Presentazione Innsbruck 2011 Handout

Motivation and historical perspectives
Thermodynamical foundations
Conventional elastoplastic models for soils
Advanced topics: anisotropic hardening plasticity
Theory of Plasticity
Theoretical fundamentals and applications to soil mechanics
Claudio Tamagnini
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale
University of Perugia
Innsbruck 11.03.2011
Theoretische Bodenmechanik
Claudio Tamagnini

Outline
1
Fundamental assumptions
Constitutive equations in rate form
A simple 1d example
Phenomenological generalization: nonassociative behavior

Perfect plasticity
Isotropic hardening plasticity

Introduction and definitions
Experimental evidence of anisotropic behavior
Constitutive modeling of anisotropy
Anisotropic hardening plasticity for soils
Claudio Tamagnini

Evidence of nonlinear and irreversible behavior

Granular materials exhibit very
complex responses under applied
loads, even under relatively simple
loading conditions.
Examples of axisymmetric loading:
isotropic compression:
a = p
r = p
oedometric (1d) compression:

1 = a
r = 0
drained triaxial compression:

a > r
r = const.
Claudio Tamagnini

Clay sample under isotropic compression
p = (a + 2r )/3 = c
Claudio Tamagnini
v = a + 2r

Clay sample under drained TX compression
p = (a + 2r )/3
q = a r
Claudio Tamagnini
r = c = const.

Failure locus of a coarsegrained soil
qf = M p f
Claudio Tamagnini

Constitutive equations and constitutive models

The main features of the observed response nonlinearity, irreversibility,
pathdependence must be described by any constitutive equation which
aims at providing accurate predictions of the soil response under applied
loads.
Constitutive equations do not represent universal laws of nature, but
rather they define idealized materials (costitutive models).
When available, constitutive models can be used to predict soil behavior
under any possible circumstance, starting from the limited knowledge
gathered from a few experimental observations.
The quality of predictions depends crucially on the ability of defining a
suitable idealization for the real materials, for the class of loading paths
of practical interest.
Claudio Tamagnini


To incorporate the observed nonlinearity and pathdependence in a
global stressstrain relation, nonlinear and nondifferentiable functional
must be used (Owen & Williams 1969).
Therefore, rather than in global terms, constitutive equations are usually
defined in rate form:
O
= F (, q, d) |{z}
= C(, q, dir d) d
rateind.
where:
O
: any objective time rate of Cauchy stress tensor;

d := sym( v): rate of deformation tensor;
q: additional set of state variables (internal variables), taking into
account the effects of the previous loading history.
Claudio Tamagnini

The theory of plasticity: historical perspective
The mathematical theory of plasticity represent the first attempt to

provide a rational framework within which formulate the constitutive
equations in rate form, taking into account:
the existence of a well defined limit to admissible stress states in
stress space;
the flowing character of the deformation rates in ultimate failure
states, with strain rate depending on current stress rather than
stress rate.
Claudio Tamagnini

The theory of plasticity: historical perspective

The foundations of the classical theory of plasticity can be traced back to
the fundamental works of Hill (1950) and Koiter (1960).
A thorough treatment of this subject can be found, e.g., in the treatises
by Lubliner (1990), Simo & Hughes (1997), Simo (1998), Han & Reddy
(1998), Lubarda (2001), Houlsby & Puzrin (2006).
For applications to soil mechanics, good references are Desai &
Siriwardane (1984), Zienkiewicz et al. (1999), Houlsby & Puzrin (2006),
Nova (2010).
The application of plasticity concepts such as failure criterion and flow
rule to soil mechanics are as early as the works of Coulomb (1773) and
Rankine (1853), referring to the problem of evaluating the earth pressure
on retaining structures. These concepts still form the basis of limit
equilibrium and limit analysis methods, widely used in current practice.
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Smallstrain, rateindependent formulation

In the following, it is assumed that displacements and rotations are
sufficiently small that the reference and current configurations can be
considered almost coincident (small strain assumption).
The material behavior is assumed to be rateindependent (non viscous).
Under such hypotheses, the CE in rate form reduces to:

= C(, q, dir )
where:
: Cauchy stress rate tensor;
: infinitesimal strain rate tensor.
= sym( u)
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 1: kinematic decomposition of
We assume the following additive decomposition of the strain tensor into

an elastic (reversible) and a plastic (irreversible) part:
= e + p
In terms of rates, this yields:
= e + p
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 2: hyperelastic behavior

We postulate the existence of a free energy density function (per unit
volume):
= (e , )
where = strainlike internal variable.
The ClausiusDuhem inequality thus reads:
D := + 0
D :=
e
+ 0

e
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 2: hyperelastic behavior

Introducing the strain decomposition into the CD inequality:

+ 0
p
e

and, rearranging:

e

!
: +
p
0

e
= 0) the equality must hold for

For non dissipative processes ( = 0,
Therefore:
any possible choice of .
=
Claudio Tamagnini

e

A simple 1d example
Reduced dissipation inequality
Definition: stresslike internal variable workconjugate to :

q=
Taking into account the hyperelastic CE and the definition of q, the

ClausiusDuhem inequality yields the following reduced dissipation
inequality:
0
D := p + q
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 3: elastic domain and yield function

Let the state of the material be described by the generalized stress:
= (, q)
Irreversibility of the material response is brought in by requiring that the
state of the material belongs to the convex set:

n
o

E = Sym Rnint f () 0
For fixed q, the set E represents the region of admissible states in stress
space.
The interior int{E } is referred to as the elastic domain. The boundary:

n
o

E = Sym f (, q) = 0
is called the yield surface. The yield surface is convex in stress space.
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 3: elastic domain and yield function
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 4: principle of maximum dissipation

Let the quantities:
p := ( p , )
E p := (p , )
be the generalized plastic strain and generalized plastic strain rate.

From the definitions of generalized stresses and strains, the RDE reduces
to:
p
=E
D := p + q
Principle of maximum dissipation. In plastic loading conditions, for a
given generalized plastic strain rate, the actual state of the material is
the one, among all admissible states, for which plastic dissipation D
attain its maximum, i.e.:
n
o
p ) = E p = max D( , E
p)
D(, E
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Assumption 4: principle of maximum dissipation

According to a standard result in optimization theory, the actual state is
the stationary point of the following unconstrained Lagrangian:
p
+ f ()
L (, )
= E
subject to the following Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions:
0
f () 0
f () = 0
The stationary point of L are found by setting to zero its first variation
w/r to :
L
p + f
= E
which yields:
p = f
E
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Associative flow rule and hardening law

Associative flow rule:
p =
f
q
Associative hardening law:
Complementarity (loading/unloading) conditions in KT form:

0 , f (, q) 0 , f (, q) = 0
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Associative flow rule: remarks
p = f
E
0 ,
f () 0 ,
f () = 0
A consequence of the KT complementarity conditions is that plastic

flow may take place only if the current state is on the yield surface.
p is normal to the yield
The generalized plastic flow direction E
surface. Therefore the flow rule and the hardening law are said to be
associative (alternatively, the material is said to obey to the
normality rule).
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Hardening law: remarks

Due to hardening, the yield surface can change in size, shape and
position in stress space.
Isotropic hardening/softening
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Hardening law: remarks

Kinematic hardening
When no internal variables are present, the yield surface remains fixed in
stress space. The material is defined perfectly plastic.
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Graphical interpretation of PMD

Max dissipation requires that:
E
p0
( ) E
This is possible only if the yield surface is convex and the plastic flow is
associative.
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Pragers consistency condition

The KT complementarity conditions are not sufficient to determine
whether plastic flow will actually occur or not for a given stress state on
the yield surface.
Pragers consistency condition. In a plastic process, the actual value of

the plastic multiplier is obtained by prescribing that, upon plastic loading,
the stress state must remain on the yield surface.
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example

Mathematically, the consistency condition requires that, if plastic loading
is occurring:
f
f
f
=
+
q = 0
f =
q
The quantities and q can be obtained from the hyperelastic CEs and
the flow rule:

2
f
= e
= Ce
Ce := e

e
q=
q = H
f
q
H :=
2

(cont.)
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example

Substituting:
f
f
+
q
f =
q

f
f
f
f
=
Ce

H
=0
q
q
which yields:

f
f
f
f
Ce
+
H
q
q

=
f
Ce
(cont.)
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example

Solving for ,
we have:
=
1 f
Ce
Kp
where:
Kp :=
f
f
f
f
f
f
Ce
+
H
=
Ce
+ Hp
q
q
Constitutive assumption:
Kp > 0
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Plastic modulus
The quantity:
Hp :=
f
f
H
q
q
is called plastic modulus.

When Hp > 0 the material is hardening (the elastic domain
expands).
When Hp < 0 the material is softening (the elastic domain shrinks).
For Hp = 0, the material is in a perfectly plastic condition (the
elastic domain remains stationary).
Limit to allowable softening:
Kp > 0
Hp :=
Claudio Tamagnini
f
f
f
f
H
>
Ce
q
q

A simple 1d example
Loading/Unloading conditions
The plastic multiplier cannot be negative. Therefore, from the previous
expression we distinguish 3 possible cases:
Ce > 0 plastic loading process, > 0
f
Ce = 0 neutral loading process, = 0
Ce < 0 elastic unloading, = 0
Hence:
=
1
Kp
Claudio Tamagnini
f
Ce

A simple 1d example
Graphical interpretation of L/U conditions

Let:
tr = Ce
(trial stress rate)
Claudio Tamagnini
1
Kp
f
tr

A simple 1d example
Example: 1d plasticity
Free energy function and hyperelastic behavior.

We assume an uncoupled, quadratic form:
1
1
= e C e e + H
2
2
Thus:
=

= C e e
e
Claudio Tamagnini
q=

= H

A simple 1d example
Yield function:
f (, q) = || (Y + q) = 0
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Flow rule and hardening law:
p =
f
= sgn()
f
=
q
Plastic multiplier:
Kp =
1
=
Kp
f
f
f e f
C
+
H
= Ce + H
q
q

f e
C
Claudio Tamagnini
Ce
hsgn() i
Ce + H

A simple 1d example
Constitutive equation in rate form.

For sgn() > 0 (plastic processes):
= C e ( p )

f
= C e C e

e

1
f
f e
C H
= C e e
Ce
, C =

C +H
Ce + H
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
= C e
1
Ce + H
Ce
Claudio Tamagnini

e

f e
C H
, C =

Ce + H

A simple 1d example
Nonassociative flow rule

There exists a scalar function g(, q) (plastic potential), such that:
p =
Claudio Tamagnini

A simple 1d example
Nonassociative hardening law

There exists a pseudovector h(, q) Rnint (hardening function) such
that:
q = h (, q)
For nonassociative behavior, consistency condition yields:

=
1
p
K
f
Ce
where:
p := f Ce g f h > 0
K
q
p := f h
H
q
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Perfect plasticity: HuberHenckyvon Mises model
f () = dev() dev() k 2 = 0
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Perfect plasticity: MohrCoulomb model
f (, n ) = c |n | tan = 0
f (1 , 3 ) = (1 3 ) 2c cos (1 + 3 ) sin = 0
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Perfect plasticity: remarks

Elasticperfectly plastic models are a rather crude idealization of the
actual behavior of geomaterials.
Nonetheless, they are still among the most widely used constitutive
models in the FE analysis of practical geotechnical problems, especially in
situations where site characterization is problematic.
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Isotropic hardening: CS models

A radical change in perspective in the application of plasticity to soil
mechanics occurred after the work of Roscoe and the Cambridge group,
leading to the socalled Critical State Soil Mechanics.
In the language of plasticity, CS models are isotropic hardening models
with associative flow rule and nonassociative volumetric hardening:
the internal variables reduce to just one scalar quantity;
yield function and plastic potential coincide;
its evolution depends only on volumetric plastic strain rate.
Consequence: at failure conditions, the material flows at constant
stress and constant volume. Such conditions are called Critical States.
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Modified Camclay model

Ref.: Roscoe & Burland (1968). Suitable for soft to mediumstiff
finegrained soils.
Nonlinear elastic behavior
p =
p e

v
s = 2G e e
where:
s = dev()
e e = dev(e )
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity

Yield surface and plastic potential

f (p, q, , ps ) = p(p ps ) +
f
= 2p ps
p
q
M ()
f
= 2q/M 2
q
Claudio Tamagnini
2
=0
f
= p 0
ps

Perfect plasticity

Volumetric hardening law
Derived from exptl. observations on isotropic compression of clays.
Virgin compression line (VCL)
v = v0 + log
p
p0
Unloading/reloading line
(URL)
v = v0 + log
p
p0
For the loading cycle ABA:

v =
ps
;
ps
ev =
ps
ps
(cont.)
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity

For the loading cycle ABA:
v =
ps
;
ps
ev =
ps
ps
Subtracting:
pv = ( )
ps
ps
ps
pv

ps
f
=
p
ps =
(cont.)
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity

Nonassociative hardening
law:
ps = hs (p, q, , ps )
Comparing with the expression
derived for ps we obtain:
hs =
Claudio Tamagnini
f
ps
p

Perfect plasticity

Plastic modulus
1
p = f hs =
H
pps (2p ps )
ps

Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Example of application of CS models

A refined version of MCC: the RMP model (De Simone & T, 2005).
Simulation of TX-CD tests on a pyroclastic soil.
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Isotropic CS models: remarks
The application of isotropic hardening plasticity to soils in particular

the development of Critical State soil mechanics marks the transition
between classical and modern soil mechanics (a change of paradigm!).
In spite of their limitations, CS models are capable of reproducing
qualitatively, and, in most cases quantitatively, the main features of the
inelastic response of granular materials:
irreversibility;
pressure dependence;
dilatant/contractant behavior;
brittle/ductile transition with increasing confining stress.
Claudio Tamagnini

Perfect plasticity
Isotropic CS models: remarks
Main advantages of CS models:

simple mathematical structure;
limited number of material constants, easily linked to the observed
response in standard laboratory tests;
limited pool of internal variables (in most cases just one), of scalar
nature: easy definition of initial conditions.
Claudio Tamagnini


Anisotropy in geomaterials
Almost all geomaterials are characterized to a certain extent by the
existence of some preferential orientations at the microstructural level.
Specimen of diatomite rock (from Boheler 1987)

Claudio Tamagnini


These preferential orientations can be due to the geological processes
which led to the formation of the deposit, or be the result of particle
rearrangements induced by the applied engineering loads.
In some cases, the existence of particular symmetries at the
microstructural level is apparent (i.e., bedding planes).
In other situations, the detection of preferential directions requires the
definition of suitable (statistical) indicators which quantify the geometry
of grains and the directional properties of their interaction.
For example, in granular materials, such preferential orientation can be
associated to the spatial distribution of intergranular contact normals,
grain shape and void shape (Oda et al. 1985).
Claudio Tamagnini


As a consequence of the directional properties of the microstructure, the
phenomenological response of geomaterials may be characterized by a
more or less marked anisotropy:
The mechanical response of the material (prefailure stiffness, shear

strength) depends on the relative orientation of the applied load w.r. to
the microstructure.
Claudio Tamagnini


Inherent and induced anisotropy

According to Casagrande & Carillo (1944), two different kind of
anisotropic behavior can be distinguished:
a) inherent anisotropy: [...] a physical characteristic inherent in the
material and entirely independent of the applied strains.
b) induced anisotropy: [...] a physical characteristic due exclusively to
the strain associated with the applied stress.
Some Authors tend to identify inherent anisotropy as the result of the
geological processes which led to the formation of the deposit, and of the
geometrical properties of the solid grains (e.g., Wong & Arthur 1985).
The above distinction is somewhat arbitrary, as the possibility of altering
the microstructural properties of a granular material (or a rock) do
depend on the intensity of the applied load.
Claudio Tamagnini


Influence of anisotropy on soil behavior

An interesting series of experimental data has been obtained in a number
of Directional Shear tests on dense sand performed by Wong & Arthur
(1985).
Directional Shear Cell (DSC, Wong & Arthur, 1985)

Claudio Tamagnini



Anisotropy due to bedding (inherent anisotropy)
DSC compression tests on dense Leighton Buzzard Sand specimens, tested in

plane strain compression with different orientations of the principal directions
w.r. to the bedding plane (after Wong & Arthur 1985).
The angle is the inclination between the bedding plane and the max principal
stress direction.
Claudio Tamagnini



Anisotropy due to previous loading history (induced anisotropy)
DSC compression tests on dense Leighton Buzzard Sand specimens prepared

with the bedding plane coincident with the plane of deformation.
Loading program: A) plane strain compression with fixed principal directions,

and unloading up to 1 = 3 ; B) plane strain compression with fixed principal
directions, oriented differently from those of stage A.
Claudio Tamagnini


Effects of loading history on YS

Stresspath controlled TX tests on dense Aio Sand (Yasufuku et al. 1991).
Claudio Tamagnini


Effects of loading history on YS

Stresspath controlled TX tests on Pisa clay (Callisto & Calabresi 1998).
Claudio Tamagnini


General principles
Ref.: Boehler (1987).
Consider a general CE of the form:
= F (d, )
in which:
= Cauchy stress
d = applied load (either e or p )
= structure tensor
This can represent an elastic CE, in which case d e , or a flow rule, in
which case d p .
Claudio Tamagnini


MFI and anisotropy
The structure tensor provides (in phenomenological terms) the directional

properties of the microstructure which are responsible for the anisotropy.
The symmetries of the structure tensor coincide with those of the
microstructure.
The principle of Material Frame Indifference requires that:
F (QdQT , QQT ) = QF (d, ) QT
Q O
This implies that F is an isotropic function of its tensorial arguments.

However, this does not mean that F describes an isotropic mechanical
response!
Claudio Tamagnini


Isotropy
A material is isotropic if no changes in the response occur for a given
load, upon an arbitrary transformation of the microstructure:
F (d, QQT ) = F (d, )
Q O
It can be proven that for an isotropic material:

= 1
F (d, QQT ) = F (d, )
F (QdQT ) = QF QT
that is, is an isotropic tensor and F is an isotropic function w.r. to the

load d.
Claudio Tamagnini


Anisotropy: definition
A material is anisotropic if there exist a transformation of the
microstructure which affects the response to a given load:
Q O
:= F (d, QQT ) 6= F (d, ) =
Let S be the group of properly orthogonal transformations that leave the

response unchanged:
:= F (d, QQT ) = F (d, ) =
Q S
S is defined symmetry group for the material, and corresponds to the

group on invariant transformations for the structure tensor.
Claudio Tamagnini


Symmetry group: particular cases
General anisotropy:
S = {+1, 1}
Orthotropy:
Sorth = {+1, 1, S 1 , S 2 , S 3 }
Transverse isotropy:
Stras = {+1, 1, S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , R (0 2)}
where:
S 1 , S 2 , S 3 = reflections w.r. to the principal directions of d;
R (0 2) = rotation around the axis of anisotropy.
Claudio Tamagnini


Modeling anisotropy of soils in plasticity

In the framework of the theory of plasticity, the description of anisotropy
requires the introduction of one or more structure tensors (or order 2)
as material parameters (inherent) or as internal variables (induced).
The structure tensors can affect:
the elastic behavior of the material;
the yield function and plastic potential.
Intrinsic anisotropy is typically described by assuming that the structure
tensors remains constant during plastic deformation.
Induced anisotropy is typically described by introducing in the set of
internal variables one or more symmetric second order tensors as structure
tensors, which control the position and the orientation of the yield locus.
Claudio Tamagnini


Modeling inherent anisotropy

Inherent anisotropy can be described by means of an approach first
proposed by Hill (1950). In this approach, the structure tensors are
employed as metric tensors in the construction of the invariants
appearing in the yield function and plastic potential.
Example. Model by Nova & Sacchi (1982) for transverse isotropic
materials, constructed starting from MCC model:
f (, k) := Z CZ 3k 2 = 0
Z :=
1
s + (p k) 1
where C is the structure metric tensor (in principal anisotropy axis):
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
1 0
0
0
C :=
(, , = const.)
0
0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 0
0 2
Claudio Tamagnini


Modeling inherent anisotropy

Predictions of Nova & Sacchi (1985) model of experimental data on
diatomite by Allirot & Boehler (1979).
Claudio Tamagnini


Modeling induced anisotropy

Induced anisotropy is typically described by incorporating a symmetric
second order tensor (structure tensor) in the set of internal variables.
This tensor controls the position and the orientation of the yield locus.
Most plasticity models for soils with anisotropic hardening can be
grouped in two broad classes:
a) kinematic hardening models, in which the yield surface can expand,
contract and translate in stress space, along the prescribed stress
path;
b) rotational hardening models, in which the yield surface can expand,
contract and rotate in stress space, being oriented by the stress path
direction.
Claudio Tamagnini


Kinematic hardening models

Ref.: Mroz (1967); Iwan (1967).
qk ) = 0
f (, , qk ) = f(,
Claudio Tamagnini
:=


Kinematic hardening models

Several KH models have been proposed for geomaterials since the late 70.
See, e.g., Prevost (1977, 1986); Mroz, Norris & Zienkiewicz (1978, 1979,
1981); Mroz & Pietruszczak (1983a,b); Hashiguchi (1980, 1981, 1985,
1988); Wood and coworkers (1989, 2000); Stallebrass & Taylor (1997)...
The main reason for their development stems from the need to improve
the description of cyclic behavior of soils. These model are quite effective
in modelling hysteresis and such phenomena as the so-called Bauschinger
effect.
KH models have also been advocated to reproduce the observed
non-linearity at small strain levels and the effects of recent stress history
on the stiffness decay with increasing strains (see Stallebrass 1990).
Claudio Tamagnini


Rotational hardening models

Ref.: Sekiguchi & Otha (1977); Ghaboussi & Momen (1982).
I a := a
f (, a , p0 ) = f (I a , J a , Z a , p0 )
(J a )2 := (1/2) sa sa
Z a := 6 tr (da )3 /[tr (da )2 ]3/2
sa :=
Ia a
da := dev (sa )
Claudio Tamagnini
a a = 3


Rotational hardening models

RH models can be subdivided in two main classes:
i) RH models with yield surfaces open towards the positive side of the
hydrostatic axis (conical YS). Best suited for sands, where plastic
volumetric strains are typically much smaller than deviatoric ones;
ii) RH models with closed YS, suitable for both coarse and
finegrained soils.
Among the RH models for geomaterials, we mention, e.g., Ghaboussi &
Momen (1982); Gajo & Wood (1999a,b); Anandarajah & Dafalias (1985,
1986); Banerjee and coworkers (1985,1986); Whittle and coworkers
(1994, 1999); di Prisco (1993a,b); Manzari & Dafalias (2004); Karstunen
and coworkers.
Claudio Tamagnini

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Motivation and historical perspectives

Motivation and historical perspectives

Motivation and historical perspectives

Conventional elastoplastic models for soils

Advanced topics: anisotropic hardening plasticity

Motivation and historical perspectives

Evidence of nonlinear and irreversible behavior

oedometric (1d) compression:

drained triaxial compression:

Motivation and historical perspectives

Clay sample under isotropic compression

Motivation and historical perspectives

Clay sample under drained TX compression

Motivation and historical perspectives

Failure locus of a coarsegrained soil

Motivation and historical perspectives

Constitutive equations and constitutive models

Motivation and historical perspectives

Constitutive equations in rate form

: any objective time rate of Cauchy stress tensor;

Motivation and historical perspectives

The theory of plasticity: historical perspective

The mathematical theory of plasticity represent the first attempt to

Motivation and historical perspectives

The theory of plasticity: historical perspective

Motivation and historical perspectives

Smallstrain, rateindependent formulation

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 1: kinematic decomposition of 

We assume the following additive decomposition of the strain tensor into

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 2: hyperelastic behavior

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 2: hyperelastic behavior

= 0) the equality must hold for

Motivation and historical perspectives

Reduced dissipation inequality

Definition: stresslike internal variable workconjugate to :

Taking into account the hyperelastic CE and the definition of q, the

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 3: elastic domain and yield function

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 3: elastic domain and yield function

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 4: principle of maximum dissipation

be the generalized plastic strain and generalized plastic strain rate.

Motivation and historical perspectives

Assumption 4: principle of maximum dissipation

Motivation and historical perspectives

Associative flow rule and hardening law

Associative hardening law:

Complementarity (loading/unloading) conditions in KT form:

Motivation and historical perspectives

Associative flow rule: remarks

A consequence of the KT complementarity conditions is that plastic

Motivation and historical perspectives

Hardening law: remarks

Motivation and historical perspectives

Hardening law: remarks

Motivation and historical perspectives

Graphical interpretation of PMD

Motivation and historical perspectives

Pragers consistency condition

Pragers consistency condition. In a plastic process, the actual value of

Assumption 1: kinematic decomposition of

Ce > 0 plastic loading process, > 0

Ce < 0 elastic unloading, = 0