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The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal
belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed
creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication
is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated
populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses
that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true
wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from
anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.
Domestic horse
Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance and a
strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep
both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse,
called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness
between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and
30 years.
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and
endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from
crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe.
There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in
working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from
which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control.
Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of
pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as
veterinarians and farriers.
Order:
Perissodactyla
Family:
Equidae
Genus:
Equus
Species:
E. ferus
Subspecies:
E. f. caballus
Contents
1 Biology
1.1 Lifespan and life stages
1.2 Size and measurement
Trinomial name
Equus ferus caballus
Linnaeus, 1758[1]
Synonyms
1.2.1 Ponies
1.3 Genetics
1.4 Colors and markings
1.5 Reproduction and development
1.6 Anatomy
1.6.1 Skeletal system
1.6.2 Hooves
1.6.3 Teeth
1.6.4 Digestion
1.6.5 Senses
1.7 Movement
1.8 Behavior
1.8.1 Intelligence and learning
1.8.2 Temperament
1.8.3 Sleep patterns
2 Taxonomy and evolution
2.1 Wild species surviving into modern times
2.2 Other modern equids
3 Domestication
3.1 Feral populations
3.2 Breeds
4 Interaction with humans
4.1 Sport
4.2 Work
4.3 Entertainment and culture
4.4 Therapeutic use
4.5 Warfare
4.6 Products
4.7 Care
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
Biology
at least 48 published[2]
Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors and breeds.
Points of a horse[4][5]
weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb).[24] Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches,
157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to
1,320 lb).[25] Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands
(72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).[26]
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood
21.212 hands (86.5 inches, 220 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,500 kilograms (3,300 lb).[27] The current
record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She is
17 in (43 cm) tall and weighs 57 lb (26 kg).[28]
Ponies
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this
full-sized horse and a miniature horse.
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on
the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between
horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less
than 14.2 h a pony,[29] but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm),[30] For
competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm)[31] The International Federation for Equestrian
Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the
withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 h, and 149 centimetres (58.66 in), or just over 14.2 h, with shoes.[32]
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 h consider all
animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.[33] Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may
occasionally mature at over 14.2 h, but are still considered to be ponies.[34]
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads
with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human
handlers.[29] Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.[29]
Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 30 inches (76 cm), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not
ponies.[35]
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes.[36] The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs,[37] which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than
the human genome or the bovine genome.[38] The map is available to researchers.[39]
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a
horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.[40] Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one
another by white markings,[41] which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.[42]
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13
different alleles influencing coat color,[43] and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The
basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor,[44] also
known as the "extension gene" or "red factor,"[43] as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is
black.[45] Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns
such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as graying, and all the other factors that create
the many possible coat colors found in horses.[43]
Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older
gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat
(with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a
predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.[45] Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several
different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene.[46] However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.[47]
Anatomy
Skeletal system
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.[58] A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the
lack of a collarbonethe horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and
ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg
bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is
actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to
those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot,
and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a
single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the
"knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons,
ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.[59]
Hooves
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".[60] The horse hoof
The skeletal system of a modern horse
begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other
specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin, the
same material as a human fingernail.[61] The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),[62] travels on the same bones as would a human on
tiptoe.[63] For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and
in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks,[64] though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow
at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted
for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called
"tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally
removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of
the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.[65]
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show
changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough
estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.[6]
Digestion
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to
humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to
24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, so they have only one stomach, like
humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component of grass. Cellulose digestion occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before
reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.[66]
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.[67] They have
the largest eyes of any land mammal,[68] and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.[69] This
means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350, with approximately 65 of this being binocular vision and the remaining
285 monocular vision.[68] Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color
vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade
of green.[70]
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the
social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first
system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the
Vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze
pheromones.[71]
A horse's eye
A horse's hearing is good,[67] and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180, giving the potential for 360 hearing without having to move the head.[72] Noise impacts the
behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to
country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21
decibels.[73] An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled
where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.[74]
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioceptionthe unconscious sense of where the body
and limbs are at all times.[75] A horse's sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.[76] Horses are able to sense contact as
subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.[77]
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat,[78] and their prehensile lips can easily sort
even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when
there is adequate healthy food.[79]
Movement
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph); the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour
(8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses); the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph); and the gallop.[80] The gallop
averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),[81] but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 88 kilometres per hour (55 mph).[82]
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.[83] There also are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of a
trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tlt as well as the diagonal fox trot.[84] Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds,
known collectively as gaited horses.[85] Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.[86]
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee,
although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened.[87]
They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may
not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for
speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective
breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.[88]
The gallop
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social
creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans.
They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to
manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.[89] However, when
confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological
origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.[90]
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of
individuals within a social system. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities.[91] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed
of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can
learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement.[91] One study has indicated that horses can
differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.[92]
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning
tasks that are not natural.[91] Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently.
One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in
the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.[93]
Temperament
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed
a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses,
exhibit more sensitivity and energy,[94] while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.[95] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses"
or "riding horses",[96] with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".[97]
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed
in England from the older oriental breeds.[94] Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for
agility and speed.[98] They tend to be physically refinedthin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.[99] The original oriental
breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these
traits into racing and light cavalry horses.[100][101]
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the
calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.[95] They are sometimes nicknamed
"gentle giants".[102] Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.[102] Some, like the Percheron,
are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.[103] Others, such as the
Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.[104] The cold-blooded group
also includes some pony breeds.[105]
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were
crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but
greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.[106] Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics
have been developed for smaller riders.[107] Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".[96]
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage
and show jumping.[108] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.[109] Examples include breeds such as the
Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.[98]
Sleep patterns
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by
using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.[110] Horses sleep better when in groups because some
animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to
keep a constant eye out for danger.[111]
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen
hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from
several minutes to a couple of hours,[111] mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.[112] The average sleep time of a domestic
horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.[113]
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM
sleep requirements.[111] However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare
cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.[114] This condition differs from narcolepsy,
although horses may also suffer from that disorder.[115]
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the
late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.[123] Yet between 10,000 and 7,600
years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere.[124][125][126] The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction
in North America paralleled human arrival.[127] Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe
ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.[128]
became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.[133] Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan,[133][134][135] which
resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example,
the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such,[132] but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses.[136] Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was
proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics,[137][138] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse
breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.[137][139]
Domestication
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC. Two major sources of information are used to
determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source
is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to
that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to
approximately 35004000 BC.[144][145][146] By 3000 BC, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp
increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses
throughout the continent.[147] The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains
were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BC.[148]
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in
the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions
contributed to the domestic horse,[149][150] while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.[139][151][152] This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation
between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very
low levels of Y-chromosome variability,[149][150] but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.[139][151][152] There is also regional variation in mitochondrial
DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds.[139][151][152][153] Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.[154] In horses, this
increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.[155]
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based
on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.[105] Another hypothesis held
that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.[156] However, the
lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Feral populations
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.[129] Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world.[157][158] Studies of
feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,[159] as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in
domesticated conditions.[160]
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant
amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.[161][162]
Breeds
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses
are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree
recognized by a breed registry.[163] Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation,
color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred
since their domestication. An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive
pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.[164] These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.[165] In the 14th century,
Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.[166]
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.[167] Thus, a powerful but
refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.[167] Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm
work and pull heavy wagons.[168] Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as
pets.[169] Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation
bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the
breed.[170] There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.[171]
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;[175] to aid this process horses are usually
ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the
rider in maintaining control.[176] Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,[177] and occasionally, horses are trained to perform
without a bridle or other headgear.[178] Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of
vehicle.[179]
Sport
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and
honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, have
origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo,
developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved
from earlier practical hunting techniques.[175] Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or
drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the
systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the
centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in
combat.[175]
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage,
three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting.[180] Horse shows, which have
their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the
mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on
their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both
A horse and rider in dressage competition at
horse and rider.[181] Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors
the Olympics
as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are
not judged, only the result of the rider's actionsbe it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.[182] Examples of these
sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,[183] and buzkashi, a team game played throughout
Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[182]
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e.
racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.[184] A major part of horse racing's economic
importance lies in the gambling associated with it.[185]
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain
types of patrol duties and crowd control.[186] Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.[187] Search and
rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.[188] Horses can
also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in
wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use
horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are
less effective.[189]
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used
for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa
alone.[190] Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture,
less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses.[191][192]
Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.[193]
Horses are frequently seen in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular
animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories.[197] Both live horses and iconic images of horses
are used in advertising to promote a variety of products.[198] The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of
poses and equipment.[199] The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Norse, include references to
both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the
Moon and Sun.[200] The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.[201]
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used
to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination,
increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.[202] The benefits of equestrian activity for people with
disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian
events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).[203] Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for
different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses
the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback
riding uses specific riding skills.[204]
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential
psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral
difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.[205] There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to
improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.[206]
Warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to
between 4000 to 3000 BC,[207] and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age.[208][209] Although
mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for
ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective.
Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.[210]
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as
well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.[211] Horse blood
was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the
Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.[211] The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant
mares' urine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.[212] The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as
the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.[213]
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some
cultures,[214] and a subject of political controversy in others.[215] Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,[216] baseballs,[217] and baseball gloves. Horse
hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.[218] Horse bones can be used to make implements.[219] Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe
called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[220] In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.[221]
Care
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture.[222] They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body
weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.[223] Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed
in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.[224] When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight
should still be forage.[225]
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 10 US gallons (38 L) to 12 US gallons (45 L) per day.[226] Although horses are adapted to live outside, they
require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.[227]
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine
dentist.[228] If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.[229]
When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.[230] Regular grooming is also helpful to help
the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.[231]
See also
Glossary of equestrian terms
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Further reading
Apperson, George Latimer and Martin Manser (2006). Dictionary of Proverbs. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1-84022-311-1.
Chamberlin, J. Edward (2006). Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. New York, NY: Bluebridge. ISBN 0-9742405-9-1. OCLC 61704732 (https://www.worldcat.org
/oclc/61704732).
Hammond, Gerald (2000). The Language of Horse Racing (http://books.google.com/?id=CJ4zH2P_6mMC&printsec=frontcover). London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-57958-276-1.
OCLC 44923115 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44923115).
External links
Horse (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/272156) at Encyclopdia Britannica
"Ancient horse bone yields oldest DNA sequence" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23060993)