with antibacterials,
sterilisation, disposable pillow cases or they could *use special procedures when
carrying pillow cases/bed linen to the laundry e.g. sealed plastic bags to prevent it
spreading to the workers. *Screening of patients/isolation of infected patients could
help as the
infected can be isolated to
reduce the
spread of infection. *Hand
washing
regimes before and after
seeing
patients could also reduce the
spread.
HIV
Name two types of cell that HIV enters in the immune system.
*T helper/CD4 positive cell/lymphocytes; *phagocytic cells e.g. macrophages,
dendritic cell
State how the genetic material in HIV differs from the genetic material in
the Mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes TB. (2)
*RNA is found in HIV/ virus and DNA in the bacterium/TB, *the nucleic acid in the
bacterium is circular whereas it is linear in HIV. *There are also plasmids in bacterium
and no plasmids in HIV.
One of the ways in which HIV may enter the blood is through the use of
infected needles. Explain why unbroken skin is an effective barrier against
HIV infection. (2)
*Keratin/protein in skin surface/epidermis *forms a physical/impenetrable barrier to
HIV.
Suggest one effect that HIV causing T killer cells to destroy T helper cells
will have on one other component of the infected persons blood. (1)
*B cells/lymphocytes not activated resulting in fewer antibodies and *T killer cells
increasing due to demand for use.
Describe the change in numbers of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6
weeks after infection with HIV. (2) *Overall numbers will decrease. *There will be
a small decrease in the first week/between weeks 4-6; *however the decrease is
greatest between weeks 1-3
Explain the change in numbers of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6
weeks after infection with HIV. (5)
*The glycoprotein/gp120 on the virus *binds with receptors/CD4 *on (surface)
membrane of lymphocytes, the *viral RNA then enters the lymphocyte. Once inside
the *viral RNA is used to produce viral DNA (in the lymphocyte) *by action of reverse
transcriptase *allowing the formation of new viruses. The *lymphocyte is then
destroyed when new viruses bud out of/leave the cell. The *T killer cells then destroy
the infected T helper cells/lymphocytes.
How is HIV able to enter the immune systems cells? (3)
*First, the HIV binds to (CD4) receptors on cell surface membrane (CD4 receptors are
found on the lymphocytes) *using the gp120/glycoproteins on the virus surface. *The
virus envelope then fuses with the hosts cell surface membrane allowing viral RNA to
enter the host cell. *Macrophages also have CD4 receptors and may be infected in
phagocytosis.
Describe the sequence of events following infection by HIV, which may lead
to the death of the patient. (6)
The HIVs *viral RNA is used in reverse transcription using the enzyme, *reverse
transcriptase, to *produce viral DNA using viral RNA as a copy. *The viral DNA is then
incorporated into the host cells DNA/genome by the use of the enzyme *integrase.
The hosts DNA can now be used in the *production of more viruses/viral RNA and
proteins, these virus molecules may then bud out of the cell to *infect further (T
helper) cells and destroy the recent host cell by *cell lysis. *THelper cells are needed
in the immune response to produce cytokines, activate B cells/ killer cells. *Meanwhile
there is destruction of infected (T helper) cells by T killer cells, which also contributes
to *lowering the immunity to other diseases.
*Death may be caused by e.g. opportunistic disease, pneumonia, TB, Kaposis
sarcoma, cancer, dementia, extreme weight loss, meningitis, and toxoplasmosis.
Suggest why effective treatment of HIV in human populations will require
the continual development of a mixture of many new drugs. (4)
Because *HIV has many varieties of strains/antigens/protein coats, *some of these
strains are/will become resistant to a specific/particular drug and so *would survive if
only one/the same drug was used. *A mixture of drugs has more chance of getting rid
of all/ more strains.
*A concoction of drugs are used together because viruses have a rapid rate of
mutation and a *rapid rate of multiplication.
Suggest why data about HIV infections are often estimates. (2)
*Because HIV infection does not always produce symptoms (*especially in the latency
period) or are *common of other diseases and so can be confused. In some cases a
*test is needed to detect the symptomless HIV. *Only people who suspect they may
have contracted HIV would have a test, *some people may not want to be
tested/impossible to test everyone for statistics, especially as *new cases are
arising/HIV patients are dying all the time or as *new strains of the virus are arising.
TB
State one characteristic symptom of TB other than coughing
Tubercules; bloody sputum; (general)body tissue wastage
Mycobacterium tuberculosis ..causes TB
Why is ingesting food containing TB unlikely to lead to its development? (2)
Because the *bacteria is killed in the stomach/mouth/saliva/gastric juice *by
HCL/lysozymes
Describe how the organisms that cause TB are taken up by macrophages. (3)
First the *bacterium is recognised as non-self by the immune system, *they are
labelled as such by B lymphocytes/cells. They are taken up into macrophages by
*phagocytosis, the *process whereby phagocytes (macrophages or neutrophils) engulf
the foreign matter and *enclose it within a vacuole where it is destroyed by enzymes
contained in the lysosome.
Bacteria and Viruses
Suggest two reasons why bacteria that cause infection are not visible in a
photograph. (2)
Because the *bacteria are too small and magnification/resolution is too limited; the
bacteria may *not be stained or have been removed/destroyed e.g. by phagocytosis;
*the bacteria are not present in the blood shown e.g. only a small region is shown and
they may only be present at the site of the infection.
Photosynthesis:
Suggest reasons why 95% of the light hitting the surface of a leaf is not
used by the chloroplasts. (2)*Reflection; *incorrect wavelength/colour/ frequency;
*light doesnt hit the chloroplast/ chlorophyll, it is transmitted; *light being in excess
e.g. at max. photosynthesis so no more light can be used.
The light dependent reactions
The products of the light-dependent reactions that are used in the
light-independent reactions are reduced NADP and.... ATP Oxygen is
produced when water molecules are split in the process of photolysis
When light is absorbed by chlorophyll, it excites electrons
Describe the structures in a chloroplast that are involved in the LD reactions
(3)
The LD reactions involve the *thylakoids that are arranged into stacks of granum. *The
grana are connected by lamellae. The *thylakoid membrane contains electron carriers,
proteins and *photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll which are *arranged into
photosystems/quantasomes; the membrane also has *ATPase/ ATPase channels.
Explain how the energy from light is made available in ATP molecules for the
synthesis of organic materials. (6)
*The light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoids *in the granum in *accessory
pigments such as chlorophyll. The process begins when *light energy raises the
energy level of two electrons so that they are excited, the electrons are then *released
from the chlorophyll/ photosystem. They then travel down the *electron carrier chain,
travelling to each carrier molecule through a series of *oxidation and reduction (redox)
reactions, releasing energy/ *the electrons energy level falls. The energy released is
used to *synthesise ATP from ADP and an organic phosphate ion *(phosphorylation);
the *enzyme synthase/ synthetase is needed to make the ATP. *Photolysis of water
produces 2 electrons which are used to replace those lost from the chlorophyll.
Explain how oxygen is produced during the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis. (2) Using *energy from light the *photolysis *of water occurs that
produces/releases oxygen
Because *there is not enough data to *confirm its reliability (*may be place specific).
The fact that there are *great fluctuations in most climate change data suggest that
there is no real trend (as scattered) and thus *poor representation of raw data. *A
scatter of results may show poor reliability.
In addition the method of* estimating temperature from growth rings of trees is
questionable as *other environmental changes affecting the trees are not taken into
account.
Scientists have estimated that.. will reduce CO2 production. Suggest
why the may be supported by organisations that are concerned about
global warming. (5)
*The idea will result in less carbon dioxide (or methane), *which are both greenhouse
gases/ cause the greenhouse effect *as they absorb/ trap heat/ infrared/ longer
wavelengths (of radiation) *reflected from the Earth. *A reduction in these gases
(CO2) will lead to a reduced greenhouse effect, *this means the Earths surface
temperature is less likely to rise and that there is a *reduced possibility of climate
change which can have effects such as the ice caps melting or crop failure.
(If relevant) *methane has a greater greenhouse effect than carbon dioxide.
Suggest why some scientists do not agree that a reduction in the use of
fossil fuels will prevent further global warming. (6)
*It is clear that carbon dioxide is produced by using fossil fuels, however there is *no
(direct) evidence that increased carbon dioxide concentrations leads to global
warming. *Carbon dioxide is released from other processes such as respiration and
the *removal of carbon sinks increases the concentration too, so reducing fossil fuels
alone will not help. *Other greenhouse gases also have a contribution, such as CFCs,
water vapour and methane that come from *other sources such as ruminant animals,
paddy fields, melting ice, clearance of peat land. *Natural cycles/events/ phenomena
may also be involved (in global warming) e.g. the suns solar cycle or volcanoes.
*Evidence for this comes from the past and *this is not an indicator of future events/
limitations of climatic models. *Scientists may also be biased in their research
depending on what country/ company employs them and their own selfinterest/promotion. *We do not yet have an alternative source of energy that has no
great problems associated with it (i.e. biofuels).
Explain how temperature has been maintained by the presence of carbon
dioxide and methane in the upper atmosphere. (3)
*Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and/or methane *absorb/trap
heat/infrared/long wave radiation *which is reflected/ (re)radiated from the Earths
surface. *These gases prevent heat/infrared/long wave radiation from escaping. *Thus
resulting in temperatures being maintained higher than they would otherwise be.
Suggest why temperatures below 0 C or above 40 C would be unsuitable
for most organisms. (2)
*At 0C metabolism/ named example stops/ is slow as *enzymes are inactive and cells
are disrupted, this may be *because of water freezing or lower kinetic energy of
molecules in cells. *Above 40C enzymes denature/ change their 3D shape, this
means that *fewer enzyme-substrate complexes are possible/ the active site has
changed/ theres a change in bonding.
Suggest how global warming may affect the distribution of species (3)
*Global warming will increase the temperature (especially at the latitudes) *so that
the temperature may become too high for any of the current species. *This new
molecules. Between each chain there are *intermolecular hydrogen bonds to hold the
structure together.
Suggest two advantages of growing crops of wheat in glasshouses with
artificial lighting rather than growing them in open fields. (2)
Because
*crops can be grown out of season/all year round; *plants photosynthesise 24 hours a
day; *the crops will receive less physical damage from weather/animals *as pest
control is easier. *You can also control other factors such as CO2, temperature,
humidity and water supply
Cell division
What is the correct sequence of stages in mitosis? Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, Telophase
Transcription takes place in the nucleus
DNA and stuff
Triplet of bases that could not be found in mRNA is.Adenine Thymine
Guanine (etc)
The sequence of triplets on a section of DNA used to form a strand of premRNA is a. cistron
Explain why a molecule of DNA can be described as a double-stranded
polynucleotide. (3)
*It is double-stranded because it is made of two strands *joined together by hydrogen
bonds between (the nucleotides) bases. *It is a polynucleotide as it is made of many
nucleotides * linked together by phosphodiester bonds.
Describe how the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule would be used to
form the primary structure of a protein. (5)
*A sequence of bases that form the genetic code determines the amino acid
sequence, *one triplet of bases codes for an amino acid. *The DNA acts as a template
when *transcription occurs (i.e. DNA unzips, mRNA synthesised); *the mRNA
synthesised then moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where *translation occurs
(expand with ribosomes, codon-anticodon interaction). *tRNA will carry an amino acid
and *peptide bonds form between the amino acids on different tRNA molecules; this is
the *sequence/ order of amino acids is the primary structure of a protein.
How does mRNA form during transcription in the nucleus? (3)
First the *DNA strands unzip, *one side of the DNA strand is the template strand that
is used to from a mRNA strand *from free nucleotides. The nucleotides join by
*complementary base pairing, *joined together by hydrogen bonds. *RNApolymerase/ DNA Helicase are the enzymes involved in these reactions.
Describe how free nucleotides are bonded together in the correct sequence
in pre-mRNA. (3) *The sequence of bases / nucleotides on DNA determines
sequence on (pre-)mRNA as the nucleotides can only with their *complementary base
pair e.g. AU / CG / GC / TA. *The bonds between the nucleotides form in condensation
reactions and produce *phosphodiester bonds. *RNA-Polymerase is the enzyme that
catalyses this reaction.
Explain the function of the codons at each end of a strand of mRNA, during
the process of translation. (2)
*The codons are either Start/ Stop codons; *start codons are needed to begin
polypeptide synthesis and the Stop /Nonsense is needed to end polypeptide synthesis.
Suggest why the final triplet of nucleotides, on the strand of mRNA involved
in the synthesis of this sequence of amino acids, did not correspond with
any anticodon on tRNA. (2)
As it is the *stop codon that is *used to end the sequencing/ further attachment of
tRNA; *signalling the release of the polypeptide/ ribosome.
Suggest why a variety of different protein structures could be formed from
the polypeptides synthesised using the mRNA molecules from a single gene.
(3)
Different protein structures could be formed as there are *variations of exons/ mRNA;
this means that each mRNA strand will have a *different primary structure due to a
different sequence of amino acids. *The secondary and tertiary structure of proteins
will depend on the primary structure/ sequence *due to different bonds *such as
Hydrogen/ Ionic/ Disulphide bonds. Each protein will be developed into *different 3D
shapes as a result.
How does the translation of mRNA into the sequence of amino acids in a
ribosome occur? (3)
First *a specific amino acid becomes attached to tRNA *by the amino acid codon
binding to the tRNAs anticodon *e.g. tRNA with alanine has CGA anticodon which
binds to GCU on mRNA; only two tRNA molecules can be held on a ribosome at any
one time. The tRNA and the amino acid bond by the formation of *peptide bonds using
the enzyme *peptidyl transferase. *Only two tRNA and amino acids can be held in a
ribosome at any one time.
Name and describe the structures where the polypeptide chain of an
enzyme would be synthesised. (2)
*On the ribosomes/poly(ribo)some *which is made of rRNA/ribosomal RNA. OR *on the
rRNA which is *a ribosome attached to a membrane.
State two differences between fibrous proteins, such as actin and myosin,
and globular proteins, such as enzymes.
Description
DNA only
mRNA only
Both DNA and
mRNA
Polymer formed from
a single strand of
nucleotides
Pentose present in
the
nucleotides
Adenine, cytosine,
guanine and thymine
present
Nucleotides linked by
phosphodiester
bonds
*Fibrous long/linear/straight chains and *Globular compact/spherical; *Globular are
folded and fibrous are not; *Globular are soluble and fibrous are not; Fibrous are
involved in structural functions (keratine) and globular are not; *Globular are involved
in catalysis/metabolism (enzymes) and fibrous are not.
Conservation
Explain how the work of zoos could be important to the survival of
endangered species. (2)
Zoos may run *captive-breeding programmes *which conserve alleles/genes/ the gene
pool of a species and may run *reintroduction programmes/ re-introduce species into
suitable habitats in the environment.
Suggest why it is important to conserve rare and endangered plants. (2
*This will conserve genetic diversity/genetic variation/biodiversity. It may also
*prevent extinction. Conserving the plants may be good as they may be *useful as
medicines/eq or they may be *depended on by animals for food or as a habitat, there
may also be aesthetic reasons.
Suggest why many scientists consider that the use of protected reserves is
likely to be more successful for the conservation of some animals than
captive breeding programmes in zoos. (3)
Reserves will cause*less stress/trauma/discomfort/depressed for the animals as
*reserves provide a larger area for animals that require this. Animals are *more likely
to breed in their natural environment and *larger numbers available will result in a
wider gene pool. *There are problems associated with releasing animals back into the
wild and these are avoided with reserves (I.e. habituation). *Disease is less likely to
wipe out the whole population. *reserves allow natural interspecific
relationships/communities to exist and *natural family/social structure/behaviour,* i.e.
because their natural diet/food is available.
Methodology
Using a line of quadrats to investigate the distribution of organisms is a
transect
Quadrats may be divided up into smaller sections to... make it easier to
estimate/measure /count the organisms & so the results are more precise
Explain the meaning of All other abiotic factors were controlled.(2)
*Abiotic factors are non-living/non-biological/do not involve
organisms.* If all other factors are controlled they are kept constant/the same.
Explain how a quadrat would be used to obtain the mean density of the two
species in different areas. (3)
*You will need to take several/more than 2 using *random quadrat positions, *these
can be generated by a random number generator on your calculator (or other suitable
method).
*You would then count the number of individuals in each quadrat and then *calculate
the mean density of the species using the total number of each species divided by the
total area sampled (*you need to know the area of the quadrat to do this).
Suggest how results could be displayed in order to compare the effect of
temperature on the growth of seedlings of two species. (3)
You could use a *graph such as a *line graph with the *X&Y axes correctly drawn (i.e.
temp at bottom/Y and growth rate/time at X). *You would use the same scale for the
axes of both plants and would *plot each temperature/ species of plant separately.
Suggest why seeds may be germinated at 18 C before being placed in the
experimental conditions. (2)
*This was done to control variables. *18C may be the optimum/ suitable temperature
for germination. * This technique makes sure that all the seeds are viable OR can
germinate *and so increasing the validity of the investigation.
Suggest why taking photographs is a suitable method to count
invertebrates. (2)
*As they move about a lot *they are difficult to count *some might be counted more
than once/missed out.
Why would it be difficult to determine which abiotic factor is influencing the
behaviour and distribution of a species? (3)
*Because for results to be (scientifically) valid *only one factor can be varied, *other
factors need to be kept constant. *There will be many biotic factors in a habitat and
these are difficult to control. *It will be difficult to set test factor values as a result.
Suggest how the scientists can have their results accepted by other
scientists. (2)
*Work needs to appear in a (Scientific) journal or being presented at a
conference.*Peer review of work by other scientists to *consider the studys validity or
reliability.
The temperatures used in this investigation were 0C, 10C, 20C, 30C,
40C and 50C.
Suggest what the results of the investigation show about the minimum
temperature required for photosynthesis in Elodea. Give a reason for your
answer. (2)
*The minimum temperature is between 0oC and 10oC /above 0oC but less than 10oC,
*no photosynthesis occurs at 0oC as *water freezes at 0oC.
*We know that the minimum temperature is somewhere between 0 oC and 10 oC but
there are no measurements between these temperatures.
Enzymes control the rate of photosynthesis in Elodea.
Discuss how far the results of this investigation support her conclusion. (4)
Her conclusion is supported to some extent as *the shape of graph is typical of an
enzyme-temperature graph, i.e. *the rate increases (up to 30 oC) *because more
enzyme-substrate complexes/collisions between enzymes and substrates and *the
rate decreases (after 30oC) due to enzyme denaturation. However it isnt supported
as *other factors could be affecting photosynthesis (e.g. CO2 Concentration). *The
gas/oxygen/carbon dioxide solubility also changes with temperature. *The graph
shows evidence of correlation and not causation.
Describe
and suggest
explanations for the effects of these two abiotic factors on the distribution
of (A. elegantissima) on this shore. (3)
*There is no indication that temperature has an effect e.g. little variation, only 2oC so
*distribution must be influenced by height above the low water mark *as the organism
is more likely to dry out at higher levels. There would also be *a difference in food
availability e.g. less at higher levels, more at lower levels as it is *more likely to be
eaten at lower levels.
Suggest how this data could be analysed to assess the relationship
between these two abiotic factors and the distribution of (A. elegantissima
on this shore). (2)
You could *plot graph(s) of numbers of anemones against height and
temperature/abiotic factors and then look for a *correlation.
You could also *use a statistical analysis/test *such as the Spearmans Rank
Correlation Coefficient.
1. group A = 720 and group B = 662/662.4 2. units correct = {dm3 day-1 / dm3
per day};
Suggest two reasons why a suspension of cells of a unicellular alga, in a
solution, is more suitable for investigating CO2 production in
photosynthesis than using leaves. (2)
Because *samples of cells can be taken easily and there will be *no damage to
plant/leaf /other cells during sampling; *The carbon dioxide level (in water) can be
adjusted/maintained/changed easily; *As alga is single celled RuBP/GP/ products
cannot pass into other cells/rest of plant, the alga will also on have *one kind of cell
and thats the one that photosynthesises; You can *control the mass/number/surface
area of cells to ensure that isnt another influencing factor; *genetically-similar cells
will also be used which will reduce variation and so other factors.
Suggest why it would be advisable to illuminate the cells at a high light
intensity during a photosynthesis and C02 experiment. (3)
*As light is needed for the light-dependent reaction keeping
it at a high intensity means *it will not be a limiting factor. *Thus C02 concentration is
the only limiting factor. *ATP/ rNADP are produced during the light dependent
reactions, *ATP/ rNADP/ light-dependent products are required for the lightindependent reactions/ Calvin cycle/ carbon-fixation.
Both *RuBP and GP levels remain constant until the carbon dioxide is lowered; *these
are used in the Calvin cycle. *At lower carbon dioxide levels the RuBP increases and
drops and then stays constant, it *rises at 250seconds because it is being regenerated
and it falls at 310seconds as being used to fixate carbon dioxide into GP. *The RuBP
level remains constant once a (new) equilibrium is reached.
*At lower carbon dioxide levels the GP drops and then stays constant, *it drops at 250
seconds because less carbon dioxide is available to convert into GP/less carbon
fixation occurs. *It levels out at a lower level as carbon dioxide is still available but at
lower level. *credit manipulation of figures (i.e. GP drops by 1au)
Compare the changes in mean environmental temperature between the premonsoon and the post-monsoon periods from 1600 to 2000. (3)
*There is no/little change in pre-monsoon temperature but post-monsoon has risen
overall, although they *both fluctuate the *fluctuations match each other; the
fluctuations are within/less than 1oC. *The range of (mean) temperatures is greater
OR shows greater fluctuations, in post-monsoon period. *Reference to a particular
change in both e.g. both decreased between 1800 to 1850. *Credit correct
manipulation of figures to compare with units.
Calculate the overall percentage increase in the mean NPP from January to
May. (3)
*Correct readings from graph indicated e.g. (11 and 1)
*Correct subtraction e.g. (11-1 / 10)
*Correct division (by 1) x 100/1 to give 1000%
Using
information
from the graphs, describe and explain the relative effects of temperature
and hours of sunlight on NPP in this grassland. (4)
*Between January and April NPP increases as light increases, there is a *correlation
between NPP and light; thus an *increase in light increases the rate of
photosynthesis/ATP and so the energy available for Calvin Cycle, this is because
*(credit correct details of photosynthesis) e.g. light results in excitation of electrons.
*The changes in NPP occur after the changes in light/peak light is April and peak NPP
is in May.
But there is *no real correlation between temperature and NPP/reference to
temperature fluctuating despite *temperature affecting how quickly enzymes work,
for example *NPP falls from May but the temperature remains high. *Light and
temperature are limiting factors.
*A. Because
*in Central
Europe
Suggest why the students were not able to draw valid conclusions about the
effect of saturation of the soil by water on the distribution of the five plant
species. (3)
*Because saturation was not measured/depth of water does not give saturation data,
there are *no data on other factors/variables that *may be affecting distribution/not
controlled/confounding *i.e.Temperature. *Only one set of data is taken.
Mint
Common
Duckweed
Soft Rush
Calculate the percentage of the mean GPP that remains as NPP within plants
on Earth.
The mean GPP for plants on Earth is 24.4 106 J m2 year1.
The plants use 3.7 106 J m2 year1 of this energy in metabolic processes
*24.43.7=20.7 *10024.4=4.09
Temperature