Module 1

HOW STUDENTS LEARN

Learning outcomes
At the end of this session participants should be able to:

recognise that approaches to learning are conditioned by concepts of

learning

recognise the various concepts of learning

recognise that there are surface and deep elements in subject learning

recognise that there are surface and deep approaches to learning

recognise the importance of promoting overall a deep approach to

learning

devise teaching strategies that encourage students to take a deep

approach to learning.
For this module you will find:

tutor script (pp. 15-22)

OHTs (pp. 23-29)

handout (pp. 30-31).

You will need:

overhead projector

copies of suitable texts for all participants

flipchart and pens for participants to complete task.

Content
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concepts of learning
1.3 Approaches to learning
1.4 Environments that encourage deep and surface learning
1.5 Effective learning
1.6 Group exercise: devising teaching strategies that promote a deep approach
1.7 Suggested reading
DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

The aims of this session are to:

explore concepts of and approaches to learning

outline optimal conditions for effective learning

create opportunities to put these ideas and strategies into practice.

Approach
Following initial input, participants work in non-language-specific groups on
sample English texts to devise teaching strategies that encourage students
to take a deep approach to learning, using the four elements of effective
learning. Each group works for approximately 45 minutes, then shares its
ideas with the whole group. The various ideas are subsequently typed up
and distributed to all participants.

MODULE 1

Time required
Tutor input
Group work
Feedback

1 hour
45 minutes
15 minutes

Total

2 hours

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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

How Students Learn

This module provides an underpinning to all the DOPLA materials in that it introduces and
discusses important concepts in pedagogy. Good teaching is predicated on good learning,
so it is essential to understand what factors make for effective learning. The session
therefore explores students conceptions of and approaches to learning, discusses notions
of deep and surface learning, and argues that the best conditions for effective learning will
include four key elements: a motivational context, learner activity, learner interaction and
a well-structured knowledge base.

1.2 Concepts of learning

OHT 1.1 Students concepts of learning p 23
Approaches to learning are determined by what we think learning is; in other words, a
students approach to a learning task is logically preceded by his/her concept of what
learning actually is. Research on students concepts of learning has resulted in five
categories or levels of knowledge. These form a hierarchy, with each level subsuming
those below.
Level 1
At a very basic level, some students think learning is just knowing more things. Thus, if I
knew one thing yesterday, and I know two today and three things tomorrow, then I am
learning. Clearly there is a primitive sense in which this is true. But to see knowledge as
simply an accumulation of data is to have a very unsophisticated concept of what knowledge
is. On this view, knowledge is just a collection of discrete, separate items, laid side by side
along an endless line, like grains of sand on the beach.
Level 2
At the next level, learning is perceived as successful memorising; if you can remember
something then you have learned it. This notion suffers from the same lack of differentiation
as Level 1, adding only the idea that knowledge is something which is stored and can be
accessed by the individual.
Level 3
At the next level of sophistication, some students think that learning is about knowing the
formula or procedure to apply in a given situation - like mathematical equations, or rules
for forming tenses. This is beginning to appreciate that knowledge is about categorisation,
DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

1.1 Introduction

i.e. that some bits of knowledge have more power than others. The limitation of a concept
of knowledge that stops at this level is that the student cannot deal with knowledge or
information that does not fit the rules, and cannot see the bigger conceptual picture of
the subject as a whole. That is why when we are talking about sophisticated concepts of
learning, we need to consider categories four and five: learning as making sense and
understanding reality.

MODULE 1

Levels 4 and 5
At these levels the student genuinely makes sense of the subject, understands what the
important concepts are and sees how the various aspects of the subject fit together.
Typically, such students will have internalised their understanding of the subject and will
be able to express that understanding in their own words. The difference between Level 4
and Level 5 is to do with the scope of the conceptual overview, with Level 5 denoting
someone with a personal, integrated worldview.
University work is ultimately concerned with helping students articulate subject
understanding at Levels 4 and 5. This will include the other levels of learning, so students
will be memorising and applying procedures as well. Also, the process of understanding is
long and drawn-out and proceeds unevenly: students often appear to know and to be
able to do something one week, but then seem to have forgotten it the next week.
Integrating new knowledge into existing knowledge is a slow business. Students frequently
have to re-learn learning, or have it presented to them in a different way. That is why
much teaching (and this is especially true of language teaching) has to be recursive and
repetitive, to take account of these loops of learning that involve stops and starts, gains
and losses.
How do we know when a student has really learned something? This is hard to gauge,
but most teachers would agree that a student has understood something when they can
put it into their own words, rather than just repeat the teachers words; when they can do
this over time (showing that the knowledge is assimilated); and when they can apply their
knowledge successfully to solve new problems or deal with new situations.
How do teachers initiate and facilitate successful learning at these higher levels? This is
where the question of the students approach to learning comes in.

1.3 Approaches to learning

OHT 1.2 Surface approach p 24
The concepts of learning discussed above map onto two different approaches that a learner
can adopt. One approach is to see a task as something to be memorised, to be reproduced
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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

at a later date, possibly in an exam or when asked a question by the teacher. That type of
learning maps onto the first three levels of the hierarchy: amassing knowledge, memorising,
and applying formulae. This approach is called the surface approach.

OHT 1.3 Deep approach p 25

Every subject has its blend of surface and deep learning moments: there are times when
the student has to practise without understanding, memorise without seeing the big picture,
in other words, trust the teacher. But these surface elements need to lead towards
deep learning, when the student comes to make sense of what he/she has learned and
sees how things fit together. The teacher needs to achieve the right balance, both in
recognising the blend of surface and deep approaches appropriate to learning the specific
subject, and in creating classroom strategies that bring the two together fruitfully, so that,
overall, the learner takes a deep approach to the subject.

1.4 Environments that encourage deep and surface learning

OHT 1.4 Surface approaches are encouraged by: p 26
Teachers want students to take a deep approach to learning their subject. However, this
can be difficult. The pressure of the examination system can force teachers and students
into patterns that lead to surface learning. Students are afraid they will fail (or just want to
get through the course and get a piece of paper at the end), so pressurise teachers to
teach only those things likely to come up in the examination. If the examination itself relies
heavily on memorised information (vocabulary, producing formulaic sentences) students
will resort to memorising and swotting up for the examination. There is also the problem
that taking a deep approach to learning is quite stressful and tiring, and it is easy for
students to lapse into habits of mere surface learning, e.g. just repeating phrases in the
language, not moving on to internalise the knowledge to produce sentences of their own
and to say new things in their own words. Adopting a deep approach takes time, so if
there is a heavy workload where new material is constantly being introduced, students will
not have time to reflect, think and internalise, and will again resort to surface techniques
of memorising and rote learning. Under these circumstances, students feel threatened
and experience a loss of control over their learning environment. They soon start to lose
confidence in themselves as learners. Once this has happened, it is very difficult for students
or their teachers to retrieve the situation.
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The other approach is seen when learners are interested in the material for its own sake
and want to understand for themselves what is going on. This is a much more inclusive,
personal approach and maps onto Levels 4 and 5 in the concepts of learning categories.
This is called the deep approach.

Unfortunately, if the learning environment forces students to take surface approaches

then they will imagine that is what learning is, and they will mistake a very superficial level
of understanding for real knowledge and comprehension. Students will not get to the heart
of the language or the ideas. They will produce standard sentences and use forms and
structures uncreatively and unimaginatively, in ways that they hope will get them through
examinations and assessments.

OHT 1.5 Deep approaches are encouraged by: p 27

MODULE 1

Obviously teachers want interested, inspired, enthusiastic students who are involved in
the material being taught and want to transform it into information meaningful to them.
This is difficult to achieve, but many effective strategies are available to teachers and
these will be explored in depth during this training course. However, speaking broadly,
good teachers will:

take time to think about what they are asking their students to do
extend the learning over a period of time
be considerate towards individual students.

The deep approach needs time for consideration and reflection, and teachers should
always make allowances for the amount of time students will need if they are to become
involved in the task and to have an understanding of it.
It is also very important to tell students precisely what is expected of them, and why they
are being asked to do something. Teachers often imagine it is utterly self-evident why
students should be writing an essay or studying a particular unit in a grammar book.
Teaching needs to be more transparent so that students can contextualise a task and see
its relevance to their learning as a whole. Only in this way can they fully make sense of
what they are learning, and thus take a deep approach.
Students should have opportunities to exercise responsible choice in the method and
content of study. As far as possible, learning should be personalised by choosing examples
and tasks that students will find relevant to their own experience and concerns. It is often
useful for teachers to ask themselves: How would I feel if I were the student being asked
to do this? and How would I feel about the setting in which I am being asked to do it?.
Finally, the teacher needs to bear in mind that different students learn in different ways.
Some students prefer activity, getting on with something straightaway. Others like to reflect
on information and mull it over. Students also learn at different speeds. Planning for group
or class work needs to accommodate different learning preferences, so teachers need to
use a multiplicity of strategies and tasks, and be prepared to revisit earlier learning in new
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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

ways to ensure retention and consolidation. The aim is that at the end, all students come
out with a deep level of understanding based on knowledge of broad principles supported
by a sound factual basis.

1.5 Effective learning

OHT 1.6 Effective learning p 28

Integrated learning is very difficult to achieve, even within the confines of a single subject.
It is difficult to get students to bring knowledge from one area and put it into another, and
difficult to integrate new knowledge into existing knowledge. In language learning this is
often seen when the teacher introduces a new structure. Students will practise the new
structure and seem to know it, then the teacher will set a task that asks students to use the
new structure in the framework of their existing knowledge of the language. Often,
disconcertingly, the students fail to do this properly. This is part of the problem of the
learning loop mentioned above. Integrated learning is complex. Focussed concentration
on a simple task does not transfer easily into a complex or multi-faceted task. That is why
teaching has to be repetitive and recursive, until new knowledge gradually becomes
assimilated into the students whole way of thinking in the subject.
The above example is a good illustration of the Level 3 concept of knowledge (applying
formulae or rules). The students apply the formula and think they have learned something
new. However, it has not yet become part of Level 4 making sense. They have yet to
integrate it into the rest of their knowledge. Simply getting students to reproduce something
that they have memorised as a rule does not mean that they have internalised it.
When teachers set tasks, they start off with things that are straightforward and make them
more complex, either by making the initial task more difficult, or including some other
elements. This is cumulative learning, and an important part of planning it is the sequencing
of tasks to provide an appropriate scaffolding for students learning.

OHT 1.7 Elements associated with effective learning p 29

These four elements get to the heart of the really important principles to bear in mind
when working with students.
Motivational context
Motivational context relates to the earlier discussion of personalising learning and making
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MODULE 1

Effective learning is active learning. As students confront material they ask themselves
such questions as: What is this about? How am I to understand this? What questions
does it raise? What do I need to know to go further?

it relevant to the student. Ideally, students should respond actively to tasks, and feel that
they need to know the answer to something because they are intellectually provoked, or
intrigued, or feel this might be useful or interesting knowledge for them personally.

MODULE 1

Learner activity
Students do not learn well if they are simply given something and told to do it. Nor do they
learn all that effectively by watching somebody else do a task (modelling), although this
can be a help. In the end, students learn by doing things themselves, because that is the
way they find out what the difficulties are for them. In learning, students need to go through
for themselves the processes of thinking and the processes of action, so active learning is
very important. Activity is also important because passive listening is difficult to sustain for
an extended period of time: concentration lapses and learning ceases. Learners attention
can be regained only if they are stimulated through active involvement.
Interaction with others
Teachers want to have as much activity and language practice going on in the classroom
as possible. It is impossible to have each student work directly with the teacher all the
time. So, at a simple level, students working together in small groups have more
opportunities to practise the material.
There is also a pedagogic reason why such interaction is a good thing. Students can learn
very effectively from each other because they are very often at similar stages of
understanding. They are speaking the same language at a level deeper than that of mere
words. Teachers are often so far ahead of students in their grasp of the subject that they
cannot clarify students difficulties for them in words best fitted for their level of
comprehension. So learners at levels of ability, understanding and knowledge that are
largely similar can work with each other and can learn from each other. This point is not
self-evident, especially because students see teachers as the experts who can tell them
what they need to know. It is therefore a good idea in this, as in all aspects of teaching, to
explain to the students why you are asking them to work together.
The well-structured knowledge base
In simple language, teachers aim to start from where the students are and move at a
speed appropriate for them. This entails initial diagnosis of their knowledge and ability,
and the consequent tailoring of tasks. Teachers should introduce new knowledge only
when existing knowledge is consolidated. And, bearing in mind the learning loop, they
should incorporate frequent revision and reinforcement through a variety of settings and
activities to ensure that, over time, students internalise and integrate the knowledge.

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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

For this exercise participants should work in non-language-specific groups to put into
practice the ideas they have just been considering. A number of short English texts (to
provide a common language) should be provided. Each group should choose a text and
devise language-teaching strategies for that text that will encourage students to take a
deep approach to learning. Groups should include the four elements of effective learning
in their strategies. The time for the task should be approximately 45 minutes, and the
results copied onto flipchart paper. Each piece of paper should then be pinned onto the
classroom walls, and each group should elect a member to talk the rest of the class
through their ideas, explaining the thinking behind them. After the session, the course
tutors should have the sheets typed up and each participant should receive a copy of all
the strategies produced, together with the relevant texts.

1.7 Suggested reading

Baume D. (1994): Developing Learner Autonomy. SEDA, Birmingham.
Brookfield S.D. (1986): Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. (A comprehensive
analysis of principles and effective practices.) Open University Press, Milton Keynes.
Brown S. (1991): Students at the Centre of Learning. (SCED paper 66) SCED Publications,
Birmingham.
Brown S., Armstrong S. & Thompson G. (1998): Motivating Students. Kogan Page, London.
Daines J., Daines C. & Graham B. (1993): Adult Learning. Adult Teaching. Department of
Adult Education, University of Nottingham, Nottingham.
Entwistle N. (1994): Teaching and the Quality of Learning. CVCP, London.
Entwistle N., Thompson S. & Tait H. (1992): Guidelines for Promoting Effective Learning
in Higher Education. Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction, University of
Edinburgh, Edinburgh.
Fry H., Ketteridge S. & Marshall S. (1999): Understanding student learning. In A Handbook
for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Eds. Heather Fry, Steve Ketteridge and
Stephanie Marshall. Kogan Page, London.
Gibbs G. (1992): Improving the Quality of Student Learning. Technical and Educational
Services, Bristol.
Honey P. & Mumford A. (1986): Using your Learning Styles. Maidenhead, Berkshire.
DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

1.6 Group exercise

Honey P. & Mumford A. (1989): The Manual of Learning Opportunities. Peter Honey,
Maidenhead.
Honey P. & Mumford A. (1990): The Opportunist Learner: A Learners Guide to Using
Learning Opportunities. Peter Honey, Maidenhead.
Honey P. & Mumford A. (1992): The Manual of Learning Styles. Peter Honey, Maidenhead.
Marton F., Hounsell D. and Entwistle N. (1997): The Experience of Learning. Scottish
Academic Press Ltd, Edinburgh.
Mumford A. (1999): Effective Learning. IPD, London.

MODULE 1

Parlett M., Simons H., Simmonds R. & Hewton E. (1988): Learning from Learners. (SCED
paper 54) SCED Publications, Birmingham.
Rust C. & Wallace J. (1995): Helping Students to Learn from Each Other - Supplemental
Instruction. SEDA, Birmingham.

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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

OHT 1.1

1.

Learning as an increase of knowledge

2.

Learning as memorising

3.

Learning as acquiring facts or procedures to

be used

4.

Learning as making sense

5.

Learning as understanding reality

DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

Students concepts of learning

OHT 1.2

Surface approach

MODULE 1

Students motivated by concern to complete

the course or by fear of failure

Students fulfil the assessment requirements

by memorising factual material

The process most used is rote learning

Outcome: a knowledge of factual information

and a superficial level of understanding

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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

OHT 1.3

Students motivated by an interest in the

subject matter and/or its vocational relevance

Students intention is to reach an understanding of the material

The process used varies between individual

students/learners

Outcome: a deep level of understanding

based on a knowledge of broad principles
supported by a sound factual basis

DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

Deep approach

OHT 1.4

Surface approaches are encouraged by:

MODULE 1

Assessment methods emphasising recall or

the application of trivial procedural knowledge

Assessment methods that create anxiety

Cynical or conflicting messages about

rewards

An excessive amount of material in the

curriculum

Poor or absent feedback on progress

Lack of independence in studying

Lack of interest in and background

knowledge of the subject matter

Previous experiences of educational settings

that encourage these approaches

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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

OHT 1.5

Teaching and assessment methods that

foster active and long-term engagement with
learning tasks

Stimulating and considerate teaching,

especially teaching which demonstrates the
lecturers personal commitment to the subject
matter and stresses its meaning and
relevance to students

Clearly stated academic expectations

Opportunities to exercise responsible choice

in the method and content of study

Interest in and background knowledge of the

subject matter

Previous experience of educational settings

that encourage these approaches

DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

Deep approaches are encouraged by:

OHT 1.6

Effective learning

MODULE 1

Active learning
- posing own questions and seeking the
respective answers

Integrated learning
- learning applied to a variety of subjects/
disciplines concurrently
- learning applied in context of real-life
situations

Cumulative learning
- sequenced learning experiences
- experiences that become p rogre ssive ly
less straightforward and more complex a n d
challenging

Learning for understanding

- giving appropriate opportunities to reflect,
receive feedback, and link to practice

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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

OHT 1.7

Elements associated with effective

learning
Motivational context

MODULE 1

Learner activity
Interaction with others
A well-structured knowledge base

DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

29

Handout 1
Module 1
HOW STUDENTS LEARN
Students concepts of learning
1. Learning as an increase of knowledge
2. Learning as memorising
3. Learning as acquiring facts or procedures to be used
4. Learning as making sense
5. Learning as understanding reality

MODULE 1

Surface approach
Students motivated by concern to complete the course or by fear of failure
Students fulfil the assessment requirements by memorising factual material
The process most used is rote learning
Outcome: a knowledge of factual information and a superficial level of understanding

Deep approach

Students motivated by an interest in the subject matter and/or its vocational relevance

Students intention is to reach an understanding of the material

The process used varies between individual students/learners

Outcome: a deep level of understanding based on a knowledge of broad principles

supported by a sound factual basis

Surface approaches are encouraged by:

Assessment methods emphasising recall or the application of trivial procedural
knowledge
Assessment methods that create anxiety
Cynical or conflicting messages about rewards
An excessive amount of material in the curriculum
Poor or absent feedback on progress
Lack of independence in studying
Lack of interest in and background knowledge of the subject matter
Previous experiences of educational settings that encourage these approaches

Deep approaches are encouraged by:

Teaching and assessment methods that foster active and long-term engagement with
learning tasks
Stimulating and considerate teaching, especially teaching which demonstrates the
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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

Effective learning

Active Learning
- posing own questions and seeking the respective answers

Integrated Learning
- learning applied to a variety of subjects/disciplines concurrently
- learning applied in context of real-life situations

Cumulative Learning

- sequenced learning experiences

- experiences that become progressively less straightforward and more
complex and challenging
Learning for Understanding
- giving appropriate opportunities to reflect, receive feedback, and link to
practice

Elements associated with effective learning

Motivational context
Learner activity
Interaction with others
A well-structured knowledge base

DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn

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MODULE 1

lecturers personal commitment to the subject matter and stresses its meaning and
relevance to students
Clearly stated academic expectations
Opportunities to exercise responsible choice in the method and content of study
Interest in and background knowledge of the subject matter
Previous experience of educational settings that encourage these approaches

MODULE 1
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DOPLA Module 1 - How Students Learn