Nanyang Girls High School

Integrated Humanities 2014

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Gender Inequality
Definition: Equal rights, opportunities and obligations of women and men and an increased
potential for both women and men to influence, participate in and benefit from development
processes
Empowerment of women: Women gaining increased power and control over their own lives. It
involves awareness-raising, building self-confidence, expansion of choices, and increased access to
and control over resources

Good Case Studies

Finland
Statistics/Background:
Finland is a pioneer in gender equality, and is the first country in the world to give women
both the right to vote and stand for election (1906).
Strong female political participation, reflected by election of a female president in 2000 and
again in 2006, is higher than EU and OECD averages.
World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Report-Finland was third in 2010 after Iceland
and Norway.
Existing Problem: Legislation tackling discrimination against women in employment have not
managed to reduce the significant pay gaps caused by the strong segregation of the labor
market.
General trends (Past VS Present):
Political Participation & Representation
Women and men received full political rights in 1906
In 1907, 19 women and 181 men were elected to the first unicameral Parliament.
The percentage of women in Parliament remained at approximately 10 % until early 1950s.
Since then, this percentage has been rising steadily.
In the 1980s, the proportion exceeded 30%.
Of the MPs elected in the 2003 parliamentary elections, 37.5% were women.
Advantages: From the start, women brought new issues into politics: status of
unprotected children and women, womens rights and gender equality -> contributed to
building the foundations of the welfare state.
In recent decades, women have gradually entered all spheres of politics and all political
positions, although the distribution is not completely even yet. In the last few
governments approximately 40% of ministers have been women. The first female Prime

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Minister was appointed in 2003, and Finlands first female President, Tarja Halonen, was
re-elected for a second term in 2006.
The first womens associations were founded in the 19th century. Today, the Coalition of
Finnish Womens Associations (NYTKIS) oversees many independent womens
associations and the womens associations of all political parties.
The history of mens associations promoting gender equality is more recent. The first mens
association with extensive activities, Miessakit Fellowship of Mens Associations, was
launched in the 1990s.
This is indicative of true gender equality as it is not simply equality for women rights but
also for rights of males and narrowing both male and female inequality. Gender equality
encompasses both males and females rights.
In the 2004 local elections, 37 per cent of the new council members were women. The
composition of municipal boards and committees must be in accordance with statutory 40
60 per cent quota requirements, which has not caused any major problems.
Public Sector
A lot of debate about womens chances of rising to the highest management positions
in the last few years.
Observation: The percentage of women at the top management level in ministries and
Government agencies remained low for a long time.
The Governments aim is to reach a situation in which approximately half of all new
appointees are women.
Examples of Women in High Management Positions
In 2005, 22 per cent of the highest management positions in public administration were
held by women.
One fifth of university professors, rectors and vice-rectors were women in 2004.
In the judiciary, approximately a third of all district court judges, judges of the courts of
appeal and members of the Supreme Court are women.
Rate of Success: The composition of municipal boards and committees must be in
accordance with a statutory 4060 per cent quota requirement. However, only 13 per cent
of all city and municipal managers were women in 2004.
Private Sector
In the private sector just over a quarter of all managers are women.
The Finnish government is a major owner in more than 50 limited companies and in
accordance with governments targets, percentage of females has risen in companies
that the government has full or majority ownership of. However, not all companies
have met the targets.
Some 17 per cent of the board members in the hundred biggest private companies were
women in 2006.

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 Men and Gender Equality

A unit which deals with men and gender equality has operated in the Council for Gender
Equality since 1988. Finlands Government Programme for 20032007 states for the first
time: "Gender equality will also be evaluated from the male point of view."
Emphasizes the support for fatherhood and parenthood.
Increase mens involvement in gender equality policy debate & the promotion of
gender equality.
Employment & Pay Gap
Finnish workforce almost evenly divided into men and women (In 2005, the
employment rate (1564 years) for women was 67 percent and for men 70 per cent.)
Majority of the long-term unemployed and those with low employability are men.
In 2005, over 14 per cent of the employed workforce worked part-time, and almost two
thirds of this number were women
It can be used to show that perceived gender equality is not completely reached because although
employment rates are about the same, more women in part-time jobs.
Trade union membership among women and men is very high in Finland and is equally
common among both genders.
The majority of labor market leaders are still men.
Disparity between Genders in Workforce
Womens average income for regular working hours has for the last three decades been only
80 per cent of mens average income. Womens sectors and professions are more poorly paid
than mens sectors and professions. This accounts for about half the pay gap.
Domestic Violence (not particularly good aspect of Finland - not main focus)
Successful Policies:
The Committee on the Status of Women published a reform programme in 1970, and the
Council for Equality was founded in 1972 to promote the implementation of the reforms. (No
specific data available online)
Government Action Plan for Gender Equality 2004-2007
Emphasizes on:
a. Mainstreaming and promoting gender equality over the entire public
administration,
b. Reform of the Act on Equality between Women and Men,
c. Promoting the principle of equal pay for work of equal value,
d. Increasing the proportion of women in political and economic decisionmaking,

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e. Evening out the employer costs of family leave between the male and female
dominated sectors and guaranteeing the conditions for women and men to
take part in working life,
f. Assessing gender equality policies from the male point of view (Both female
and male point of views are highly valued),
g. Preventing domestic violence and intimate partner violence,
h. Protecting the victims of trafficking,
i. Examining the possibilities to criminalize buying sex

includes more than 100 projects

A working group chaired by a State Secretary at the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health,
which represents all ministries, monitors the implementation of the Action Plan.

Under the Finnish Constitution and the Act on Equality between Women and Men,
public authorities are responsible for the promotion of gender equality. Each ministry is
responsible for the promotion of gender equality in its own administrative sector.
Mainstreaming is a strategy in which administrative and operating practices in ministries
and authorities are developed to promote gender equality.
Gender mainstreaming is the public policy concept of assessing the different
implications for women and men of any planned policy action, including legislation and
programs, in all areas and levels.
All ministries must ensure that the agencies in their administrative sectors give
consideration to the gender perspective. The experts in each administrative sector
learn to recognize and take into account gender equality issues relevant to their own fields
when doing preparatory work. The gender perspective will also be included in the
ministries internal training programs.
Amendment to the Act on Equality between Women and Men (2005)
More precise instructions for drawing up workplace gender equality plan: Every employer
with at least 30 employees must have a gender equality plan. The plan of action must
include womens and mens pay comparison.
Objective: The drawing up of gender equality plans is promoted through information and
training.

Sweden
Gender equality is one of the cornerstones of modern Swedish society. The aim of Swedens gender
equality policies is to ensure that women and men enjoy the same opportunities, rights and
obligations in all areas of life.
Achievement: In the Global Gender Gap Report 2013, Sweden is named as a world leader in equality.
The work towards gender equality has begun a long time ago.
Past Acts of Disparity (Towards Females)
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Women were not entitled to the best paid works in the society like trades and
commerce
Women did not have the right to be educated, they had to be admitted to nunnery
convents in order to receive education
Women are paid lesser than their counterparts and inherited half of men
Fathers and the husbands took all the legal decisions concerning women. (Womens
point of view is not regarded in such issues)

Turning Point
First in 1845, women and men got equal inheritance rights and women were entitled to some
teaching positions.
In 1863, unmarried women attained majority at the age of 25 and first in 1921 married
women attained majority at the age of 21.
Solutions:
1. Welfare System
The welfare system have been of great importance to gender equality. The social insurance system
is related to the individual, and not to the family. It covers everyone who lives or works in Sweden at
every stage of life. The obligation to pay contributions and taxes brings entitlement to social welfare
in form of child allowances, income related sickness benefits (80% of the salary), parental insurance
(80% of the salary), pensions (ca 50-70% of salary), work injury insurance and rehabilitation
allowances.
2. Education
Literacy Rates (as of 2010):
Total Population: 99% Males: 99%

Females: 99%

The schools provide free education for girls and boys from 5 to 18 years. Free lunch is served in
the schools, so parents do not have to go home and make lunch like in some other European countries.
The studies at Universities and high schools are also free and the students are offered state loans for
their daily living costs. Both the upper secondary school system and the higher education are still
desegregated by sex, there are more boys studying natural sciences and more girls studying in healthrelated sciences.
Women and men have the same rights to education and today there are more women than men
studying at academic level.
[Despite of that there are fewer women than men among researchers and teachers at Universities.]
Women Political Participation
Women gained national suffrage in 1921 and today, after the last election now in September 2006,
women hold 47 per cent of the seats in parliament and correspondently 41 per cent of the ministers
in the new government are women. The social democratic party has governed for many years but
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today Sweden has a centre-right alliance government, with four political parties cooperating. It took
time to raise the female representation in politics; there has never been any quotation of women but
a voluntary demand to have every other name on the voting lists a woman.
Women in Labor Force
Labor force participation, adult male pop. (%)

2011

68.1

Labor force participation, adult female pop. (%)

2011

59.4

Furthermore, Sweden enjoys an 81.5% employment rate for all levels of education the second
highest rate of all OECD countries after Iceland.
Policies
1. Individual Taxes
In 1971 a tax reform with separate income assessment for wife and husband made it more
profitable for women to take a paid work outside the home. This individualization of taxes
has made women more independent of their husbands and more dependent of a work
of their own.
Results: There are today 76 per cent of the women and 81 per cent of the men in the labor force
(2006). Gainfully employed are 73 per cent women and 78 per cent men in 2006. All kind of
occupations is today open to women, and women can serve.
Half of the women with children under 7 years work part time, while only 5 per cent of the men work
part time. Instead, fathers seem to work more during the time when children are small. An increasing
number of younger women (and men) receive sickness benefits or earlier pensions when down with
illness.
Violence
In 1982 all assault and battery against women even if committed on private property was
subject to public prosecution.
In 1998 Sweden adopted a new Act on Violence against women. Repeated violence, named
Gross violation of a womans integrity, should be easier to report and the law was sharpened.
There is a National Centre for Women who have been Raped or Abused in Uppsala and there
are shelters for women in almost all municipalities. The shelters are organized by NGOs but
supported financially by the Government and the municipalities.
However, violence towards women is a big problem for society, around 22 000 women a year report
incidents to the police and around 20 women are killed every year. There were around 2200 rapes

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in 2002 and the sexual crimes have increased last years. A survey showed that nearly half of all
women had sometime in her life been victim of violation or sexual harassment.
The Government now prepares an action plan to stop all violation against women, included
so-called honor related violence and female circumcision.
In 1999 Sweden got a law prohibiting the purchase of sexual services, which means that
men buying sex services are committing a crime under the Penal Code but not the women
selling services. The philosophy behind the Act is that women do not choose this kind of work
by free will if they are not in a pressed situation. The responsibility is laid on men as
consumers, and the purpose with the Act is to decrease the market for sexual services.
Trafficking with women and children for sexual purposes is another increasing problem
that calls for cooperation between different authorities. The Government now prepares an
action plan to stop trade with women and children for sexual purposes.
The Equal Opportunities Act
In 1980 the Equal Opportunities Act was introduced to prevent discrimination and improve
conditions for women in working life. The different kinds of discrimination are clearly described
in the Act.
An Equal Opportunities Ombudsman was appointed to ensure compliance with the act from
employers. If an employee is discriminated against by an employer the employer shall pay damages
to the aggrieved person and the contract or decision shall be invalid.
According to the Act employers shall also conduct goal-oriented work in order to actively promote
equality in working life:
All employers with more than 10 employees shall make up an action plan for gender equality
in the working place.
They should ensure that working conditions are suitable for both women and men.
Employers shall facilitate the combination of gainful employment and parenthood with
respect to both female and male employees.
Employers shall also take measures to forestall and prevent any employee from being
subjected to gender-related or sexual harassment.
Every year the employer shall analyze pay differentials between women and men who
perform work considered equal or of equal value.
Employers shall prepare a plan of action for equal pay and therein report the results of the
survey and analysis.
[Still, womens salaries today are lower than mens, in general 80 per cent of mens. The difference
depends both on the fact that female dominated work is valued less than male dominated, but
also on sex discrimination. It is evidently so that women get lower payment according to sex. Today
women in Sweden are better educated than men, and they are in majority in the universities. ]
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Looking Forward: The Equal Opportunities Ombudsman has got a mission this year to scrutinize
10,000 employers plans of action for equal pay. Discrimination of other ethnic origin, disabled and
other sexual disposition will be integrated to a common discrimination authority and the different
acts of discrimination will also be integrated.
New Ministry for Gender Equality and Integration
In Sweden the Government is now creating a new Ministry for Gender Equality and Integration.
This is the first time Sweden will have a special Ministry for Gender Equality. At the same time the
budget allocation for gender equality has been substantially increased -ten times the amount
compared with previous years.
Governments Participation in Labor Force
1. The Government will present proposals to increase childcare options and allow greater
scope for buying services that will make daily life easier (like cleaning, washing,
gardening).
2. Tax cuts on low and normal incomes will give many low-paid women more money to live on.
3. Efforts to prevent and reduce ill health in the public sector where many women work will be
intensified.
4. The Government will provide more scope for individual initiatives and enterprise in the
welfare area. A greater choice of employers will lay the foundation for better working
conditions and wage growth in the public sector as well.
5. Opportunities for women to start and run their own business will be improved and obstacles
to womens entrepreneurship will be eliminated.
6. Women must be able to live their lives free from fear of being exposed to violence and crime.
Combating violence in the name of honor and providing support to victims will be a high
priority for the Government.
Healthcare
Another field of priority is health issues related to gender. Resources have been allocated for
measures and research that ensure that women are entitled to health care to the same extent and of
the same quality as men.

Improving Countries

Nicaragua
Background:
In the past, Nicaragua was under the oppressive Somoza dictatorship. This led to the
revolution initiated by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), in which mass
mobilization of the poor and exploited formed the combat force, of which 30% were women.

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 The mobilization of women by 1979 was 8,000 members of the Association of Women
Confronting the Nationalist Problem (AMPRONAC), which formed the body of women in the
FSLN.
These women were a crucial part to overthrowing the Somoza dynasty, though not just
traditional gender roles of conflict like aid and care, but also involvement in guerrilla
warfare.
By 1984, there were 85,000 women members and approximately half of the members
of the Sandinista defense committees were women. The scope of women participation
within the FSLN and the revolution forced a reexamination of the oppression of women in
Nicaragua within the context of new governance.
Turning Point
Then after the revolution and after a session of presidency from Daniel Ortega, the election
in 1990 brought to office the first woman president in the Americas
On April 25, 1990, Violeta Chamorro became the first and only woman to defeat a male
incumbent presentment. This helped to change and mobilize mainstream gender structure
within Nicaragua.
Successful Result Many developed a feminist conscience and participation brought a sense
of self-respect to many women, broke free from traditional gender roles.
Similar in Egypt as well because of participation of females in Arab Spring.
Statistics:
In 2013, for the second consecutive year, Nicaragua finished in top 10 of countries making
progress in closing gender gaps according to global gender gap rankings.
Ranks fifth among all countries on political empowerment (Since 2000, political parties
participating in National Assembly elections must submit an electoral list that includes 50%
women)
Women in parliament is 40.2%
However, Nicaragua ranks 55th on health gap (possibly due to the fact that it is a developing
country)
Laws against Discrimination
1987 Constitution of Nicaragua grants equal civil rights to all citizens and prohibits
gender-based discrimination
New Penal Code, adopted in 2001, introduced laws to prohibit and criminalize discriminatory
acts.
All forms of rape are crimes under the current law regardless of the relationship between
perpetrator and victim.
However, according to the US Department of States human rights report, the law is generally
enforced, but many victims do not press charges for fear of social stigma, retribution, or loss of
economic security. The law requires victims to undergo medical exams before a legal case can be

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constructed, but the country lacks sufficient forensic examiners to handle the caseload, causing many
women to drop their cases.
The law criminalizes domestic violence with possible penalties of up to six years
imprisonment, and also allows police to issue restraining orders in cases where women fear
for their safety.
However, according to the US Department of State, the Nicaraguan National Police believe that
domestic violence remains widely under-reported, and a study by the Supreme Judicial Councils
Institute of Forensic Medicine concluded that 70% of women in Nicaragua were victims of domestic
violence
Under Nicaraguas Penal Code, sexual harassment is punishable between one and three years
in prison, or between three to five years if the victim is under 18.
Education & Females in the Workforce
Female enrolment rates are higher than male enrolment rates at the preschool, primary,
secondary and university levels.
The government report also notes that the gender imbalance in favor of females is most
marked at the university level, where the ratio is 129.5 women for every 100 men.
According to his studies, women in Nicaragua earned 76 percent of what men with the same
jobs and qualifications earned in 2009.
But while the gender wage gap is 10 percent in the formal sector, it is 30 percent in the
informal market.
Moreover, women still hold only 20 percent of managerial and executive positions, despite
the advances in female education
Violence against Women
1 in 3 Nicaraguan men regularly beat their wives, and 1 in 2 do so occasionally.
In GIZs 2010 Annual Report, Amnesty International deplored this countrys high
frequency of rape. Two thirds of the victims were reported to be under the age of 17, with
90% of the perpetrators being relatives and family members.
Successful Policies:
Aim: To target inadequate police force dealing with sexual harassment in Egypt
Formation of Womens Police Force
Women make up almost 30 % of Nicaraguas police force, one of the highest ratios in the world, and
the force is even headed by a woman. Many female officers underwent special training on how to deal
with victims of domestic violence and rape.
Martha Picado Aguilar, head of the Commission for Women and Children insists there
must be at least one female officer in each patrol unit in case a woman needs to be frisked
female officer needed for gender-related crimes
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Nicaragua places importance on promoting female officers and taking care of women
who become victims of violence
Elizabeth Rodrguez Obando, the head of the police academy, says that promoting women
is about more than simply observing human rights.
Women in police force improve policing and creates trust. Hence, there is a long
history behind Nicaraguan police taking gender issues seriously.
A group of female officers organized advanced training programs for police women.
In 1996, the principle of gender equality was included in the police statutes.

Police Force: Commission for Women and Children

In 1993, the Commission for Women and Children was established to handle the concerns of victims
of domestic and sexual violence.

Staff from the Commission for Women and Children includes trained female
psychologists, doctors and lawyers. They support victims during the cumbersome
bureaucratic process, from filing complaints through to court hearings.
Commission teams travel in small buses (known as mobile Commissions) to remote
areas with high levels of violence, in order to facilitate complaints.
Moreover, more than 3,000 voluntary facilitators have been trained. Most of them are
victims of violence themselves. Their role is to support other affected women in their
hometowns
Counselling centers on gender issues (Consejos Consultivos de Gnero) were set up to
monitor female officers work conditions.

Effectiveness
Effective in protecting female rights (when they are violated) and getting rid of the social
stigma attached to violated females, reduction in honor killings (effective reduction in
sexual harassment cases and rape cases) as females are more willing to come forth since
they know they are protected
In 2008, there were about 28,500 complaints, 20,000 of which went before the court
Yet, some flaws in this system is Nicaraguas police force is understaffed and policing efforts are
inadequate

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Bad Case Studies

Pakistan
Background:
Under Pakistan's dual system of civil and sharia law, females are considered equal under the law and
in religious practice, rights accorded to them by Pakistan's Islamic Republic constitution of 1958 and
consolidated in 1973, which outlawed gender discrimination on all levels.
Problem:
However, women face significant challenges in society, the economy and face a slow lower
courts judicial system in order to get justice.
Pakistan ranks one of the lowest in the Global Gender Gap Country Ranking 2013,
ranking 135th out of 136 countries.
Pakistan is a patriarchal society where women suffer all sorts of discrimination, resulting in
low social, economic and political status in the society.
Cause
Gender inequality in Pakistan is largely due to their culture. Most of the people there are Islamic, and
Islam has not promoted women's rights in the workforce since it values women as keepers of the
family honor, gender segregation and institutionalization of gender disparities. Many of the
traditions (up until today) promote gender inequality, such as women having to provide Dowry for
the husbands family.
Effects
Education
Current Situation: As of 2010, the literacy rate of females in Pakistan is at 39.6 percent compared to
that of males at 67.7 percent.
Aims
1. To achieve equality in education between girls and boys and to reduce the gender gap in the
educational system.
2. It also encourages girls, mainly in rural areas of Pakistan, to acquire basic home management
skills, which are preferred over full-scale primary education.
Challenges
The attitudes towards women in Pakistani culture make the fight for educational equality
more difficult.
The lack of democracy and feudal practices of Pakistan contribute to the gender gap in the
educational system. This feudal system leaves the underpowered, women in particular, in a
very vulnerable position.
The long-lived socio-cultural belief that women play a reproductive role within the confines
of the home leads to the belief that educating women holds no value.
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Effectiveness of Education Policies

- Poor Attendance Rate: Although the government declared that all children of the ages
516 can go to school, there are 7.261 million children out of school at the primary
level in Pakistan, and 58% are females.
- Although girls have the right to get an education legally, in many rural regions of
Pakistan girls are strongly discouraged from going to school and discriminated
against, as there are violent acts such as acid throwing which many girls fall victim to
for attending school.
Females are educated equally like Males in urban areas such as Lahore, Islamabad and Karachi.
However, in rural areas, the education rate is substantially lower.
Reasons for Poor Schooling Rate:
Girls living in rural areas are encouraged not to go to school because:
1. They are needed in the home to do work at a young age.
2. In most rural villages, secondary schooling simply does not exist for girls, leaving them no
choice but to prepare for marriage and do household tasks.
3. These rural areas often have inadequate funding and schooling for girls is at the bottom of
their priorities.
In 2012, UNESCO stated that Pakistan showed the least progress in the region educating low-income
girls.
Danger:
Even when there is the possibility of enrolling in a school, actually doing so can be downright
dangerous. In June 2013, militants blew up a bus carrying female university students in Quetta, the
capital of Pakistans southwestern Balochistan province, and the school has since been shuttered.
Marriage Rights
The legal age for men to be married is 18 and women 16.
Current Situation:
Many girls are still married off into a child marriage.
Many complications can occur as childbirth from a child can cause complications with the baby and
mother.
A common system in place with marriage is the Dowry system in which a low or no status is assigned
to a girl right from the prenatal stage.
There are issues around the dowry system such as dowry related violence, in which the wife
is abused by her husband. Abuse is likely to occur after the marriage has taken place.
Before the marriage, the groom will make heavy financial demands on the bride's family as a
condition of marrying their daughter. Daughters parents have to obtain loans from people,
get interest based loans from banks, utilize their life savings and even sell their homes.
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 Prior to the marriage, if certain conditions that the groom and his family have put in place are
not met, they will threaten to break off the marriage, which would be devastating for the bride
and her family because of the lengths the bride's family already had to go through to pay her
dowry and because traditionally it is a great dishonor to the family.
Violence
Studies done by several organizations show that has been a 13% increase in violence against women
in Pakistan in the year 2009.
Type of Violence/ Right Violations:
Rape (Gang Rape)
Domestic Violence
o It is common and considered
to be accepted by the society.
Honor Killing
o Occurs when a family member
because they have dishonored

the family with acts that are

viewed as immoral.
Vani (Exchange of Women in settling
disputes)
Forced/ Child Marriages
Acid Attacks
Mutilations

Participation in Labor Force

The rate of women in the labor force has an annual growth rate of 6.5 percent.
There is lesser women participation in earning activity as compared to men. In 1996-97 total
participation rate was 28.7% out of which 47.0% are males and 9 percent are females. In 2005-06
the participation rate was increased from 28.7% to 32.2% out of which 50.3% are males and only
13.3% are females.
Inequality towards Females
- Females receive a lower income than males, due in part to a lack of formal education.
- Females have a lower labor force participation than males.
In 2008, it was recorded that 21.8 percent of females were participating in the labor
force in Pakistan while 82.7 percent of men were involved in labor.
- Low female employment
Out of the 47 million employed peoples in Pakistan in 2008, only 9 million were
women and of those 9 million, 70 percent worked in the agricultural sector.
- The lack of opportunity for Pakistani women
According to a 2012 UNESCO report, literate Pakistani women earned nearly twice as
much as those who were illiterate.
- Poor working conditions
Paid less than minimum wage
Working conditions are hazardous
long working hours, no medical benefits, and no job security, subjected to job
discrimination, verbal abuse and sexual harassment and no support from male
oriented labor unions
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Women are subjected to severe employment discrimination

A study in Comparative Education, finds that the market rewards womens education and skills at a
higher rate than mens. There is a close relationship between womens empowerment and a
countrys economic development.
Obstacle in the Workforce: Low Female Literacy Rate
Challenges:
- Pakistan's policy makers worry that increasing the women's workforce will increase the
unemployment level.
- To significantly improve its female labor force participation rates, it will have to address a
range of structural barriers and social constraints, many of which are reinforced by
Islamization.
Implications:
- Females make up only 15% of the formal labor force in Pakistan, and although this is almost
triple what is was 20 years ago, this is still a very dismal amount.
- Pakistan is largely missing out on economic growth through foreign investment as
manufacturing service industries today employ large numbers of women from Mexico to
Bangladesh.
- Female have lack of resources and access to income earning activities in Pakistan.

Women Political Participation

The presence of women in Pakistani politics is guaranteed in the constitution by a quota system that
reserves certain seats for females. Over the years, this system has expanded largely due to the
efforts of women activists. At present, 60 out of 342 seats in the National Assembly (lower house of
parliament) are reserved for women.
But very few women won unreserved (general) seats. Six women, three each from the now-ruling
Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz party (PML-N) and the now-opposition Pakistan Peoples Party
(PPP) joined the National Assembly, while 10 women won seats in the four provincial assemblies
including eight in Punjab province.
Most of the women in parliament and in leading positions of major parties come from families
with a long political tradition. For women without wealth or connections, a political career
remains largely out of reach.
However, women MPs being elevated to positions of power has "rarely translated into real action and
change for the women of Pakistan.
Implications
Lack of education results in poverty
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Since most of the uneducated are females, the ones that would face poverty will most likely be
females as well. When they are not well educated, they will have a harder time getting employed,
there is also a higher chance that they will fall into poverty. When they are under poverty, their living
conditions will be compromised, they will not be able to access proper healthcare. Women
might also face problems providing Dowry during Marriages, they will also be uneducated in family
planning.
When there is higher unemployment among women in Pakistan, the incidence of poverty will be
higher among women as compared to men in Pakistan. Since women are paid lesser compared to
their male counterparts, majority of the female in rural and urban areas of Pakistan belongs to low
income groups.
Solutions/Policies
Government Policies - Education
The issuance of government policy, by Imran Khan's PTI helped improve enrolment of girls in
school. 70% of new schools are built for girls, there are also plans to increase the size of women's
school so that the infrastructure matches those of men's schools and more female colleges have also
been established in order to provide women with higher education.
The Citizens Foundation
Aim: improve gender equality and provide more opportunities for women.
The Citizens Foundation, a non-profit organization, runs schools across the country, encouraging
female enrollment with the goal of having its campuses gender balanced.
The Kashf Foundation
Founded in 1996, Kashf Foundation became the first microfinance institution in Pakistan to target
women from low-income communities.
Women Bank
The First Women Bank was founded in 1989 to support businesswomen. Pakistans Small and
Medium Enterprises Development Authority (SMEDA) also provides support for female
entrepreneurs.

Scenario Country/ Bad Case Study for Essay

Egypt
Traditional gender roles in Egypt are prevalent and clearly defined. These roles are largely associated
with traditional Islamic family structures, wherein women's roles are closely tied to the domestic
sphere and men's roles tied to the public sphere.

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In 2011, the UNDP's Gender Inequality Index (GII) rated Egypt 126th out of 148 countries, with an
overall value of 0.59, where 1.0 is a perfect score. These indicators suggest strong gender-based
disparities in areas of reproductive health, economic functioning, and overall empowerment.
Reasons for inequalities are numerous; social norms and attitudes, economic pressures, religious
beliefs, and structural forces all help maintain the status quo.
Effects
Marriage
Marriage is the formal institution wherein womens different legal status is most apparent. Official
age of consent for marriage is 16 for girls and 18 for boys, though child marriage of females still
continues in certain areas without legal intervention.
Egyptian marital laws also allow for multiple spouses for all Muslim men. The same
allowances are not granted for women, though a wife has some say in whether or not her
husband takes a second wife.
Unfair Divorce Procedures
Divorce procedures differ by gender, with divorces being more freely granted to men. A
man can divorce his wife by saying you are divorced three times. The proceeding is then
formalized within 30 days by registering the divorce with a notary. Women are then entitled
to financial maintenance for up to two years.
Some women, when negotiating with their husbands for divorce, are willing to forfeit the
financial assistance in exchange for him initiating the divorce. Women sometimes choose this
option because of the legal red tape that is involved in wife-initiated divorce.
In the past, women were required to prove the fault of the husband before being granted a
divorce.
In 2000, the law was amended by The Law on Reorganization of Certain Terms and Procedures of
Litigation in Personal Status Matters, a hotly contested legal act that broadened womens access to
divorce. Under this new law, a woman could pursue a divorce without having to prove the fault of the
husband.
However, this type of divorce, khula, would mean a reduction in the womans financial
rights. The law is somewhat flexible in that it allows for the couple to adhere to conditions of
divorce set up in advance. Women are still able to pursue a divorce through the traditional
means wherein the fault of the husband must be proven. This method allows women greater
financial rights and protections.
Political Participation
Current Situation: As a group, women have been proportionally underrepresented in parliament and
other civic offices.

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 During the final years of Hosni Mubarak's leadership, women held 12 percent of
parliamentary seats. While such a figure may be proportionally low, it is the highest level of
female inclusion ever reached in Egypt.
After the revolution that ousted Mubarak, the number of women in office decreased. The
2013 Human Development Report states that 2.2% parliamentary positions are held by
women.
As political participants, women have been active in the revolutions of the Arab Spring,
as well as subsequent protests and debates regarding the future of their nation. Estimates
suggest that as many as 55% of protesters were female and approximately 60% of people
voting in the most recent election were female.
Solution: Equal Rights
In early 2014, equal rights and protections for women were included in the newest Egyptian
constitution, reversing many of the restrictions imposed by the more conservative Mohamed
Morsi regime.
Although women are not guaranteed a minimum number of seats in parliament, laws
forbidding discrimination based on gender was included.
In addition, women are to be given access to higher judiciary positions for the first time.
This has provided the legal framework for greater gender equality, though enforcement will
determine its effectiveness.
In February 2014, Egypt elected its first female political party leader; Hala Shukrallah, a
Coptic Christian, was elected to represent the Constitution Party.
Education
Current Situation:
Literacy rates for young adults (15-24 year olds) show some gender-based disparity. As of 2011,
overall literacy rates were 93.2% of men and 86.5% women.
These numbers have increased dramatically over recent years as Egypt has made greater
financial investments in this sector.
Because of vast improvements in Egypt's education system, younger generations are much more
likely to be literate than the older generations. The most disadvantaged group are rural adult
women. The 2006 Human Development Report (HDR) estimated that only 15% of female household
heads in rural areas were literate.
Improvement:
Egypt has made significant progress in narrowing the primary and secondary education gap
between boys and girls. As of 2010, the female to male ratio was 0.96.
New generations of Egyptians have placed a higher value on female education than in the
past. In 2011 it is estimated that of the 2.6 million students enrolled in tertiary education,
51% of them were female. This is significantly higher than the Arab regional and global
averages of 24% and 29% respectively.
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Participation in Labor Force

Participation in the labor force shows substantial differences between the genders. While
unemployment rates are high, evidence suggests a substantial male bias in hiring.
As of 2012, women made up 24.2% of the labor force, a percentage that has remained
stagnant for no less than two decades.
The World Bank reports that women face far more hostility in the overall business environment,
citing a finding that showed female-owned firms in Egypt report needing 86 weeks on average to
resolve a conflict through the legal system, compared to 54 weeks for male-owned firms.
1. Unemployment rates are high for all young Egyptians, though it is particularly high for
females.
Only 13.4% of women in the 15-29 age bracket are employed or looking for work.
Although more women are economically active in the upper income quintiles, they are
still underrepresented at 35.1% of women with a vocational or post-secondary education.
Gender-Based Violence
Sexual harassment
Most Egyptian women have experienced some form of sexual harassment. Frequency of reported
incidences vary.
In April 2013 UN survey shows that 99.3% of women have experienced sexual harassment.
A January 2011 survey of youth stated the 13.5% of women felt that sexual harassment was
the most serious risk they face on Egypt's streets on a day-to-day basis.
15.9% felt it was the greatest risk when using bus transportation and 23% felt it was the
greatest risk they face when taking the train. This survey was taken before the epidemic of
sexual violence that accompanied recent episodes of widespread public unrest.
Sexual violence
Total incidence of sexual violence are difficult to measure as many women are reluctant to
come forth due to the social stigma attached associated with sexual victimization.
However, most cases of rape and sexual assault are not brought to the attention of
authorities or prosecuted. Shame, fear of being blamed, loss of face, or in some cases, fear
of being a victim of "honor killing" prevents most women from seeking help.
Despite these difficulties, the Egyptian Interior Ministry estimates there are no less than
20,000 women raped annually.
Implication:
With the unrest associated with the 2011 revolution and political strife in Egypt, normal
social order has been disrupted.

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As a result, hundreds of women have been victims of random sexual violence in public.
Tahrir Square has been the site of many such assaults, with 150 attacks against women
by groups of men reported during the single week of Hosni Mubarak's ouster.
Again, during the removal of Mohamed Morsi and the subsequent social unrest and
jubilation in Tahrir in 2013, 80 women were subjected to sexual violence by mobs of men
in one night. There were a total of no less than 169 cases of such attacks against women
during that week.

Attacks against women appear to be carried out in a premeditated fashion by men

emboldened with a sense of impunity.
Challenges:
Attitudes regarding sexual violence against women provide considerable obstacles in regard
to mobilizing public action against it.

In early 2012, members of Egypt's upper parliamentary house engaged in victim-blaming,

with one representative saying, "Women contribute 100% to their rape because they put
themselves in that position." While this attitude is not representative of all Egyptians, it
is widespread enough to present challenges for women who participate in the political
action.

Such attitudes toward women and prevalence of sexual violence and harassment against
them, contribute substantially to Egypt being named the worst Arab state for women by an
extensive Thomas Reuters Foundation study.
Intimate partner/domestic violence
The 2009 UNFPA Violence against Women Summary Finding confirmed that spousal violence is a
significant problem in Egypt.
Studies from 1995 to 2005 showed no decrease in prevalence, though some methodological
inconsistencies in surveys between those years makes direct comparison somewhat
complicated.
In 2005, 33% of women reported having been subject to some form of physical violence by
their current or previous husband.
These rates decreased in higher income and education brackets, although
approximately one quarter of women in those highest brackets report having been "beaten"
by their husbands at some point during their marriage.
Female genital mutilation (FGM)
Female Genital Mutilation, also called female circumcision, involves removal of some or all of a
female's genitalia. More severe - and far less common - forms involve complete removal of the
genitals and sewing up of the vagina until only a very small hole remains for urine and menstrual
blood vacate.

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 FGM is commonplace in Egypt, with an estimated 90-97% of women undergoing some

version of the procedure. The practice is deeply engrained in the culture and predates
both Christianity and Islam.
Its main purpose is to preserve chastity, though its social function is very complicated. FGM
is seen by all major international human rights organizations as a violation of a woman's
bodily integrity and sexual health.
Numbers of circumcised females decrease in lower age brackets. Among all females surveyed
in a 2011 study of over 15,000 individuals, 75.5% of women aged 1029 report being
circumcised.
The practice appears to be more common in rural areas where 83.7% of females have
experienced FGM. While these numbers are lower than older age brackets, they are largely
consistent with the 10-29 year old group surveyed in an identical 2008 study. This would
suggest that any decline in practice has slowed significantly or stagnated.
The same study showed the majority of respondents, both male and female, believed that
circumcision was necessary for girls (64%).
More men (70.3%) believed it was needed than women (57.6%).
Belief in the practice is stronger in the lower income quintiles and considerably weaker in the
upper quintiles.
Problems with Gender Equality in Egypt:
The entire rationale behind legislation and court rulings on sexual violence is flawed.
Law does not acknowledge an individuals right to bodily integrity and freedom from harassment and
abuse but the language employed on books and in court rulings focuses on importance of public
morality and maintaining integrity of family unit. Only heterosexual rape- which introduces
possibility of pregnancy- is criminalized.
Problems with the way things are handled in Egypt:
States use of threat of sexual harassment as an excuse to increase police activity is offensive
as police are known for their unprofessional conduct in sexual offense cases.
Inappropriate Conduct of Police
They re-traumatize women who file complaints of harassment or assault by asking suggestive
questions, teasing survivors and blaming them for their situation.
They suggested that women filing assault complaints undergo vaginal examinations, which
are often conducted in inappropriate settings and without medical professional present.
Police violate privacy of survivors by releasing their names and personal details to
defendants and media.
Policies:
New law in Egypt criminalizes sexual harassment

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New law amends article 306A in penal code to criminalize harassment in form of words,
gestures and actions expressed in person or through other means of communication. The
law lays out minimum sentence of 6 months imprisonment and a fine of 3,000 Egyptian
pounds for an offence.
Second amendment to law stipulates a more severe sentence for an offender who is in a
position of authority over the complainant and for offences involving multiple
perpetrators

Shortcomings: [WARNING: HIGHLY DISGUSTING TERMS USED]

1. Defines key concepts narrowly.
Harassment is defined as an offence that occurs when a man follows or stalks a woman and
communicates sexual or pornographic content.
Problematic because definition makes crime conditional on following or stalking, neither of
which are necessary for harassment to occur. Nor does the definition take into account sexual
harassment of men, which is widespread.
2. Defines crime of harassment as motivated by sexual desires and fulfillment of offender.
However, there are different kinds of motivation behind harassment- shaming, assertion of
power, or even (in a culture where sexual harassment is largely unpunished and even encouraged)
boredom. Sexual violence can also be used to discourage women from political participation; this
encourages decision makers to focus on subjective question of defendants motivation, rather than
harm done to victim.
3. Law regarding rape has also been heavily criticized since legal definition does not include
rape using hands or instruments and excludes/overlooks rape and other forms of sexual
violence against men.
4. The draft law also dictates a prison sentence for those who engage in mob sexual harassment
not to exceed five years. Mob sexual harassment is defined as an act of sexual harassment
on a female from two or more individuals.
5. The same sentence is given to those who sexually assault females by way of coercion or threat
by one person holding a weapon.

6. The second provision, Article 278, applies to "indecent behavior," including indecent
exposure, trailing and stalking, with punishment ranging from a fine to three years in prison.
7. The third provision, Article 268, concerns "sexual assault," which covers cases of physical
sexual abuse, with punishment ranging from three to 15 years in prison.

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Solution:
Egyptian Center for Womens Rights
Over the past five years, the Egyptian Center for Womens Rights (ECWR) has worked to
combat the phenomenon of sexual harassment in Egypt aiming at the promotion and
achievement of equal rights for Women and for Men.
Objectives:
Eradicating the phenomenon of sexual harassment and violence against women in Egypt.
Dismantling the taboo nature of sexual harassment by encouraging public debate.
Improving women's status in society by cultivating a culture of respect, providing for
personal rights and ending the use of violence against women.
Working with new parliament to adopt legislation against sexual harassment
Specific Objectives:
Empowering women to speak out against sexual harassment and demand their equal
rights to share in public space that will encourage them to speak out against other forms
of inequality and violence.
Raising awareness about sexual harassment and the impacts of the problem through
working directly in communities to improve public debate.
Improving safety and security of women in their daily lives by supporting and advocating
for the enactment of legislation that criminalizes sexual harassment; monitoring the
implementation of the law once it has been enacted.
Developing existing relationships as well as seeking new partnerships with media to
reach a wider audience with our message and correct misconceptions about the sexual
harassment.
Changing societal attitudes by addressing the traditional dilemma of blaming victims of
sexual harassment by providing accurate information/data.
Activities:
Outreach to Schools- Trainings for Teachers and Community Leaders
Advocacy & Media Campaigns
Media Engagement
The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
Egypt is a signatory to The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against
Women. CEDAW was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 18, 1979.
Aims: The treaty seeks to define discrimination against women as a human rights issue, create a plan
of action to address gender disparities, and to hold nations accountable. Countries that ratify the
convention pledge to take strong steps in order to end discriminatory practices and violence against
women. To date, 189 countries have signed CEDAW.

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Egypt, along with a significant number of countries, ratified the convention, spelling out numerous
reservations. Egypt made the following reservations:
Women should not have equal rights to determine the nationality of their children. A
woman's child in Egypt shall always be the nationality of the father.
Marriage laws, based on sacrosanct religious believes, should remain as is. Women must seek
a divorce through the ruling of a judge whereas men have no such requirement.
Egypt is not bound by the section of article 1 (definition of discrimination against females)
that requires the submission to anybody of arbitration to resolve disputes between the State
and the Convention.
Egypt will not comply with any part of the Convention that runs counter to Islamic law.
Improvement: The new constitution, ratified in January 2014, appears to take a different approach to
women's rights as they relate to CEDAW. The constitution now states that women have equal right
to give pass citizenship to their children. Egypt's intentions to uphold and pursue the goals of CEDAW
in general have also been emphasized and codified.

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Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies due to the presence of pollutants, leading to the
degradation of water quality.
Type of water pollutions and sources:
1. Nutrient Pollution - Some wastewater, fertilizers and sewage contain high level of nutrients
which encourage algae and weed growth in water.
2. Surface water Pollution - Hazardous substances coming into contact with surface water.
3. Oxygen Depletion - High level of biodegradable matter in water bodies that encourage
microorganism growth. This results in the death of aerobic organisms and more harmful
toxins will be produced.
4. Ground water pollution Application of pesticides and chemicals to soil which lead to
pollution underground due to runoff.
5. Suspended Matter Pollutants that do not easily dissolve in water. Such matters are harmful
and even kill aquatic life.
6. Chemical Water Pollution Due to industrial and agricultural activities.
7. Oil Spillage

Good Case Studies

Laos
Background
The Lao Peoples Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) is generally rich in water resources. The total
available surface water resources (including the flow of the Mekong River and its tributaries) are
55,000 m3 on an annual per capita basis, the highest in Asia. However, little of the national water
supply has been developed.
Water has been used in Laos in the following sectors:
Hydropower : to reduce imported fuel, support rural development, reduce regional power
imbalance
Immigration : achieve self-sufficiency, involve all stakeholders in irrigation development
and management, protection against flood damage
Navigation : maintain current transport capability by river, protecting riverbanks from
erosion
Fisheries : develop infrastructure and human resources in fisheries management, promote
development of aquaculture and regulate fishing activities
Urban water supply and water disposal: increase amenities in urban areas by providing
affordable and quality services in commercial water supply and sanitation
Rural water supply: improve water supply and environmental health, improve accessibility
of water in poverty- ridden areas
Laos economy is largely based on agriculture and food security is hence of ultimate importance for
them. Subsistence agriculture still accounts for nearly half of the gross domestic product and
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provides 80% of the employment as 69% of the population still live in rural areas. Protecting these
watersheds is therefore of regional as well as of national importance, particularly for lowland
agriculture and fisheries.
Up to the present time the focus of water quality work in Lao PDR has been on general environmental
monitoring, project-related environmental protection (EIAs, EMPs, etc.) and public awareness and
education.
Existing Danger to Water Pollution
Relatively rapid economic growth and natural resource development: Hydropower,
mining and forestry are the major areas of activity, while tourism, agriculture and fisheries
are also developing and changing. There is water pollution from agricultural and industrial
sectors, including mineral exploitation. Urban areas are also growing as population shifts and
commercial and industrial development takes place hence leading to increasing pressures on
the environment and an increasing need to manage natural resources in a sustainable
manner.
Urbanization -> Increase in Population: Expanding populations with improved living
standards will lead to the demand for agricultural products and electricity that will become
the main driver of the transformation of the rural economy. In spite of its relative abundance,
water development needs to consider the compatibility between the multiple uses of water.
For example, hydropower might result in alterations of river flows and sediment
balances with consequences for fishing, biodiversity, and the water supply for
irrigation. The changes required to increase crop yields might also alter water quality
with significant impacts on biodiversity. The expansion of agriculture and livestock
in uplands might result in significant losses in forest and biodiversity with impacts on
runoff and erosion.
Outdated water treatment facilities: Some water treatment plants and distribution
networks date back to the French colonial era in the early 20th century and urgently need
upgrading.
Lack of Sufficient Funding: The government is identifying key cities for growth and to meet
such a surge in demand, it has to find ways to increase water supplies and distribution. But it
has little money to invest itself. International donors are providing some funds, but not
quickly enough to keep up with rising demand.
Successful Policies/Solutions
Law Enforcement:
Water and Water Resources Law of 1996: defines principles, rules and measures in the
administration, use and development of water and water resources. The law has 10
provisions and 49 articles focusing on the protection of water resources and watersheds,
water resources planning and prevention of water pollution. Ministries active in water
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resources have been instructed to formulate ministerial regulations to reflect the intent of
the law.
Water Resources Coordination Committee (WRCC) (1998): setting the legal framework for
water and water resources and function as a national apex body to improve coordination of
multi - sectorial activities involving water use and to define and manage water allocations.
Management of Quality Standards for Drinking Water and Household Water Supply (2005):
defines standards for drinking and household water supply, including bacteriological,
physical-chemical (aesthetic), and health-significant chemical parameters.

Private Sector Investment in Water Treatment Plants

In both Luang Prabang and Pakse, the Nam Papas are pioneers in developing Water Safety Plans
(WSP).
Luang Prabang:
To counter the threat of contamination, the Nam Papa has been liaising with other
government agencies to prevent the excessive application of chemicals by farmers
and to shut down illegal mines as well as those that fail to meet the required
environmental standards.
Pakse:
The first water treatment plant was completed in 1973 and draws raw water from
the Mekong River through an intake tower. In 1992 a second treatment plant was
built next to the first upping capacity to 15 000 m/day.
Turbidity and residual chlorine levels are closely watched and immediately dealt with
if they stray outside set parameters. Screens and filters are cleaned more regularly
and the plant has built up its stock of spare parts. a general increase and awareness
of preventative maintenance
Carrying out more maintenance has helped it save money over the longer term by
extending the lifespan of equipment and reducing the need for costly replacements,
important considerations when money is so limited.

Switzerland
Background
Being a mountainous country Switzerland is located in the middle of Western Europe where it shared
five river basins and some large lakes with neighboring countries. Switzerland has more than 7
million inhabitants and is densely populated.
With one of the most stable economies of the world, Switzerland has achieved one of the highest
GDP per capita income of the world, along with low unemployment rates and a balanced budget.
Machinery and Pharmaceutical productions are the main industries which contribute to the high
GDP in Switzerland.
Water is the most important natural resource in Switzerland. The amount readily available is about
3 times the European average, which is sufficient to meet all the essential needs. Groundwater
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provides more than 83% of drinking water. Nearly 47% of the groundwater can be distributed
without treatment. The other amount of groundwater only requires minimal treatment before
distribution.
Based on a research conducted by OECD, 95% of people say that they are satisfied with water
quality in Switzerland.
Existing Danger to Water Pollution
Chemicals, especially pharmaceuticals, and machinery are considered the largest industries in
Switzerland which are accounted for generating economy growth for the country. Such growth of
industrial activities may release highly toxic chemical waste into the bodies and causing water
pollution.
Yet, water pollution by these industries is no longer a problem as their aqueous
discharges are of good quality due to water treatment. The risk of water pollution
through an industrial accident still exists, however, Switzerland has made significant
effort to prevent such incidents and is ready for any unexpected situations.
Pollution from Agriculture remains a major problem from both surface water and groundwater.
Long term use of chemical fertilizers linked to intensive farming may lead to eutrophication. In areas
where there is intensive farming, the standard of some substances have exceeded but they are well
monitored by means of the national network for the observation of groundwater quality.
Successful Policies/Solutions
Switzerland has one of the highest water quality in the world because of:
The well-maintained wastewater treatment plants
Since, 1950s, these treatments plants were legally tasked with cleaning up wastewater. It is
considered a significant environmental success, as these plants are continually being
updated with the latest technology.
The treatment plants has helped to keep the pollution of surface water by organic substance
from households relatively low.
Governments Enforcements
The government has taken early and successful water pollution control
measures. These rigorous enforcements are combined with regulatory exercises
and supported by a considerable financial effort.
Examples: Roche and Novartis, major pharmaceutical companies in Switzerland. These
companies have designed production processes which includes wastewater treatment use
the best available techniques to prevent the release of synthetic organic substance and
ensuring that inputs into water bodies are reduced to harmless levels.
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 Due to its stable economy, the Government is able to spend 1.7% of its GDP solely
on environmental protection to primarily prevent its fresh water supply from being
polluted.
Banned Lead Pipes
Lead pipes which once carried potable water across Switzerland have been banned in 1914
and all have now been replaced.
Banned Chemicals used in Agriculture
The risk of water pollution by pesticides through their application on railways and roads has
been considerably decreased with the ban on the application of triazine, and the complete
ban on the application of herbicides as well.

Cyprus
B
a
c
k
g
r
o
u
n
d
The availability of water in Cyprus is dependent on the annual rainfall, which varies from
340 mm in the coastal plains to 1,100 mm in the Troodos Mountains. Groundwater is a very
important source of water for Cyprus. Water infiltrates directly from rainfall (there is no inflow from
outside the island) into confined or unconfined aquifers and can be extracted and used either by
pumping or sometimes by gravity feeds in the form of springs.
A successful case study whereby it is possible to focus on economic growth while promoting good
water quality. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Cyprus is one of the 36 advanced
economies in the world. The service sector, including tourism, contributes to 80% of the country's
G D P a n d e m p l o y s a l m o s t 7 0 % o f t h e w o r k f o r c e .
Cyprus has entire villages dedicated to tourism such as Ayia Napa and Protaras, consisting of a vast
number of beaches that Cyprus is well known for. Cyprus also has deep water bays which are perfect
for s nor ke li n g, di vi n g a nd oth er wa ter ac ti vi ti es that are p op ular wi th tou ri s ts .
In 2010, coastal and inland bathing sites across Europe were regularly tested for harmful pollutants
and bacteria, such as E. coli to ensure they meet the European Union's minimum standards. The top
performer was Cyprus with 100% of sites rated excellent, suggesting that Cyprus has had consistent
high quality of cleanliness in their coastal and inland waters. This boosts Cyprus' reputation as a
renowned tourist spot, contributing to economic growth.
E x i s t i n g
D a n g e r
t o
W a t e r
P o l l u t i o n
Increase in the application of fertilizers and pesticides in order to enhance agricultural
production: In Cyprus, because of the limited amount of agricultural land and the high cost
of labor and water, increases in production through the application of fertilizers and
pesticides have become very important, but have also resulted in some groundwater
p
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
.
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Over-pumping of aquifers as well as saltwater intrusion: In some locations the saline

ground-water is not suitable even for the most salt-tolerant crops. The over pumping has
also resulted in most springs drying up

Successful Policies/Solutions
"Cyprus approach" that no water should be allowed to reach the sea

Focus on Water Quality due to Tourism Industry: In order to not pollute the water
sources, waste water cannot be discharged into the water sources to prevent eutrophication
and there are strict regulation on what is considered treated waste water. Treated waste
water can only be used for irrigation or for groundwater recharge.

Quality of Treated Waste Water: In Cyprus, in order to control the treatment and use of
wastewater and thereafter to safeguard the environment and public health, very strict
guidelines have been formed relating to the quality and the use of treated wastewater. In
addition, the guidelines are followed by a code of practice intended to ensure protection of
public health and the environment even further. Wastewater reclamation and use may
contribute to the protection of the environment but inappropriate treatment and use may
also adversely affect the environment and human health. Therefore, the formulation of
guidelines and a code of practice concerning treatment and use of wastewater are essential.

Groundwater Recharge: In Cyprus, where favorable conditions occur, groundwater

recharge with river flow has been used efficiently for the replenishment of depleted aquifers.
The recharge basins can be used throughout the year for reclaimed water but the recharged
water need only be recovered by pumping as required for crop irrigation. Additional water
quality variables have been set for the treated effluent used for groundwater recharge with a
particular emphasis on nitrogen removal. The treatment plant, therefore, has been designed
to provide nitrification and denitrification by which the level of nitrogen in the reclaimed
water can be controlled.

Japan
Background
Located on the Pacific Ocean, Japan is a developed country with great economic power and has
attained one of the worlds largest economy.
Japan has achieved universal access to water supply, including safe and potable water, as seen from
the distribution rate of water supply system which is estimated to be 97%. Also, it has one of the
lowest levels of water distribution losses in the world. Not only that, it regularly exceeds its own strict
standards for the quality of drinking water and treated waste water. However, water quality in rivers
and lakes still does not meet environmental standards.

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Existing Danger to Water Pollution

Natural Disasters
Due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire, Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes and
tsunami, having the highest natural disaster risk in the developed world.
Fukushimas Radioactive Leak
Japans crippled Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant has leaked radioactive water which
contaminated the water bodies.
Implications
Even though radioactive water does not pose an immediate health threat to humans, long
term exposure to radiation may elevate the cancer rates among the local population.
Improper handling of industrial wastes by Japanese corporation (18th - 19th Century)
Due to poor handling of industrial/chemicals wastes, many unfortunate incidents occur to the local
population due to the deeds of Japanese corporation. Even though some of these incidents have been
resolved completely, some still leave traces in Japan which are dangerous to the local population. One
example is radiation.
Aftermath of Mina Mata Disease
In 1970, the Japanese Water Pollution Control Act, which states that all factories are
required by law to regulate disposal of dangerous chemicals, were enacted. Efforts were also
made to clean up polluted water bodies before deeming them safe.
Successful Policies/Solutions
Japan is able to reduce water pollution, or at least maintain its high cleanliness status of 90.2 on
the environmental health objective scale measuring the extent of deficiency in the water standards
because of:
1. Development of environmentally-friendly industries (Ecotourism)
The ecotourism industry aims to lower pollution risks for the ecotourism board strives to provide
tour packages built upon the idea of sustainable use of resources and environmental conservation.
Many cities emphasize on the development of ecotourism to generate income. Ecotourism has been
heavily invested, which in turn has helped to boost the countrys economy.
Example: Water Rafting Tour from Mina kami to Tokyo.
Tourists are given incentives such as discounted tour packages when they participate in activities
such as river cleanups.
2. Advanced water treatment methods
Utilities in Japan have increasingly adopted advanced water treatment methods to ensure that both
drinking water and wastewater are treated before entering water premises.

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3. Organization related to Water Resources

In Japan, measures concerning water resources are implemented by a number of government
ministries and agencies in co-operation. Not only that, the Water Resources Department of the
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) acts as the overall coordinator
for all water related issues. A well-organized association ensures that water resources are regularly
look upon and maintained.
4.

Proper Waste Management Implementation

Currently, Japan has taken a much more proactive approach to waste management.
Japan Authority has strictly reinforced the Japanese Water Pollution Control Act, which states
that all factories are required by law to regulate disposal of dangerous chemicals, were
enacted.

Negative Case Studies

Russia
Background
Being the largest country in the world in terms of landmass, Russia possess one third of the planets
fresh water, yet this water amount is rather unevenly distributed across the population. The country
accommodates five main drainage basins, the worlds largest lake, and Europes longest river.
Among Russias most serious environmental problems, water pollution remains as the most
important concern. Although it is rich in water, much of its land lies at cold and inhospitable
conditions. Water supply in some cities and towns are extremely poor in terms of quality. Less than
half of the population has access to safe drinking water.
As a result, 75 percent of Russias surface water is now polluted, 50 percent of all water is not potable.
An estimated 30 percent of groundwater available for use is also highly polluted.
Causes
Despite water pollution from industrial sources being reduced due to the decline in manufacturing,
the following reasons have worsened the water quality in Russia:
1. Municipal Waste Dumping
Due to the lack of management expertise and insufficient landfill capacity, poor municipal waste
disposal has increasingly threaten key water supply sources in Russia.
Hazardous waste disposal problems are extensive and growing. Russian officials estimate that more
than 200 metric tons of the most highly toxic waste materials are dumped illegally each year in
locations that lack effective environmental protection.
2. Nuclear contamination from defense and military industries

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Nuclear waste and chemical munition combination is largely extensive and costly to reverse that
remediation efforts are likely to continue to be limited largely to merely fencing off affected areas.
The priority of defense industries and military installations has led to poor dumping of radioactive
and other hazardous wastes onto nearby land and waterways due to negligence.
3. Lack of management expertise
4. Insufficient landfill capacity
5. Lack effective environmental/public health protection
Environmental standards, although often set high, were seldom enforced. Departments charged with
protecting natural resources were often subordinate to ministries whose main goal was increasing
production.
6. Uneven water distribution
7. Agricultural and industrial pollution
The collectivization of agriculture destroyed individual responsibility for the land. Solving the lack of
food in Russia has led to the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides due to intensive
agriculture.
8. Poor water infrastructure
Existing water infrastructure is largely outdated, inefficient, highly polluted equipment, resulting in
frequent breakdowns. It is unable to treat waste water cleanly, leading to polluted water entering the
water bodies in Russia. This is due to Soviet planners who strongly emphasized the development of
heavy industries.
Consequences
Aspects

Consequences

Economics

1. Rising cost to purchase potable water and improve the current water system
2. Reduced labor productivity and industrial work due to poor workers health
3. Tourism rate is gradually declining.

Social

1. Spread of water borne diseases

2. Lack of access to potable water

Political

1.Disagreement between citizens and government/ Disapproval of governments

handling of situation

Environmental

1. Pollute essential water bodies

2. Damage the eco-system/ natural resources

Implication
Aspects

Implications
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Economics

1. Large sum of money is needed to clean up the affected water bodies which
strains the economy of Russia
2. Unable to attract tourists which contributes to economic growth
3. Pose a burden on manpower in the workforce
4. Overall economic losses from environmental degradation

Social

1. Compromise the health and well-being of citizens A rise in the incidence of

waterborne diseases and related birth defects
2. Reduce labor productivity and hinders economic growth
3. Result in drinking non-potable water which is harmful to the health

Political

1. May result in political unrest and threaten the stability of the nation
2. Pose substantial threats to neighboring regions strain international
relationship

Environmental

1. Loss of biodiversity

Solutions
Not Effective
Soviet Leaders took little action to protect the nations inland bodies of water or surrounding oceans
and seas from pollution, and Soviet planner gave low priority to risk-free treatment and transport of
water.
Despite a series of comprehensive plans to mitigate water pollution in Russia, many of these plans
yielded limited success in protecting the water bodies, which gradually succumbed to chemical
stresses.
- High Costs
The cost of raising the quality of Russias entire drinking water supply to official standards could be
as much as $200 billion. Not only is that, about $459 billion required to complete the necessary
upgrades and extensions of water and sanitation infrastructure by 2020.
As it is too costly, proper solutions to curb the existing water pollution is unable to be implemented
successfully, resulting in poor management of the problem that does not help to improve the
condition
- Lack of Commitment
Russian Government lacks the commitment, resources and organizational capacity to address
environmental issues. Not only that, government institutions responsible for environmental
protection lack the authority and capability to enforce legislation.
-

Hindrance towards Cleanup Assistance Program

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A continued Russian tendency to treat certain nuclear waste and chemical weapons information as
state secret complicates Western cleanup assistance programs
- Preoccupied with economic survival
Despite growing concerns towards environmentally related issues, the Russians are preoccupied
with economic survival and accords much less priority to environmental issues.

India
Background
Water pollution is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of water pollution is
untreated sewage which remains as the predominant cause. Other sources of pollution include
agricultural runoff and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and even surface water
in India are heavily polluted.
Causes
1. Lack of sufficient treatment capacity
2. Outdated sewage treatment plants
The sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate regularly and are not well-maintained for
usage.
The majority of the government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time due
to improper design or poor maintenance and lack of reliable electricity supply to operate,
together with absentee employees and poor management.
3. Dumping untreated sewage and partially cremated bodies
4. Lack of toilets and sanitation facilities
5. Poor sanitation habits
An estimated 2,000,000 persons ritually bathe daily in the river which pose a major health risk for
Indians. Not only that, more than 600 million people practice open defecation in India.
Consequences
Aspects

Consequences

Economics

1. Rising cost to improve the current water system

2. Reduced labor productivity (especially sewage workers) due to poor workers
health
3. Poor operation and maintenance

Social

1. Spread of water borne diseases

2. Lack of access to potable water

Political

1. Disagreement between citizens and government/ Disapproval of governments

handling of situation
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Environmental

1. Pollute essential water bodies

2. Damage the eco-system/ natural resources

Implication
Aspects

Implications

Economics

1. Large sum of money is needed to clean up the affected water bodies which
strains the economy of India
2. Unable to attract tourists which contributes to economic growth
3. Pose a burden on manpower in the workforce
4. Large sum of money is lost due to production losses and treatment costs. These
treatments are not completely useful.

Social

1. Compromise the health and well-being of citizens A rise in the incidence of

waterborne diseases and related birth defects
2. Loss of lives due to lack of water and hygiene
3. Reduce labor productivity and hinders economic growth
4. Result in drinking non-potable water which is harmful to the health

Political

1. May result in political unrest and threaten the stability of the nation

Environmental

1. Loss of biodiversity

Solutions
- National Water Policy
Even though India revised its National Water Policy to encourage community participation and
decentralize water management, it remains as a mere statement of intent.
Responsibility for managing water issues is fragmented among a dozen different ministries and
departments with poor coordination. The government and related department have failed to solve
the problem, despite having spent many years and $140 million on this project.
Lack of financial support has hindered the operation and maintenance of water facilities.

China
Background
Nearly 60% of Chinas underground water is polluted. 16% of sites of natural soil tested over a nineyear period were polluted, some with cadmium, mercury and arsenic. Water demands are as follows:
65% agriculture, 23% industry, and 12% domestic.

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Causes
1. The widespread dumping of toxic chemicals and industrial wastewater has poisoned
rivers and groundwater: Poor environmental regulations, weak enforcement and local
corruption mean that factories can discharge their wastewater directly into rivers and lakes.
2. Focus on Economic Growth: The Chinese Government has also considered economic growth
of China to be the main task. They have placed so much emphasis on economic growth till an
extent whereby the economic performance of the country is related to the advancement of
the career of the government official. Incentives including monetary rewards and a better
future in politics are being provided to these officials and policy makers, thus, increasing their
enthusiasm in helping to expand and improve the economy.
Factory of the World
mindset of economic growth then clean up afterwards
3. Corruption and Lack of Enforcement by the Government: despite all the laws imposed
and policies implemented by the government and officials, corruption and local interests
within the government and parliament is usually what makes all these policies and reforms
not helpful. Many of the officials think that environmental protection requires too much time
and money as the equipment and procedures are complicated and expensive at the same
time. Thus, the local governments may not follow the Chinese governments words, especially
in implementing national environmental policies. The local governments also usually have a
part to play in the polluting policies, allowing themselves to benefit from the monetary taxes.
Consequences
Aspects

Consequences

Economics

1. Economic continues to develop rapidly, especially with China being

the Factory of the World, and also the constant emphasis by the
China Government. -> short term benefit as China is currently
suffering from water shortage which is crucial for economic
development
2. Groundwater requires much more effort and funding to clean up as
compared to surface water, yet close to 60% of groundwater is
polluted.
3. $240 million worth of damage and economic losses was caused by
45 major red tides between 1997 and 1999.

Environment

1.

436 of Chinas 532 rivers are polluted, and most do not have any
fishes at all -> loss of biodiversity
2. Eutrophication, red tides and algae booms

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Politics

1. Government officials do not follow what the government says and

hence, lack of enforcement of laws
2. Citizens start to lose trust in the government.

Social

1. Serious Health Implications: rise of cancer villages located at rural

places near factory complexes and villagers rely highly on rivers for
drinking, washing and daily life. Many of them have rare cancers of
the esophagus, rectum, stomach and liver and usually die due to lack
of money for cancer treatment.
2. Lack of access to clean water (especially in rural areas)
3. Food insecurity as water used for irrigation may not be of good
quality

Solutions
Water Treatment Plants being built by the Funds set aside by the Government: August 2006,
the Chinese government admitted that China has serious water pollution and drinking water
problems and earmarked $132 billion for cleaning up and improving Chinas water supply.
Allocations included $30 billion for urban water supply projects and $50 million in wastewater
projects. Projects include sewages works, pipes, and desalination plants
However, such treatment plants are useless as:
Water treatment facilities built by the national government are sometimes left idle by their
local operators because of the high cost of operating them. Chinese environmentalist Ma Jun told the
Washington Post, Hundreds of sewage plants have been built around China, but we havent seen our
water getting cleaner. We have more than 600 records of violations by sewage plants discharging
above standards or simply not treating it at all or properly disposing of the sludge.
Laws and Regulations:
The Water Law (1988): purposes of rational development, utilization and protection of
water resources, and control of water disasters.

Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law (WPCL) (1984): aims to prevent and
control water pollution, protecting and improving the environment, safeguarding human
health, ensuring the effective utilization of water resources, and promoting the development
of socialist modernization.

Laws and Regulations are highly inefficient and to a large extent useless as:
Laws on the books are widely ignored. There is little transparency. Money earmarked for
waste water projects is sometime re-appropriated to build power plants. Local officials have
close relationships with business owners that own the factories and mines that cause the
pollution.
In some cases the local governments that are supposed to do something about pollution are
the same ones that own the factories that do the polluting. That is the case with huge MSG
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factory In Xiangcheng in Henan Province which employs 8,000 people and produces toxins
like ammonia nitrate.
Industry is also pulling its weight by fitting new factories with mandatory water recycling systems
and by participating in water rights transfers with farmers. China is also investing heavily in
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power, and sea-water-cooled nuclear plants, which
are less water-intensive than traditional coal plants. Moreover, China already has many of the
regulations needed to stop the adulteration of its rivers and lakes. Unfortunately, most have been
rendered toothless by a bureaucratic culture riven with corruption.

Kenya
Background
The Kenya water crisis is the current struggle that Kenya faces to supply clean water to its
population. The human population depends heavily on water resources, not only as a drinking water
but also for crops, agriculture and livestock and fishing. For example, wetland grasses are used to
feed and keep livestock. Additionally, as clean water becomes harder to find, women are forced to
walk for many miles each day to find the water needed for the family. Another huge problem with
clean water in Kenya has been an influx of individuals moving to large cities, which creates large slum
areas that have some of the worst living conditions and most polluted water in the whole country.
This interaction between humans and water is currently at a crucial point in Kenya as the nation faces
a major shortage in the ability for citizens to receive the water they desperately need.
Causes
Population Growth:
With a quickly expanding population, sustaining the environment and sustaining the
growing population is a challenge. According to the World Bank (2010), the
population in Kenya in 1990 was about 23 million and in 2008 the population
increased to about 40 million people. The population continues to increase while the
economy and resources struggle to keep up.
Kenya's population faces high rates of poverty, up to 43% in 2000. In a population
that relies heavily on agriculture as a way of life, it is difficult to limit agriculture and
protect the environment without taking away a resource many people in this growing
population need to survive.
The quickly growing population puts pressure on water resources through agriculture, land and
energy uses as well as other factors. The geographic location of water resources in Kenya is also a
key factor. Water is not distributed equally throughout the country, leaving large places of dry lands
and specific areas of life and productivity surrounding water resources. About 80% of Kenya's water
resources are completely unprotected but not undamaged by the growing population and
agricultural practices.
Poor Management of Water Supply
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Kenyas water resources have been mismanaged through unsustainable water and land use policies,
laws and institutions, weak water allocation practices, growing pollution, and increasing degradation
of rivers, lakes, wetlands, aquifers and their catchments. Not only so, the Kenya Government does not
have sufficient funding to maintain water treatment plants and adequate and proper facilities
needed.
Contamination of Water
Many Kenyans use wells to obtain domestic water and also use pit latrines that are often close in
distance to the wells. This causes contamination of the wells because the microorganisms travel from
the pit latrines to the wells. As many of these Kenyans live in urban slums (migrated there from rural
places), they lack knowledge regarding water contamination due to lack of education.
Consequences
Aspects

Consequences

Economics

1.
Increased Economic Burden to provide sufficient water to everyone and
ensure
2. Reduced labor productivity (especially sewage workers) due to poor
workers health
3.
Poor operation and maintenance

Social

1.
Spread of water borne, water based and water washed diseases
2. Lack of access to potable water as many only have access to polluted water
in the urban areas
3. Contamination of water supply results in more health problems

Political

1. Disagreement between citizens and government/ Disapproval of

governments handling of situation
2. Lack of private investments despite lack of government funding as private
investors are scared of interruption of plan by the local government

Environmental

1.
Pollute essential water bodies
2. Damage the eco-system/ natural resources especially forests due to excess
deforestation in Kenya

Solutions
Water Act 2002: Separation of supervision from regulation and policy making, Separation of
management of water resources from water supply and sanitation provision. Decentralization,
participation, autonomy, accountability, financial and ecological sustainability and efficiency.
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2008 by Kenya
Rehabilitation and protection of indigenous forests in the five Water Towers (Mau
Escarpment, Mt. Kenya, Aberdare Ranges, Cherangany Hills and Mt. Elgon): This plan aims to
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promote sustainable management of the forests and preserve cultural and religious sites,
medicine sources, water catchments and habitats for widespread and threatened flora and
fauna.
Water resources information management: This plan aims to restore and attain a new hydrometric, which will be installed in surface water and groundwater resources. Also, 600 hydro
metrological stations will be rehabilitated and systems will be built in order to collect records and
monitor the data of the instrument.
Water storage and harvesting: Another 24 medium-sized multi-purpose dams, with a total capacity
of 2 billion cubic meters, will be established to supply water for domestic, livestock and irrigation use
in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) areas of Kenya.
National water and supply sanitation: This project aims to expand the Mzima pipeline to meet the
demands of the coastal towns and also cover urban water supply and sanitation in the satellite towns
that have the capability to support manufacturing and tourism activities

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Immigration
Japan (Scenario)
Background
1) Aging population
Japan is among the fastest aging societies in the world. It is safe to say that if other demographic
factors, such as retirement age or fertility rate remain unchanged, Japan will need large-scale labor
migration in order to keep its workforce at a level that ensures the functionality of the state. The
population is expected to fall from 127 million to below 100 million by 2055.
2) Political stance
The nations political elites, however, are hesitant about taking steps towards opening Japans doors
to such migrants. Foreigners visiting Japan or coming to live in Japan are subject to comprehensive
screening, and visa regulations and the work permit system are currently under revision.
But due to the need to sustain the economy, Prime Minister Naota Kan set a goal in 2010 to double
the number of highly skilled foreign workers within a decade (current count: 278000 college
educated foreign workers)
3) Steady increase. But low foreigner percentage
Over the past decades, we observe a steady increase in numbers of foreign residents living in Japan.
In 2005, the number was just over 2 million people, which comprises less than 1.6% of the overall
population of Japan. There are also an estimated 193,745 undocumented foreigners in Japan as of
January 1, 2006
4) Homogenous culture
In the Fearon list, in which countries are ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level which is
approximated by a measure of similarity between languages, varying from 1 = the population speaks
two or more unrelated languages to 0 = the entire population speaks the same language. This index
of cultural diversity is biased towards linguistic. Japan ranked third last in the world with a score of
0.012000 just ahead of south and North Korea.
Currently, just 1.7 percent of the population is foreign or foreign borned.
5) Citizens stance
An Asaahi Shimbun newspaper poll in June 2010 asked Japanese about accepting immigrants to
maintain economic vitality. 26% favored while 65% opposed it. This shows that the Japan society
has long-term and deep misgivings about immigration and this has tightly controlled the ability of
the foreigners to integrate into the Japanese society and live/work here.
Advantage and Disadvantages
1) Cope with aging population and shrinking workforce

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To help cope with a labor shortage due to its aging population, Japan allowed additional immigrants
of Japanese ancestry into the country in the early 1990s. According to Japanese immigration centre,
the number of foreign residents has steadily increased to more than 2.2 million in 2008.
Hidenori sakanaka, the director of Tokyo Immigration Bureau, proposes bringing in 10 million
immigrants over the next 50 years to counter the aging population and shrinking workforce.
Immigrants would help to lower the dependency ratio as they enter the workforce and generate extra
tax revenue for the government.
2) Fear of diluting strong cultural identity
However, Japan is very opposed to immigration despite its need for immigrants.
Firstly, the country is afraid that immigrants would dilute their strong cultural identity. An influx of
immigrants can result in the immigrants' culture changing the native culture. For a country like Japan,
in which they pride themselves as a homogenous people who constitute a racially unified nation, a
popular and widely held perception is an anti-immigrants belief. Japans exclusive culture, with its
language and entertainment platforms, such as anime, manga and j-pop, is widely embraced by
people all around the world, and has made the Japanese cultural identity the pride of its people. With
the popularity of its culture worldwide, the Japanese has also benefitted, attracting millions of
tourists yearly and selling their merchandise worldwide.
3) Cause cultural friction
Secondly, large influx of foreigners may cause cultural friction. In countries like Japan, in which they
interact mostly in their native language, a unique and exclusive language, immigrants may be faced
with communication barriers. Also, some countries are very intolerant to immigrants and
unaccepting. For example, in 1980s, tens of thousands of nikkeijin, pure-bred Japanese who moved
to Brazil in 1920s for jobs, moved backed to Japan under liberal migration policies drawn up in the
hope that they were the answer to the nations aging population. However, having grown up in an
entirely different society, they were so culturally alienated from their genetic relatives that they were
treated as foreigners. This shows the level of culture intolerance within a community and how it may
cause friction between the locals and the immigrants
Current issues/policies
1) illegal foreign workers
In 1989, revisions to the Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act introduced severe
penalties for illegal foreign workers, brokers and employers. However, recruitment of unskilled
foreigners of Japanese origin was permitted, leading to a scramble to recruit Nikkeijin from Brazil
and other Latin American countries. Other side doors include recruitment of trainees from
developing countries, and employment of foreigners registered as students of Japanese language
schools. Trainees offer work long hours for about US$1500 compared with the minimum wage of
US$28000. They may be fired or deported if they complained. These irregular labor migrations
appear to have been tolerated for a long time by the Japanese authorities. However, the government
has recently introduced a range of control measures and the number of overstayers has fallen
significantly.

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2) current immigration system

Japan has recently announced its plan to introduce a points-based immigration system that awards
visa preference to skilled professionals. The shift in immigration policy is hardly uncalled for:
whether found domestically or abroad, Japan will need workers to fill in the gaps left by the decline
of its shrinking population.
3) Strict immigration rules.
For immigrant advocates, a pass-or-go-home Japanese language test with a success rate of less than
1 percent creates wide target for criticism. In 2010, three of 254 immigrants passed it. In 2009, none
of 82 passed. The officials in their government are afraid that the foreigners may found it particularly
tough to integrate into Japan with its complex and unique language.
4) Low refugee acceptance rate
According to the Japanese Association for Refugees, the number of refugees who applied to live in
Japan has rapidly increased and there were more than a thousand applications in 2008. Japan's
refugee policy has been criticized because the number of refugees accepted into Japan is small
compared to countries such as Sweden and the United States. In 2013, Japan accepted only six of
3,777 persons who applied for refugee status
5) Nikkei issue
In 2009, Japan had a programme to pay jobless foreigners US$3000 to go home. It applies only to
several hundred thousand South Americans of Japanese descent on special visas for factory work.
The aim was to help the workers get home, ease pressure on the domestic labor market and
potentially get thousands of people off the unemployment rolls.
In the early 1990s, Tokyo relaxed its relatively tight immigration laws to allow special entry permits
for foreigners of Japanese ancestry in South America to make up for a labor shortage at this nation's
then-booming factories. They took the hard, dirty, dangerous jobs Japanese had previously shunned.
Still, Nikkei are victims of discrimination in Japan, as they are culturally different and aren't always
fluent in Japanese. As a result, many have had a hard time blending into Japanese society. A study of
Nikkeijin in Toyota City found high level of concentration in certain apartment blocks and frequent
isolation from the Japanese population. Some 20 percent to 30 percent of the South American
foreigners of Japanese ancestry are estimated to have already returned home.
Extra points to note:
Foreign workers in Japan are entitled to the basic unemployment and other benefits that Japanese
workers get. Though rates vary, Japan provides about 7,000 yen ($71) a day in unemployment
which would equal about $2,100 per month.
The number of foreigners showing up at government-run centers for job referral has climbed in the
2009 financial crisis to 11 times the previous year at more than 9,000 people. Immigrants were hit
much more heavily than their Japanese counterparts.

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Tokyo has already allocated 1.08 billion yen ($10.9 million) for training, including Japanese language
lessons, for 5,000 foreign workers.

Haiti
Background
Haitians have migrated to work in the Dominican Republic for nearly 90 years. For most of the last
century they were laborers who were persuaded, sometimes by force and often under false
pretenses, to cross the border each year to work on the harvest in the sugar plantations, filling
abysmally paid jobs under atrocious conditions as cane cutters, and living in barracks in settlements
on the sugar estates called bateys. After the harvest they were returned to Haiti.
With the decline of the Dominican sugar industry after the 1980s, the growth and diversification of
the Dominican economy, and the long term economic and political crisis in Haiti, migration of
Haitians to the other side of the island seeking work has continued (and has tended to increase), but
has taken different forms. Haitians now find work in other agricultural sectors as well as in the
dwindling sugar plantations. They work on building sites, in the tourist industry, in cleaning and
domestic service, and in informal trade. Although the migrants are still predominantly young men,
women are migrating in significant numbers.
Push and pull factors for immigration from Haiti to Dominican Republic:
Per capita gross national income of DR is four times that of Haitis
Life expectancy from birth is substantially lower in Haiti (53 years as against 67 years)
Infant mortality and child malnutrition are twice as high in Haiti
In Haiti the adult illiteracy rate is 49 per cent compared with 16 per cent in the Dominican
Republic
Between 1991 and 2001 the Dominican economy grew by an average of 6.3 per cent per
annum or 4.5 per cent per capita. The corresponding figures for Haiti are 0.0 percent and
minus 2.1 per cent. The fact that one side of the island experienced no overall growth in the
last decade, whereas the other achieved record and prolonged economic expansion in the
Latin American context
There are large and increasing economic and social difference between Haiti and the
Dominican Republic.
Many refer to insecurity and uncertainty in Haiti as a reason for leaving. Outbreaks of
violence in Haiti have disrupted traditional peasant survival strategies, prompting them to
migrate.
Current situation
Estimated numbers of immigrants vary from as low as 200,000 to as high as two million. Government
have tended to give lower figures, or to dodge the issue, in order to avoid provoking anti-Haitian
public opinion. From empirical evidence that Haitian immigration has continued to rise. One would
therefore expect the proportion of Haitians in the population to have increased significantly.
However, there were substantial deportations every year since 1991, and massive deportation
sweeps have taken place.
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Problems:
1) failure to control the influx of migrant workers from the neighboring country
Today, the vast majority of migrant labor is informal and uncontrolled, firstly in the process of exit
from Haiti, secondly in the crossing of the poorly policed border without visa or permit, and thirdly
in the unregulated work which is available in the Dominican Republic to Haitians. A further trend has
been for Haitian migrants to remain in the country, moving from job to job and place to place in search
of work and greater security against detention and deportation.
2) the vulnerability of undocumented immigrants to human rights abuse
The Dominican Republic is a country which is in theory rule-bound, but in practice the rules may
be inappropriate and not universally applied. This is so with identification documents, which for
adults is the cdula, and for children, the birth certificate. Haitian immigrants are regarded as
illegal when they lack Dominican birth certificates and cdulas, or Haitian passports, visas, or
other work related migration papers which establish their right to be in the country.
3) the existence of widespread prejudice and discrimination
The second and subsequent generations of descendants of Haitian immigrants appear to have
become increasingly assimilated into Dominican society. A study shows that Haitian-Dominicans
now mostly live in the cities and are employed in jobs no different from those of poor and lower
middle class Dominicans.
For the children of Haitians the sequence of assimilation begins in the schools where teaching is in
Spanish and the teachers are Dominican. They will play with Dominican as well as Haitian friends.
They learn to speak the language without the distinctive accent of their parents Spanish. They learn
to read and write in Spanish while their parents, if they are literate, have only Kreyol. However, some
may hide their Haitian origins when dealing with Dominicans, for example by changing their surname
All groups of immigrants experience degrees of discrimination in their work and social context, and
a great many are faced with the threat of ill-treatment and deportation. However the discrimination
against them is as much social and gender related, as it is stemming from race and ethnicity. This has
to be placed in the context of a highly unequal society where poor Dominicans are also discriminated
against by employers and by the apparatus of the state
In general, while there is prejudice and wariness on both sides, and occasional friction, the two
groups live amicably together. There are no serious problems of bad race relations at the community
level.

Policies:
The essentials of policy have remained relatively unchanged from previous governments. The
general approach has been:

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 Limiting the entry of Haitians into the country to those categories which are needed in the national
interest, such as where their labor is required
Controlling entry of Haitians by the issue of visas, work permits, and other documentation, which
must be applied for at the Dominican consulates in Haiti prior to entry. Work permits require
approved requests from the prospective employer
Deportation of undocumented Haitians residing in the country
Cooperation with the government of Haiti on migration questions, especially documentation.
Effectiveness:
On the first three points the government has not taken steps to stop or significantly mitigate human
rights abuses. As we have seen, exploitation of Haitian labor continues Entry controls are no more
effective than before and the number of undocumented Haitians in the country appears to be rising,
despite a programme (agreed between the two governments and implemented through the Haitian
consulates) of providing Haitian birth certificates and passports to Haitian immigrants in the
Dominican Republic.

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Education
What is education?
A form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are
transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, or research.
the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university
frequently takes place under the guidance of others
Any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be
considered educational.
Commonly divided into stages such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then
college, university apprenticeship.
Education can occur in a range of forms, including formal, informal, indigenous, alternative,
e-learning, vocational, open learning and special.
A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13
of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
recognizes the right of everyone to an education.
Although education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, attendance at school
often isn't, and a minority of parents choose home-schooling, e-learning or similar for their
children.
Why is education important?
Investing in education is the single most effective way of reducing poverty.
Education is more than reading, writing, and arithmetic. It is one of the most important
investments a country can make in its people and its future and is critical to reducing poverty
and inequality. If all students in low income countries left school with basic reading skills 171
million people could be lifted out of poverty.
Income is one way in which education helps individuals improve their social outcomes.
Evidence generally supports the income effects of education on social outcomes. However,
educations effects on social outcomes generally remain after accounting for income.
Hence, education may help individuals to develop skills, improve their social status and gain
access to networks that could lead to enhanced social
What are the benefits of education?
Education brings wide-ranging benefits to the society.
Education was central to the moral fulfilment of individuals and the well-being of the society
in which they live.
Research has supported this conventional wisdom, revealing that education not only enables
individuals to perform better in the labor market, but also helps to improve their overall
health, promote active citizenship and contain violence.
1. Health
High education attainment attainment improves health

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Life expectancy reflects a long trajectory of individuals socio-economic circumstances that

affect their health conditions and other mortality risks.
research has estimated that an additional year of high school improves self-reported health
outcomes by 15-30%
Data show that life expectancy is strongly associated with education. On average, among 15
OECD countries with available data, a 30-year-old tertiary-educated man can expect to live
eight years longer than a 30-year-old man who has not completed upper secondary
education.
able to have a greater understanding about health benefits and potential harm to their
wellbeing infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria can be more effectively
prevented and placed in check with higher education entertainment as people are more
equipped with the knowledge to do so
those with greater educational attainment are more mindful about eating healthy, getting
exercise, and avoiding risk factors such as drinking excessively and smoking -> able to change
their risky health behaviors quicker
Those with less education are likely to have lower income. They're likely to live in areas that
have their own health threats, either through crime or poor housing conditions. May also
have worse access to health insurance coverage and health services

2. Civic participation
Citizens actively engage in civic activities, trust others and have faith in the functioning of
public institutions.
Data show that adults who have attained higher levels of education are generally more likely
than those with lower levels of educational attainment to report stronger civic engagement,
in terms of voting, volunteering, political interest, and interpersonal trust.
Education appears to increase political interest and other forms of political participation, as
well as the extent to which individuals are informed about politics.
3. Economic Growth
A more educated labor force is more mobile and adaptable, can learn new tasks and new skills
more easily, can use a wider range of technologies and sophisticated equipment (including
newly emerging ones), and is more creative in thinking about how to improve the
management of work.
All of these attributes not only make a more highly skilled worker more productive than a
less skilled one + but also enable employers to organize their work places differently and
adjust better to changes necessitated by competition - by technical advances or by changes
in consumer demand (especially in developed countries)
Skills beget more skills and new ways of doing business, workers learn from one another, and
firms adapt their technology and their use of capital to the skills of the available work force

[Examples]
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A research has analyzed the impact of a high-quality universal preschool policy on economic growth,
concluding that such a policy could add $2 trillion to annual U.S. GDP by 2080. By 2080, a national
program would cost the federal government approximately $59 billion, but generate enough
additional growth in federal revenue to cover the costs of the program several times over.
In Thailand, farmers with four or more years of schooling were three times more likely to adopt
fertilizer and other modern inputs than less educated farmers (Birdsall, 1993: 75-79). Similarly, in
Nepal, the completion of at least seven years of schooling increased productivity in wheat by over a
quarter, and in rice by 13% (Jamison and Moock, 1994:13).
4. Gender equality
It provides women greater chances of attaining better jobs, since they are now better
educated and employers may thus be more willing to employ them. One additional school
year can increase a woman's earnings by 10% to 20%. As such, this shows that they are able
to now have their own employment rights and are given the platform to show that that they
can work better than men, which debunks the myth that females should not be allowed in the
workplace.
Gives women the opportunity and platform to fight for their own rights and to show the
community that they are also able to succeed in the workforce and not only at domestic
chores.
Time to Ponder!
Does high education necessarily bring about positive effects?
How long should education be to have a significant impact?
What causes lack of poor education: e.g. social structures and norms, lack of legislation
and/or enforcement, ignorance, corruption, lack of infrastructure, poverty, government
policies
Low income levels. Low income countries have fewer resources to spend on publicly financed
education such as facilities for schools and smaller teacher to student ratio
Where is the lack of poor education most pervasive?
Where is it less pervasive? Why?
[Countries]
1. Sub-Saharan Africa is the most affected area with over 32 million children of primary school
age remaining uneducated.
2. Central and Eastern Asia + the Pacific, are also severely affected by this problem with more
than 27 million uneducated children.
[Reasons]
1. Inequality between girls and boys: the education of girls in jeopardy
Today, it is girls who have the least access to education. They make up more than 54%
of the non-schooled population in the world.
This problem occurs most frequently in Arab States, in central Asia and in Southern
and Western Asia and is principally explained by the cultural and traditional
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privileged treatment given to males. Girls are destined to work in the family home,
whereas boys are entitled to receive an education.
In sub-Saharan Africa, over 12 million girls are at risk of never receiving an education.
In Yemen, it is more than 80% of girls who will never have the opportunity to go to
school. In Malawi, of those that enroll, 22.3% of boys complete primary compared to
13.8% of girls. In rural Burkina Faso, 61% of girls are married by the age of 18 and
over 85% never get to see the inside of a secondary school.

2. Financial deficit of developing countries

Many emerging countries do not appropriate the financial resources necessary to
create schools, provide schooling materials, nor recruit and train teachers.
On the other hand, funds pledged by the international community are generally not
sufficient enough to allow countries to establish an education system for all children.
[Impacts on the provision of education from the lack of funds]
[Teachers and teaching materials] lack of financial resources has an effect on the
quality of teaching. Teachers do not benefit from basic teacher training and schools,
of which there are not enough, have oversized classes.
[class size] This overflow leads to classes where many different educational levels are
forced together which does not allow each individual child to benefit from an
education adapted to their needs and abilities. As a result, the drop-out rate and
education failure remains high.
As warned by David Archer, one of the authors from ActionAid, some 2.9bn is
expected to be lost to education budgets in sub-Saharan Africa because of the
economic crisis.
3. Poverty
Many children from disadvantaged backgrounds in developing countries are forced
to abandon their education due to health problems related to malnutrition or in order
to work and provide support for the family.
Research has shown that Factors linked to poverty such as unemployment, illness and
the illiteracy of parents, multiply the risk of non-schooling and the drop-out rate of a
child by 2.
How is the lack of poor education demonstrated?
A poor education refers to an underperforming educational system that does not achieve its
purpose of being inclusive, relevant and democratic.
It has been reported that a quarter of a billion children worldwide are failing to learn basic
reading and math skills in an education crisis that costs governments $129 billion annually.
UNESCO has reported that less than three-quarters of existing primary school teachers were
trained to national standards
And that there had been cutbacks in funding
while 120 million primary age children across the world had little or no experience of school

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etc.?

What are the implications of poor education on the economy, society, nation-building

Policies to improve education

1. Contract teachers
Many governments try to meet the demand by hiring contract teachers, who make up
more than half the work force in many West African countries, including Benin,
Cameroon, Chad, Mali and Niger.
Such measures appeal greatly to governments and organizations as it helps to reduce
the wage bill of the government since contract teacher are paid merely a fraction of
the cost of civil servant teachers.
At the same time, the teachers are not on fixed contracts so it will be easier for
organization to dismiss teachers at a later stage
At a primary school in Johannesburg, South Africa, teachers are guided by mentors to
support them in implementing new teaching methods.
2. Improved teacher recruitment
Teachers should come from a variety of backgrounds and geographical areas who
have receive improved training, including mentoring and adequate classroom
experience.
Organization should ensure that the pay is raised to meet the teachers basic needs, a
step which could lead to recruiting them as civil servants
. Governments could also offer incentives like good housing or bonuses to ensure
teachers are allocated to disadvantaged areas.
Malawi is working with an international NGO to establish teacher colleges that train
new candidates in skills for rural areas.
Ethiopia encourages mentor and supervisors to help support new candidates.
A project in South Sudan aims to increase the number of female teachers by providing
financial support to women candidates. Its also providing incentives to help over four
thousand girls complete secondary school and potentially become teachers.
3. Reallocation of funds
The Education for All report has highlighted the impending need for government to
increase spending on education.
UNESCO encourages governments to devote about 20% of their national budgets and
six percent of their gross domestic product to education.
It has been reported that Angola has earned a great deal of money from lucrative
natural resources for budget revenues but spends only nine percent of its budget on
education, one of the lowest amounts in the world.
And it found that some countries including Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of the
Congo and Pakistan allocate well under six percent of their GDP on education. It says
in Pakistan, agriculture contributes more than 20 percent to the overall economy but
contributes just over one percent in tax revenues to education.
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On the other hand, South Africa allocates six times more to students in areas with low
incomes and education levels and high unemployment. This shows the possibility of
reallocation of funds but some countries are somewhat unwilling to do so.

4. Provide conditional transfers

Programs for conditional cash transfers for education provide resources directly to
targeted beneficiaries only when they keep their children in school. Such programs
serve as social safety nets, raising the immediate incomes of impoverished families
while also increasing the human capital of the poor by educating their children.
Conditional transfer programs are well established in Mexico (Progresa), Brazil
(Bolsa Escola), and Bangladesh (Food for Education). In Mexico, Progresa (the
expanded form of which is now known as Oportunidades) provides cash transfers to
poor households in the most marginal rural areas. The transfers are provided as long
as children attend school regularly. The program has increased enrollment rates at
the primary and especially the secondary levels, for boys and especially girls. The
greatest impact was during the important sensitive transition year to secondary
school, during which girls enrollment rose 20 percent and boys enrollment rose 10
percent. The program is expected to increase educational attainment for the poor by
0.66 years of additional schooling by grade 9. In Bangladesh the Food for Education
program provides a monthly inkind food transfer (primarily wheat) to poor
households as long as their primary school-age children attend school. Enrollment at
participating schools increased 35 percent (44 percent for girls and 28 percent for
boys). For the country as a whole, school enrollment had risen just 2.5 percent over
two years. Attendance was higher and drop-out rates lower in Food for Education
schools. Nicaraguas conditional cash transfer program for poor households with
children in primary school has also produced results. Enrollment increased 22
percent, with the poorest households benefiting most. Grade progression also
improved, particularly among the poorest students.
5. Offer school feeding programs
School feeding programs disproportionately benefit poor children by creating
incentives to enroll in and attend school and by improving health, attentiveness, and
capacity to learn. Offering meals at school is an effective way to encourage children
who are poor and chronically hungry to attend classes. In Bangladesh school-based
food distribution increased enrollment 20 percent at a time when enrollment at
nonparticipating schools fell 2 percent. In Jamaica, Tamil Nadu (India), and other
places where school feeding programs have been evaluated, attendance and retention
generally rose. In Kenya a randomized control study demonstrated that childrens
school participation was 30 percent higher among students attending schools with
feeding programs.

Hunger and chronic malnutrition reduce learning achievement of children already in

school. In poor households the problem begins early, with malnutrition and poor
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health of mothers. Poorly nourished women give birth to children of low birth weight.
In the absence of special interventions, these children often lack the micronutrients
and energy required for normal development, critical to their learning once in school.
The Food and Agricultural Organization estimates that 300 million children, most of
them in developing countries, are chronically hungry. Without breakfasts, students
are more easily distracted in the classroom and have problems staying alert and
concentrating on lessons. Studies in many countries suggest that hunger affects
cognitive functions and may therefore impair a childs ability to benefit from
schooling. A program that provided breakfasts to primary school children in Jamaica
significantly increased arithmetic scores. School feeding programs that address
specific micronutrient deficiencies have also been shown to improve school
performance. Iron supplementation raised test scores of preschool children in India.
In Kenya students participating in a feeding program had higher test scores, but only
in schools where teachers were relatively well trained before the program started.
6. Break the cycle of poverty and illiteracy by educating mothers
Educating girls and mothers leads to sustained increases in education attainment
from one generation to the next. It can change a society in which not sending ones
children to school is socially acceptable into one in which the expectation is that every
child completes school. A wealth of cross-country and individual country studies
from Africa, Asia, and Latin America over the past 25 years reveals that mothers
education is a strong and consistent determinant of their childrens school enrollment
and attainment.
A study by the Inter- American Development Bank found that in Latin America 15year-olds whose mothers have some secondary schooling remained in school two to
three years longer than the children of mothers with less than four years of education.
A study of 57 internationally comparable household datasets from 41 countries found
that the education of adults in the household has a significant impact on the
enrollment of children in all of the countries studied. The effect of mothers education
is larger than that of fathers in some but not all countries. In countries in which the
marginal effect of maternal education is significant, it increased the likelihood of
enrollment by less than 1 percentage point to 6 percentage points. The study
supports the view that womens education often has a stronger impact than mens
education in breaking the cycle of low educational outcomes.
Furthermore, educated mothers may have the resources they need to send their
children to school. Second, more educated mothers may provide a more cognitively
stimulating experience for their children. They may play a more effective pedagogical
role, encouraging, monitoring, or helping their children do their homework or
prepare for examinations. Third, educated mothers serve as role models for their
children. If children, particularly girls, know that their mothers attended and valued
schooling, they may aim to follow their example.
USEFUL ARTICLE ON UNIVERSAL EDUCATION
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One of the silent killers attacking the developing world is the lack of quality basic education for large
numbers of the poorest children in the worlds poorest countriesparticularly girls. Yet unlike many
of the worlds most grievous ailments, this is a disease with a known cure. We know what tools are
needed and what models are proven to work. We also know that the cost of that cureperhaps $7.5
billion to $10 billion per yearis minuscule compared with the enormous benefits such education
would bring for health, economics, womens empowerment, and basic human dignity.
An estimated 110 million children60% of them girlsbetween the ages of 6 and 11 will not see
the inside of a classroom this year. Another 150 million are likely to drop out before completing
primary school.
More than half of all girls in sub-Saharan Africa do not complete primary school, and only 17% are
enrolled in secondary school.1 Rates in rural areas are even worse. For instance, a 1996 study in Niger
found that only 12% of girls in rural areas were enrolled in primary school, compared with 83% of
girls in the capital.2
The situation can be even worse for vulnerable children. In developing nations, those with disabilities
and those affected by AIDS face even greater obstacles to education, while orphaned children are less
likely to be enrolled in school than their peers who live with at least one parent. Only 6% of children
in refugee camps are enrolled in secondary education, and opportunities for internally displaced
children are even more limited.3
Access is only part of the story. The other crucial factor is quality. As highlighted by Education for All:
The Quality Imperative, the 2005 Global Monitoring Report by UNESCO, and too many children leave
school without mastering a basic set of skills. Ensuring a decent quality of education is an essential
component of reform.
STRONG EVIDENCE
The good news is documented in What Works in GnU Education, a 2004 Council on Foreign Relations
report that I co-authored with Barbara Herz, and is reinforced in a Mothers Day 2005 report by Save
the Children: we have extremely strong evidence both on the high returns on girls education and on
what works to get girls in school.5 What is striking is the breadth of benefits derived from educating
girlsnot only economic benefits in terms of higher wages, greater agricultural productivity, and
faster economic growth, but also health benefits, HIV prevention, and womens empowerment.
Two 1999 World Bank studies found that dosing the education gender gap in South Asia and subSaharan Africa would have led to faster economic growth between 1960 and 1992, while increasing
the share of women with a secondary education can yield growth in per-capita income.6 Another 63-

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country study attributed 43% of the decline in malnutrition achieved between 1970 and 1995 to
more productive farming as a result of increased female education.7
Even more impressive are the gains to health that come from educating girls. An extra year of female
education can reduce infant mortality by 5% to 10%.8 In Africa, children of mothers who receive five
years of primary education are 40% less likely to the before age 5 than are children of uneducated
mothers.9 Across both Africa and Southeast Asia, mothers who have a basic education ate 50% more
likely than uneducated mothers to immunize their children.10
Education has also proven to be one of the most powerful tools to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. A
recent study in rural Uganda found that, in comparison with young people with no education, those
with some secondary education were three times less likely to be HIV-positive, and those with some
primary schooling were about half as likely to be HIV-positive.11 In Kenya, a study of 17-year-old girls
found that those in secondary school were almost four times as likely to be sexually inactive as those
who had dropped out after primary school.12 In Swaziland, a 2003 study found that more than 70%
of in-school youths were not sexually active, while nearly 70% of out-of-school youdis were sexually
active.13 And school-based AIDS education programs have been shown to reduce early sexual activity
and high-risk behavior.14 According to the Global Campaign for Education, seven million cases of
AIDS might be prevented over the next 10 years if all children completed basic education.
WHAT WORKS
In making progress on girls education, there are three things to keep in mind.
First, while sending girls to school may be clearly beneficial both for the girls themselves and for their
countries, in most poor nations it is the parents who make the ultimate choice on schooling, and for
them this calculation may not seem so clear. Rightly or wrongly, such extremely impoverished
parents often feel they need their girls labor for extra income or, more frequently, just to help with
the grueling requirements of life, such as the long hours spent collecting water or firewood or caring
for the younger children in the family.
The good news is, when you reduce the cost and increase the benefits of sending girls to school, most
parents will choose a better future for their children. It is critical to develop and widely implement
policies that work to align the temporary interests of parents with the long-term well-being of their
girls and their societies.
The simplest and most basic strategy to reduce costs for parents is to eliminate the per-child school
fees that are still charged in many developing countries. We know this strategy works because
countries that have reduced or eliminated school fees have seen enrollment skyrocket overnight. In
Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, enrollment increased dramatically in the very first year after fees were

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abolished: from 3.4 million to 5.7 million students in Uganda in 1996; from 5.9 million to 7.2 million
in Kenya in 2003; and from 1.5 million to 3 million in Tanzania in 2002.
Beyond eliminating fees, even modest additional incentives to parents have made a huge difference.
Scholarships and conditional cash transfers have been shown to lift attendance of both girls and boys
in countries such as Bangladesh, Mexico, and Brazil. School-based health and nutrition programs
have also proven successful. In Kenya, for instance, school meals were found to raise attendance by
30% and to boost test scores.15
Reducing the distance children must travel to school is also critical because it both cuts down on the
time children must spend away from home and alleviates parental concerns for the safety of their
children, especially their girls, as they walk to and from school. Policies that both build parental trust
and make schools more girl-friendlysuch as hiring more female teachers, forming parental
committees, and providing latrine facilities for girlshave all been shown to increase girls
enrollment.
Second, while it is crucial that countries make an extra effort and institute special initiatives to target
girls education, these endeavors will work only in the context of a broader focus on universal basic
education for all children. Though the educational gaps for girls are especially large, the problems for
boysparticularly poor, rural boysare also dramatic. Furthermore, efforts to get girls into schools
will never be successful unless there is a decent quality of educationrespectable class sizes, trained
teachers, quality instructional materialsfor both girls and boys.
Third, while the impetus for all major education reforms must come from the local and national levels
of countries themselves, it is critical that there be a global compact that pairs a commitment from
developing countries to institute necessary reforms with a clear contingent commitment from donors
to provide resources to countries that fulfill their part of the compact.16 This is especially critical
because the major cost for poor countries seeking universal basic education is the recurring cost of
teachers salaries.
The key to such a compact is certainty. Donors must feel certain that there is a commitment to good
governance, careful monitoring, and national ownership of any plan to expand basic education.
Leaders of developing countries, on the other hand, must have the certainty that, if they are willing
to take on the enormous task of mobilizing political will and resources to seek universal basic
education, then donors will live up to their part of the compact by providing the substantial funds
needed to fill their financing gap.
This was the promise of the Dakar meeting hosted by UNESCO in 2000, where more than 180
nationsincluding the United Statescommitted to the simple yet profound goal (which later
became a Millennium Development Goal) of achieving universal basic education by 2015. The global
compact on education that emerged from Dakar required developing countries to demonstrate a real
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commitment to the goal of universal basic education by developing their own national education
plansbased on political will, domestic resource mobilization, and accountabilitywhile rich
countries pledged that no country seriously committed to Education for All will be thwarted in its
achievement of universal primary school completion by 2015 due to lack of resources.17
Instilling confidence that donors will live up to their pledge is particularly important in light of the
multiple crises facing most poor countries and the reality that many of the economic benefits of
achieving universal basic education will not be realized until after current leaders have left office.
When the leaders of a poor nation consider taking on such a challenge even though the political payoff
may flow to their successors, it is essential that the global community at least make it dear that those
leaders will not be left without the resources to succeed.
In the five years since Dakar, there has been some progress on these promises. The world established
the Fast Track Initiative (FTI), a new global financing mechanism designed to direct coordinated
funding to low-income countries that have developed quality national education plans. As of July
2005, 16 countries had been endorsed by FTI, and an estimated 44 others could be ready over the
next two years.
FTI represents an important step toward a certain and viable global compact on education.
Unfortunately, donors contributions have to date been far short of what is required. As the World
Economic Forums Global Governance Initiative reported, donors in 2004 delivered less than 10% of
what is needed annually to achieve universal primary education.18 The global community will
ultimately need to provide another $7.5 billion to $10 billion annually, above the pathetic $2 billion
that is now provided in external assistance for basic education.
While reform must always emanate from the local communities and national governments of poor
nations, it would be inexcusable if educational and political leaders in developing nations were
discouraged from taking bold steps to provide all of their children a free and quality basic education
simply because they lacked confidence that donor nations would hold up their end of the global
bargain.

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