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The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the set in of air pollution in Europe on a large
scale. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating and cooking.
Due to burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of smoke and sulphur
dioxide were much greater in winters than they were during the summer months. Smoke
particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog often settled over cities
for many days.
The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted for several
days. Many people suffered respiratory problems and increased deaths were recorded, notably
those relating to bronchial causes.
The smog-related deaths were first recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In
1880, the toll was more than 1000. London had one of its worst experiences of smog in
December 1892. It lasted for three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths. Despite gradual
improvements in air quality during the 20th century, eight air pollution episodes occurred in
London between 1948 and 1962. The December 1952 episode is the major episode in the
history of air pollution.
The Killer Smog began on Thursday, Dec. 4, 1952 as a high-pressure air mass created a
subsidence temperature inversion over southern England. With the particulate and SO2 levels
going up due to extensive use of coal as fuel for space heating and electric production, the fog
turned black.
At the same time the high-pressure area stalled and became stationary. The build up of
pollutants combined with the fog resulted in essentially zero visibility. Within a matter of three
days, the pollutants were concentrated enough to cause deaths. The old and respiratory
affected died first, but younger people exposed to the outside atmosphere were also affected.
The maximum daily SO2 concentration recorded at that time was 1.34 ppm (about 4000 g/m3,
standard SO2 conc. in clean dry atmosphere is 0.0002 ppm) and smoke levels were 4.46 mg/m3.
The Great London Smog lasted for five days and lifted on 9th Dec, resulting in about 4000 deaths.
In the mid night of 2nd - 3rd December 1984, in a densely populated area of Bhopal, Central India,
a poisonous vapor burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide pesticide plant.
About forty tons of toxic gases had leaked from the Carbides Bhopal plant and spread
throughout the city. The cause was the contamination of Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) storage tank
with water carrying catalytic material.
Residents of the city awoke to clouds of suffocating gas, unaware of the magnitude of the
devastation, which had engulfed them. The city of Bhopal was immediately turned into a city of
dead bodies, and the whole place smelled of burning chilli peppers.
Of the million people living in Bhopal at that time, more than 2,000 died immediately (one
fourth of actual figures) and as many as 300,000 were injured. In addition, about 7,000 animals
were affected, of which about 1000 were killed. The precise number of deaths still remains a
mystery till date.
The degree of injury was so high that about 30% of the injured were unable to return to their
jobs. Among the survivors, most of them still suffer agonizing pain from the disastrous effects of
the massive poisoning while there are still apprehensions of the future generations being
affected. The Bhopal Disaster was the worst episode in the history of industrial air pollution.
Horror visited the US Steel company town of Donora on the Halloween night of 1948, when a
temperature inversion descended on the town.
Fluoride emissions from the Donora Zinc Works smelting operation and other sources containing
sulphur, carbon monoxide and heavy metal dusts were trapped by weather conditions, causing
20 deaths within 14 hours.
Cold ground and high-pressure conditions intensified the elevated inversion of the anticyclone
that arrived in the region. The situation was aggravated by local conditions of meteorology,
industrial pollutant emissions and peculiar terrain of the area.
The meteorological conditions and the geographical characteristics of the area produced a
strong temperature inversion with a temperature gradient as high as 33oC/km. The fog was held
close to the ground by the stability of the elevated inversion layer.
During the third and fourth days of the episode, as ambient levels of pollutants escalated,
almost half of the population of 14,000 people became ill. Almost 43 % of the population in
Donora and Webster, PA experienced the effects of the smog.
Most of the affected were above the age group of 60 years and above (29% of this group were
seriously affected). The health effects were mainly symptoms affecting the lung, and in
particular, upper respiratory symptoms such as nasal discharge, constriction of the throat, or
sore throat were experienced.
Smoke Haze Episodes in Malaysia 1997
Between July and November 1997, an estimated 45,000 km 2 of forest and land burnt
on the islands Sumatra and Kalimantan.
In the first half of 1998, another fire episode affected roughly a similar area in
Kalimantan alone. The emissions of these fires caused considerable air pollution
throughout the Southeast Asian region, notably in Indonesia, Singapore and
Malaysia.
The air pollutant that predominantly caused violations of ambient air quality
standards was particulate matter. Particulate matter may cause acute and chronic
respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, asthma and upper respiratory tract
infections. Increased ambient particle concentrations are suspected to be linked with
increased daily mortality. By scattering and absorbing light, particulates also result in
reduced visibility, impairing transportation by air, land and water. Fire-related air
pollution episodes are a recurrent phenomenon in Southeast Asia.
Nine such incidents have been reported over the last 20 years, of which the 1997/98
smoke haze episode attracted the broadest attention.
In contrast to Singapore and Malaysia, Indonesia does not yet have an integrated air
quality monitoring network which could provide real-time, region-covering air quality
information.
Due to the absence of such information, an assessment of the severity of the firerelated air pollution episodes is limited. As a surrogate, horizontal visibility was
frequently used to report the status of ambient air pollution. However, even though
sufficient information on the status of air quality was available in Singapore and
Malaysia, much uncertainty existed on the impacts of such air pollution episodes and
on how to response adequately to them.
Dubious statements in the media on the impacts of the smoke haze were
disseminated - such as the daily exposure would equal to 20 to 40 cigarettes; panic
easily evolved.
During the peak episode, satellite imagery (NASA/TOMS aerosol index maps) showed
a smoke haze layer which expanded over an area of more than 3 million km 2,
covering large parts of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Its northward extension partially
reached Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Thailand.
Scanty particle measurement data at hand for areas close to fires in Kalimantan and
Sumatra indicate that ambient particle concentration was roughly 20 to 40 times the
normal (non-haze) background concentration and exceeded levels categorised as
'hazardous' (or 'significant harm level'). Monthly mean horizontal visibility at most
locations in Sumatra and Kalimantan in September was below 1 km and daily
maximum visibility was frequently below 100 metres.
In contrast to the situation in 1997, the fire-related air pollution episode in the first
half of 1998 was essentially restricted to Borneo. This was mainly due to the
weakened southerly monsoonal flow by that time. However, again, the population in
Kalimantan and Borneo-Malaysia was exposed to distinctively elevated air pollution
for a period of months.
EQASECTION 29A
1. No person shall allow or cause open burning on any premises
2. Maximum fine RM 500,000
3. Maximum jail term 5 years Or Both
Sulfur is contained within all fossil fuels, and is released in the form of sulfur dioxide
(SO2) during fossil fuel combustion. Fossil fuel combustion accounts for almost all
anthropogenic (human-caused) sulfur emissions.
Sulfur contents in fossil fuels range between 0.1% and 4% in oil, oil by-products
and coal, and up to 40% in natural gas (when immediately extracted from the well;
however, the sulfur is efficiently removed during the processing of gas before
distribution; therefore, combustion of natural gas is not a major source of sulfur
emissions
Historically, the use of coal in domestic heating was a major source of sulfur dioxide
emissions (at least in the UK), but it has declined substantially over time.
Over the last several decades the industrial use of coal in the UK has also declined,
whereas the use of oil and natural gas has gradually increased.
In the UK, the sulfur dioxide emissions declined significantly since 1970, thanks to
the introduction of low sulfur fuels, the switch from coal to gas and increased energy
efficiency.
This trend is possibly true for other industrialized countries as well, though the US
as the most important economy in the world is still a large consumer of energy
derived from coal.
Below is a breakdown of all the significant sources of sulfur dioxide emissions (based
on sources of the UK emissions) :
1. Energy Production
a. Electric power generation
b. Petroleum refining
c. Other combustion
d. Commercial and residential use
e. Combustion for industry use
f. Production processes
g. Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels
h. Transport
2. Road transport
a. Other Transport (such as aviation, ships, trains).
Currently, the most important sources of sulfur dioxide emissions (as a result of
fossil fuel combustion) are electric power generating plants.
For example, as of 1998, 66% of all sulfur dioxide emissions in the UK came from
power plants. In contrast, transport contributions of sulfur dioxide emissions are
among the smallest ones
In fact, you may be surprised to learn that just one Siberian city in Russia Norilsk
produces 1% of the total global emissions of sulfur dioxide. In 2007, Norilsk was
considered to be one of the most polluted places on Earth.
The main natural sulfur emissions come in the reduced forms of sulfur compounds
such as
a. hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
b. carbon disulfide (CS2)
c. carbonyl sulfide (COS) and in the organic forms of:
d. methyl mercaptan (CH3SH)
e. dimethyl sulfide (DMS) (CH3SCH3)
f. dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) (CH3SSCH3)
Most of these compounds get oxidized to sulfur dioxide or to sulfate aerosols in the
atmosphere.
Marine phytoplankton produce dimethyl sulfide (DMS) which is then oxidized to SO2
in the atmosphere; decay processes in soil and vegetation produce H2S (as one of
sulfur compounds); and SO2 is emitted into the atmosphere by volcanoes.
Around 90% of all natural sulfur emissions come in the form of DMS.
Most recently the natural sources have been by far surpassed by anthropogenic
sources. Natural sources have been estimated to produce around 24% of all sulfur
dioxide emissions, whereas human-caused emissions made up around 76%.
b.
c.
d.
e.
corrodes metals
f.
2. Nitrogen Oxides
Oxides of nitrogen are produced by combustion of all fossil fuels including coal- and
gas-fired power stations and motor vehicles
Whereas fuel itself can produce some nitrogen (for example, oil and coal contain
around 0.5 1.5% of nitrogen, and natural gas contains less than that most of
nitrogen oxides' production comes from the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and
oxygen within the combustion chamber.
The two main nitrogen oxides are nitric oxide (NO), or nitrogen monoxide, and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) the sum of which is equal to NOx.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a gas of reddish-brown color with a distinct sharp, biting
odor. (26)
But almost 90% of the NOX combustion product is in the form of NO which is then
oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the air
For example, based on 1998 UK figures, road transport contributed nearly half of
all nitrogen emissions, followed by contributions from electric power generating
plants which only contributed around 20% of total nitrogen emissions
5. Petroleum refining
6. Other combustion
7. Combustion for industry use
8. Production processes
9. Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels.
Nitric oxide (NO) is also emitted by soils but there is very little data available for the proper
assessment of this area.
Some estimates suggest that the soil production of NO in the UK may be around 2 5% of its
production from fossil fuel combustion.
Be part of acid rain (destroying fish and plant life in lakes, damaging surfaces of buildings etc)
But not all such combustion is complete, and this leads to the production of carbon monoxide
(CO).
Motor vehicles and industry are among the largest anthropogenic sources of carbon monoxide
emissions.
Carbon monoxide is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries around the
world.
Problems with getting oxygen supplied to some body parts which may be lifethreatening.
4. Particular Matter
Particles can come in almost any shape or size, and can be solid particles or liquid
droplets. We divide particles into two major groups. These groups differ in many
ways. One of the differences is size, we call the bigger particles PM10 and we call the
smaller particles PM2.5.
The big particles are between 2.5 and 10 micrometers (from about 25 to 100 times
thinner than a human hair). These particles are called PM10 (we say "P M ten", which
stands for Particulate Matter up to 10 micrometers in size). These particles cause
less severe health effects.
The small particles are smaller than 2.5 micrometers (100 times thinner than a
human hair). These particles are called PM2.5 (we say "P M two point five", as in
Particulate Matter up to 2.5 micrometers in size).
Size isn't the only difference. Each type of particle is made of different material and
comes from different places.
are
and roads
toxic organic
compounds
heavy metals
driving automobiles
How theyre
made
The smaller particles are lighter and they stay in the air longer and travel farther.
PM10 (big) particles can stay in the air for minutes or hours while PM2.5 (small)
particles can stay in the air for days or weeks. And travel? PM10 particles can travel
as little as a hundred yards or as much as 30 miles. PM2.5 particles go even farther;
many hundreds of miles.
When you inhale, you breathe in air along with any particles that are in the air. The
air and the particles travel into your respiratory system (your lungs and airway).
Along the way the particles can stick to the sides of the airway or travel deeper into
the lungs.
Smaller particles can pass through the smaller airways. Bigger particles are more
likely to stick to the sides or get wedged into one of the narrow passages deep in the
lung.
Other factors that affect how deep into the lungs particles can go:
1. Mouth or nose breathing. Breathing through your mouth allows particles to travel
deeper into your lungs.
2. Exercise. While exercising, particles can travel deeper.
3. Age. Older people breath less deeply so particles may not get as deep.
4. Lung disease. If lung diseases block the airway, particles will not travel as far.
5. Weather (temperature).
6. Other pollutants in the air.
Lungs produce mucous to trap the particles, and tiny hairs wiggle to move the
mucous and particles out of the lung. If the particle is small and it gets very far into
the lungs, special cells in the lung trap the particles and then they can't get out and
this can result in lung disease, emphysema, lung cancer.
Health Effects
Both PM10 (big) and PM2.5 (small) particles can cause health problems; specifically
respiratory health (that's the lungs and airway).
Because the PM2.5 travels deeper into the lungs AND because the PM2.5 is made
up things that are more toxic (like heavy metals and cancer causing organic
compounds), PM2.5 can have worse health effects than the bigger PM10.
Exposure to particulate matter leads to increased use of medication and more visits
to the doctor or emergency room. Health effects include the following:
1. Coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath
2. Aggravated asthma
Lead occurs naturally in the environment and has many industrial uses. However,
ongoing exposure to even small amounts of lead can be harmful to your health.
Everyone is exposed to trace amounts of lead through air, soil, household dust, food,
drinking water and some consumer products. The amount of lead in the environment
increased during the industrial revolution, and again significantly in the 1920s with
the introduction of leaded gasoline.
However, since the early 1970s lead exposure in Canada has gone down
substantially, mainly because leaded gasoline and lead-based paint were phased out
and the use of lead solder in food cans was virtually eliminated.
Source Of lead:
o
Food - Traces of lead are found in almost all food. Airborne lead falls onto
crops or soil and is absorbed by plants. Lead solder used in making cans may
also contaminate food. However, in Canada food manufacturers have
eliminated the use of lead-soldered cans. Infants can also absorb lead from
their mothers' bodies through breast milk
Air - Lead in soil can come from the air or from erosion of lead-bearing rocks,
and may be carried indoors as dust. Lead dust can also come from within the
home, especially older homes that used lead-based paints or lead solder.
Lead dust is especially dangerous for babies and young children, because they
tend to put things in their mouths and their breathing zone is closer to floor
level where lead dust tends to collect.
Drinking Water - lead can enter the water supply from lead solder in
plumbing, lead service connections or lead pipes in your home. Lead is more
likely to be found in soft or very acidic water and in very old or very new
homes
Lead builds up in the body, so ongoing exposure to even very small amounts of lead
can be harmful, especially to infants and young children. Lead taken in by pregnant
women can also present a danger to the health of unborn children.
Anaemia is common and lead can also damage the brain and nervous system. Other
symptoms are:
appetite loss
abdominal pain
constipation
fatigue
sleeplessness
irritability
headache
Repeated, prolonged exposure to lead can affect your kidneys.
Lead exposure is most serious for young children because their growing bodies
absorb lead more easily than adults and they are more vulnerable to its harmful
effects.
Young children and infants are more likely to be exposed to lead because of their
natural habit of putting objects into their mouths.
even low level lead exposure may harm the intellectual development, behaviour, size
and hearing of infants. During pregnancy, especially in the last trimester, lead can
cross the placenta and affect an unborn child.
Female workers exposed to high levels of lead have more miscarriages and
stillbirths.
5. Ozone (O3)
Ozone (O3) is a colorless, poisonous gas with a sharp, cold, irritating odor.
1. the stratosphere, one of the upper layers of the atmosphere, where it occurs
naturally, and
2. the troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere, where it occurs both naturally
and as a result of human-generated emissions.
The process of ozone formation may take several days to complete, and ozone itself
may turn out to be far from the sources of original primary pollutant emissions.
Compromised lung function harming the breathing process which may become more
rapid and more shallow than normal
Aggravation of asthma
Greenhouse Effect
3. Happen when Earths temperature rise by certain atmospheric gases that trap
the Suns energy
4. Suns energy passes through atmosphere
1. 26% is reflected or scattered
2. 19% absorbed by clouds, gases, and particles
3. 4% reflected to space by surface
4.
2. Deforestation
3. Use of fertilizers
4. Burning of organic matter
5. Burning of fossil fuels
Source
Health Effect
What to do
By-products of
Unvented kerosene
1. Avoid use of
combustion (such
throat irritation,
unvented gas or
as CO, CO
gas appliances,
impaired lung
kerosene space
function and
heaters
burning fireplaces,
respiratory
2. Keep gas
leaking chimneys
function in
appliances and
and furnaces,
children,
furnaces properly
tobacco smoke,
bronchitis, lung
adjusted
automobile
cancer, flu-like
exhaust in
symptoms.
exhaust fans
, NO x )
attached garages
4. Change filters on
heating/cooling
systems and air
cleaners
5. Increase of
supply of outside
air 6. Proper
location of air
intakes to avoid
exhaust from
vehicles
Radon
Local geology,
Lung cancer,
soil, water
possibly
opening in the
stomach cancer
basement
2.ventilate crawl
space
3.Increase
ventilation
Asbestos
Deteriorating or
1.Test the
damaged
diseases
suspected
insulation,
(smoker at
material
fireproofing, or
higher risk)
2.Remove
acoustical
asbestos by
materials
trained
contractor
3.Develop
maintenance plan
4.Encapsulation
of material
containing
asbestos
Organic Material
Paint, solvent,
wood
throat irritation,
you need
preservative,
aerosol spray,
of coordination,
follow instruction
cleaner and
nausea, damage
3.Used in well
disinfectant, air
to kidney and
ventilate area or
freshener, hobby
nervous system,
outdoor
Some cause
cleaned clothes
cancer in animal
clothes in open
and human
area about 6
hour
Formaldehyde
Pressed wood
1.Used product
product
throat irritation,
(hardwood,
coughing,
rates of
plywood,
fatigue, rashes
formaldehyde
particleboard,
and allergic
2.Keep humidity
fiberboard) used
reaction, cause
low in house
in building and
cancer to
3.Increase
furniture,
animal, death at
ventilation
permanent press
very high
textile, glue,
concentration
vehicle exhaust,
stoves, fireplace
Lead/heavy
Paint,
Headache,
1.Vaccum
metal
automobile,
irritation in
regularly
tobacco smoke,
mouth, rash,
2. Removal of
kidney damage
lead in paint
Biological
Mold, dust
Allergic reactions,
Pollutant
mites, pet
including
dander (skin
hypersensitivity
flakes),
pneumonitis,
outdoors in
droppings and
allergic rhinitis,
kitchens and
bathrooms and
cockroaches,
asthma. Infectious
vent clothes
rodents and
illnesses, such as
dryers outdoors.
other pests or
influenza, measles,
2. Thoroughly
insects, viruses,
and bacteria
are transmitted
water-damaged
carpets and
building materials
release disease-
(within 24 hours
causing toxins.
if possible) or
Symptoms of
consider removal
health problems
and replacement.
caused by
3. Keep the
biological
house clean.
pollutants include
House dust
sneezing, watery
mites, pollens,
eyes, coughing,
animal dander,
shortness of
and other
breath, dizziness,
allergy-causing
lethargy, fever,
agents can be
and digestive
reduced,
problems.
although not
eliminated,
through regular
cleaning.
4. Clean and
disinfect the
basement floor
drain regularly
Advantages/Disadvantage
Advantages:
provided.
2. Cyclone
1.Cyclone is an enclosed,
Advantages:
Collector
conical tube
maintenance workers
gas.
Disadvantages:
(oldest)
construction; and
Chambers
tion
chambers.
Sedimenta
chambers or expansion
5. Excellent reliability;
nal
4. No moving parts, therefore, few maintenance requirements and low operating costs;
Gravitatio
2. used only for very large particles in the upper end of the super coarse size range
1.
Disadvantage :
pressured drop
bottom.
distribution
3.Wet
Scrubber
Advantages:
flow.
environment.
of scrubbing liquid
initiating particle
agglomeration.
4. The coarser particles
produced are washed down to
the slurry outlet.
5. A restriction disc located in
the scrubbing vane assembly
accelerates the spin velocity
of the gas. This action
combined with the flood of
4. Fabric
Collector
Advantages:
1.Bag houses have a very high collection
efficiency for both large and small particle
2. They are modular in design, and they can
operate on a wide variety of dust types and
wide range of flow rates with reasonably low
pressure drops.
Disadvantages:
1. Bag houses require large floor areas to
operate, need frequent cleaning, have the
potential for fire/explosion hazards, and need
bag replacement.
2.The fabric filters have the potential to
degrade from high temperatures or corrosive
environments. The filters may also become
clogged in highly humid or moist
environments.
5.Electric
Advantages:
Precipitato
2. Precipitators function by
electro statically charging the
Disadvantages:
stream.
electrical resistivity
The air quality in Malaysia is reported as the API or Air Pollution Index. API reported
daily air quality.API is calculated based on major air pollution in Malaysia.
The main purpose of API is to help people to understand mean to your health.
Final API valued is calculated based on the highest reading for all 5 parameter. Each
parameter value is calculated per day.
This scale below shows the Health classifications used by the Malaysian government.
0-50 Good
51-100 Moderate
101-200 Unhealthy
301- Hazardous
If the API exceeds 500, a state of emergency is declared in the reporting area.