Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No.

2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE

Sulawesi: a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia
Kehadiran Sulfida Nikel yang berkaitan dengan Serpentin di Latao,
Sulawesi Tenggara: suatu Frontier Baru Eksplorasi Nikel di Indonesia
Robby Rafianto, Frans Attong, Alan Matano, and M. Erwin Syam Noor
Mines and Exploration Department PT. INCO Tbk.,
Sorowako, South Sulawesi 92984, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Along the history of nickel exploration and mining in Indonesia, there was no nickel sulfide deposit
reported and relatively unknown. All known nickel deposits in Indonesia are lateritic deposits
as a weathering product of ultramafic rocks. The major nickel sulfide deposit types in the world are
under category of komattites associated, basal and stratabound in mafic-ultramafic intrusions, astrobleme associated (Sudbury type), and few others reported hosted in black-shale deposits, epigenetic
hydrothermal or serpentine-related deposits. The latter type is discussed in this paper that potentially
related to nickel sulfide occurrences in PT. INCOs Latao Contract of Work concession. At the beginning, the exploration in Latao was taken during 1970 - 1975 and 1980 to confirm the occurrences of
podiform chromite deposits. The Exploration Department conducted a modern exploration in 2007
- 2009 in order to get basic information for chromite potentials. The preliminary results showed that
the podiform chromite is relatively small potential. However, some findings were surprising during
detail geological mapping programs. Some series of silica alteration, rich magnetite rock bodies, altered
serpentinized ultramafic rocks related to Ni Co mineralizations (0.5% to 2% Ni; 0.05% - 0.2% Co)
were found. During a 2008 drill test program, four holes intersected unusual Ni-Co mineralizations
at certain depths and related to the silica alterations. These mineralizations could not be explained by
a traditional nickel laterite theory as normally applied in Indonesian geological setting. The visual
sulfide minerals are difficult to observe. However, the petrographic and EPMA mineralogical analyses
from some surface rock samples showed the occurrences of pentlandite, Co-pentlandite, and millerite
as representing the nickel sulfide minerals. The Ni-Co mineralization is interpreted to have relationships with serpentine and mainly epigenetic nickel-sulphide type. Due to serpentinization of olivine,
the nickel in the olivine was released and nickel bearing sulfides were formed depending on sulfur
availability. The 2011 detail IP geophysical survey and further test drilling program are required to
validate further this unique mineralization type. The large tonnage-low grade nickel sulfide deposits
(+ 200 Mt @ 0.1% Ni) that can produce high grade nickel concentrate like Ronnbacken serpentinite
deposit in Sweden is a current major exploration target. This is a potential new frontier of nickel
exploration in Indonesia.
Keywords: nickel sulfide, serpentine, lateritic, ultramafic, new frontier, nickel exploration, Latao,
Sulawesi
SARI
Sepanjang sejarah eksplorasi dan penambangan nikel di Indonesia, laporan mengenai cebakan
sulfida nikel tidak pernah ada, sehingga keberadaannya relatif tak diketahui. Semua cebakan nikel
yang diketahui di Indonesia berupa cebakan lateritis hasil pelapukan batuan ultramafik. Di dunia,
tipe cebakan nikel sulfida utama hadir dalam kategori yang berasosiasi dengan komatit, basal, dan
lapisan yang berada dalam intrusi mafik-ultramafik, asosiasi astrobleme (tipe Sudbury), dan beberapa
lainnya yang terdapat dalam endapan serpih hitam, hidrotermal epigenetis atau cebakan yang terkait
dengan serpentin. Tipe terakhir yang didiskusikan dalam makalah ini adalah yang berpotensi berkaitan
Naskah diterima: 11 Oktober 2011, revisi terakhir: 26 Juli 2012, disetujui: 06 Agustus 2012

87

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

dengan kehadiran sulfida nikel di daerah konsesi Latao, PT.INCO. Eksplorasi awal di Latao dilaksanakan pada 1970 1975 dan pada 1980 ditemukan keberadaan cebakan khromit podiform. Untuk
mendapatkan informasi dasar potensi kromit, pada 2007 2009, Departemen Eksplorasi melaksanakan sebuah eksplorasi modern. Hasil awal memperlihatkan bahwa kromit podiform potensinya
relatif kecil. Namun, selama program pemetaan geologi terperinci ditemukan sejumlah seri alterasi
silika, batuan yang kaya akan magnetit, serta batuan ultramafik terserpentinkan dan terubah yang
berkaitan dengan mineralisasi Ni-Co (0,5 2 % Ni; 0,05 0,2 Co). Dalam program pengeboran
uji 2008, pada kedalaman tertentu, empat lubang menembus mineralisasi Ni-Co yang tidak lazim
dan berkaitan dengan alterasi silika. Mineralisasi ini tidak dapat diterangkan dengan teori laterit
tradisional seperti yang biasanya diterapkan dalam tataan geologi Indonesia. Secara visual, mineral
sulfida ini susah diamati. Namun, analisis petrografi dan mineralogis EPMA terhadap percontoh
batuan permukaan menunjukkan keberadaan pentlandit, Co-pentlandit, dan milerit sebagai representasi kehadiran mineral sulfida nikel. Mineralisasi Ni-Co diduga mempunyai hubungan dengan
serpentin dan terutama tipe sulfida nikel epigenetis. Akibat proses serpentinisasi terhadap olivin,
nikel dalam olivin terlepaskan dan sulfida pembawa nikel terbentuk bergantung pada ketersediaan
sulfur. Survei geofisika IP terperinci 2011 dan program pemboran uji yang lebih lanjut diperlukan
untuk memvalidasi lebih jauh tipe mineralisasi yang unik tersebut. Cebakan sulfida nikel yang besar
(+ 200 Mt @ 0,1 % Ni) yang dapat menghasilkan konsentrat nikel kualitas tinggi seperti cebakan
serpentinit Ronnbacken di Swedia adalah target eksplorasi utama saat ini. Hal ini merupakan suatu
eksplorasi nikel new frontier yang potensial di Indonesia.
Kata kunci: : sulfida nikel, serpertin, lateritik, ultramafik, new frontier, eksplorasi nikel, Latao,
Sulawesi

INTRODUCTION
The Latao (Contract of Work) CoW located
in the western coast of the southeastern
arm of Sulawesi Island. Administratively
fall under in Batuputih subregency, Kolaka
Utara Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province. It is approximately 115 km or 3 hours
land travel from Sorowako (Figure 1). The
3,148.11 ha areas have altitudes ranging of
10 to 370 m above sea level.
Along the history of nickel exploration and
mining in Indonesia, no nickel sulfide deposit was reported and relatively unknown.
All known nickel deposits in Indonesia are
lateritic deposits as weathering product of
ultramafic rocks. The finding of nickel sulfide occurrence in Indonesia is an important
milestone to the history of nickel exploration
in Indonesia.
The nickel sulfide deposits can be defined as
a broad group of deposits containing nickel
with additional copper, cobalt, and platinum
group elements (PGE), occurring as sulfide
concentrations and associated with a variable mafic and ultramafic rocks.
88

The major nickel sulfide deposit types

in the world are under categorized into
komatiites associated, basal and stratabound
in mafic- ultramafic intrusions, astrobleme
associated (Sudbury type) and few others
reported hosted in black-shale deposits, epigenetic hydrothermal or serpentine related
deposits. The latter type is discussed in this
paper that potentially related to nickel sulfides occurrences in PT. INCOs (PTI) Latao
Contract of Work concession.
EXPLORATION HISTORY AND
METHODOLOGY
Pre 2007
The Latao Block was explored by PT Inco
due to its chromite occurrence. Chromite
was reported in Sulawesi by Julius and
Dickmann during the Dutch colonial era
from Warau - Balambano road, Sapiri Island
(Latao) and Lapaopao in 1924. A Dutch
company called MMC had done a short
period of studies on the nickel laterite and
chromite potential of Latao area in 1941
(Sumardjo, 1972).

120o50"0'E

121o0"0'E

121o10"0'E

121o20"0'E

121o30"0'E

121o40"0'E

121o50"0'E

122o0"0'E

121o30"0'E

121o40"0'E

121o50"0'E

122o0"0'E

Sorowaka
Jakarta

2o0"0'S

120o40"0'E

2o10"0'S

120o30"0'E

2o10"0'S

2o0"0'S

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

2o30"0'S

2o30"0'S

2o20"0'S

2o20"0'S

Makassar

2o40"0'S

2o40"0'S

PTI Contract of Work

2o50"0'S

PTI Contract of Work

Roads

LATAO
PROJECT

Lake
3o0"0'S

Province

120o30"0'E

120o40"0'E

120o50"0'E

121o0"0'E

121o10"0'E

121o20"0'E

3o0"0'S

2o50"0'S

Legend

Figure 1. Latao Project Geographic Location.

PTI reconnaissance team had done some

drilling and pit resampling in 1969 (Nasution, 1973). In 1975, Auger drill program,
test pit, and ground magnetic surveys were
carried out over the old MMC trenches
(Ahmad, 1976). Butler (1980) conducted
a geochemical sampling program using
backpack augers and field mapping along
the Latao shoreline. After 1980, there was
no significant exploration activity in the
Latao Block.
2007 - Present
In 2007, the exploration program for Latao
was designed to confirm its chromite potential (Rafianto, 2007). Field activity was
carried out by conducting soil sampling
using back pack auger combined with a
geological mapping. The target was to find
anomalous areas of chromite in soil samples,
which can be detected from its significant
concentration of heavy mineral concentrate

containing chromium in magnetic and nonmagnetic fractions. The other program is

Ground geophysical survey - IP along the
soil sampling anomaly areas to define the
vertical distribution of podiform chromite
bodies.
The preliminary result showed that the podiform chromite is relatively small potential.
However, some findings were surprising
during 2007 - 2008 detail geological mapping programs. Some series of silica alteration, rich magnetite rock bodies, altered
serpentinized ultramafic rocks related to
Ni-Co mineralizations (up to 2% Ni, 0.2%
Co) are found. During 2008 drill test program, four holes intersected unusual Ni-Co
mineralisations at certain depths and related
to the silica alterations. These mineralizations could not be explained by traditional
nickel laterite theory as normally applied in
Indonesian geological setting.
89

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

In 2008, PTI changed the exploration strategy from chromite exploration to exploring
for nickel sulfide potential (Rafianto et al.,
2008). Ground magnetic survey and core
drilling programs were carried out to sharpening the 2007 IP/Resistivity results (Suharto et al., 2009). The EPMA analysis from
rock chip samples showed nickel sulfide
minerals such as pentlandite and millerite.

are: (i) West Sulawesi Tertiary Magmatic

Arc and Associated Sediments, (ii) Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt, (iii) East
Sulawesi Ophiolite (ESO), and (iv) accreted
continental fragments of Banggai-Sula Islands and the Tukang Besi-Buton Platforms
(Figure 2; Kadarusman et al., 2004). The
tectonic evolution of the Sulawesi can be
chronologically summarized as follows:

Since soil and rock chip samples showed

unexplainable broad anomalies across Latao
area, in first half of 2011 PTI conducted a
120 km IP/Resistivity survey and directional
core rilling program (Attong et al., 2011).

Early Paleogene (65 Ma) - Middle Oligocene (30 Ma)

The formation of Sulawesi began in the
Early Paleogene with the opening of
the Makassar Basin (Hall, 1996) followed
closely by the opening of the Celebes Basins
and the rifting of the west and north arms of
Sulawesi. The opening of the Celebes Sea
was thought to have started by the Middle
Eocene. The sea widened to the southeast
until the mid-Oligocene. This opening combined with the northwards movement of the
Indo-Australian Plate, allowed for the obduction of the ESO and Pompangeo Schist
Belt (PSB) onto the Sundaland margin.

To understand the nickel sulfide mineralization, we need to differentiate between nickel

sulfide and nickel silicate-oxides mineralisations. A special assaying technique to
selectively analyze Ni from NiS only using
Bromine Methanol Br(Me)OH has been
applied in Latao exploration.
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
Regional Tectonics and Geology
A regional tectonic setting description was
provided by Fugro (2009) during ground
magnetic survey for PTI Latao project. The
summary of the tectonic of Sulawesi can
be described as below: Sulawesi located
at the convergence between the Eurasian
(Sundaland), the Pacific-Philippine Sea and
the Australian Plates (Hinschberger et al.,
2005; Kadarusman et al., 2004, Hall, 1996;
Lee and Lawver, 1995). The present configuration of Sulawesi reflects the interaction
between these plates and the amalgamation of a number of micro-plates from the
Middle Miocene (approximately 15 Ma) to
the present.
The island of Sulawesi consists of four distinct lithotectonic belts, bounded by large
scale tectonic structures. The four belts
90

Late Oligocene (25 Ma)

By the end of the Oligocene, the ESO had
been overthrusted onto the PSB of the west
Sulawesi continental margin. This was followed by a change in plate boundaries and
the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate
under the ESO (Hall, 1996). This compressional event could be responsible for the
NW-SE trending folding of both the East
Sulawesi Ophiolite and the Pompangeo
Schist Belt.
Early-Middle Miocene (20 - 15 Ma)
As a result of the Indo-Australian Plate
subducting west under the ESO, arc magmatism formed the Neogene Volcano Clastics
(NVC). Kadarusman et al. (2004) noted
that these volcanoclastic rocks have been
mistakenly identified in some cases as a basaltic layer of the ESO (Monnier et al., 1995;
Mubroto et al., 1994; Silver et al., 1983).

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

West and North Sulawesi

Volcano-Plutonic Arc
Quaternary sediments
Cenozoic volcanics
and plutonic rocks
Tertiary sediments

Central Sulawesi
Metamorphic Belt
Ophiolite Melange
HP Metamorphic Rock
(Pompangeo schists)

East Sulawesi
Ophiolite Belt
Neogene and Quaternary
sediments
Ophiolite

Banggai-Sula & Tukang Besi

Continental Fragments
Continental basement and cover
Continental basement below
sea level
Major thrust
Major strike-slip fault
Active volcano

Figure 2. Geological setting of the Sulawesi Region (Kadarusman et al., 2004).

Middle Miocene - Pleistocene (15 - 5 Ma)

The opening of the Ayu Trough in the
east, starting in the middle Miocene (15 Ma.)
initiated a series of E - W wrench faults extending into Sulawesi (Hall, 1996). Further
obduction of the ESO and PSB during the
Pliocene was caused by the buoyant subduction of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent
(Kadarusman et al., 2004). This period of
intense activity was followed by a period
of extensional collapse in the Late Pliocene.
The Late Oligocene was a period of thrusting, where the ESO was overthrusted onto
the PSB. Post or syn-folding was a period
NW-SE trending folding which can be attributed to compression during the Late
Oligocene when the Indo-Australian Plate

was moving approximately northwest,

subducting underneath the ESO. The major
NW - SE trending sinistral wrench faults
(including the Matano and Lewanopo Faults
- Figure 3) can be attributed to the opening
of the Ayu Trough in the east starting in the
Middle Miocene (Hall, 1996) followed by
a Pliocene westward extensional transpression and a Quaternary transtensional deformation regime.
Closer to Latao area in Southeast Sulawesi,
Rusmana et al. (1993) distinguished the region into two geological provinces known
as Hialu (oceanic crust - ophiolite) and Tinondo (continental terrain). The continental
terrain comprises metamorphic basement,
and Mesozoic sediments (Triassic Meluhu
91

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Legend
Major fault - inferred
Major fault - thrust
Geological boundary - inferred
0

10

20

30

50

km

Figure 3. Major tectonic and structural geology related to Latao Project (Fugro, 2009).

and Tokala Formations). The oceanic crust

of Cretaceous Ophiolite rock consists of
peridotite, harzburgite, dunite, gabbro, and
serpentinite (Figure 4).
RESULT
Rock Types
The Latao survey block is situated in the
Southeast Arm of the Sulawesi Region. The
geologically the Latao survey block is dominated by Cretaceous ophiolitic ultramafic
rocks (Figure 5), comprising predominantly
moderately to highly serpentinised peridotite. The ophiolite sequence is believed to
be obducted over the Meluhu and Tokala
Formations.
In Latao CoW, there are four major types of
identified rock types, as follows:
92

Metamorphic Rocks
The metamorphics exposed in northern
Latao area comprise phyllite and schist having a tectonic contact with ultramafic rock.
It is doubtful whether it is part of Triassic
Meluhu Formation or part of Mekongga
Complex.
Petrographically the rocks exhibit heteroblastic textures, consisting of nematoblastic
mineral of opaque (hematite) and tourmaline, granoblastic minerals of quartz, and
lepidoblastic minerals of muscovite, fine to
medium grain sized (0.2 0.7 mm), anhedral
to subhedral in crystals shape. Schistose
structure is shown by the orientation of
muscovite and opaque minerals (hematite). The porphyroblastic texture is present
in the some area of thin section where the
porphyroblasts (maybe garnet) are usually
altered or pseudomorphosed by iron oxide

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 4. Regional geology map (Rusmana et al., 1993). Pzm = Palaeozoic Metamorphics (Carboniferous);
TRJt = Tokala Formation (Triassic); TRJm= Meluhu Formation (Triassic) Ku = Ophiolites Rocks (Cretceous); Tmpp = Pandua Formation (Pliocene).

285000

285500

286000

286500

287000

287500

288000

288500

289000

289500

290000

966000
9665500
9665000
9664500
9664000

9663000

9663000

9663500

966000
9665500
9665000
9664000
9663500

9664500

9667500

284500

9667000

284000

966500

283500

9667500

283000

9667000

282500

966500

282000

245 490

980

1,470

1,960

1:25000

Latao Project

Legend
Structure
Tidal Zone
Swamp
Basalt
Gabro Cumulate
Metasedimen Limestone
Hydrotermal and Polymict Breccia ?
Tectonic Breccia
Dunite alter
Magnetite
Chromite Zone
Metamorphyc Phyllite

9662000
9661500

9661000

9661000

9662000
9661500

9662500

9662500

PTI-Cow SK2005

Remark :

Name
Drawin by

Sign

Date

Erwin

Revised by
Checked by

9660000

9660000

9660500

9660500

Approved by

282000

282500

283000

283500

284000

284500

285000

285500

286000

286500

287000

287500

288000

288500

289000

289500

290000

Figure 5. Latao geologic map.

to form brownish red color. This rock is medium altered (retrogressive metamorphism).
The iron oxide altered or pseudomorphosed
the porphyroblasts whilst sericite altered the
muscovite.

phism process occurring at a relatively low

to medium grade and then they have done
the retrograde metamorphism, where it is
represented by the presence of iron oxide
and sericite.

The presence of opaque mineral (hematite),

quartz, muscovite, and tourmaline as a major
mineralogy of rock suggests to a metamor-

Limestone
The limestones are present as isolated hills
occurring at the boundary between ul93

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

tramafic and metamorphic rocks. It is unclear whether it is part of Triassic Meluhu

or Tokala Formations or part of Mekongga
Complex. By visual description, the rock
can be described as dark to light grey colour,
coarse-grained, dominantly consisting of
calcite and some samples at Mosiku area
contain disseminated pyrites.
The limestone exhibits the clastic and mudsupported texture, poorly sorted and open
packed. The rock is dominated by the matrix
of carbonate muds with the spotted/patches
of opaque (pyrite), and they are usually
recrystallized into microcrystalline calcite
(micrite). The grains include quartz and fossil fragments are present in the some area
of thin section. Quartz grains are angular to
subrounded. Fossil fragments are dominated
by planktonic foraminifera, unbroken in
shape, their chamber usually filled by calcite
cement. The opaque minerals also present
as grain in some areas of thin section, subhedral in shape, and up to 0.5 mm in size.
Stylolitic structure occures in the some area
of thin section.
This sample is fresh but the opaque grains
(pyrite) present in the some area of thin section maybe a product of secondary process.
The rock fracture filled by calcite opaque
(pyrite) form vein in the some areas within
thin section.

Ultramafic Rocks
The ultramafic rocks dominate the Latao
CoW and have been altered into various serpentinization levels (dominantly medium to
highly serpentinized) The massive serpentinite has N-S orientation, stretches over 6 km
in length and 5 km wide. It has a greenishblack color and is composed by serpentine
minerals. Most of this ultramafic rocks is
completely altered and strongly weathered
at the surface. The serpentine and talc present on the fractures or cleavage the olivine
and pyroxene form veinlets of serpentine
talc. The veins of silica (quartz) are present
to cut the rock in the some areas of thin
section (Figure 6a). Magnetite partially replaces chromite on grain peripheries occurs
as fracture fillings. The sulfide minerals that
occur as fine grains usually are associated
with talc and carbonate minerals (Figure 6).
Hydrothermal Associated Rocks
In Latao, there are several rocks interpreted
to have association with hydrothermal processes, alterations and mineralization (Figures 7, 8, 9). They are silica ribs, magnetite
bodies, and hydrothermal breccias (?). The
silica ribs contain chalcedonic silica found
in areas of Tanjung Berlian, Lawatuwatu,
and Temboe. They have been mistakenly
identified as low T lateritic product of silica
precipitation by previous explorers. The

Figure 6. Serpentine as alteration product from olivine with mesh structure cross by silica vein (a). Pentlandite and chromite as opaque minerals in serpentine (b) (ITB, 2009)
94

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 7. Latao silica alteration.

Figure 8. Ni Co bearing magnetite outcrop.

Figure 9. Ni Co bearing magnetite outcrop.

95

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

magnetite bodies are found in Laburino,

Roka, and Lawatuwatu. These magnetite
bodies unusually containing nickel between
0.5% - 28% andmcobalt between 0.05% 0.2% Co.
The hydrothermal breccias (?) in Latao are
related to magnetite bodies and chromitesilica breccia found at Tanjung Berlian. The
major hydrothermal magnetite breccia (?) is
present at central area of Latao with lineation to NE-SW direction. The breccias have
red-brownish colour due to the presence
of iron oxides of hematite and magnetite.
Millerite and pyrite occur occasionally as
coating of fragments and in the matrix of
breccia. This breccia has a close correlation
with magnetite body areas. The thin section
exhibits clastic texture, consisting of peridotite fragments which are embedded within
the mixture of clay matrix, serpentine,
silica, iron oxides, and chlorite aggregates.
The fragments of peridotite have angular
to sub-rounded in shape, grains size of 0.1
- 5.0 cm, locally up to 1.5 cm in size, they
exhibited the serpentinization and weathering process, consist of olivine, pyroxene and
spinel/chromite
The rock sample is strongly altered and
weathered, in which the iron oxides + chlorite pseudomorphosed the olivine to form
the brownish - blackish red colour. The serpentine occurson the fractured or cleavage
of the olivine and pyroxene to form veinlets
of serpentine tremolite talc. Some
pyroxenes are pseudomorphosed by talc
tremolite. The veins or veinlets of silica
(chalcedony) are present to cut the rock.
The sulfur content (S%) were assayed from
some samples relatively showing much
lower S content (<1000 ppm) compares
with traditional.
NiS deposits in Canada or Australia. This
case highly challenges for PTI to find a comparable deposit to explore in Latao further.
96

Finally, a listwaenite - birbirite allteration

concept is adopted.
DISCUSSION
Current Exploration Program
Designing exploration strategy for Latao is
challenged since there was no nickel sulfide
exploration in Indonesia. The first exploration program of Latao Exploration was to
explore chromite deposits and irrelevant to
NiS exploration. Some adjustments have
to be made for sharpening the NiS targets.
It isa big challenge to find a similar deposit
model around the world since the Latao
is not a traditional nickel sulfide mineralizations such as komatiite related, flood
basalt or mafic- ultramafic intrusions. It
is interpreted that Latao mineralizations
are closely related with the combination
of serpentinization processes, silica alteration (listwaenite-birbirite), and magnetite
- hematite (iron oxides) alterations. From
the world-wide occurrences, some deposit
models are considered to support the Latao
exploration model. They are:
Outokumpu type (Findland); Ni-CoCu-Zn deposits related to listwaenitesbirbirites alterations in ophiolite (Kontinen et al., 2004).
Bou Azzer (Morroco); CoAs-NiSdeposits related to quartz-carbonate
(listwaenite) alterations in serpentinite
(Ahmed et al., 2009).
Divrigi (Turkey); Fe (Ni-Cu) related to
IOCG - like for large iron ore (magnetite) deposits. Serpentinite contact with
limestone and granite (Unlu et al, 1995).
Reserves 133.8 Mt
@ 56% Fe and 0.5% Cu. Considered as
Latao has magnetite bodies and hydrothermal breccia (?) containing significant iron oxides.

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Dumont serpentinite (Canada): NiS

deposits related to serpentinization and
talc - carbonate alteration. Measured +
Indicated resources 1.1 Bt @ 0.27% Ni
(Royal Nickel Corp. May, 2011).
Ronnbacken (Sweden); NiS deposits
related to serpentinization. Alpine-Type
Serpentinite contact with metamorphic
phyllite. Measured + Indicated resources
277 Mt @
0.1% NiS and 0.003% Co (SRK consulting, April 2011).
From above models, Ronnbacken and Dumont deposits are the most one considered
by PTI as they have large tonnages and
possibly occurred in Latao. Both deposits
have low average nickel grades but large
in tonnages. The geometallurgical model
is important to liberate NiS minerals such
as pentlandite, heazlewoodite, and millerite,
and making projects to be highly economics (discussed in preliminary economic
consideration).
Geological Mapping and Soil Sampling
Geological mapping with prospecting is
a critical part for Latao NiS exploration
program. The basic knowledge that we are
dealing with an unusual ophiolitic nickel
mineralization and unexplainable by traditional nickel laterite theory came from
the geological mapping results. Hundreds
of rock chip samples were collected and
anaylized by Niton portable analyzer and
selected samples were assayed for XRF, ICP
and FA. The results are shown in Figure 10
and many altered unweathered rock samples
are elevated in nikel, cobalt, and iron. The
anomalous areas were selected for next
geophysical survey prior drilling program.
Some selected surface rock samples were
submitted to SGS Canada for mineralogical analyses. The nickel sulfide minerals
(pentlandite and millerite) are identified by
EPMA analysis (Figure 11). These min-

eralizations occur on a chlorite foliation in

a Fe-chlorite groundmass altering to Feoxides with total Ni in individual mineral
more than 20% (Table 1).
Soil sampling program were conducted
in 2007 within the framework of a regional
sampling program across Latao area. The
nickel values from the soil samples could
be potentially bias from lateritic mineralization, however the chemistry associations are
very useful to define chromite or anomalous hydrothermal zones.
These altered zones are do not following
the normal nickel laterite profile pattern and
relatively easy to identified.
The soil sampling used hand auger with
maximum depth of 10 m and total average is 3.4 m. The soil sampling program
designed for ridge and spur sampling and
also for regular grid pattern. Since 2007,
around 7000 samples have been collected
and assayed for XRF analyses.
A special case for chromite prospecting, a
simple beneficiation method adopted from
Philippines chromite exploration (Kater
et al, 1984) with panned concentrate for
analyzing heavy mineral concentrate such
as chromium and magnetic separation
were applied for soil samples in 2007. The
chromium soil anomalies were detected but
limited in small areas. However, the results
were surprising and unexplainable for cobalt
values (Figure 12). The high grade cobalt
values from panned concentrate of soil
samples can reached > 1% up to 2.8% Co.
This is an example that high cobalt values
from certain areas are not following the
conventional laterite theory and interpreted
these areas are hydrothermally altered.
Geophysical Survey
The geophysical surveys of ground magnetic survey and IP/Resistivity survey
were conducted in Latao. Ground magnetic
97

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Figure 10. Anomalous nickel values from fresh rock samples.

Figure 11. Nickel sulfide minerals based on EPMA analysis (SGS, 2010).

survey was proposed to understand the magnetic response related to alteration products
and general structural geology whereas the
resistivity data can guide us to the alteration
and mineralization zones which marked
by the anomaly values of resistivity and
chargeability.

mineral such us magnetite, chromite, and

pyrhotite a total of 120 km of total length
in 40 line km within 20 km area at 12.5 m
station spacing and 50 m line spacing, than
80 line km within 80 km area at 25 m station
spacing and 100 m line spacing has proposed
for this survey.

Ground Magnetic Survey

The ground magnetic survey has initiated in mid November 2008 to April 2009
conducted by Fugro (2009). This survey is
quite considerable for explore the potential

An interpretation was completed using

the magnetic and low resolution radar. A
number of high-magnetic zones possibly
represent more massive zones of magnetite
concentrations.

98

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)
Table 1. EPMA Analysis of Latao Nickel sulfides and Alloys (EMD0009916)
Point

Mineral

Weight
As

Ni

Fe

Zn

Co

Cu

Total

Millerite

0.012

59.50

35.510

2.510

0.008

1.760

0.958

0.000

100.257

Millerite

0.072

41.720

31.510

5.450

0.000

3.060

0.391

0.000

82.203

Millerite

0.090

32.940

10.090

5.250

0.000

11.120

0.836

0.000

60.326

Millerite

0.027

54.140

33.080

3.210

0.020

4.880

0.279

0.000

95.636

Millerite

0.107

41.150

40.250

7.360

0.046

9.570

0.302

0.000

97.785

Millerite

0.13

42.860

32.270

8.220

0.021

4.430

0.490

0.000

98.304

Millerite

0.00

42.690

26.730

5.980

0.000

5.810

0.421

0.000

81.631

Millerite

0.00

56.930

34.570

4.130

0.000

1.410

0.468

0.000

97.526

Average

0.40

46.491

30.501

5.264

0.012

5.130

0.520

0.000

87.959

Pentlandite

0.040

34.440

38.860

4.100

0.000

17.260

0.546

0.000

95.246

Pentlandite

0.565

43.710

38.570

5.010

0.033

9.550

0.515

0.000

97.444

Pentlandite

0.026

21.250

21.450

8.150

0.064

20.180

3.400

0.000

74.520

Pentlandite

0.000

36.330

17.220

4.260

0.027

10.470

1.050

0.000

69.357

Pentlandite

0.056

27.870

24.950

7.290

0.091

14.820

1.360

0.000

76.437

Pentlandite

0.033

22.070

27.820

8.010

0.000

22.020

1.980

0.000

81.933

Pentlandite

0.096

25.110

23.100

5.610

0.000

18.360

2.670

0.000

74.946

Pentlandite

0.058

23.280

29.410

5.470

0.104

23.810

1.170

0.000

83.301

Pentlandite

0.096

24.040

25.270

7.340

0.041

19.650

1.180

0.000

77.617

Average

0.051

28.648

27.406

6.1.39

0.040

17.347

1.541

0.000

91.200

Co-Pentlandite

0.016

18.840

26.240

9.670

0.042

21.980

2.840

0.000

79.629

Average

0.016

18.840

26.240

9.670

0.042

21.980

2.840

0.000

79.629

Pyrite

0.068

0.016

54.090

47.880

0.042

0.009

0.014

0.000

102.118

Average

0.068

0.016

54.090

47.880

0.042

0.009

0.014

0.000

102.118

Chalcopyrite

0.058

10.630

31.570

24.590

0.034

0.414

25.270

0.000

92.566

Average

0.058

10.630

31.570

24.590

0.034

0.414

25.270

0.000

92.566

CuZnNiFe

0.015

17.760

0.027

5.990

19.520

0.015

54.760

0.000

98.086

CuZnNiFe

0.000

17.100

0.043

4.540

18.040

0.000

58.300

0.000

98.024

Average

0.008

17.430

0.035

5.365

18.780

0.008

56.530

0.000

98.055

IP/Resistivity Survey
The first IP/Resistivity survey was conducted in 2007 at Tanjung Berlian. The IP/
Resistivity survey used pole dipole method
with 50 m spacing. Total lines are 18 or
equal with 16,050 m (Elliot, 2008). The IP
survey was following the soil sampling grid
lines with east west direction across the
silica ribs position.

The second IP/Resistivity was conducted

in 2011 and covering larger areas defined
as potential anomaly zones by previous
geological mapping and soil sampling. The
total line of IP survey is 120 km across all
the ultramafics and its contact with metamorphic rocks include hydrothermal associated rocks. This survey proposes to confirm
the subsurface of nickel sulfide potential. It
99

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Figure 12. Unusual very high cobalt values from soil samples (after panned concentrate).

is interpreted that the prospect area of

nickel sulfide mineralization is related to
high resistivity and high chargeability values. The 2011 IP survey shows encouraging
result. Some large anomalies (coincident of
high resistivity and high chargeability) are
detected and open to depth (Figures 13a and
13b; Geoservices, 2011). This survey highly
supports for next drilling program and potential to achieved large tonnage.
Diamond Drilling Program
The first core drilling program in the Latao
was conducted in 2008. A total of 2000 m
depth of diamond drilling was proposed.
The objective of this program was to test the
2007 IP and soil anomalies and to confirm
the potential Ni-Co sulfide and Cr mineralization. During 2008 drill test program, four
holes intersects unusual Ni-Co mineralisations at certain depths (>80 m) and related
to the silica alterations. These mineralizations could not be explained by a traditional
nickel laterite theory as normally applied in
Indonesian geological setting.
Early 2011, PTI started to conduct the 2nd
phase diamond drilling program to confirm
IP and ground magnetic anomalies related
to NiS mineralizations. Total of 10 holes
or 1,973.70 m depth were drilled until mid
2011. The 3rd phase of diamond drilling
100

program is carried out from October 2011

to December 2011.
To understand the occurrences of nickel sulfide mineralization, PTI selects a special assaying technique to selectively analyzed NiS
by Bromine Methanol Br(Me)OH provided
by SGS Canada and Outotec Findland. This
method can discriminate the nickel sulfide
mineralization with other nickel silicates or
oxides minerals (NiS vs Ni total). This is
very useful to design the next preliminary
flotation test from drill core samples.
Until this paper is written, PTI is still waiting the Br(Me)OH assay results from 2008
and 2011 drilling programs with around
4000 samples. However, few random samples were back and preliminary results are
confirmed the occurrences of nickel sulfide
in the core samples. Table 2 is an example
from a preliminary results of Br(Me)OH of
nickel sulfide only (%) vs nickel total (%)
that composed of nickel silicates, oxides,
and sulfides.
The grade of NiS from drill samples is relatively similar with Ronnbacken (Sweden) or
Dumont (Canada) deposits those related to
the serpentinization processes.
The occurrences of NiS mineralizations
in drill samples are closely related to high

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 13. Examples of 2011 IP survey anomalies. (a) Section of Latao IP anomalies; (b) 3D model intersections of high resistivity and high chargeability, open to depth.

resistivity and high chargeability from IP

survey. These IP anomalies are good guide
for current drilling program and PTI is
expecting can achieved potential large tonnages from current drilling program.
Interpretation of Mineralization
Latao deposit is a product of the obduction
of peridotitic oceanic crust, intensive hydro-

thermal alteration, and tectonic deformation.

It has numerous features in common with
other mineral deposits associated with altered serpentinites.
From tectonic history, the westward movement of the Banggai-Sula microcontinent
during the Miocene initiated a new subduction zone, forming Neogene Volcano clastics
101

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

Table 2. Example of Br(Me)OH assay for Nickel sulfide (%) occurrences.
BHID

From

To

Samp ID

NiS

Ni Total

LTD0C31

38.00

39.00

CXL0004052

0.15

0.21

LTD0C31

39.00

39.72

CXL0004053

0.13

0.22

LTD0C31

39.72

40.00

CXL0004054

0.12

0.12

LTD0C31

40.00

41.00

CXL0004055

0.11

0.11

LTD0C31

41.00

41.72

CXL0004056

0.10

0.10

LTD0C31

41.72

42.00

CXL0004057

0.10

0.10

LTD0C31

42.00

43.00

CXL0004058

0.09

0.09

LTD0C31

43.00

43.72

CXL0004059

0.10

0.10

(NVC). Further obduction of the ESO and

Pompangeo Complex during the Pliocene
was caused by the buoyant subduction of
the Banggai-Sula microcontinent (Figure
14, Kadarusman, 2008). Like NVC, it is
interpreted that hydrothermal fluids are
possibly released through the channeling of
major structures during subduction process.
Combined with serpentinization processes
and depending sulfur availability, the nickel
sulfide mineralization in ophiolite such as
Latao possibly occured.
The NNE-SSW and NW-SE trends of hydrothermal associated occurrences in Latao
are the logic fault impacts (and as hydrothermal fluid channels) created by regional
WNW-ESE tectonic movements parallel
with Lawanopo Fault.

NiS Average

0.11

0.22

To compare with other normal ultramafic

rocks in Sulawesi, Kadarusman (2009)
made some geochemical plots. It is concluded that Latao bedrocks have different
pattern with other peridotite in Sulawesi.
Latao ultramafic bed rocks seem to be
modified from the original composition
by hydrothermal alteration (?). The Latao
bedrock more rich in silica, high nickel and
low CaO (Figure 15).
The hydrothermal alteration corresponded
with the serpentinization processes while
the ophiolites were emplaced during a period of crustal collision resulting in obduction. The hydrothermal mineral assemblage
is a product of temperature, the presence of
CO2, and oxygen and sulfur fugacity. The

Figure 14.1nterpreted regional tectonic and Latao mineralization (Kadarusman, 2008).

102

Ni Total Average

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)

Figure 15. Silica rich Latao ultramafic bedrock plot vs normal ultramafic rocks in Sulawesi (Kadarusman,
2009).

silica was subsequently remobilized and

redeposited forming a stockwork of quartz
veins and veinlets. The silica (occasionally
with carbonate) alteration within this environment is called listwaenite to birbirite
alteration. Listwaenites are described as
silicified and carbonated rocks from serpentinized ultramafic rocks in ophiolite
complexes (Buisson - Leblanc, 1985), while
birbirite alteration has more silica content
>85% (Esteban et al., 2011). The chromite
breccia occurrence in Latao is originated
from podiform chromite which is related to
upper mantle cumulate associations and
possibly affected by hydrothermal injection
fluid.
The genesis of Latao magnetite-hematite
bodies and in hydrothermal breccia (?) is
still unknown. However referring to the
Divrigi iron mineralization in Turkey, the
magnetite bodies were formed during a
hydrothermal alteration of serpentinites. In
Turkey, the iron is enriched by serpentinization processes and further concentrated
by hydrothermal convective cells caused
by intrusion of granite pluton (Unlu et al.,
1995). Some parts of this concept perhaps

can be adopted but required further studies.

NiS mineralization in Latao is hosted by
serpentine and hydrothermal breccia (?).
Nickel was originally located mainly in the
olivine lattice within the ultramafic rocks,
such as dunites and peridotites. Due to serpentinization of the olivine, nickel in the
olivine was released and nickel bearing sulphides were formed depending on sulphur
availability. Serpentinization of ultramafic
rocks and the olivine occurs through the supply of water, S, and CO2. The reaction can be
summarised as follows (SRK, April, 2011):
Olivine (Ni) + H2O + S2 + CO2 Serpentinite + Brucite + Carbonates + Fe3O4
+ NixSy* + H2
* Ni-rich sulphides
By experimental studies (Filippidis, 1982),
synthetic nickel bearing olivine has been
serpentinized at 350C under a pressure of
2 kbar by adding sulphur and water. Olivine
was transformed to serpentinite, brucite, and
magnetite, and nickel rich sulphides were
formed such as millerite (NiS), pentlandite
((Fe, Ni)9 S8), heazlewoodite (Ni3S2), and
bravoite ((Fe, Ni, Co) S2). Low sulfur fugac103

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

ity favours the formation of heazlewoodite

and nickel rich magnetite. At a higher
sulphur fugacity, lower nickel values are
found in magnetite, including iron sulphides
as pyrite. Dehydration experiments (at
500C) have shown that, based on the presence of brucite and serpentine, it is possible
to get reformation of new olivine which is
more magnesium rich than the original olivine. This is interpreted as magnetite and
pentlandite being stable during the created
metamorphic conditions.
Preliminary Economic and Environmental Considerations
The large tonnage low grade nickel sulfide
deposits are the main target for the Latao
NiS exploration program. The rationale behind this target is referring to Ronnbacken
(Sweden) or Dumont (Canada) projects.
Both deposist have large tonnage (>200 Mt)
but low nickel grade (<0.3% Ni) and NiS
mineralizations are related to serpentinization processes. However, the Ronnbacken
has a closer geology to Latao since it is related to Alpine-type ultramafic (SRK, April
2011).
Economic Consideration
Within this unique serpentinized ultramafic
environment, the nickel sulfide minerals
formations are relatively uncommon compare with the traditional NiS deposits. The

factors of bulk composition, temperature,

and oxygen-sulfur fugacity are transformed
while serpentinization advances. The rich
nickel sulfide minerals such as heazlewoodite (70% Ni), millerite (60% Ni; 2 - 3% Co)
and pentlandite (33% Ni; 2 - 6% Co), and
occasionally with Fe-Ni alloy mineral such
as awaruite (72% Ni + Fe) are potentially
exists (Royal Nickel Corp, May 2011). The
Fe-Ni-S phase diagram (Misra and Fleet,
1973) can described the relations among
the NiS minerals (Figure 16). In this serpentinized environment, the occurrences
of pyrite and pyrrhotite as gangue minerals
are lack and minimum. This is very good
to produce high grade nickel concentrate
after metallurgical process. Ronnbacken
and Dumont projects contain the highest
nickel concentrate grades (25 - 35% Ni)
compare with other traditional NiS projects
(5 - 15% Ni) around the world. Both projects
are potential to become world-class nickel
projects with NPV >$250 million (Royal
Nickel Corp, April 2011 and Nickel Mountain, 2011). The summary of Ronnbacken
and Dumont projects can be summarized
in Table 3.
Nickel rich heazlewoodite and millerite + no
iron sulfides = high grade nickel concentrate
(IGE Nordic, November, 2010).
The 2011 IP survey across the Latao area
shows encouraging result. Some large areas

Figure 16. Fe-Ni-S phase diagram (Misra and Fleet, 1973).

104

The Serpentine-Related Nickel Sulfide Occurrences from Latao, SE Sulawesi:

a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)
Table3. Summary of Ronnbacken and Dumont Projects for Preliminary Economic Considerations
MRMR

Ronnbacken
Dumont

Production

LOM

% Concentrate

M+I

INF

tpa Ni

years

277 Mt
@0.1% Ni

279 Mt
@0.1% Ni

26.000

19

28% Ni

1.1 Bt
@0.27%

581 Mt
@0.25% Ni

64.500

25

35% Ni

with combination of high resistivity and

chargeability are shown for next drilling targets. PTI has a great expectation to achieved
large tonnage of NiS deposits in Latao.
Environmental Consideration
For environmental issue, the serpentinerelated NiS deposits have a good position
since the mine environmental costs are increasing. Very low sulfide content (Nickel
Mountain, 2011) gives very low Acid Mine
Drainage (<0.1%S vs 1 - 3%S for typical
mines).
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE EXPLORATION FRONTIER
The Latao project contains unusual nickel
mineralization and potentially becoming
the first nickel sulfide deposit discovered
in Indonesia. It is interpreted that the potential of nickel sulfide deposit Indonesia has
much different geological setting compare
to traditional Ni-Cu- PGM deposits such
as komatiite, mafic-ultramafic intrusions
or flood basalts environments in Australia,
Canada or Russia.
The regional tectonic and geological settings
of Southeast Sulawesi are supportive to the
nickel sulfide deposition theory in Latao.
The hydrothermal alteration corresponded
with the serpentinization processes, while
the ophiolites were emplaced during a period of crustal collision resulted in obduction. The hydrothermal mineral assemblage
is a product of temperature, the presence of
CO2, and oxygen and sulfur fugacity.

CAPEX

OPEX

NVP

US$ millions

US$/lb

US$ millions

$1.548

5.55

$316

$2.304

3.87

$1.146

The Latao nickel sulfide mineralization is

interpreted having relationships with serpentine and mainly epigenetic nickel-sulfide
type. Due to serpentinization of olivine,
the nickel in the olivine was released and
nickel bearing sulfides were formed depending on sulfur availability, beyond normal
serpentinization. It is interpreted that Latao
mineralization is more complex and closely
related with the combination of serpentinization processes, silica alteration (listwaenitebirbirite) and magnetite-hematite (iron
oxides) alterations due to hydrothermal
activities. The relations among them still
unknown and further studies are required.
Designing exploration strategy for the
Latao has been challenging since there was
no nickel sulfide exploration in Indonesia
and the geological setting is unconventional. However, a combination of good
understanding on ultramafic mineralization,
careful geological mapping, soil sampling,
mineralogical analysis, good geophysical survey, careful selection of analytical
methods and drilling strategy have led PTI
to defining of the unknown nickel sulfide
potential in Indonesia.
In first half of 2011, several good geophysical anomalies were defined and the next
program is to define the potential mineral
resources by systematic drilling program.
The large tonnage low grade nickel sulfide deposit is current PTI major target.
The selective Br(Me)OH assaying program
is in progress and continue with EPMA
mineralogical analysis. PTI is targeting for
105

Majalah Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 27 No. 2 Agustus 2012: 87-107

a preliminary metallurgical flotation test

from drill core samples sometimes in 2012.
Experiences learned from the Latao, there is
a new frontier of nickel exploration in Indonesia. The geology and tectonic settings of
Indonesian ophiolite complexes in Sulawesi,
Papua, Kalimantan, and Halmahera are
needed to be re-assessed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper has been presented in Seminar MGEIIAGI of the Sulawesi Mineral Resources 2011 in
Manado, and compiled within the proceedings. The
committe is acknowledged. To publish the article in
the MGI-IAGI some improvements of the content
have been carried out.

Filippidis, A., 1982. Experimental study of the serpentinization of Mg-Fe-Ni Olivine in the Presence
of Sulfur. Canadian Mineralogist, 20, p.567 - 574.
Fugro, 2009. PT. Inco tbk. Integrated Interpretation
of Ground Magnetic and Remote Sensed Data, Latao
Area, Sulawesi. Fugro Airborne Surveys Pty Ltd.
Geoservices, 2011. PT. Inco tbk - Latao IP Resistivity
Data, PT. Geoservices Exploration Division.
Hall, R., 1996. Reconstructing Cenozoic SE Asia, In:
Hall, R. and Blundell, D. (eds) Tectonic Evolution
of Southeast Asia, Geological Society of London
Special Publication 106, p. 153 - 184.
Hinschberger, F., Malod, J-A., Rehault, J-P., Villeneuve, M., Royer, J-Y., and Burhanuddin, S., 2005.
Late Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of eastern
Indonesia, Tectonophysics. 404, p. 91 - 118.

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a New Frontier of Nickel Exploration in Indonesia (R. Rafianto et al.)
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