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TableofContents
Title
Page
ResearchMethods
TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning
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TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion
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TheoriesofHumanDevelopment
a. FreudsPsychosexualTheory
b. EriksonsPsychosocialStageofDevelopment
c. PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment
d. KohlbergsMoralStagesofDevelopment
ResearchMethodsinPsychology
Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic
settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas ofabnormal psychology,
biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental
psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. All branches of
psychology can have a research component to them. Research psychology is
contrastedwithappliedpsychology.
Research in psychology is conducted in broadaccordwith the standardsof the
scientific method, encompassing both qualitativeethological andquantitativestatistical
modalities to generate and evaluate explanatory hypotheses with regard to
psychological phenomena. Where research ethics and the state of development in a
given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by experimental
protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other
fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Qualitative
psychological research utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including
action research, ethnography, exploratory statistics, structured interviews, and
participant observation, to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by
classical experimentation.Research inhumanistic psychologyismoretypicallypursued
byethnographic,historical,andhistoriographicmethods.
The testing of different aspects of psychological function is asignificant area of
contemporarypsychology. Psychometric and statisticalmethodspredominate,including
variouswellknownstandardized tests as wellas thosecreated adhocas thesituation
orexperimentrequires.
Academic psychologists mayfocuspurely onresearchandpsychologicaltheory,
aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other
psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploysuchknowledgeforimmediate
and practical benefit.However, these approaches are not mutually exclusiveandmost
psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some
pointduring their career. Clinicalpsychology, among many ofthevarious disciplines of
Naturalisticobservation
is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social
Casestudy
aspecific reallifesituation orimaginedscenario,usedasatrainingtoolin
Surveys,Questionnaires,Interviews
List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to
Correlationalstudies
is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other, sothat when you
canseeone changing,youhaveanideaofhowtheotherwillchange.Thisoftenentails
theresearcherusingvariablesthattheycan'tcontrol.
The goal of correlational research is to find out whether one or more variables
can predict other variables. Correlational research allows us to find out what variables
may be related. However, the fact that two things are related or correlated does not
mean there is a causal relationship. It is important to make a distinction between
correlation and causation. Two things can be correlated without there being a causal
relationship.
Example:
Decker (1987) found that a supervisor's perceived sense of humor was
positivelycorrelatedwithpeople'sjobsatisfaction.
TheExperimentalMethod
Conducting psychology experiment can bealong, complicated, andintimidating
process. It can be confusing especially when one is not quite sure where to begin or
which steps to take. Like other sciences,psychologyutilizesthe
scientific methodand
bases conclusions upon empirical evidence. When conducting an experiment, it is
importanttofollowthefivebasicstepsofthescientificmethod:
1. Askaquestionthatcanbetested
2. Designastudyandcollectdata
3. Analyzeresultsandreachconclusions
4. Sharetheresultswiththescientificcommunity
5. Replicatetheresults
Thesefivestepsserveasageneraloutlineoftheentireprocess.
Step1:FindaResearchProblemorQuestion
Picking a research problem can be oneof the most challenging steps.After all,
there are so many different topics you might choose to investigate. Consider some of
thefollowing:
Investigate a commonly held belief. Folk psychology is a good source of
unanswered questions that can serve as the basis for psychological research. For
example, many people believe that staying up all night to cram for a big exam can
actually hurttestperformance.Astudy canbe conducted inwhichtocomparethetest
scores of students who stayed up all night studying, versus the scores ofstudentswho
gotafullnight'ssleeppriortotheexam.
Step5:ChooseanExperimentalDesign
After conducting background research and finalizing the hypothesis, the next
step is to develop an experimentaldesign. There are threebasictypes of designsthat
youmightbeutilize.Eachhasitsownstrengthsandweaknesses.
PreExperimentalDesigns: This typeofexperimentaldesigndoesnotincludea
control group. A single group of participants is studied, and there is no
comparison between a treatment group and a control group. Examples of
preexperimental designs include
case studies (one group is given a treatment
and the results are measured) and pretest or posttest studies (one group is
tested,givenatreatmentandthenretested).
QuasiExperimental Designs:
This type ofexperimental design does includea
controlgroup,butthedesigndoesnotincluderandomization.
True Experimental Designs: A true experimental design include both of the
elementsthatthepreexperimentaldesigns andquasiexperimentaldesignslack
ontheirowncontrolgroupsandrandomassignmenttogroups.
Step6:StandardizeYourProcedures
In order to arrive at legitimate conclusions, it is essential to compare apples to
apples. Each participant in each group must receive the same treatment under the
same conditions. For example, in our hypothetical study on the effects of sleep
deprivation on driving performance, the driving test must be administered to each
participantin the sameway.The driving course must bethe same,theobstaclesfaced
mustbethesame,andthetimegivenmustbethesame.
Step7:ChooseYourParticipants
In addition to making sure that the testing conditionsarestandardized,itis also
essential to ensure that the pool of participants is the same. If the individuals in the
control group (those who are not sleep deprived) all happen to be amateur race car
drivers while theexperimental group (thosethat are sleepdeprived) areallpeoplewho
justrecentlyearnedtheirdriverslicenses,yourexperimentwilllackstandardization.
These statistical methods make inferences about how the results relate to the
population at large. Because in making inferences based upon a sample, it has tobe
assumedthattherewillbeacertainmarginoferror.
Step10:WriteupandSharetheResults
The final task in conducting a psychology experiment is to communicate the
results. By sharing the experiment with thescientific community, oneis contributingto
the knowledge base on that particular topic. One of the most common ways to share
research results is to publish the study in a peerreviewed professional journal. Other
methods include sharing results at conferences, in book chapters, or in academic
presentations.
In the case, it is likely that the researcher will have a formal writeup of the
experimentinthesameformatrequiredinaprofessionaljournalarticleor
labreport
:
TitlePage
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Tables
andFigures
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TheoriesofLearningandCausesofLearning
In psychology, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in, or
acquisition of, knowledge or behavior. The key term here is relatively, because
although we tend to hold on to what we learn, it can be changed a later date. For
example, your friend teaches you how to play tennis, but later you get a qualified
instructor who modifies and improves your technique. What we learn can also be
forgotten over time, especially if wedo notregularlyusetheskillsorknowledgethatwe
have acquired. For example, you may learn to drive a car, but if you dont drive for
several years, you will probably forget what you had previously learned andsowould
needtopracticeagain.
In addition tothis, inorderforus tolearn something,wefirstneedtoexperience
itatthelevelofsensationviaourfivesenses (i.e.touch,taste,hearing,sight andsmell).
Aswithout our senses,learningwouldbevirtuallyimpossible.Belowwelookatsomeof
themaintheoriesoflearningthataretaughtinpsychology:
1. Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning that has been
acquired through experience. One of the best known examples of classical
conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his
experimentsondogs.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained hisdogsto salivatewhentheyheard
abellring. In orderto dothis, hefirstshowedthem foodwhich naturallycaused
themtosalivate.
Later, Pavlov would ring a bell every time he brought the food out, until
eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without
giving them any food.In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed
how a reflex (i.e. salivation,anaturalbodilyresponse)couldbecomeconditioned
(modified) to an external stimulus(the bell)thereby creating aconditionedreflex
orresponse.
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ThecomponentsofClassicalConditioningare:
Theunconditionedstimulus
Theconditionedstimulus
Theunconditionedreflex
Theconditionedreflex
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UnconditionedReflex(salivation)
An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without
you having to think about it, such as your mouthsalivatingatthe smell offood.
Unconditioned Reflexhappens automatically and youdidnt havetolearnhowto
doit.
ConditionedReflex
A conditioned reflex is a reflex that you have learned to associate with
something. For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when
previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.
Conditioned Reflex be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus (i.e. a
previouslyneutralstimulus).
BehavioralPatternsofClassicalConditioning
The word conditioning is used to mean a type of learning that occurs
without you having to think about it, almost like an automatic type of learning.
Although later on, this learning may be reinforced by reflecting upon that
experience. For example, sometimes you will see a dog flinch when you raise
your hand. This flinching is a conditioned reflex, and can be seen in dogs who
havebeen mistreated bytheir owner.Thesamecanbefoundinwomenwhoare
beatenbytheirhusbands.Thislatterexampleshowsthatclassicalconditioningis
notsolelyconfinedtoanimals,asitcanjustaseasilyoccurinhumans.
The three main behavioral patterns that are associated with classical
conditioningare:
a. Extinction
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented a
number of times without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if we
ring a bell and cause a dog to salivate, then we have a conditioned
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stimulus. But if we keep ringing that bell withoutgiving thedog any food
(unconditioned stimulus), then eventually the dog will disassociate
(unlearn) the bell from the foodand so will no longersalivate. Therefore,
extinction has occurred because the bell no longerhas any effect on the
dog. This process of extinction is used by psychologists to help people
overcometheirfearsorphobias.
For example, if you have a strong fear of heights, then by
constantly exposing yourself to heights you will eventually unlearn your
fear via a process known as desensitization. This can be done through
immediate exposure, whereby you go to the top of a very tall building
immediately.Orby gradualexposure, whereyou graduallyworkyourway
upatall building floor by floor.Note: Extinction isdifferentfromforgetting,
becauseextinctioninvolvesunlearningsomething.
In brief: Extinction occurs whenwe unlearn something,or become
desensitized to it,and thestimulus no longercreates the effect it used to
cause.
b.StimulusGeneralization
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus thatis similar toa
conditioned stimulus creates the conditioned reflex. For example, if we
can make a dog salivate by ringingabell (conditionedstimulus), andwe
can make the same dog salivate by ringing a slightly different sounding
bell, then what wehave demonstrated isstimulus generalization.Inbrief:
Stimulus generalization occurs when something similar toourconditioned
stimuluscreatesthesameresponse(theconditionedreflex).
c.Discrimination
Continuing from theexample above,ifwewerethentouseanother
bell which produced a different sound but this time the dog did not
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allows the animal to tell the difference between a situation which isreinforcing
andone that isnot.In other words,thelight allowsyoutodeterminewhetheror
not you will get a reward (reinforcer). Some real life examples ofdiscriminative
stimuli include hearing a bell before lunch or seeing a traffic lightwhenyouare
driving. Inboth cases, a signal (bell or light) tellsyou what sortof reinforcement
youwillreceiveinthatsituation.
Putting this all together, you can now see that operant conditioning is a
modification (conditioning) of an action (operant behavior) which has
consequences (e.g. lever pressing releases food) through the use of positive
reinforcementornegativereinforcement.
3. Observational Learning occurs when a behavior is acquired by watching the
behavior ofsomeoneelse. Thissecond person isknownasamodelandeither
intentionally orunintentionally demonstrates abehavior toyou.Ifthe observeris
able to identify with this behavior and receive some sort of satisfaction from it,
then they are said to have received vicarious reinforcement (imagined
gratification). For example, if your favorite sports team wins a game, then you
receive an internal sense of satisfaction as a result of their victory. You have
received vicariousreinforcement,whichmaythenmotivateyoutoplaythatsport.
Vicariousreinforcementcan occurin virtually any circumstance inwhichyou,as
the observer, receive some sort of gratification from watching the behavior of
anotherperson(themodel).
Social Learning Theory is an expansion of observational learning, and
deals with how social groups can be affected by their environment. A good
example of social learning theory can be found amongst teenagers who follow
various celebrity role models. If the teen receives some sort of gratification
(vicarious reinforcement) from observing the behavior of their role model, then
they are likely to adopt a similar type of behavior. For example, a teen that
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to use its previous knowledge of the maze to quickly learn the escape route.
Basically, what this all means is thatyou learnthingsthroughexperience,even
thoughyoumaynotthinkthatyouarelearninganythingatthetime.
Later, if something reactivated what you had (latently) learned from that
experience,you willthenbeableto learnitvery quickly.Forexample,whenyou
are at school, oneof thebestwaystoimproveyour understandingofasubjectis
to research it before you are meant to learn it. So if you have a lecture next
week,bystudying forthatlecturenowyouwillbeabletounderstanditbetterand
faster once you actually take thatlecture. Your prior latent learning hasallowed
foranacceleratedfuturelearning.
This is hardly surprising if you look at things from the perspective of the
brain, as when you learn something, you form neural pathways in the brain
related to that activity. This means that the next time you do it, your existing
neuralpathwayswillbestrengthenedandrefinedtherebyallowingyoutoperform
better.
Latent learning may therefore be described as the creation of these
pathways, which provides a foundation for future learning. This is why it is
important to expose your mind to as much information as you can about a
subject, becauseeven though it may seemdifficult now, the nexttimeyoucome
acrossit,youwillfindthingstobealoteasier.
5. Insight Learning isan aha! moment, whensomethingsuddenly seemstoclick
into place and makesense. Agood exampleof this canbefoundwith research
doneby Wolfgang Kohler on an apecalled Sultan. Sultanwasputinacageand
given two sticks which could be clicked together to make a longertool.Slightly
outsidethereachof the sticks wasanorange.Sultanspentalotoftimetryingto
get the orange. First with his hands,and thenwith the sticks.However, he was
unable to reach theorange no matterwhat he did. Then one day Sultan clicked
the two sticks together, and was able to reach the orange. This insight that
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Sultan received, came as a result of his past attempts to get theorange and a
reorganization of those experiences. So whereas previously Sultan had two
seemingly uselesssticks,henowhadausefullongstick,somethingwhichhedid
not have the insight toseebefore. So insight learning isan insightintoourpast
experiences,fromwhich, wecan then use tosolveproblemswewerepreviously
unable to. This has most likely happened to you many times. For example,
someonemaybetryingtoexplainsomethingtoyou,butnomatterwhattheysay,
youjustdont seem toget it. Then, all of a sudden, it clicks andahayounow
seewhattheyweretryingtosay.
Resistancetoextinction
Since insight learning isacquired as a resultofpastexperiences,it
tends to be fairlyresistanttoforgetting.Inotherwords,onceyouvegotit,
youve got it. On the other hand, if you were to learn something simply
through memorization, then youarelikely toforgetwhat you hadlearned
very quickly. This is why it is extremely important to try toactively apply
whatyoumentally do, tosolidifythat knowledgein thebrain.If you areat
school, and are trying to learna subject well, then a goodway tosolidify
your learning would be to teach it to someone else as you will now be
activelyusingyourmentalknowledge.
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There are three main processes which can occur during the retrieval of
memories.
a. Recall is the ability to easily recall a memory. For example, you know
whatyourfriendsnameis.
b. Recognition occurs when something helps you to remember something
else. For example, amultiplechoice testwill containone correct answer.
Whenyousee thecorrectanswer,itwillhelp youto recall any previously
storedmemorythatyoumayhaveofit.
c. Repression occurs when a memory isforced into the unconscious inan
attempt to protect the ego from some sort of psychological threat. For
example,apainfulortraumaticexperienceinyourlife.
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TheoriesofMotivationandEmotion
Motivation
Some "Why" questions: Why do you go to class each day? Why did Cain kill
Abel? Why do students study for hours (sometimes even days) to pass examinations
(and don't say,"topassexaminations")?Whydoprofessorsteachstudents,andwhydo
theyteststudents?Whydidyoupickoutthoseshoesorthosepantstoweartoday?
Each of these questions has an answer, there is some motive for engaging in
those behaviors. We may define a motive (or motivation)as a need, want,interest,or
desirethatpropelssomeone(oranorganism)inacertaindirection.
This motivating mechanism canbecalled many things a habit,abelief,adesire,
aninstinct, a need,aninterest,acompulsion,oradrivebutnomatterwhatitslabel,itis
this motivation that prompts us to take action. Indeed, the motivation comes from the
verb"tomove."
Some Introductory Psychology books define the field of motivation as the study
of goaldirectedbehavior.Withthisdefinitioninmind,arehumanstheonlytypeofliving
organism that can have motivation? (this isfor you to think about,notaquestion Iam
goingtoanswerforyouatthispoint)
I.TheoreticalPerspectives
A)InstinctTheories
Many of thedifferenttheories ofmotivationaresimilar, exceptfor theamountof
emphasis theyplace oneitherbiology orenvironment. Mostincludesomelevelofboth
(some nature, some nurture).However, thereisonetheorythatcompletelyemphasizes
biology,Instincttheory.
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2.todayinstincttheoryhasamorebiologicalemphasisforspecific
motives and not all (like aggression and sex). But, there is still a strong
instinctperspectiveinthestudyofanimals(ethology)
B)Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology) the studyofgenetic and evolutionary
bases of behavior inallorganisms, including humans.Thisviewspawned from instinct
theory,butitisnotpurelyaninstincttheory.
1) Major Viewpoint sociobiology states that natural selection favors social
behaviors that maximize reproductive success. Thus, the primary motivating force for
living organisms (includinghumans) istopassonourgenesfromonegenerationtothe
next.
This theory, inspired by Charles Darwin, argues that in thelast15 millionyears
the human species has evolved socially as well as physically. Throughtheprocessof
naturalselection, individuals whowere even slightlypredisposed to engageinadaptive
social behaviors were the "fittest" and tended to survive longer and to be more
successful in passing their genes along to future generations. Over countless
generations, this selection process weeded out individuals who lacked these
predispositions and those who possessed them prospered. Even though these
tendencies may not enhance our fitness in today's world, eons spent in harsher
environments have left us genetically predisposed to perform certain social behaviors
whensituationalcuescallforthancientinstincts
Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any quality that
increases survivalwill eventually becomegenetically based.However,sociobiologyhas
changed this view slightly by arguing that the organism's fundamental goalis not mere
survival,oreventhesurvival of its offspring. Rather,the fittest individualistheonethat
succeedsin passing the maximumnumberofgenesontothenextgeneration.Why,for
example, do animals go to all the trouble of breeding and raising offspring? Because
having children isanextremelyeffective means ofensuring the survivalofone'sgenes
in a future generation. Caring for offspring mayseemselfsacrificing,butthese actions
are prompted by the gene's selfish tendency to seek survival at all costs. Even if the
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parent perishesprotectingitsyoung,itsgeneswillcontinuetoflourishinitsoffspring.To
Darwin, the fittest animal is the one that can survive longest. To Hamilton, the fittest
animalistheonethatmaximizesthesurvivalofitsgenesinfuturegenerations.
2) This perspective can explainmotivessuchascompetition,aggression,sexual
activity,anddominance.
3) It can also explain differences in men and women's mating preferences. For
example:
In one study an attractive man or woman (the researchers' accomplice) asked
strangers of the oppositesexone ofthe following questions: "I have beennoticingyou
around campus. I find you very attractive." The accomplice then asked one of the
following questions, depending on the group the subject had been assigned to: (a)
"Would you go out with me tonight" (b) "Would you come over to my apartment
tonight?"(c)"Wouldyougotobedwithmetonight?"
The Results: None of the women agreed to the third request compared to the
75% hit rate for men.Is it possiblethatthedifferences weredue toinstinctsordoyou
thinktheymustbeduetosomethingelse?
In another example: Studieshaveshownthatwomen are morelikely toengage
in extramarital affairs during ovulation, when they are more likely togetpregnant (the
studiesdid NOTstate oreven insinuate that the women weremakingconsciousefforts
to getpregnantfromamaleotherthantheirspouseorboyfriend,only thatwomenwere
indeed more likely to be ovulating duringthe time theydecidedtohavetheextramarital
affairs).
4) Seems Selfish this perspective may seem selfish, but it can also explain
seeminglyaltruisticbehaviors:
For example: A Blackbird will risk death to signal the flock that a hawk (a
predator)is nearby? Insodoing,theBlackbirdincreasesitschanceofgettingkilled,but
also increases the chancesof the otherBlackbirdssurvivingand,therefore, increasing
the odds thatmore geneswillbepassedonanorganismwillriskitsownlifetokeepthe
possibility of passing on familial genes alive. Others of the same genetic strain will
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surviveandkeepthegenepoolgoingevenifthatparticularbirddoesnotsothismaybe
aselfishperspective,butithasthepotentialtoproduceremarkablyunselfishbehavior.
C)DriveTheories
a) ADrive isaninternal stateoftensionthatmotivatesanorganismtoengagein
activitiesthatshould(hopefully)reducethistension.
b) Most organisms seem to try and maintain Homeostasis a state of
physiologicalequilibrium.
For example,we have a homeostatic temperature of98.6 degreesFahrenheit.If
this temperature begins to waiver enough you have a number of possible autonomic
responses: if temperature increases, you perspire. If temperature decreases, you
shiver.
So, when you experience a drive, you are motivatedto reducethisstate oftensionand
pursueactionsthatwillleadtoadrivereduction(reducethestateoftension).
For Example hunger leads to physical discomfort (internal tension drive),
which leads to the motivation to get food, which leads to eating, which leads to a
reduction in physical tension (drive reduction), which finally leads to therestoration of
equilibrium.
c)Therearesomeproblems:
1) homeostasis seems irrelevant to some human motives "thirst for
knowledge"...whattheheckisthat?
2) motivation may exist without adrivearousal. For example, humans do
not eat only when they are hungry. Don't believe me? Ever go out for a nice
dinner, eat enough to be full, but then still decide to have that great chocolate
dessertanyway?Ithoughtso.
D)IncentiveTheory
Anincentivemaybedefinedasanexternalgoalthathasthecapacitytomotivate
behavior.Thisdoesnotmeanthatitwillalwaysmotivatebehavior,onlythatitcan.Now,
we get to a situation in which we can see a difference with previous theories: Drive
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3)belongingnessandlove
afterobtainingasafeenvironmenttoliveandestablishing
some long term plans, peopleseekoutlove andaffectionfromfamilymembers,friends,
andlovers.
4) esteem at this level, people become concerned with selfesteem which may be
basedonachievementsthattheyearn,recognitionfromothersforjobstheydo,etc.
5) cognitive needs atthislevelarebasedonacquiringknowledgeandunderstanding
of the world, people, behavior, etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a
degree)thenyouareattemptingtofulfillyourcognitiveneeds.
6) aestheticaesthetic needsinclude beauty andorderinlife.Gettingyourlifeinorder
may provideasenseofcomfortthatpeopleoftenlack.Inaddition,spendingtimefinding
and observing beauty in the world becomes an option and a desire as people do not
have to struggle andfightto stayalive. Remember the episode ofStar Trek: The Next
Generation in which people from our century who had been frozen are found and
thawed? These people could not understandthat money wasnolonger important, that
starvation had been abolished on Earth, and that people now had the opportunityand
will to better themselves through learning about art, music, etc. Picard waspreaching
theaestheticlevelofMaslow'shierarchy.
7) selfactualization this is the highest and most difficult level to reach. In fact,
according toMaslow, veryfewpeopleactuallyreachthislevel. Selfactualization is the
needto fulfill one'sown potential. AsMaslowstated,"Whatamancanbe,hemustbe."
Interestingly, Maslow indicated that people will be frustrated if they can't pursue their
true loves and talents. For example, if a person has a talent for painting, but they
becomeadoctor,they will be foreverfrustrated becausethe needfor selfactualization
willbehindered.
Emotion
We all havethem,and yetmost ofuscan't explainthem.Do peoplereallyknow
why they have them, when they have them, how to control them, etc.? Like so many
other aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions are comprised of several
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B.PhysiologicalLevel
Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, usually at an autonomic
level(involuntary/automatic).
For example have you ever had the experienceof being ina carwhen it spins
out of control on an icy road? Almost instantly upon the car spinning off track, you
experience an increasein heart rate, bloodpressure, breathing, yourpupils dilate, etc.
Thisoccurs,atsomelevel,withallemotions.Thesystemsinvolvedwiththisactivityare:
1)CentralNervousSystem(CNS):limbicsystemandcortex
2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): somatic andautonomic, sympatheticand
parasympathetic.But, veryoften physiologicalchanges aretoosmalltonotice.Inthese
cases,werelyon:
1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) measures fluctuations in electrical
conductivityoftheskinthatoccurwhensweatglandsincreaseactivity.
2) Polygraph "lie detector" used to measure the subtle variations in muscle
tension,heartrate,etc.,associatedwithemotionthatoccurverysubtly.
C.BehavioralLevel:NonverbalExpression
Very often organisms communicate without words. They may rely on smiling,
frowning, clenching their fists, turning their backs, etc. Thus, we may communicate
emotionsnonverballythroughbodylanguage.
One of the most influential and important researchers in thefield of emotion,is
Ekman.HereareacoupleofexamplesfromEkman'swork:
Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion wasbeing
expressedin those photos.Hefoundthatpeoplefromdifferentculturescouldrecognize
common facialfeatures (peoplefromdifferentculturesallidentified,forexample,smiling
asasignofhappiness).
He found 7 basic emotions most often identified from photos of facial
expressions:happiness,sadness,anger,fear,surprise,disgust,andcontempt.
He alsoindicatedthattheuseoffacialexpressionstocommunicateseemstobeinnate
peoplewhohavebeenblindfrombirthmakemanysimilarfacialexpressions.
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THEORIESOFEMOTIONS
A.JAMESLANGETHEORYOFEMOTION
1.Background:
James and Lange (a Danish physiologist) proposed the same explanation of
emotionataboutsametimethusthetheorywasnamedforbothofthem.
2.Acommonsenseideaaboutemotionwouldbe:
Environmental influence (some event) > Psychological experience >
Physiologicalstatechanges(emotions)
BUT:theJamesLangetheorystates:
Environmental influence (event) > Physiological change > Psychological
experience
Inotherwords,JamesandLangewouldsay,"IfeelafraidbecauseItremble".Ifa
personseesabearwhile walking alonginthewoods,JamesandLangewouldsuggest
that the person would tremble and then realize that, becausetheyare trembling, they
areafraid.
3.Jamesstated:
"My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the
exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion.
Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep we meet a bear, are
frightened andrunweareinsultedbyarival,andangryandstrike.Thehypothesishere
to be defendedsaysthat this orderof sequence is incorrect and thatthe more rational
statementisthat wefeelsorrybecausewecry,angrybecausewestrike,afraidbecause
we tremble. Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be
purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute ofemotional warmth. We might then
see the bear, and judge it bestto run, receive the insultand deem it righttostrike,but
weshouldnotactuallyfeelafraidorangry."
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4.Problems:
Later studies separated theinternal organsthatJamessaidcausedarousalfrom
the CNS, but this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily
changescouldnotbetheonlyfactorinvolvedinemotions.
B.TheCannonBardTheory
1. Background: again two people had the same perspective at roughly the same time
(althoughCannonwasconsideredtobethemoreinfluentialone).Thistheorymadeuse
ofinformationaboutphysiologicalstructuresnotavailabletoJamesandLange.
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C.CognitiveView:SchachterandSingerTwoFactorTheory
1) Schachter and Singer maintainthat wedon't automatically knowwhenweare
happy,angry, orjealous.Instead,welabelouremotionsbyconsideringsituationalcues.
We feel some emotion. To really understand what emotion we are having at that
particulartime, we usethe cuesin theenvironment atthetimetohelpusdeterminethe
currentemotion.Thislabelingprocessdependsontwofactors:
a) some element in the situation must trigger a general, nonspecific
arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening of the stomach, and rapid
breathing.
b) people search the situation/environment for cues that tell them what
hascausedtheemotion.
TheinfamousSchachterSingerstudyofemotion:
1) Schachter and Singer told men who volunteered they werestudyinga vitamin
supplementcalledSuproxin. Themenwere asked if they were willingto take the drug,
and those who consented were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine,
whichis alsocalledadrenaline,is releasedbyourhormonal system whenever we face
astressful situation, andgenerallyincreasesbloodpressure,heartrate,andrespiration.
Thus the men who received the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than
thosewhoreceivedtheinertplacebo.
2) Schachter and Singer manipulated subjects' interpretations of their physical
sensations. They told some of the epinephrineinjected subjects that even though the
drug wasn't harmful, side effects were quite common: they might feel flushed, their
handsmightshake,andtheirhearts might pound. Theother subjects,incontrast,were
given no information atallabouttheeffectsofthedrug.SchachterandSingerreasoned
that once theepinephrine kickedin, theirsubjects would begin tosearchfor thecause
of their arousal. People who had been told that the drug would arouse them should
haveassumedthat thedrugwascausingtheirhandstoshakeandtheirhearttopound.
But if they weren't warned about the drug's effects, then they would be more likelyto
interprettheirarousalasanemotion.
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3) Whatkindofemotionwouldtheseuninformedsubjectsexperience?Schachter
and Singer believedthat their reaction would depend on the availablesituationalcues.
They therefore manipulated this variable as well. They arranged for their subjects to
wait for the Suproxin'seffectsin a small roomwith anotherperson. This individualwas
one of Schachter and Singer's accomplices, and he was trained tobehave ineithera
euphoric or angry fashion. The euphoric confederate clowned around during the 20
minutes, doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of "basketball" with wadded up
balls of paper, making and flying a paper airplane, building a tower outof filefolders,
andplaying withaHulaHoop. Theangry confederate,incontrast,becameincreasingly
agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were asked to complete questionnaires
that contained very personal questions. The accomplice, after loudly criticizing
questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father's income, and
family members' bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment, flew into a rage at the
question"Howmanytimeseachweekdoyouhavesexualintercourse?"
4) Schachter and Singer observed andcoded theactionstakenbyeachsubject,
and also asked them to describe their emotional state. As they had predicted, the
physiologically aroused subjects who hadn't been told about the drug's sideeffects
responded with emotions thatmatched the confederate'sactions. Ifthey werearoused
and hadn't been expecting the arousal, then they felt happy when their fellowsubject
was happy, but angry when their fellow subject was angry. Forewarned subjects and
unaroused subjects whoreceived a placebo,however, didnot displayanypronounced
emotion. Also, the subjects in a special control condition people who had been given
epinephrine but had been misinformed about its possible effect also displayed the
emotionsenactedbyaeuphoricconfederate
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