Yong Huang

Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921

Steven Y. Liang
Professor,
e-mail: steven.liang@me.gatech.edu
George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical
Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, GA 30332-0405

Modeling of Cutting Forces Under

Hard Turning Conditions
Considering Tool Wear Effect
Quantitative understanding of cutting forces under hard turning conditions is important
for thermal modeling, tool life estimation, chatter prediction, and tool condition monitoring purposes. Although significant research has been documented on the modeling of
forces in the turning operation in general, turning of hardened materials involves several
distinctive process conditions, including negative tool rake angle, large tool nose radius,
and rapid tool wear. These process conditions warrant specific treatment in the analysis of
cutting forces. This paper first addresses these issues by formulating an oblique chip
formation force model through the extension of a two-dimensional (2D) mechanistic force
model while considering the effect of tool geometry complexities. The coefficients of the
mechanistic force model are estimated by applying a genetic algorithm in overcoming the
lack of explicit normal equations. Then the forces occurring due to flank wear are modeled by extending a 2D worn tool force modeling approach into a three-dimensional
analysis to accommodate the effect of low feed rate, small depth of cut, and relatively
large tool nose radius in hard turning. The total cutting forces are the linear summation
of forces due to chip formation and forces due to flank wear. The model-predicted forces
match well with experimental results in the turning of hardened 52100 bearing steel under
practical cutting conditions (low feed rate, small depth of cut, and gentle cutting speed)
using cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools under the progressive tool flank wear conditions.
DOI: 10.1115/1.1852571

Introduction

Generally, the hard turning process is recognized as the single

point turning of materials with hardness from 50 to 70 HRc 1. It
differs from conventional turning in tool/workpiece material properties, cutting tool geometry, chip formation mechanism, and cutting conditions applied. As a potential alternative to form grinding, the hard turning process can offer attractive benefits in terms
of lower equipment costs, shorter setup time, fewer process steps,
higher material removal rate, better surface integrity, and the
elimination of cutting fluid 13. But for hard turning to be a
viable technology, there are still several issuesincluding tool
life, part integrity, and machine stiffness requirementsthat need
to be addressed. A quantitative understanding of cutting forces
under hard turning conditions is a critical element in addressing
these issues because of its implications on thermal analysis, tool
life analysis, chatter analysis, etc.
In general, significant prior research is available in the area of
force modeling in turning operation. However, a comprehensive
analysis of hard turning forces has not been well established in
view of the unique process conditions involved. In addition to the
workpiece and cutting tool material property aspects, hard turning
process conditions are defined based on several key characteristics: negative tool rake angle, low feed rate, small depth of cut,
relatively large tool nose radius, and rapid tool wear rate. These
characteristics provide a set of cutting configuration, chip formation mechanism, and force generation process distinctive to the
commonly encountered turning conditions. Therefore, the effect
of three-dimensional 3D engagement and the implication of tool
wear must be incorporated in the modeling of hard turning forces.
When the effect of flank wear is not considered, the primary
scope of cutting force modeling is related to chip formation. A
complication with the chip formation in hard turning is the segmentation of chips as a result of either catastrophic thermoplastic
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received
October 23, 2001; revised July 5, 2002. Associate Editor: M. Davies.

262 Vol. 127, MAY 2005

adiabatic shear 4 or crack/fracture generation 5. The force

variation due to chip segmentation is estimated to be on the order
of 3% based on the measurement of Vyas and Shaw 6. The
variation component of cutting force is typically insignificant
compared to the average forces component, and the variation
frequencyon the order of 10100 KHzis beyond the sampling rate of typical dynamometers 4,6. Therefore, the interest of
cutting force modeling often focuses on the average force level,
but not on the variation due to chip segmentation. One widely
used method to model the average cutting force components is the
mechanistic modeling approach 7. This method has a proven
prediction accuracy over a range of cutting conditions while requiring a minimum number of calibration test data. Suited for the
orthogonal cutting configuration, the mechanistic modeling approach is not readily applicable to hard turning due to the 3D
cutting geometry and large tool nose radius that make the hard
turning process highly three dimensional.
When the effect of flank wear on cutting forces is considered, it
has been observed in conventional turning that as the tool wears
neither the shear angle 8 nor the chip thickness changes noticeably 9,10. Similar phenomena were observed in hard turning of
HV760 steel 11. Shintani et al. 12 further found that the effective tool geometry did not change throughout the cubic boron
nitride CBN tool life when hard turning carburized steel under
practical cutting conditions low feed rate, small depth of cut, and
gentle cutting speed. Although the underlying physical mechanism is not clear in this phase, these observations suggest that the
chip formation process in conventional and hard turning is not
significantly affected by the tool wear and also support the hypothesis that the total cutting forces can be treated as consisting of
two uncoupled parts: forces due to chip formation regardless of
the tool sharpness, and forces due to flank wear alone. But some
researchers still doubt the efficacy of this decoupling property.
Recently, Wang and Liu 13 argued that forces due to chip formation and forces due to flank wear should be coupled with each
other. Based on the depth of the phase transformed white layer in
hard turning, Wang and Liu 13 deduced the temperature profile

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along the tool flank face, and then estimated forces due to flank
wear from the deduced temperature information to support the
coupling assumption. But the phase transformation temperature is
sensitive to plastic deformation, pressure, and strain rate around
the worn flank face, it is difficult to estimate the temperature
profile based on the depth of white layer. Since the temperature
information is not accurate, the deduced forces are questionable.
In conclusion, their results cannot override that uncoupled property in this phase.
Although some researchers are still concerned about the uncoupled property, it is still valid to assume that forces due to chip
formation when tool is sharp and forces due to flank wear are
uncoupled. The forces due to flank wear have been studied
8,14,15 and it was found that the size of the plastic flow region
on the tool flank face increases with the progression of wear land
length. On this basis Smithey et al. 16,17 presented a basic worn
tool force model in a three-dimensional analysis. However, the
effect of hard turning conditions in terms of low feed rate, small
depth of cut, and relatively large tool nose radius were not explicitly documented. These are issues yet to be examined in more
detail.
In this paper, based on the assumption of uncoupled chip formation and tool wear effects, a three-dimensional chip formation
force model is first developed by the extension of a planar mechanistic force model into hard turning conditions to accommodate
the effects of tool geometry complexity and oblique cutting configuration. The mechanistic force model coefficients are estimated
with a genetic algorithm to overcome the lack of explicit normal
equations. Then the forces due to tool flank wear are modeled by
extending Waldorfs orthogonal force modeling approach 15
into a three-dimensional analysis while explicitly considering the
conditions of low feed rate, small depth of cut, and relatively large
tool nose radius. The forces due to chip formation and those due
to flank wear are superimposed to provide the total cutting forces.
Experimental evidence was presented with machining data of hard
turning 52100 bearing steel with CBN tools under practical cutting conditions in validation of the model.

Forces Due to Chip Formation in Hard Turning

2.1 Mechanistic Force Model in Orthogonal Cutting. If

the effect of chip segmentation is not considered, a method commonly used to estimate average cutting forces is the mechanistic
modeling approach. The advantage of the mechanistic force model
is its ability to calculate the cutting forces over a range of cutting
conditions with a reasonable accuracy while using a minimal
number of orthogonal cutting tests. To estimate the cutting force
and thrust force during orthogonal cutting, Kapoor et al. 7 used
the mechanistic modeling approach to express the normal force
and frictional force on the tool rake face as
NK n A cuttingK n tw,

FK f A cuttingK f tw

(1)

forces tended to decrease somewhat with a decrease in cutting

speed in milling of 42CrMo4 and turning of high speed steels, but
no such a conclusion in turning hardened 52100 steel. Apparently,
a further study needs to include the effect of cutting speed in
modeling the forces. To simplify the model, this study ignores the
force dependence on cutting speed based on the experimental observations and the result of Chou and Evans 20. However, the
effect of depth of cut on specific cutting energy cannot be ignored
since the depth of cut is only slightly greater than the feed rate and
the condition of plane strain is no longer warranted under hard
turning conditions. In terms of a power law relationship, the cutting pressure coefficients K n and K f can be expressed as
ln K n a 0 a 1 ln ta 2 ln wa 3 a 4 ln t ln w
ln K f b 0 b 1 ln tb 2 ln wb 3 b 4 ln t ln w

2.2 Equivalent
Two-Dimensional
Oblique
Cutting
Geometry Under Three-Dimensional Oblique Cutting Conditions. In hard turning, the orthogonal cutting configuration no
longer holds. To cut steels of high hardness, the tool is required to
have high strength and high fracture resistance. The inclination
angle, which is determined by the specified tool holder, is widely
adopted on manufacturing sites. At the same time, the tool is
designed to have a large nose radius for better surface finish and
good structural strength. Under the combined effect of these configurations, the oblique cutting configuration prevails in practical
hard turning. To model the forces under hard turning conditions,
the mechanistic model should be extended to 3D by considering
the equivalent cutting geometry. The equivalent planar cutting geometry, including the equivalent cutting edge normal rake angle
n* , the equivalent inclination angle i * , and the equivalent side
cutting edge angle C s* , can be calculated from the 3D oblique
cutting geometry transformation model as documented in Refs.
2123. The use of these equivalent cutting geometries for the
development of a 3D force model is given in the following
section.
2.3 Three-Dimensional Oblique Mechanistic Force Model.
Based on Stablers flow rule, the equivalent chip flow angle is

c* i *

F t K f A cutting cos K n A cutting sin

(2)

Experimental evidence had shown that the dependence of the

specific cutting energy on the chip thickness and cutting velocity
can be well described by a power law relationship 18,19. When
turning hardened 52100 bearing steel, the effect of velocity is
ignored herein because of the experimental observation that the
forces do not change with velocity within the recommended cutting velocity range 13 m/s. Chou and Evans 20 also reported
that cutting forces had little variation with cutting speed when
turning hardened 52100 steel, but Davies et al. 4 observed that
the specific cutting energy decreased significantly with speed using relatively large negative rake angle tools. Even an opposite
trend in hard turning has been mentioned in Ref. 1 that the
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

(4)

In determining turning forces the orthogonal cutting model can

be applied by assuming a zero inclination angle irrespective of its
actual value and with the rake angle in the orthogonal theory
taken as *
n 22. The equivalent undeformed chip thickness t *
and the equivalent width of cut w * are calculated by

Through an orthogonal transformation, the forces in the cutting

and thrust directions are
F c K n A cutting cos K f A cutting sin ,

(3)

The constants as and bs often depend on the tool geometry

and tool/workpiece material properties, and they need to be experimentally calibrated.

t * f cos C s* ,

w * d/cos C s*

(5)

In 3D oblique cutting with a large nose radius tool, the cutting

pressure coefficients K n and K f can be expressed in terms of the
equivalent rake angle, the equivalent undeformed chip thickness,
and the equivalent width of cut
ln K n a 0 a 1 ln t * a 2 ln w * a 3 *
n a 4 ln t * ln w *
ln K f b 0 b 1 ln t * b 2 ln w * b 3 *
n b 4 ln t * ln w * (6)
Referring to Refs. 22 and 23 with a single-point cutting tool,
the forces acting in the cutting, axial, and radial directions can be
calculated, respectively, as
P 1 F c ,

P 2 F t cos C s* F r sin C s* ,

P 3 F t sin C s* F r cos C s*

(7)

where
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Fig. 2 Typical flank wear profile of a chamfered CBN tool

Fig. 1 Cutting geometric model under typical hard turning

conditions o is the tool nose center of the previous
revolution

F r

(8)

F c sin i * cos i * sin *

n tan *
c F t cos *
n tan *
c
sin i * sin n* tan *
c cos i *

Where tool wear occurs, forces due to wear take place around
the tool worn flank face of the cutting edge ABD as shown in Fig.
1. Also shown in the figure is depth of cut and feed rate much
smaller than the tool nose radius. Force modeling under hard turning conditions has to accommodate these aspects. By dividing the
arc ABD of tool nose area into numerous chords of infinitesimal
size d around the tool flank face, the resultant forces due to flank
wear on each small chord d are treated as in the orthogonal
cutting case. Thus, the wear force components F tw and F cw on
each chord d can be calculated as

VB

d w z dz,

F cw

VB

d w z dz

(9)

in which w (z) and w (z) are computed based on Eqs. A2 and

A3 of Waldorfs worn tool force model 15 in the Appendix.
Suppose the chord d is corresponding to the angle d , that is
drd

(10)

the wear force components F tw and F cw can be calculated as

F tw

VB

rd w z dz,

F cw

VB

F wradial

ABD

F cw

/2

VB

In turning hardened 52100 steel, the typical progressive flank

wear is observed to be uniform as shown in Fig. 2 24. It is thus
assumed that flank wear has a constant length along the nose area,
and there is a zero inclination angle with respect to its actual
value. The total forces due to tool wear are the vector summation

VB

/2

BD

/2

VB

F
BD

/2

dzd
2

tw cos

r w z sin dzd

tw sin

r w z sin

tw sin

AB

r w z dzd

VB

r w z cos dzd

VB

r w z cos

dzd
2

(12)

where
1 Aoo cos1(f/(2r))
and
2 Doo
sin1((rd)/r)
In modeling the forces due to flank wear, shear flow stress and
shear angle need to be determined experimentally or theoretically
as a prerequisites.

4 Total Forces Under Hard Turning Conditions Considering Flank Wear

The total cutting forces in the cutting, axial, and radial directions are the summation of forces due to chip formation when the
tool is sharp and forces due to flank wear alone, that is
P 1total P 1 F wcutting ,

rd w z dz

tw cos

AB

P2

total P 2 F waxial ,

P 3total P 3 F wradial

(11)

264 Vol. 127, MAY 2005

3 Forces Due to Flank Wear Under Hard Turning

Conditions

F tw

F wcutting
F waxial

F c K n A cutting cos *
n K f A cutting sin *
n
F t K f A cutting cos n* K n A cutting sin n*

of the force components F tw and F cw . Therefore, the effective

forces (F wcutting , F waxial , and F wradial) due to flank wear under
hard turning conditions can be expressed, respectively, as

(13)

By substituting the known parts, the total cutting forces turn out
to be
P 1totalF c F wcutting ,

P 2totalF t cos C s* F r sin C s* F waxial ,

P 3totalF t sin C s* F r cos C s* F wradial

(14)

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Table 1 Estimated constants of cutting pressure coefficients the depths of cut and feeds are in mm, the rake angles are in
radian, and the cutting pressure coefficients are in Nmm2
a0

a1

a2

a3

a4

b0

b1

b2

b3

b4

8.2861

0.4050

0.3751

0.0973

0.1324

7.2890

0.4062

0.4156

0.2981

0.0226

where F c , F t , and F r are defined in Eq. 8, and F wcutting ,

F waxial , and F wradial in Eq. 12.

Experimental Results

On a Hardinge T-42SP lathe, a Kennametal CBN tool KD050

was used to face hardened 52100 bearing steel with a hardness
HRc 62. The tool has nose radius 0.8 mm, chamfer length 0.1 mm,
and chamfer angle 20 deg. The normal rake angle is 5 deg, the
expressed normal rake angle on the chamfered face is 25 deg,
and the inclination angle is 5 deg. No cutting fluid was applied.
Measurement of the flank wear length (VB) was taken by a Zygo
NewView 200 microscope, and forces were measured using a Kistler 9257B dynamometer mounted on the tool post.
5.1 Determination of Mechanistic Force Model. To utilize
the force model, constants as and bs in Eq. 6 must first be
determined. These constants depend on tool geometry and tool/
workpiece material properties, and they need to be calibrated
based on experimental data for every tool and workpiece combination. Since Eq. 7 is not analytically differentiable to cutting
conditions to provide a set of normal equations, conventional
curve fitting based on the least squares method cannot be used. To
overcome this difficulty, the determination of the constants is
treated as an optimization problem using a genetic algorithm 25.
Based on several experimental cutting force results, the
constants of cutting pressure coefficients as and bs were
solved by minimizing the difference between measured cutting forces and predicted cutting forces
as min ( P 1,m P 1,p ) 2 w 1 ( P 2,m P 2,p ) 2 ( P 3,m P 3,p ) 2 .
Since the axial feed force is relatively smaller compared to the
tangential and radial forces, a weighting factor w 1 was added to
the second term. In this case, w 1 was specified as 2.
By changing depth of cut and feed rate within the permissible
range, a total of 12 pairs of measured force data were utilized to

determine the constants, and the 3D mechanistic model was verified by other sets of independent force data. The estimated constants are listed in Table 1. The predicted forces are compared to
independent forces data over a wide range of cutting conditions as
shown in Figs. 3 and 4. As shown in Fig. 1, the actual undeformed
chip thickness varies along the cutting edge arc ABD. There is a
maximum undeformed chip thickness along the line OC. Under
some cutting conditions, the contact length for this maximum undeformed chip thickness will be greater than the chamfer length.
In these cases, rake face is involved in cutting also. From Fig. 3,
it can be seen that when feed is close or greater than 0.1 mm, the
predicted cutting forces show a relatively large deviation from the
experimental results. This is attributed to the fact that the chamfer
face is not the only effective cutting edge in this case. Generally,
under practical hard turning conditions the contact length does not
exceed the chamfer length so much. For example, for the cutting
conditions with tool nose radius0.8 mm, depth of cut0.2 mm,
and feed rate0.1 mm/rev, which is typical in hard turning, the
maximum undeformed chip thickness is 0.0623 mm. Contact
length can roughly be estimated as a value between one and two
times of undeformed chip thickness. Even considering the upper
boundary situation, only a small portion of rake face along the
cutting edge will be involved in cutting. Since two cutting edges
may involve under roughing hard turning conditions large feed
rate and large depth of cut, this approach will not be applicable to
accurately model the cutting forces. Fortunately, finishing hard
turning is generally adopted on manufacturing sites. Under those
conditions the proposed 3D oblique mechanistic model shows a
reasonable prediction accuracy.
5.2 Force Components Due to Tool Flank Wear. As prerequisites to the application of force model in Sec. 3, shear angle
and flow stress should be identified. In this study, the workpiece
material constitutive model is presented as a JohnsonCook equa-

Fig. 3 Forces change with feed rate when tool is sharp. Experimental data are
given by circles and model predictions by lines

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Fig. 4 Forces change with depth of cut when tool is sharp. Experimental data
are given by circles and model predictions by lines

tion as Eq. 15, which was determined by the orthogonal machining test 26,27. Oxleys predictive machining theory 21,26 was
utilized to estimate the shear angle and flow stress based on the
equivalent tool geometry discussed before. Under the conditions
of cutting velocity1.52 m/s, depth of cut0.2032 mm, and feed
rate0.0762 mm/rev, the estimated shear flow stress is 600 MPa,
and the estimated shear angle 15 deg.

774.78134.46 0.3710 10.0173 ln

TT r
T m T r

3.1710

MPa

(15)

The variables m p and m w in Waldorfs model 15,28 in the Appendix are taken as 0.9, 0.8, and zero. Smithey et al. 17
treated VB * 0.38 mm for steel workpiece and VB * 0.2 mm for
ductile iron workpiece. For hardened 52100 steel, VB * needs to
be decided by the experiments as described by Smithey et al. 16.
Normally, the plastic zone is not observed even when wear land is
as large as 300 m in hard turning steels. For Kennametal uncoated CBN tool series, tool life is decided when reaching 125
200 m wear land widths, respectively, under practical hard turning conditions as tools tend to chip or fracture. Since VB * is
greater than VB in practical hard turning, in this study it is assumed that only elastic contact exists between the tool flank face
and the workpiece before the tool fails.
Under the conditions of cutting velocity1.52 m/s, depth of
cut0.2032 mm, and feed rate0.0762 mm/rev, the predicted
force variations in three directions due to tool flank wear are
shown in Figs. 57. There are discrepancies between the model
predictions and experimental results for small wear lands. These
discrepancies are accredited to two possible reasons. First, during
the break-in wear period the wear land flank wear length is not
uniform as assumed. Second, the wear measurement error is
around 5 m. The possible measurement error is comparable
with small wear land widths. The CBN tool failed when VB
0.15 mm under these cutting conditions before the plastic zone
was observed.
5.3 Total Cutting Forces With the Progression of Flank
Wear. Total forces are the sum of forces due to chip formation
and forces due to flank wear. The forces due to chip formation are
266 Vol. 127, MAY 2005

calculated based on the 3D oblique mechanistic model with cutting velocity1.52 m/s, depth of cut0.2032 mm, and feed rate
0.0762 mm/rev, the predicted cutting, axial, and radial forces are
91, 51, and 115 N, respectively. By adding force variations due to
flank wear under these cutting conditions, the total cutting forces
with the progression of flank wear are shown in Fig. 8.
Similarly, the proposed model is further verified by other cutting conditions with cutting velocity1.21 m/s, depth of cut
0.2032 mm, and feed rate0.1143 mm/rev; the estimated cutting, axial, and radial forces are 144, 90, and 204 N, and the total
cutting forces with the progression of flank wear are shown in Fig.
9. The CBN tool failed when VB0.17 mm for these cutting conditions before the plastic zone was observed.

Conclusions and Discussion

The first portion of this paper presents the modeling of the

cutting forces due to chip formation under hard turning conditions. By ignoring the force variation due to chip segmentation, a
three-dimensional oblique cutting model is developed by extending a planar mechanistic approach based on the equivalent cutting
geometries. A genetic algorithm was applied to identify the coefficients of the mechanistic force due to the unavailability of explicit normal equations. In the second part of this paper, by extending Waldorfs two-dimensional 2D worn force modeling
approach 15 into a 3D analysis to accommodate the effect of
tool geometry and hard turning complexities, the forces due to
flank wear alone are modeled. In this study, along the tool-chip
interface material flow stress is treated as a function of strain,
strain rate, and temperature as described by the JohnsonCook
equation. Shear angle and shear flow stress were estimated by
Oxleys predictive machining theory. These flow stress data are
considered the same as that along the tool-workpiece interface and
were used in the worn tool force calculation. Subsequently, the
total cutting forces under hard turning conditions can be estimated
as the sum of forces due to chip formation and forces due to flank
wear. The experimental results show that the predicted forces due
to chip formation, forces due to flank wear, and total cutting
forces match those of experiments well under practical hard turning conditions.
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Fig. 5 Tangential cutting force variation with the progression of flank wear.
Experimental data are given by circles and model predictions by lines

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Ty G. Dawson at
Georgia Tech for his discussion and assistance during the machining experiments and Anand Ramesh at Georgia Tech for the orthogonal hard grooving data.

Nomenclature
A cutting cutting cross sectional area
a 0 , a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 constants of cutting pressure coefficient K n

b 0 , b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , b 4 constants of cutting pressure coefficient K f

C s* equivalent side cutting edge angle
d depth of cut
F frictional force on the rake face
F c , F r , F t cutting forces relative to the tool cutting edge
F cw , F tw forces due to flank wear in orthogonal cutting
F wcutting, F waxial, F wradial forces due to flank wear in 3-D turning case

Fig. 6 Axial force variation with the progression of flank wear. Experimental
data are given by circles and model predictions by lines

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Fig. 7 Radial force variation with the progression of flank wear. Experimental
data are given by circles and model predictions by lines

f
i*
Kn , K f
k
mp

feed rate
equivalent inclination angle
cutting pressure coefficients
shear flow stress
friction factor at the cutting edge of
the tool
m w slip-line field angle for friction on
the flank wear land
N normal force on the rake face
P 1 , P 2 , P 3 forces in cutting, axial, and radial
directions

P 1,m , P 2,m , P 3,m measured forces in cutting, axial, and

radial directions
P 1,p , P 2,p , P 3,p predicted forces in cutting, axial, and
radial directions
P 1total , P 2total , P 3total total cutting, axial, and radial forces
of a worn tool
r tool nose radius
t undeformed chip thickness
t * equivalent undeformed chip thickness
VB flank wear length wear land width

Fig. 8 Total cutting forces with the progression of flank wear cutting velocity
1.52 ms, depth of cut0.2032 mm, and feed rate0.0762 mmrev. Experimental data are given by circles and model predictions by lines

268 Vol. 127, MAY 2005

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Fig. 9 Total cutting forces with the progression of flank wear cutting velocity
1.21 ms, depth of cut0.2032 mm, and feed rate0.1143 mmrev. Experimental data are given by circles and model predictions by lines

VB * critical flank wear length in which

plastic flow initiates
w width of cut
w * equivalent width of cut
cutting edge normal rake angle
n* equivalent cutting edge normal rake
angle
*c equivalent chip flow angle
friction coefficient along the tool
flank face
prow angle
w (x) normal stress along the flank worn
face
w (x) shear stress along the flank worn face
shear angle

Appendix: Waldorfs Wear Force Model

F tww

VB

w x dx,

F cww

VB

w x dx

(A1)

To estimate the forces due to flank wear, the flank normal

stresses w and shear stress w must be properly modeled first.
The results based on the slip-line field method as proposed by
Waldorf 15 and Waldorf et al. 28 are briefly reviewed here. For
a small flank wear length, there is only elastic contact between the
tool flank face and the workpiece. Due to the high temperature
and stress on the flank of the tool, there is a critical wear land
width, VB * , at which plastic flow is initiated at the front of the
wear land. For this case, if VBVB * , purely elastic contact is
present, but if VBVB * , plastic flow of the workpiece is present
at the front edge of the wear land, elastic contact will also be
present at the back of the wear land.
Given shear flow stress k and shear angle , if only elastic
contact exists between the tool flank face and the workpiece, the
tool tip stresses w and w can be modeled as

As shown in Fig. A1, the force components due to flank wear in

orthogonal cutting can be calculated as

w x 0

VBx
VB

0 ,

for 0xVB,

for 0xVB 1

w ,

w x

for VB 1

0
0

0
xVB
0

(A2)

where

0 k 1 2 2 2 sin 2 2 ,
2

0 k cos 2 2
p sin1 2 sin sin p ,
Fig. A1 Forces due to flank wear in orthogonal cutting

Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

p 0.5 cos1 m p

The variable m p is the friction factor at the cutting edge of the

tool, and it is assumed to be unity due to the adhesive nature of
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contact at the tool cutting edge. The variable is the prow angle
of the workpiece directly in front of the tool and can be taken as
zero as suggested by Waldorf.
If VBVB * , the tool tip stresses w and w can be modeled as

w x

w x

where

for 0xVBVB *
VBx
VB *

0 ,
w ,

for VBVB * xVB,

for 0xVBVB *

0
0

0
xVB
0

12
13

(A3)

0 k 1 2 2 w sin 2 w ,
2

0 k cos 2 w ,

w 0.5 cos1 m w

The term m w , which is the slip-line field angle for friction on

the flank wear land, is similar to the friction factor at the tool
cutting edge and is also assumed by Waldorf to be close to unity.

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