Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics
2009
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
a. Determine the nature of statistics applicable to a given situation;
b. Identify population and variable in a given situation or problem; and,
c. Classify the data according to variable type and appropriate level of
measurement.
1.1
DEFINITION, NATURES AND IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS

The word statistics is derived from the Latin word status meaning state.
Early uses of statistics involved compilation of data and graphs describing various
aspects of the state or country. The word statistics has two basic meanings. We
sometimes use this word when referring to actual numbers derived from data and
the other refers to statistics as a method of analysis.
DEFINITION: Statistics a collection of quantitative data, such as statistics of
crimes, statistics on enrollment, statistics on unemployment, and the like.
Statistics is also a science, which deals with the collection, presentation analysis,
and interpretation of quantitative data.
Statistics involves much more than the simple collection, tabulation and
summarizing of data. Statistics is also a tool that helps us develop general and
meaningful conclusions that go beyond the original data. The following are some
examples of the uses of statistics:
Surveys
Consumer Preference
Experiments
Sampling
Economics
NATURES OF STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
It deals with the methods of organizing, summarizing and presenting a mass
of data so as to yield meaningful information.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
2009
It deals with making generalizations about a body of data where only a part
of it is examined. This comprises methods concerned with the analysis of a
subset of data leading to predictions or inferences about the entire set of
data.
Example: Determine whether the following statements use the area of descriptive
statistics or statistical inference.
1. A bowler wants to find his bowling average for the past 12 games.
2. A manager would like to predict based on previous years sales, the sales
performance of a company for the next five years.
3. A politician would like to estimate, based on an opinion poll, his chance for
winning in the upcoming senatorial election.
4. A teacher wishes to determine the percentage of students who passed the
examination.
5. A student wishes to determine the average monthly expenditures on school
supplies for the past five months.
6. A basketball player wants to estimate his chance of winning the most
valuable player (MVP) award based on his current season averages and the
averages of his opponents.
Answer:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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Name:_________________________________
Course/Year/Section:_____________________
Teacher:_________________
Score:___________________
Exercise 1.1
Direction: Classify the following statements as belonging to the area of
descriptive statistics or statistical inference. Write DS for descriptive statistics
and write IS for inferential statistics on the space provided.
_________________1. Yesterdays records show that five (5) employees were absent
due to Dengue fever.
_________________2. If the present trend continues, architects will construct more
contemporary homes than colonials in the next 5 years.
_________________3. In a certain city, arsonists deliberately set 3% of all fires
reported last year.
_________________4. At least 30% of all new homes being built today are of a
contemporary design.
_________________5. As a result of a recent poll, most Filipinos are in favor of
finding work employment abroad.
_________________6. Philippines Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows by 4.6% in
2002, 1.4 percentage higher than its 3.2% performance in
2001.
_________________7. The average grade of 10 students in English is 89.46%.
_________________8. Based from the present sales trend, it is expected that after
two years, this years sales will be doubled.
_________________9. All four provinces of ARMM are among the 10 poorest
provinces in the Philippines for 2002.
_________________10. During the period 1996 to 2002, unemployment rates among
women were consistently higher compared to men except in
1999 and 2000.
1.2
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DEFINITION OF SOME BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS
The following are terms commonly used in Statistics:

1. Population is the set of all individuals or entities under consideration or study. It
may be a finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or individuals, with specified
class or characteristics under consideration.
Example 1. The researcher would like to determine the average age of patients
infected with dengue fever for the month of June at Medical Center Imus.
Population: the set of all patients with dengue fever.
Example 2. The researcher would like to determine the number of BM students in
CvSU-CBE.
Population: the set of all students in CvSU-CBE.
2. Variable is a characteristic of interest measurable on each and every individual in
the population, denoted by any capital letter in the English alphabet.
Types of Variable
Qualitative Variable consists of categories or attributes, which have nonnumerical characteristics.
Example: classification, year level, sex and subjects enrolled
Quantitative Variable consists of numbers representing counts or
measurements.
Variable for population 1: A = age
Variable for population 2: S = sex
Classification of Quantitative Variable
Discrete Quantitative Variable results from either a finite number of possible
values or a countable number of possible values.
Example: number of students, number of books, and number of patients
Continuous Quantitative Variable results from infinitely many possible values
that can be associated with points on a continuous scale in such a way that there
are no gaps or interruptions.
Example: height, weight, grade point average, and time
3. Sample is part of the population or a sub-collection of elements drawn from a
population.
4. Parameter is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a
population.
5. Statistic is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a sample.
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6. Survey is often conducted to gather opinions or feedbacks about a variety of

topics.
Census Survey, most often simply referred to as census, is conducted by
gathering information from the entire population.
Sampling Survey, most often simply referred to as survey, is conducted by
gathering information only from part of the population.
Name:________________________________
Course/Year/Section:____________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 1.2.1
Direction: Identify the population, variable of interest, and type of variable in the
following:
1. The dean of CvSU-CBE would like to determine the average weekly
allowance of BS Computer Science students.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
2. The registrar of CvSU-CBE would like to conduct a survey on the preferred
courses of 4th year high school students in Cavite.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
3. The dean of the CBE would like to know the number of students who are
smoking.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
4. A survey by a group of students entitled Dress Code will be conducted to
first year students to determine the fashion preferences of these students.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
5. Information will be collected to new voters for 2004 election to identify their
opinion regarding politics in the Philippines.
Population:______________________________________________________________
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Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
6. From all students registered this semester, the Mathematics Department
would like to know how many students like mathematics.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
7. A study to be conducted by NGO would determine the Filipinos awareness
about the war against IRAQ.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
8. A group of students taking Statistics conducted a study on the effect of boygirl relationship to the academic performance of the students.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
9. Some parents would like to determine whether Counter Strike is good or bad
to the behavior of their children.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
10.
The head librarian would like to identify the book/s commonly read by
CvSU-CBE students.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
11.
A statistics teacher, Mrs. Nacion, would like to determine whether the
number of students in a class at the start of the semester can determine the
number of failures.
Population:______________________________________________________________
Variable: _______________________________________________________________
Type of variable:_________________________________________________________
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Name:________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 1.2.2
Direction: Identify each statement as having discrete or continuous data. Write D
for discrete and C for continuous.
_____________1. Among the 1,500,000 microcomputer chips made by Motocolla, 2
are found to be defective.
_____________2. Yesterdays records show that 25 students were absent.
_____________3. Radar on EDSA indicated that the driver was going 150 kph when
ticketed for speeding.
_____________4. The amount of time that a taxi driver spends yielding to individual
pedestrians each year is 2.367 seconds.
_____________5. Upon completion of a diet and exercise program, Elmer weighed
12.37 lbs. less than when he started the program.
Exercise 1.2.3
Direction: Identify which of the following quantitative data would be presented by
a discrete variable or a continuous variable. Write DV for discrete variable and
write CV for continuous variable.
_____________1. Number of students
_____________2. Time (in minutes) to finish an exam
_____________3. Distance (in km.) of school from place of residence
_____________4. Length (in cm) of fish caught
_____________5. Width of the newest brand of cellular phone
_____________6. Percentage increase in enrolment this year
_____________7. Number of enrollees
_____________8. Monthly income of 100 randomly selected persons at KADIWA
Market
_____________9. Sum of points in tossing a pair of dice
_____________10. Lifetime (in years) of televisions produced by ZONY
1.3 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

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Another common way to classify data is to use four levels of measurement.

The level of measurement of data determines the algebraic operations that can
be performed and the statistical tools that can be applied to the data set. The
following are the four levels:
Level 1.
Nominal is characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or categories
only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme.
Examples: name, religion, civil status, address, sex, degree program
Level 2.
Ordinal involves data that may be arranged in some order, but differences
between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless.
Examples: military rank, job position, year level
Level 3.
Interval is like the ordinal level, with the additional property that meaningful
amounts of differences between data can be determined. However, there is no
inherent (natural) zero starting point.
Examples: IQ Score, temperature (in C)
Level 4.
Ratio is the interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point. For
values at this level, differences and ratios are meaningful.
Examples: height, area, width, weekly allowance
Name:________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 1.3
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At what level are the following variables measured? Write nominal, ordinal, interval or
ratio on the space provided.
___________________1. Student number
___________________2. Weights of a sample of candies
___________________3. Zip codes
___________________4. SSS number
___________________5. Final course grades of 1.0,1.25,1.50,.
____________________6. Instructors rated as superior, above average, average, below
average, or poor
____________________7. Movies listed according to their genre such as, comedy, adventure,
romance, action, suspense, or horror
___________________8. Lengths of TV commercials ( in seconds)
___________________9. The years 1896, 2000, 1776,1995
___________________10.Attitude toward gun laws such as favorable, somewhat favorable,
somewhat unfavorable..
___________________11.Zip codes
___________________12. Ideal number of children
___________________13. Family Income
___________________14. Candidate voted for in 2002 barangay elections
___________________15. Tax Identification Number
___________________16. Gender
___________________17. Average number of glasses of water consumed per day
___________________18. Blood pressure
___________________19. Height of students
___________________20. Number of clients
___________________21. Number of won cases in court
___________________22. Academic rank in High School
___________________23. Savings Account Number
___________________24. Are you a Pag-Ibig Member?(Yes/No)
___________________25. Number of books sold per day
___________________26. Weekly allowance of CvSU-CBE
___________________27. Main source of income
___________________28. Birth order in the family
___________________29. Number of organizations involved in
___________________30. Car plate number
CHAPTER 2:
DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION

Objectives:
1. Prepare a survey plan and formulate survey questions;
2. Apply the basic statistical concepts and principles in the collection of data;
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3.
4.
5.
6.
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Explore the different ways of presenting data;

Make observations, construct, compare, and interpret different graphs;
Make observations, construct, compare, and interpret statistical tables;
Know the different sampling methods; and
Determine the method of sampling that is most appropriate to use in a given
population.
2.1 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

In order to have accurate data, the researcher must know the right sources and the
right way of collecting them.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTION
1. A good question is unbiased.
Questions must not be worded in a manner that will influence the
respondent to answer in a certain way that is to favor a certain response or to be
against it.
An unbiased question is stated in neutral language and no element of
pressure.
Examples of unbiased questions:
a. Do you favor the enrollment procedure employed last semester?
b. Do you like classical music?
Examples of biased questions:
a. Do you favor the enrollment procedure employed last semester which makes
long lines shorter?
b. Do you listen to boring classical music?
2. A question must be clear and simply stated.
A question that is simple and clear will be easier to understand and more
likely to be answered truthfully.
Example of a simple and clear question:
a. What is your average grade last semester?
Example of a not simple question:

a. What is your academic performance last semester?
3. Questions must be precise.
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Questions must not be vague. The question should indicate clearly the
manner how the answers must be given.
Example of a precise question:
a. In terms of mathematical ability, do you think male and female are equal?
Example of a vague question:
a. Do you think male and female are equal?
4. Good questionnaires lend themselves to easy analyses.
TWO CATEGORIES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS
1. Open question- allows free response.
Example:
What do you think can be done to reduce crime?
2. Closed question- allows only a fixed response.
Example:
Which of the following approaches would be the most effective in reducing crime?
Choose one.
A. Get parents to discipline more.
B. Correct social and economic conditions in slums.
C. Improve rehabilitation efforts in jails.
D. Give convicted criminals tougher sentences.
E. Reform courts.
TYPES OF DATA
1. Primary Data- are information collected from an original source of data, which is
first-hand in nature. Examples are data collected from interviews and surveys.
2. Secondary Data- are information collected from published or unpublished sources
like books, newspapers, and thesis.
FOUR IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN COLLECTING DATA

1. If measurements of some characteristics from people (such as height) are being
obtained, better results will be achieved if the researcher does the measuring
instead of asking the respondent for the value.
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2. The method of data collection used may expedite or delay the process. Avoid a
medium that would produce low response rates.
3. Ensure that the sample size is large enough for the required purposes.
4. Ensure that the method used to collect data actually results in a sample that is
representative of the population.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
1. Direct or Interview Method
The direct or interview method of data collection use at least two persons (an
interviewer and interviewee/s) exchanging information. This method will give us
precise and consistent information because clarifications can be made. Also,
questions not fully understood by the respondent, the interviewer could repeat the
question until it suits the interviewees level. However, this method is time
consuming, expensive and has limited field coverage.
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method
This is a method where written answers are given to prepared questions. This
method requires less time and is inexpensive since the questionnaires can be
mailed or hand-carrried. Also, this will give a respondent a sense of freedom in
honestly answering the questions because of anonymity.
3. Registration Method
This is a method enforced by certain laws.
4. Observation Method
This is a method, which observes the behavior of individuals or organizations in the
study. This is also used when the respondents cannot read nor write.
5. Experiment Method
This method is used when the objective of the study is to determine the cause and
effect of certain phenomena or event.
Name:_________________________________
Teacher:_________________
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Score:___________________
2009
Exercise 2.1
A. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open questions?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions?
3. Choose the letter that corresponds to an unbiased option.
A. Anyone is free to smoke cigarettes if he wants to.
__________ Agree
_________Disagree
B. No sane person will burn money on cigarettes.
__________ Agree
_________Disagree
C. Smoking may be dangerous to your health.
__________ Agree
_________Disagree
4. Change the following questions to make it simpler and clearer.
A. What is your opinion about beauty contest being demeaning to
womanhood and against the vaunted equality of the sexes?
B. What is your mass measure in metric units?
5. Determine which of the following questions is best to ask about someones
health?
A. Are you a weakling?
B. Are you bursting over with health?
C. Can you be an advertisement for a health club?
D. Are you in good health?
6. To find out how much someone likes music, which question is best to ask?
A. Do you go for the present trend-all noise and sound?
B. How much time do you spend listening to the radio?
C. Do you prefer popular music, jazz, classics, or rock?
D. Do you listen to boring classical tunes?
B. From the situations given below, identify the possible errors or difficulties that
may be encountered during data collection.
1. To research recognition of a certain brand of deodorant, you plan to
conduct a telephone survey of 1000 consumers in the Philippines. What is
wrong with using telephone directories as the population from which the
sample is drawn?
2. A group of college students conduct a survey in an attempt to determine
the typical annual salary of the schools alumni. Would alumni with very low
salaries be likely to respond? How would this affect the result? Identify one
other factor that might affect the result.
3. Assume that you are hired by a company to collect data on the waist sizes
of college students. Why is it better to obtain direct measurements than to
ask people sizes of their waists?
C. Carrying out a survey
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1. Get a partner/group mate. Work together to write a plan for a survey using
questionnaire method.
2. Think of any topic of your interest and construct a questionnaire.
3. The plan should include:
Topic of your interest
Title of the survey/mini research
Purpose /objectives of the survey
Importance objectives of the survey
Population and Sample of the study
The questionnaire
4. Submit the plan and the questionnaire to your teacher for approval. Finalize
the questionnaire.
5. Prepare the necessary survey forms and conduct the survey.
2.2.1 SAMPLING
Concept of Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting units, like people, organizations, or
objects from a population of interest in order to study and fairly generalize the
results back to the population from which sample was chosen.
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
1. Reduced Cost
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2. Greater Speed
3. Greater Scope
4. Greater Accuracy
2.2.2 Probability Sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes
some form of random selection. In order to have a random selection method,
you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units
in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Humans have long
practiced various forms of random selection, such as picking a name out of hat,
or choosing the short straw. These days we tend to use computers as the
mechanism for generating random numbers as the basis for random selection.
Random selection is performed by selecting a group subjects (a sample)
for the study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen
entirely by chance and each member of the population has a known, but possibly
non-equal, chance of being included in the sample. By using a random selection,
the likelihood of bias is reduced.
1. Simple Random Sampling
The simplest form of random sampling is called the simple random sampling.
It is the basic sampling technique where a group of subjects (a sample) is selected
for a study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely
by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample. Every possible sample of a given size has the same
chance of selection; i.e. each member of the population is equally likely to be
chosen at any stage in the sampling process. The most common techniques for
selecting simple random sample are by using strips of paper, use of printed table
of random numbers, or use of random numbers generated by many computer
programs or scientific calculators.
2. Stratified Random Sampling
This sampling method involves dividing the population into homogeneous
subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each group.
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Types of Stratified Random Sampling
Equal Allocation (EA) - the sample sizes from the different strata are equal.
That is
3= .= nk
2= n
1= n
n
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EA=
Formula:
2009
n
ni
Where: n = number of sample/sample size

i=
number of groups/strata
n
Proportional Allocation (PA) the sample sizes from the different strata
are proportional to the sizes of the strata. In general, a population of size N is
N1, N2 , N3 , Nk
n1
divided into k strata of size
, and a sample of size
from the
first stratum is taken, a sample of size
Formula:
Where:
PA=
Ni
nk ,
from the
k th
stratum is taken.
Ni
n
N
= population of each strata/stratum
N = population
n = sample size
Example: Given is the enrollment data of CvSU-CBE for first semester, SY 20092010.
PROGRAM
Ni
EA
PA
BSIT
420
BSCS
210
BSBM
300
BSE
40
ABPS
40
BENT
25
BSHRM
400
TOTAL(N)
1435
Select a sample of 200 students using Equal and Proportional Allocation
3. Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic sampling with a random start is a method of selecting a sample by
th
taking every k
unit from an ordered population, the first unit being selected at
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random. K is called the sampling interval and the reciprocal

fraction.
Formula:
Where:
K=
1
k is the sampling
N
n
N = population
n = sample size
4. Cluster Random Sampling

This sampling method involves dividing the population into clusters, usually along
geographic boundaries, then randomly taking samples of clusters, and measuring all
units within sampled clusters.
2.2.3 Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection of samples. It does not
necessarily mean, however, that non-probability samples are not representative of the
population. With non-probability samples, the population may or may not be represented
well, and it will often difficult to know how well the population has been represented.
TWO TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. ACCIDENTAL, HAPHAZARD OR CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
This is one of the most common methods of sampling, which is primarily based
on the convenience of the researcher. Most common examples are interviews
conducted frequently by television news programs to get quick (although nonrepresentative) reading of public opinion.
2. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
In this type of sampling technique, samples are taken with a purpose in mind.
Usually, one or more specific predefined sought.
Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where a target sample needs
to be reached quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary
concern. With a purposive sample, it is likely to get opinions of target populations that
are more readily accessible.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive
sampling methods.
Modal Instance Sampling
Sampling for specific groups or types of people wherein sampling the most
frequent case, or the typical case is sought for. This method of sampling is
commonly used in informal public opinion polls.
Expert Sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or
demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. Often, expert sampling is done
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when it would be the best way to elicit the views of persons who have specific
expertise.
Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, respondents are selected non-randomly according to some
fixed quota.
Heterogeneity Sampling
Heterogeneity sampling is performed when all opinions or views about a specific
topic are the primary concern and representing these views proportionately is not of
major importance.
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, the process starts by identifying someone who meets the
criteria for inclusion in the study. The respondent is then asked to recommend others
whom they may know who also meet the criteria.
Name:_________________________________
Teacher:_________________
Score:___________________
Exercise 2.2
Identify the type of sampling used in the following statements.
1. An engineer selects every 50 th cell phone from the assembly line for careful
testing and analysis.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. A reporter writes the name of each senator on a separate card, shuffles the
cards, and then draws five names.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. The dean at CvSU-CBE surveys all students from each of the 12 randomly
selected classes.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. A reporter obtains sample data from readers who decide to mail in a
questionnaire printed in the latest issue.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. A mathematics professor selects 18 men and 18 women from each of the four
classes.
__________________________________________________________________________
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6. In conducting research for a psychology course, a student of CvSU-CBE

interviews students who are leaving the CBE building.
__________________________________________________________________________
7. A reporter obtains numbered listing of the 1000 companies with the highest
stock market values, uses a computer to generate 20 random numbers
between 1 and 1000, and then interviews the chief executive officers of the
companies corresponding to these numbers.
__________________________________________________________________________
8. A medical student at DLS-UMC interviews all diabetic patients in each of 15
randomly selected hospitals in the country.
__________________________________________________________________________
9. A researcher interviews every 45th patients in the list of in-patients.
__________________________________________________________________________
10. A student interviews school principals and classroom teachers about the
implementation of the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum.
__________________________________________________________________________
2.3 Methods of Data Presentation

Methods of Presenting Data:
1. Textual Method- a narrative description of the data gathered.
2. Tabular Method- a systematic arrangement of information into columns and
rows.
3. Graphical Method- an illustrative description of the data.
2.3.1 The Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
An FDT is a statistical table showing the frequency or number of observations
contained in each of the defined classes or categories.
Parts of a Statistical Table
1. Table Heading- includes the table number and the title of the table.
2. Body- main part of the table that contains the information or figures.
3. Stubs or classes- classification or categories describing the data and usually
found at the left most side of the table.
4. Caption- designations or identifications of the information contained in a
column, usually found at the top most of the column.
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Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Staff Perception of the Leadership Behavior of

the Administrator
Perception of
Leadership Behavior
Strongly Favorable
Favorable
Slightly Favorable
Slightly Unfavorable
Unfavorable
Strongly Unfavorable
CAPTIO
STUBS/CLAS
SES
Frequency
TABLE
10
11
12
14
22
31
TOTAL
100
BODY
TYPES OF FDT:
1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT is a frequency distribution table where the
data are grouped according to some qualitative characteristics; data are
grouped into non numerical categories.
Example:
TABLE 2: Frequency Distribution of the Gender Respondents of a Survey
Gender of Respondents
Frequency
Male
38
Female
62
TOTAL
100
2. Quantitative FDT is a frequency distribution table where the data are

grouped according to some numerical or quantitative characteristics.
Example:
WEIGHT (in kilogram)
Frequency
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7-9
10-12
13-15
16-18
2
8
14
19
19-21
TOTAL
50
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. Determine the Range (R)
R=highest valuelowest value
2. Determine the number of classes (K)
K= N
where N is the total number of observations in the data set.
3. Determine the class size (c) by calculating first the preliminary class size
(c).
R
'
c=
Preliminary class size c:
K
Conditions for the actual c:
a. It should have the same number of decimal places as in the raw data.
b. It should be odd in the last digit.
4. Enumerate the classes or categories.
5. Tally the observations.
6. Compute for values in other columns of the FDT as deemed necessary.
Other columns in FDT
1. True Class Boundaries (TCB)
a. Lower True Class Boundaries (LTCB):
1
LTCB= unit of measure
2
b. Upper True Class Boundaries (UTCB):
1
UTCB=UL + unit of measure
2
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2. Class Mark (CM) midpoint of the class interval where the observations tend
to cluster about.
1
1
CM = ( +UL )CM = (LTCB+UTCB)
2
2
3. Relative Frequency (RF) the proportion of observations falling in a class
and is expressed in percentage.
frequency
frequency
RF=
%RF=
x 100
N
N
4. Cumulative Frequency (CF) accumulated frequency of the classes.
a. Less than CF (<CF) - total number of observations whose values do not
exceed the upper limit of class.
b. Greater than CF (>CF) total number of observations whose values are
not less than the lower limit of the class.
5. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)
a. Less than RCF (<RCF)
b. Greater than RCF (>RCF)
Example: Construct the FDT of the given data set.
Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital.
5
15
23
27
33
38
44
52
10
20
25
31
35
15
24
30
33
40
45
53
42
50
57
13
21
20
25
31
34
42
45
55
26
32
36
43
51 57
2.3.2 Graphical Presentation of data

A graph or a chart is a device for showing numerical values or relationships
in pictorial form.
Advantages:
1. main features and implications of a body of data can be seen at once
2. can attract attention and hold the readers interest
3. simplifies concepts that would otherwise have been expressed in so many
words
4. can readily clarify data, frequently bring out hidden facts and relationships.
Qualities of a Good Graph:
22
1.
2.
3.
4.
It
It
It
It
2009
is accurate.
is clear.
is simple.
has a good appearance.
Common Types of Graph:

1. Scatter Graph a graph used to present measurements or values that are
thought to be related.
2. Line Chart graphical presentation of data especially useful for showing
trends over a period of time.
3. Pie Chart- a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is
distributed among a group of categories. The pieces of pie represent the
proportions of the total that fall into each category.
4. Column and Bar Graph- like pie charts, column charts and bar charts are
applicable only to grouped data. They should be used for discrete, grouped
data of ordinal or nominal scale.
Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution Table
1. Frequency Histogram a bar graph that displays the classes on the
horizontal axis and the frequencies of the classes on the vertical axis.
2. Frequency Polygon- a line chart that is constructed by plotting the
frequencies at the class marks and connecting the plotted points by means
of straight lines.
3. Ogives- graphs of the cumulative frequency distribution
a. <Ogive- the <CF is plotted against the UTCB
b. >Ogive- the >CF is plotted against the LTCB
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 2.3
1. A survey taken at a hotel in Malate indicated that 40 guests preferred the
following means of transportation:
car car bus plane train bus bus plane car plane plane
bus plane car car train train car car car car plane
plane car bus car bus car plane car plane plane car
car car bus train car bus car
Construct a categorical distribution showing the frequencies corresponding
to the different means of transportation. Interpret the results.
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2009
2. The following are the body weights (in grams)

vitamin deficiencies:
136 92
115 118 121 137 132
125 119 115 101 129 87
108
135 126 127 103 110 126 118
137 120 95
146 126 119 119
126 118 100 113 106 125 117
of 50 rats used in a study of

120
110
82
105
102
104
133
104
132
146
129
124
113
95
148
Construct the FDT of the given data set and write a brief report about it.
3. The following are the number of customers a restaurant served for lunch on
60 weekdays:
50
64
55
51
60
41
71
53
63
64
49
59
66
45
61
57
65
62
58
65
55
61
60
55
53
57
58
66
53
56
64
46
59
49
64
60
58
64
42
47
59
62
56
63
61
68
57
51
61
51
60
59
67
52
52
58
64
43
60
62
Construct the FDT of the given data set and write a brief report about it.
4. Construct a graph for the given FDT and write a brief interpretation.
The 2002 Purchases by A Car Rental Agency
CAR MAKER
1. Chevrolet Cavalier
2. Ford Mustang
3. Ford Taurus
4. Pontiac Grand Am
5. Toyota Camry
CHAPTER 3:
NUMBER OF PURCHASES
45
30
60
15
30
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Objectives:
a. Employ summation and apply operations involving the summation;
b. Compute and interpret the different measures of central tendency and
location;
c. Compare the different measures of central tendency and location;
d. Recognize the advantage and disadvantages of each measure of average;
e. Make generalizations from a given set of data;
f. Use measures of average in making predictions and decisions; and,
g. Apply their knowledge to real life situations;
3.1
Summation Notation
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2009
Suppose that a variable X is a variable of interest, and that n measurements

X1 , X2 , X3, . , Xn
are taken. The notation
will be used to represent the n
observations.
Let the Greek letter
indicate the summation of, thus we can write the
sum of the observations as:

n
X i=X 1 + X 2+ X 3+ + X n
i=1
The numbers 1 and n are called the lower and upper limits of summation,
respectively.
Example: Write out the following in full, that is, without summation signs:
6
1. X i
i =1
2. X i Y i
i=1
3. X i
i=4
4. ( X i +Y 2)
i=2
Rules on Summation
Rule # 1: The summation notation is distributive over addition.
n
i=1
i=1
i=1
( X i+ Y i )= X i+ Y i
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2009
i=1
i=1
i=1
i=1
( ai+ bi +..+ z i )= ai+ bi +..+ z i

Rule # 2: If c is a constant, then
n
i=1
i=1
cx i =c x i
Rule #3: If c is a constant, then
n
c =nc
i=1
Examples:
A. Use the rules on summation to write out the expansion of the given
expression:
4
(2 x i +4 )
i=1
B. Write each of the following expressions in summation with appropriate

limits.
1. Z 6 +Z 7 +Z 8+Z 9
2. ( w15 ) + ( w 25 ) +(w 35)
3.3 X 3+ 3 X 4 +3 X 5
C. Given:
X 1=2, X 2=3, X 3 =1
Y 1=1, Y 2=1,Y 3 =0
Find the value of the following expressions:
3
1. X i
i =1
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2009
2. X i Y i
i=1
3
i=1
i=1
3. X i Y i
4.
i=1
X i+1
Yi
( )
Exercise 3.1
Evaluate the following:
X 1=4, X 2=3, X 3=2, X 4 =1
1. Given:
4
a . X i ( X i3)
2
i=1
b . ( X i+1)2
i=2
X 1=2, X 2=3, X 3 =1,Y 1 =4, Y 2=0, Y 3=5
2. Given:
3
a . Xi Y i
i=1
b . (3 X i +Y i 4)
i=2
X 1=2, X 2=3, X 3=1, Y 1=2, Y 2=5,Y 3=5
3. Given:
3
a . ( X i + 2 X i Y i +Y i )
2
i=1
b . X i (Y i4)
i=1
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2009
3.2 Measures of Central Tendency

In statistics, an average is a measure of central tendency. It is a single
number that represents a set of data.
Definition: A measure of central tendency is any single value that is used to
identify the center of the data or the typical value. It is often referred to as the
average.
3.2.1 The Arithmetic Mean
The most common average and sometimes simply referred to as
the mean
The sum of all the values of the observations divided by the
number of observations
Denoted by a Greek letter (mu) for population
the sample mean, used to estimate the population mean , is
computed as:
n
( )
x =
Xi
/n
i=1
Examples:
1. The numbers of employees at 5 different stores are 4, 8, 10, 12, and 6. Find
the mean number of employees for the 5 stores.
Solution:
5
( )
Xi
x =
i=1
4 +8+10+12+6 40
= =8
5
5
The mean number of employees for the 5 stores is 8.
2. Scores in Algebra for the first long quiz for a sample of 10 students are as
follows: 84, 75, 90, 98, 88, 79, 95, 86, 93, and 89.
Solution:
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2009
84+ 75+90+98+ 88+79+95+ 86+93+89

=87.7
10
Therefore ,the average score is 87.7

3.2.2 The Median
The positional middle of an array
In an array, one-half of the values precede the median and one-half
follow it
If N is odd:
d =X (N +1)
2
If N is even:
XN+XN
d =
+1
Example: Find the median of the given data set: 75, 75, 67, 71, 72
Solution:
X 1=67, X 2=71, X 3=72, X 4 =75, X 5=75
d =X (5 +1) = X 3=72
2
The average ( median ) is 72.

3.2.3 The Mode
It is the observed value that occurs most frequently.
It locates the point where the observation values occur with the
greatest density.
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2009
It does not always exist, and if it does, it may not be unique. A data
set is said to be unimodal if there is only one mode, bimodal if
there are two modes, trimodal if there are three modes, and so on.
It is not affected by extreme values.
It can be used for qualitative as well as quantitative data.
Examples:
Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets.
Data Set 1.
2
Red
Green
Data Set 2.
2
Data Set 3.
1
Data Set 4.
Red
Blue
Orange
Blue WhiteYellow
Blue
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 3.2
1. The grades of a student on seven examinations were 85, 96, 72, 89, 95, 82
and 85. Find the students average grade.
2. The salaries of 4 employees were P12,000, P10,000, P15,000 and P18,000.
What is the average salary?
3. Out of 100 numbers, 20 were 5s, 40 were 4s, 35 were 6s and 5 were 2s.
Find the mean.
4. Find the median of the set of numbers:
5
3
7
3
8
2
1
5. Find the median of the set of numbers:
30
11
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2009
18
79
12
13
6. A student received grades of 89, 72, 92 and 35. What is the mode of the
given grades?
7. The reaction times of an individual to certain stimuli were measured by a
psychologist to be 0.23, 0.52, 0.25, 0.52, 0.26, 0.25, 0.39, and 0.22
seconds. Determine the modes of the given reaction times.
8. The numbers of incorrect answers on a true-false test for 15 students were
recorded as follows:
2, 1, 3, 0, 1, 3, 6, 0, 3, 3, 5, 2, 1, 4, 2. Find the
mean, median and mode.
9. The following are the response times in seconds of a smoke alarm after the
release of smoke from a fixed source: 12, 9, 11, 7, 9, 14, 6,10. Find the
mode.
10. A bridge is designed to carry a maximum load of 150,000 pounds. Is the
bridge overloaded if it is carrying 18 vehicles having a mean weight of 4,630
pounds?
11. For three rounds of golf Peter scores 88, 79, and 82. What fourth-round
score would he need to reduce his mean score to 81 for all rounds?
12. The average IQ of 10 students in Math is 114. If 9 of the students have IQ
scores of 101, 118, 128, 106, 115, 99, 118, 109 and 125. What must be the
other IQ?
3.3 Measures of Location or Fractiles

Measures of location or fractiles are values below which a specified fraction
or percentage of the observations in a given set must fall.
3.3.1 Percentiles
Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations in an array into
P1
100 equal parts. Thus,
, read as first percentile, is the value below which
1% of the values fall,
P2
, read as second percentile, is the value below which

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2009
P99
2% of the values fall,..,
, read as ninety-ninth percentile, is the value
below which 99% of the values fall.

Formula:
Pi=the value of the
i(n+1) th
observationthe array
100
Example: The following were the scores of 10 students in a short quiz:

2
10
10
Find the 64th percentile.

Solution: First, arrange the data from lowest to highest.
1
2
P64=
64 (10+1)
100
10
10
th
observation = 7.04 or the 8th observation
Therefore ,the 64 th percentile is 9, which isinterpreted as :64 of the scores are below 9.
Other forms of fractiles:
3.3.2 Deciles
Deciles are values that divide the array into 10 equal parts. Thus,
read as first decile, is the value below which 10% of the values fall,
as second decile, is the value which 20% of the values fall,,
ninth decile, is the value below which 90% of the values fall.
Formula:
i ( n+1 )
Di is the value of the
10
th
) observationthe array
32
D9
D2
D1
, read
, read as
2009
Example: From the given set of scores in a quiz, find the 4th decile or
3
11
12
18
D4 .
19
Solution: Since the data is already arranged from lowest to highest then we may
proceed in finding the 4th decile.
3
D4 =
4 (7 +1 )
10
11
12
th
18
19
) observation=3.2the 4 observation
th
Therefore ,the 4th decile is11, this implies that :40 of the scoresthe quiz are below 11.
3.3.3 Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide the array into 4 equal parts. Thus,
read as first quartile, is the value below which 25% of the values fall,..,
Q1
Q3
read as third quartile, is the value which 75% of the values fall.
Example: From the given set of scores in a quiz, find the 3rd quartile or
3
11
12
18
Q3
19
Solution: Since the data is already arranged in ascending order, then we may
proceed in finding the 3rd quartile.
3
Q 3=
11
12
18
19
3 (7+1) th
observation=6 th observation
4
Therefore ,the 3rd quartileis 18, this implies that :75 of the scoresthe quiz are below 18.
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2009
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 3.3
1. A psychologist obtained the IQ scores of 10 students. The IQ scores are as
follows:
110 95
85
140 132 100 95
70
85
100
P65 , D 3 , D 9 ,Q3.
Find
Interpret the values.
2. The number of absences in a semester of 25 randomly selected students
were obtained by a teacher: The number of absences were as follows:
3
5
2
6
3
8
2
3
6
2
1
3
8
5
2
1
3
1
0
2
0
1
2
0
0
Q2 , P95 ,D2 .
Find
Interpret the results.
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CHAPTER 4:
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Objectives:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Compute and interpret the different measures of dispersion;

Compare the different measures of dispersion;
Relate the measure of central tendency to the measure of dispersion;
Discuss the characteristics of the samples based on their measures of
dispersion
Recognize the advantages and disadvantages of each measure of dispersion
Make generalizations from a given set of data;
Use measures of average and spread in making predictions and decisions;
Apply their knowledge to real life situations.
Measures of Dispersion indicate the extent to which individual items in a series

are scattered about an average. It is used to determine the extent of the scatter
so that steps may be taken to control the existing variation. It is also used as
measure of reliability of the average value.
General Classifications of Measures of Dispersion
1. Measures of Absolute Dispersion
2. Measures of Relative Dispersion
4.1 Measures of Absolute Dispersion
The measures of absolute dispersion are expressed in the units of the original
observations. They cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when the
averages of these data sets differ a lot in value or when the observations differ in units of
measurement.
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4.1.1 The Range

The range of a set of measurement s is the difference between the largest and
smallest values.
R=maximum valueminimum value

Example:
The IQ scores of 5 members of the Morales family are 108, 112, 127, 116, and 113. Find
the range.
4.1.2 The Standard Deviation and Variance
For a finite population of size N, the population variance is
i
X
/N
i=1
2
=
And the population standard deviation is
i
X
/N
N
i=1
=
The population variance
2 , can be estimated by the sample variance
36
s 2 , where
2009
X ix
/( n1)
n
i=1
s2=
And the population standard deviation can be estimated by the sample standard
deviation s, where
X ix
/(n1)
i=1
s=
Example:
A sample of 5 households showed the following number of household members: 3,
8, 5, 4, and 4. Find the standard deviation.
4.2 Measures of Relative Dispersion
Measures of Relative Dispersion are unitless and are used when one wishes to
compare the scatter of one distribution with another distribution.
4.2.1 Coefficient of Variation
The coefficient of variation, CV, is the ratio of the standard deviation to the
mean and is usually expressed in percentage. It is computed as
s
CV = x 100 CV = x 100
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2009
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 4.1
1. Find the range of the following data sets:
Data set a: 15, 16, 7, 5, 14, 10
Data set b: 110, 125, 98, 85, 62, 100
2. Find the standard deviation of each set in #1.
3. On a final examination in Statistics, the average grade of 100 students of
DS School was 80 and the standard deviation was 8. In another school, DF
School, the average grade of 120 students was 75. And the standard
deviation was 7.9. In which school was there a greater
a. Absolute deviation
b. Relative deviation
4. Find the coefficient of variation of each set in #3.
5. On 16 days, a restaurant had the following numbers of orders for chicken
and steak:
Chicken:
46
55
43
48
54
65
36
40
51
53
64
32
41
46
53
47
Steak:
39
41
25
30
46
36
37
23
30
33
50
44
41
28
35
37
Calculate the mean, median, mode, standard deviation, variance and CV
and determine which item the number of order is relatively more variable.
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2009
CHAPTER 5:
PROBABILITY
Objectives:
a.
b.
c.
d.
List down the elements of sample spaces and events;

Perform operations on events;
Demonstrate greater ability in making lists in a systematic organized way;
Demonstrate ability in using certain formulas and procedures to determine
how many;
e. Demonstrate ability in recognizing situations in real life wherein counting
techniques and formulas are applicable;
f. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the probability of events and
outcomes; and,
g. Use probability to analyze and understand real world situations and
problems.
5.1 Random Experiments, Sample Spaces, Events
Random Experiment is a process or procedure, repeatable under basically
the same condition, leading to well-defined outcomes. It is random because we
can never tell in advance what the realization is going to be even if we can specify
the possible outcomes.
Example:
1. Tossing an ordinary coin once
2. Recording the number of cars pulling up at a service station for gasoline per
day
3. Rolling a die
Sample Space is the set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment.
It is denoted by Greek letter omega () or S. It is also known as universal set.
Types of Sample Spaces
A finite sample space is a sample space with finite number of possible
outcomes.
An infinite sample space is a sample space with infinite number of
possible outcomes.
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Natures of Sample Spaces

Discrete Sample Space is a sample space with countable (finite or
infinite) number of possible outcomes.
Continuous Sample Space is a sample space with a continuum number of
possible outcomes.
An event is a subset of the sample space denoted by any letter in the
English alphabet. An event is an outcome of a random experiment.
Types of Events:
1. Elementary Event an event consisting of one possible outcome.
2. Impossible Event - an event consisting of no outcome and is denoted by {
} or .
3. Sure Event an event consisting of all the possible outcomes.
4. Complement of an event is the set of all elements of the sample space
which are not in the event A. Denoted by A.
Example:
1. Set up the sample space for the single toss of a pair of fair dice.
2. From your sample space in number 1, noting the dots on each die, list the
elements of the following events:
a. A = event of obtaining a sum of 7 or 11.
b. B = event of obtaining a sum of at least 10.
c. C = event of obtaining a sum of at most 6.
d. D = event of obtaining a product of 24.
e. E = event of obtaining a 3 in exactly one of the dice.
f. F = event of obtaining a 3 on either die.
g. G = event of obtaining a sum of 7 and a product of 12.
3. If two fair coins are tossed, are the outcomes in Coin 1 and Coin 2,
independent or mutually exclusive events? Why?
4. An experiment consists of asking 3 women at random if they wash their
dishes with brand X dishwashing liquid.
a. List the elements of the sample space using the letters Y for yes and N
for no.
b. List the elements of S corresponding to the event A that at least two of
the women use brand X.
5. An experiment involves tossing a pair of dice, one black and one red.
a. List the elements of the sample space
b. List the elements of the sample space that corresponds to:
A = event that the sum is less than 5
B = event that 6 occurs on either die
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2009
C = event that a number greater than 4 appears on the black die

D = event that the sum is greater than 8 and a number greater than 4
comes up on the black die
5.2 Counting Techniques
5.2.1 The fundamental Principle of Counting
n1
If an operation can be performed in
ways, and if for each of these a
second operation can be performed in
performed in
n1
n2
n2
ways, then the two operations can be
ways.
Example:
1. How many sample points are in the sample space when a pair of dice is
tossed once?
2. Miguel is going to watch a basketball game at the Araneta Coliseum. The
Coliseum has four gates where he can enter. If he cannot pass through the
same gate twice, in how ways can he enter and leave the Coliseum?
3. How many different ways are there to arrange the letters in the word
LOGIC?
5.2.2 Permutation
A permutation is an arrangement of all parts of a set of objects.
Linear Permutation
The number of permutations of n distinct objects is n! (read as n
factorial).
Example: Consider the letters a, b, c. List down the possible permutations.
Permutation of n elements taken r at a time
Theorem: The number of permutation of n distinct objects taken r at a
time is
nPr=
n!
( nr ) !
Example: Two raffle tickets are drawn from 20 for the first and second prizes. Find
the number of sample points in the sample space S.
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2009
Circular Permutation
The number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a circle is (n1)!.
Example: In how many ways can 5 different plants be planted in a circle?
Permutation of Things Not All Different
The number of distinct permutations of n objects of which
n2
kind,
of second kind,
nk
, of a
k th
n1
are one of a
kind is
n!
n1 ! n 2 ! n k !
Example: How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the
word Mississippi?
5.2.3 Combination
A combination is a selection of r objects from n without regard to order.
Theorem: The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is
nCr=
n!
r ! ( nr ) !
Example: An experimenter must select 3 animals from 10 available animals to be

used as a control group. In how many ways can the control group be selected?
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2009
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 5.2
1. How many numbers consisting of 5 digits can be made from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9?
2. In how many ways can 5 people be seated on a sofa, if there are only three
seats available?
3. In how many ways can 6 children be seated in a round table?
4. An organization sponsored a raffle where they were to sell all 500 tickets
sequentially numbered from 001 to 500. How many of the tickets
a. Has the same three digits
b. Ends in 3
c. Contain the digits 1, 2, 3 (not necessarily in that order)
5. The geographical distribution of the hometown of 80 students of CvSU-CBE
is given as: 50 from Luzon, 10 from Visayas, and 20 from Mindanao. How
many ways can three students be selected at random such that
a. All of them come from any three places
b. No student comes from Luzon and Mindanao
6. In how many ways can 10 individuals be selected from 25 individuals?
7. If a student can answer any 6 questions from an exam with 10 questions,
how many ways can he answer the exam?
8. If there are 9 horses in a race, in how many ways can they finish first,
second, and third?
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2009
9. How many ways can 10 students line up in a food counter?

10. How many choices do we have if we are going to bet in the Lotto 6/42
draw?
11. In how many ways can 6 boys and 7 girls be seated in a row of 13 chairs?
What if the boys and the girls must alternate?
12. If in an examination consisting of 24 questions a student may omit 6, in
how many ways can he select the problems he will answer?
13. How many three-digit numbers greater than 300 can be formed from 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, if each digit can be used only once?
14. How many sample points or elements are there when simultaneously a
coin is tossed once, two dice are thrown and a card is selected at random
from an ordinary deck of 52 cards?
15. In how many ways can a window dresser display four shirts in a circular
arrangement?
16. How many distinct permutations can be made from the word
COMMUNICATION?
17. How many ways can a manager select the top three employees based on
performance from 8 of his employees?
18. In how many ways can 10 students be split into 2 groups containing 4 and
6 students, respectively?
19. In how many ways can the 5 starting positions in a basketball team be
filled with 8 men who can play any position?
20. How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word
REACT?
21. In how many ways can a jack, a queen and a king be chosen from a deck
of 52 cards?
22. How many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8 equally qualified
recent graduates for openings in Intel, Philippines?
23. In how many ways can the letters in the word REPUBLIC be arranged if 2
letters are used at a time?
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5.3 Basic Concept and Properties of Probability

The probability of an event A, denoted by P(A), is the chance that the
event will occur. It is the sum of the probabilities of mutually exclusive outcomes
that constitute the event. It must satisfy the following properties:
0 P ( A ) 1 for any event A
P ( )=1
P ( ) =0
Example: A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability that at least one head
occurs?
Theorem: If an experiment can result in any one of N different equally likely
outcomes and if exactly n of these outcomes corresponds to event A, then the
probability of event A is:
P ( A )=
n
N
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2009
Example: If a card is drawn from an ordinary deck, find the probability that it is a
heart.
Solution: Let H be the event of obtaining a heart
P (H )=
N= 52 cards
13 1
=
52 4
n= number of hearts
Therefore, the probability that the card is heart, is
1
4 .
Theorems on Probabilities of Events

Theorem: The Additive Rule
If A and B are two events, then
P ( A B )=P ( A ) + P ( B )P( A B) .
Example:
1. The probability that a student passes History is
passes English is
2
3 , and the probability that he
4
9 . If the probability of passing at least one course is
what is the probability that he will pass both courses?

Solution:
P ( H ) =probability of passing History=
P ( E )= probability of passing English=
2
3
4
9
P ( H E ) =probability of passing at least one subject=
P ( H E ) =probability of passing both subjects=?
46
4
5
4
5 ,
2009
P ( H E ) =P ( H ) + P ( E )P ( H E)
2 4 4
+
3 9 5
P (H E)=
14
45
2. What is the probability of drawing a red or a face card if a card is selected from an
ordinary deck of 52 cards?
Solution:
P ( R )= probability of obtaining a card=
26
52
P ( F )= probability of obtaining a face card=
12
52
P ( R F )= probability of obtaining a at the same time facecard=
6
52
P ( R F )= probability of obtaining a face card=?

P ( R F )=P ( R ) + P ( F )P ( R F )
P ( R F )=
26 12 6
+
52 52 52
32 16 8

52 26 13
Therefore, the probability of obtaining a red or face card is
8
13 .
Corollary 1:
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then
P ( A B )=P ( A ) + P ( B ) .
Corollary 2:
If
A 1, A 2 , A 3 , .. , A n
are mutually exclusive, then
P ( A 1 A2 A 3 .. An ) =P ( A 1 ) + P ( A 2 ) + P ( A 3 ) ++ P ( A n )=P ( S )=1
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2009
Theorem:
If A and
Ac
are complementary events, then
P ( A )+ P ( A c )=1
Exercises:
1. What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of dice is tossed?
2. What is the probability of drawing an Ace or a King, if a card is randomly chosen
from a deck of 52 cards?
3. The probability of passing History is
2
3 , what is the probability of failing the
subject?
Conditional Probability
Definition: The probability of an event B occurring when it is known that some event A
has occurred is called a conditional probability. It is defined by:
P ( B| A )=
P ( A B)
if P( A)> 0.
P( A)
P ( B| A )read as probability of B given A

Example: A card is drawn from a standard deck. Suppose we are told that the card picked
is spade. What is the probability that the card drawn is the ace of spades?
Solution:
P ( S )= probability of drawing a Spade=

P ( A )= probability of drawing an Ace=
13
52
4
52
P ( A|S )= probability of drawing an Ace given that thecard is Spade=?

Thus,
P ( A|S )=
P( A S ) 1/52
1
=
=
P(S)
13 /52 13
Probability of Independent Events
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2009
Definition: Two events are said to be independent if any one of the following conditions
are satisfied:
P(A
|B )=P ( A ) if P ( B ) >0
P ( B| A )=P ( B ) if P ( A ) >0
P ( A B ) =P ( A ) P ( B )
Otherwise, the events are said to be dependent.

Example: The probability that Jack will correctly answer the toughest question in an exam
is
1
4 . The probability that Rose will correctly answer the same question is
4
5 . Find
the probability that both will answer the question correctly, assuming that they do not
copy from each other.
Solution:
P ( J )= probability that Jack will correctly answer the toughest question is

P ( R )= probability that Rose will answer the toughest question is
1
4
4
5
*events are said to be independent since they do not copy from each other.
1 4 4 1
P ( J R ) =P ( J ) P ( R )= =
4 5 20 5
Therefore, the probability that Jack and Rose will both correctly answer the toughest
question is
1
5 .
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 5.3
1. If two dice are thrown and the sum of dots are noted, what is the probability
that the sum is:
a. 5
b. 11 or 8
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2009
c. At least 10
d. 5 and 6
e. Even?
2. If a card is drawn at random from a deck of 52 cards, what is the probability
that the card is :
a. Red
b. Even
c. Face card
d. Red or face
e. Red and face?
3. An organization sponsored a raffle where they were to sell all 500 tickets
sequentially numbered from 001 to 500. Find the probability that the
winning number
a. Has the same three digits
b. Ends in 3
c. Contain the digits 1,2,3 (not necessarily in that order)
4. The geographical distribution of hometown of 80 students of CvSU-CBE is
given as: 50 from Luzon, 10 from Visayas, and 20 from Mindanao. Suppose
three students are selected. Find the probability that
a. They all come from any of the three places
b. No student comes from Luzon and Mindanao
5. A poker hand consists of 5 cards, the order is conventionally disregarded
from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of having
a. 3 Kings and 2 Queens
b. 4 red cards and 1 black card
c. 4 aces and a Jack
6. The probability that a student will pass Statistics is 0.50 and the probability
that he will pass English is 0.80. The probability that he will pass both is
0.60. What is the probability that the student will pass at least one of the
two subjects?
7. What is the probability that an even number or a 3 will appear when a fair
die is tossed?
8. The probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.73. What is the probability that
it will be sunny tomorrow?
9. A box contains 6 red and 4 black balls. Two balls from the box are drawn one
at a time without replacement. What is the probability that the second ball
is red if it is known that the first is red?
10. The balls used in selecting the numbers for bingo carry the numbers
1,2,3,75. If one of the balls is selected at random, what is the probability
that it is a number less than or equal to 15?
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2009
11. If three of twenty tires are defective and four of them are randomly
chosen for inspection, what is the probability that one of the defective tires
will be included?
12. If an airlines records show that 468 of 600 of its jets from San Francisco
to Phoenix arrived on time, what is the probability that any one of the
airlines jets from San Francisco to Phoenix will not arrive on time?
13. Harry Potter is faced with the problem of opening a safe with 10 buttons
numbered from 0 to 9 without using his magic. The safe can be opened by
pressing three buttons, not necessarily distinct, in correct order.
a. What is the probability that Harry will hit the right combination?
b. Realizing that the probability of getting the right combination is too small
Harry thought of a way of swinging the odds in his favor. He pulverized
the lead from a pencil and blew the powder onto the buttons, revealing
three buttons that have been pressed many times before. What is the
probability that Harry will be able to open the safe in a single trial?
14. A bowl contains 15 red beads, 30 white beads, 20 blue beads, and 7 black
beads. If one of the beads is drawn at random, what are the probabilities
that it will be
a. Red beads
b. White or blue beads
c. Black beads
d. Neither white nor black
15. If the probabilities are respectively, 0.92, 0.33 and 0.29 that a person
vacationing in Boracay, will visit Palawan, or both, what is the probability
that a person vacationing there will visit at least one of the two areas?
16. The probabilities that a student will get an A or a B or a C in a Math
course is 0.09, 0.15, and 0.53. What is the probability that a student will get
a grade lower than C?
17. If the probability of passing Statistics is 0.65, what is the probability of
failing the subject?
18. If a coin is tossed twice, what is the probability of getting a head on the
second toss if the outcome on the first toss is also a head?
19. A jeepney driver buys spare part X and Y for his vehicle at a bargain shop.
The probability that X is defective is 0.10 and the probability that Y is
defective is 0.05. Determine the following probabilities:
a. Both parts are defective
b. Both parts are good
c. X is good, Y is defective
20. A box contains 12 black balls and 8 white balls. Two balls are drawn in
succession.
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2009
a. Find the following probabilities if the balls are drawn with replacement:
a.1. A black ball is drawn then another black ball is drawn.
a.2 A black, then a white ball is drawn.
a.3 Two white balls are drawn.
a.4 Both balls are of the same color.
b. Answer the questions in (a) if the balls are drawn without replacement.
CHAPTER 6:
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Objectives:
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2009
a. List down the possible values of random variables;

b. Find the probability distribution of a random variable;
c. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the probability of events and
its distribution; and,
d. Use probability to analyze and understand real world situations and
problems.
6.1 Concept of a Random Variable
A function whose value is a real number determined by each element in the
sample space is called a random variable. It is a quantity resulting from an experiment
that, by chance, can assume different values.
The term random variable is used to describe the value that corresponds to the
outcome from a given experiment.
A capital letter is used to denote a random variable.
A random variable may be a continuous random variable or a discrete random
variable.
Example:
1. A coin is tossed three times. List down the elements of the sample space. List down
the possible values of a random variable Y, the number of heads that fall.
Solution:
S = { HHH , HHT , HTH ,THH , HTT ,THT , TTH ,TTT }
Y =number of heads={ 0,1,2,3 }

2. Two balls are drawn in succession without replacement from an urn containing 4
red balls and 3 black balls. List down the elements of the sample space and
possible values of a random variable X, the number of red balls.
Solution:
S= { RR , BB , RB, BR }
X ={ 0,1,2 }
3. Let W be a random variable giving the number of heads minus the number of tails
in three tosses of a coin. List the elements of a sample space for the three tosses
of the coin and to each sample point assign a value for the random variable W.
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2009
Solution:
W = {3,1,1,3 }
If a sample space contains a finite number of possibilities or an unending sequence
with as many elements as there are whole numbers, it is called a discrete sample space.
A random variable defined over a discrete sample space is called discrete random
variable.
If a sample space contains an infinite number of possibilities equal to the number
of points on a line segment, it is called continuous sample space. A random variable
defined over a continuous sample space is called continuous random variable.
Example: Determine the following whether discrete or continuous random variable.
1. A pair of dice is rolled and X is a random variable that represents the sum of the
spots on the two dice.
2. An economist is interested in the random variable C, the number of persons filing
for employment at the Labor Office.
3. The proprietor of a hamburger franchise is interested in the volume of Coke sold
per day at her franchise.
4. A businessman is interested in the random variable Q, the total overtime
accumulated by his employees each week.
5. An experiment consists of observing the random variable L, where L is the length
of time that it takes for IT student to finish a major examination.
Discrete and Continuous Probability Distribution
A probability distribution is a listing of all the outcomes of an experiment and the
probability associated with each outcome. It has the following characteristics:
1. The probability of a particular outcome is between 0 and 1, inclusive.
2. The sum of the probabilities of all mutually exclusive outcomes is 1.
Definition: The table or formula listing of all the possible values that a random variable
can take on, along with the associated probabilities, is called discrete probability
distribution.
Note: The probabilities associated with all possible values of a discrete random variable
must sum to 1.
Example:
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2009
1. A coin is tossed three times. List down the elements of the sample space. List down
the possible values of a random variable Y, the number of heads that fall.
Solution:
Y =number of heads={ 0,1,2,3 }

The discrete probability distribution of the random variable Y is:
Note:
P (Y =0 ) =
1
8
P (Y =1 )=
3
8
P (Y =2 )=
3
8
P (Y =3 )=
1
8
1 3 3 1
+ + + =1
8 8 8 8
2. Let W be a random variable giving the number of heads minus the number of tails
in three tosses of a coin. List the elements of a sample space for the three tosses
of the coin and to each sample point assign a value for the random variable W.
Solution:
W = {3,1,1,3 }
The discrete probability distribution of the random variable W is:
P (W =3 )=
1
8
P (W =1 )=
3
8
55
Note:
2009
P (W =1 )=
3
8
P (W =3 ) =
1
8
1 3 3 1
+ + + =1
8 8 8 8
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 6.1
1. Construct the probability distribution of the sum of the numbers when a pair
of dice is tossed.
DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
An experiment often consists of repeated trials, each with two possible
outcomes, which may be labeled success or failure. This is true in flipping of a
coin 5 times, where each trial may result in a head or tail. We may choose to
define either outcome as a success. It is also true if 5 cards are drawn in
succession from an ordinary deck and each trial is labeled success or failure,
depending on whether the card is red or black. Experiments of this type are
known as binomial experiments.
A binomial experiment is one that possesses the following properties:
1. The experiment consists of n repeated trials.
2. Each trial results in an outcome that may be classified as a success or a failure.
3. The probability of a success, denoted by p, remains constant from trial to trial.
4. The repeated trials are independent.
DEFINITION:
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2009
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
If a binomial trial can result in a success with probability p and a failure with
probability q= 1-p, then the probability distribution of the binomial random
variable X, the number of successes in n independent trials is
n

b(x; n, p) x p x qn x
for x=0,1,2,.,n.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. Find the probability of obtaining exactly three 2s if an ordinary die is tossed
5 times.
Solution:
1
5
From the given problem, n = 5, x = 3, p= 6 , q= 6
1
1 3 5 2
(
b(3;5; 6 ) = 5C3 6 ) ( 6 ) =
0.032
Therefore, the probability of obtaining exactly three 2s when a die is tossed

5 times is 0.032.
2. The probability that a patient recovers from a rare blood disease is 0.4. If 15
people are known to have contracted this disease, what is the probability
that (a) at least 10 survive ;(b) from 3-8 survive; and (c) exactly 5 survive?
Given: n=15, p=0.4,q=0.6
Solution:
P ( X 10 ) =P ( X =10 ) + P ( X=11 ) + P ( X=12 ) + P ( X=13 )+ P ( X =14 )+ P ( X =15 )
a.
15C 10(0.4)10 (0.6)5 +15 C 11( 0.4)11 (0.6)4 +15 C 12(0.4)12 (0.6)3 +15 C 13(0.4)13( 0.6)2+15 C 14 ( 0.4
= 0.034
Therefore, the probability that at least 10 people will survive is 0.034.
57

b.
2009
P (3 X 8 )=P ( X =3 ) + P ( X=4 ) + P ( X =5 ) + P ( X=6 )+ P ( X =7 ) + P( X=8)
15C 3(0.4)3 (0.6)12 +15 C 4 ( 0.4 )4 (0.6)11 +15 C 5(0.4)5 ( 0.6)10 +15 C 6 (0.4)6 (0.6)9 +15 C 7( 0.
0.88
Thus, the probability that from 3 to 8 patients will survive is 0.88.
c.
P ( X=5 ) =15C 5(0.4)5 (0.6)10=0.19

Thus, the probability that exactly 5 patients will survive is 0.19.
POISSON DISTRIBUTION
Experiments yielding numerical values of a random variable X, the number
of outcomes occurring during a given time interval or in a specified region, are
often called Poisson experiments. The given time interval may be of any
length, such as a minute, a day, a week, a month, or even a year. Hence a Poisson
experiment might generate observations for the random variable X representing
the number of telephone calls per hour received by an office, or the number of
days school is closed due to snow during winter. The specified region could be a
line segment, an area, a volume, or perhaps a piece of material. In this case X
might represent the number of typing errors per page, or the number of bacteria
in a given culture.
A Poisson experiment is one that possesses the following properties:
1. The number of outcomes occurring in one time interval or specified region is
independent of the number that occur in any other disjoint time interval or
region of space.
2. The probability that a single outcome will occur during a very short time
interval or in a small region is proportional to the length of the time interval or
the size of the region and does not depend on the number of outcomes
occurring outside this time interval or region.
3. The probability that more than one outcome will occur in such a short time
interval or fall in such a small region is negligible.
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2009
The number X of outcomes occurring in a Poisson experiment is called a

Poisson random variable and its probability distribution is called the Poisson
distribution. Since its probabilities depend only on , the average number of

outcomes occurring in the given time interval or specified region, we shall denote
p(x; )
them by a symbol
DEFINITION:
POISSON DISTRIBUTION
The probability distribution of the Poisson random variable X, representing
the number of outcomes occurring in a given time interval or specified region, is
p x;
e x
x!
for x = 0,1,2,..,
Where is the average number of outcomes occurring in the given time interval or
specified region and e=2.71828.
EXAMPLE:
1. The average number of days school is closed due to snow during the winter
in a certain city in the eastern part of United States is 4. What is the
probability that the schools in this city will close for 6 days during a winter?
Solution:
Given: =4, X =6
P ( X=6 )=
e4 46
=0.10
6!
Thus, the probability that the schools in the United States will close in 6
days due to winter, is 0.10.
2. The average number of field mice per acre in a 5-acre wheat field is
estimated to be 10. Find the probability that a given acre contains 12 mice.
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2009
Solution:
Given:
10
P ( X=12 )=
=10, X=12
12
10
=0.095
12!
Therefore, the probability that a 5-acre wheat field contains 12 mice is 0.095.
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 6.1.1
1. A baseball players batting average is 0.250. What is the probability that he
gets exactly 1 hit in his next 5 times at bat?
2. A multiple-choice quiz has 15 questions, each with 4 possible answers of
which only 1 is the correct answer. What is the probability that sheer
guesswork yields from 5 -10 correct answers?
3. The probability that a patient recovers from a delicate heart operation is
0.9. What is the probability that exactly 5 of the next 7 patients having this
operation survive?
4. A study conducted at George Washington University and the National
Institute of Health examined national attitudes about tranquilizers. The
study revealed that approximately 70% believe that tranquilizers dont
really cure anything, they, they just cover up the real trouble. According to
this study, what is the probability that at least 3 of the next 5 people
selected at random will be that tranquilizers actually do cure the problem
rather than just cover it up?
5. On the average a certain intersection results in 3 traffic accidents per
month. What is the probability that in any given month at this intersection
(a) exactly 5 accidents will occur? (b) less than 3 accidents will occur?
6. A secretary makes 2 errors per page on the average. What is the probability
that on the next page she makes (a) 4 or more errors? (b) no error?
7. A certain area of the eastern United States is, on the average, hit by 6
hurricanes a year. Find the probability that in a given year this area will be
hit by (a) fewer than 4 hurricanes; (b) anywhere from 6 to 8 hurricanes.
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6.2
-3
-2
-1
THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION AND ITS APPLICATION
DEFINITION: A continuous random variable X is said to be normally distributed if

its density function is given by:
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2009
2
1
f ( x )=
e
2
< x <
for
and
for
constants
and
where
< < , >0e=2.71828 =3.14159627
Notation: If X follows the above distribution, we write
X N ( , 2) .
The graph of the normal distribution is called normal curve.

Properties of the normal curve:
1. The curve is bell-shaped and symmetric about a vertical axis through the
mean .
2. The normal curve approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically as we
proceed in either direction away from the mean.
3. The total area under the curve and above the horizontal axis is equal to 1.
DEFINITION: The distribution of a normal random variable with mean zero and
standard deviation equal to 1is called a standard normal distribution.
If
X N ( , 2 ) , then X can be transformed into a standard normal random
variable through the following transformation:

Z=
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2009
If X is between the values
X 1 X 2
, the random variable Z will fall
between the corresponding values:

Z 1=
X 1
X
Z 2= 2
P ( X 1 < X < X 2 )=P(z 1 <Z < Z 2)
Therefore,
Examples:
1. Let Z be a standard normal random variable. That is,
Z N (0,1) . Find the
following probabilities: (see the z-table for the probabilities)

a.
P ( Z <1.64 )=0.0505
b.
P ( Z >0.15 )=1P ( Z<0.15 )

10.4404=0.5596
c.
P ( Z <0.08 )=0.5319
d.
P (1.34< Z <1.58 )=P ( Z< 1.58 )P ( Z <1.34 )

0.94290.0901=0.8528
2. Let Z be a standard normal random variable. That is

value of a.
a.
P ( Z <a ) =0.8413
a=1.00
63
Z N (0,1) . Find the
b.
2009
P ( Z >a ) =0.0071
1P ( Z <a )=0.0071
10.0071=P ( Z< a )
0.9929=P ( Z< a )
a=2.45
c.
P ( a< z< 1.52 )=0.5550

P ( Z <1.52 )P ( Z <a )=0.5550
P ( Z <1.52 )0.5550=P ( Z <a )
0.93570.5550=P ( Z < a )
0.3807=P ( Z< a )
a=0.30
3. Let X be a normal random variable with
=5, =4 . Find the following
probabilities:
a.
P( X <3)
b.
P(X >2.5)
Solution:
Given:
a.
=5, 2=4
P( X <3)
=2
X is a normal random variable

64
c.
P(7.2< X <7.5)
Z=
2009
X 35 2
=
= =1
2
2
P ( Z <1.00 )=0.1587
Therefore, the
b.
P ( X <3 )=0.1587
P ( X >2.5 )
Z=
2.55
=1.25
2
P ( Z >1.25 )=1P ( Z <1.25 )

10.1056=0.8944
Therefore, the
c.
P ( X >2.5 )=0.8944
P (7.2< X <7.5 )
Z 1=
7.25
7.55
=1.10Z2 =
=1.25
2
2
P (1.10< Z <1.25 )=P ( Z<1.25 )P ( Z <1.10 )

0.89440.8643=0.0301
Therefore, the
P (7.2< X <7.5 )=0.0301
4. Given a test with a mean of 84 and a standard deviation of 12.
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2009
a. What is the probability of an individual obtaining a score of 100 or above

in this test?
b. What score includes 50% of all the individuals who took the test?
c. If 654 students took the examination, then how many students got a
score below 60?
Solution:
a.
Given: =84, =12
P ( X 100 )
Z=
10084
=1.33
12
P ( Z 1.33 )=1P ( Z <1.33 )

10.9082=0.0918
Therefore, the probability of an individual obtaining a score of 100 or
above on this test is 0.0918 or 9.18%.
b. In notation form, the statement is equivalent to:
P ( X < X 0) =50 =0.50
Finding the corresponding z-score of the probability 0.50, z = 0.00
From the transformation formula,
Z=
X
; X is unknown
X =Z +
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2009
X =( 0.00 ) (12 ) + 84=84

Therefore, the score that includes 50% of those who took the exam is 84.
c. Given: =84, =12, N= 654
P ( X <60 )
Z=
6084
=2.00
12
P ( Z <2.00 )=0.0228
The number of students who got a score lower than 60 is equal to the
product of the probability and the total number of students.
( 0.0228 ) ( 654 )=14.9115
Therefore , out of 654 students who took the examination ,15 students got score below 60.
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2009
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 6.2
1. Let Z be a standard normal variable. Find the following probabilities:
a.
P ( Z <1.96 )
b.
P ( Z >1.23 )
c.
P ( Z >0.15 )
d.
P (1.34< Z <0.00 )
2. Given a normal distribution with = 82 and
2=25,
find the probability
that X assumes a value

a. Less than 78
b. More than 90
c. Between 75 and 80
3. The mean weight of 500 male students at a certain college is 151 pounds.
And the standard deviation is 15 pounds. Assume that the weights are
normally distributed.
a. How many students weigh between 120 and 155 pounds?
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected male student weighs
less than 128 pounds?
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CHAPTER 7:
ESTIMATION
Objectives:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the basic concepts of
estimation;
2. Compute and interpret the estimates of the mean, variance and standard
deviation; and
3. Relate knowledge of estimation to real life situations.
Basic Concepts of Estimation
Definition of terms:
Estimator- any statistic whose value is used to estimate an unknown parameter.
Estimate- a realized value of an estimator.
Point Estimate- a single value used to represent the parameter of interest.
Interval Estimator- a rule that tells us how to calculate two numbers based on a
sample data, forming an interval within which the parameter is expected to lie.
The pair of numbers (a,b) is called interval estimate or confidence interval.
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Level of Confidence or confidence coefficient- the degree of certainty to an
interval estimate for the unknown parameter
( 1 ) .
Point Estimation of the mean and the Standard Deviation

A statistic is used to estimate parameters. The following are used to
estimate the parameters given below:
Parameter
Statistic
n
Xi
Population mean ()
x = i=1
n
X ix
/(n1)
Population Standard Deviation ()
i=1
s=
Interval Estimation of the Mean for a Single Population

Confidence Interval for , is known
If
x is the mean of a random sample of size n from a population with
known variance
2 , a ( 1 ) x 100 confidence interval for is given by
<
2 n
x Z
70
x + Z
2
2009
Note:
For small samples selected from nonnormal populations, we cannot expect our
degree of confidence to be accurate. However, for small samples of size n 30 ,
regardless of the shape of most population, sampling theory guarantees good
results.
To compute a
( 1 ) x 100
confidence interval for , it was assumed that
known. Since this is generally not the case,
is
shall be estimated by s, provided
n 30.
Example:
A survey of the delivery time of 100 orders worth P20,000 from WILLIAMS
PIZZA yielded a mean of 55 minutes with a standard deviation of 12 minutes.
Assuming that the delivery time follow a normal distribution, construct a 95%
confidence interval for the true mean.
Solution:
Given:
x =55 minutes,
12 minutes, n = 100 orders,
<
2 n
x Z
x + Z
2
Substituting the values in the formula:
55 ( 1.96 ) (
12
12
) <
55+ ( 1.96 ) (
)
100
100
we obtained:
552.352< <55+2.352
52.648<< 57.352
71
= 5%
2009
Conclusion: The WILLIAMS PIZZA is 95% confident that the true mean delivery
time is between 52.648 minutes and 57.352 minutes.
Error in Estimating the Population Mean

x
If
is used as an estimate of , we can be
error will not exceed
( 1 ) x 100
confident that the
2 n
Example:
The heights of a random sample of 50 college students showed a mean of
174.5 cm and a standard deviation of 6.9 cm. What can we assert with 98%
confidence about the possible size of our error if we estimate the mean height of
all college students to be 174.5?
Solution:
Given:
x = 174.5 cm,
= 6.9 cm, n= 50 students,
= 2%
The possible size of the error can be obtained by using

e=Z
2
Substituting the values in the formula:

e=Z .02 ( 6.9 ) ( 50 )=( 2.33 ) ( 0.9758 )=2.27 cm
2
Conclusion: We can therefore conclude that we are 98% confident that the
sample mean differs from the true mean height by 2.27 cm.
Sample Size for Estimating the Population Mean
72
If
2009
is used as an estimate of , we can be
( 1 ) x 100
confident that the
error will not exceed a specified amount e when the sample size is
n=( Z
2
2
) .
e
Example:
The monthly wage of new employees at a certain broadcasting company is
said to follow a normal distribution with a standard deviation of P1,000. How large
sample would be needed to be 99% confident that the sample mean will be within
P300 of the true mean.
Solution:
=P1,000 ,
Given:
e=P 300 ,
= 1%
( )
n= Z
2
by substitution:
2
2
1000
n= Z .01 (
) = [ ( 2.575 ) (3.33) ] =73.53 74
300
2
Conclusion: Therefore we can conclude that the sample size should be 74

employees to be 99% confident that the sample mean will be within P300 of the
true mean wage.
Small-Sample Confidence Interval for ,

If
is unknown
and s are the mean and standard deviation respectively, of a random
sample of size
variance
2 ,
n<30
from an approximate normal population with unknown
( 1 ) x 100
confidence interval for is given by
73
2009
s
s
< < x +t
n
2 n
x t
2
where
t
2
is the t value with
v =n1
degrees of freedom.
Note: Values for t are found in the Table of T-values

Example:
A random sample of 8 cigarettes of a certain brand has average nicotine
content of 3.6 milligrams and a standard deviation of 0.9 milligrams. Construct a
99% confidence interval for the true average nicotine content of this particular
brand of cigarettes, assuming an approximate normal distribution.
Solution:
Given:
x =3.6 milligrams ,
x t
2
s
s
< < x +t
n
2 n
0.9 milligrams, n = 8 cigarettes,
with
= 1%
v =n1 degrees of freedom
by substitution:
3.6 ( 3.50 ) (
0.9
0.9
) < <3.6+ ( 3.50 ) (
)
8
8
we obtained:
3.60.3182< <3.6+ 0.3182
3.2812<<3.9182
Conclusion: Therefore we can conclude that we are 99% confident that the true
average nicotine content of a certain brand of cigarette is within 3.2818
milligrams and 3.9182 milligrams.
74
2009
Name:_________________________________
Score:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Exercise 7.
1. An electrical firm manufactures light bulbs that have a length of life that is
approximately normally distributed, with a standard deviation of 40 hours. If
a random sample of 30 bulbs has an average life of 780 hours, find a 96%
confidence interval for the population mean of all bulbs produced by this
firm. How large a sample is needed if we wish to be 96% confident that our
sample mean will be within 10 hours of the true mean?
2. The contents of 7 similar containers of sulfuric acid are 9.8, 10.2, 10.4, 9.8,
10.0, 10.2 and 9.6 liters. Find a 95% confidence interval for the mean
content of all such containers, assuming an approximate normal distribution
for container contents.
75
2009
3. A random sample of 100 PUJ (Public utility jeep) shows that a jeepney is
driven on the average 24,500 km per year, with a standard deviation of
3,900 km.
a. Construct a 99% confidence interval for the average number of kilometer
a jeepney is driven annually.
b. What can we assert with 99% confidence about the possible size of our
error if we estimate the average number of km driven by jeepney drivers
to be 23,500 km per year?
4. Suppose that the time allotted for commercials on a primetime TV program
is known to have a normal distribution with a standard deviation of 1.5
minutes. A study of 35 showings gave an average commercial time of 10
minutes. Compute for the maximum error. Construct a 95% confidence
interval for the true mean.
5. A random sample of 12 female students in a certain dorm showed an
average weekly expenditure of P750 for snack foods, with a standard
deviation of P175. Construct a 90% confidence interval for the average
amount spent each week on snack foods by female students living in this
dormitory, assuming the expenditures to be approximately normally
distributed.
6. The mean and standard deviation for the quality grade point averages of a
random sample of 28 college seniors are calculated to be 2.6 and 0.3
respectively. Find the 95% confidence interval for the mean of the entire
senior class. How large a sample is required if we want to be 95% confident
that our estimate of is not off by more than 0.05?
7. To estimate the average serving time at a fast food restaurant, a consultant
noted the time taken by 40 counter servers to complete a standard order
(consisting of 2 burgers, 2 large fries and 2 drinks). The servers averaged
78.4 seconds with a standard deviation of 13.2 seconds to complete the
orders. What can the consultant assert with 95% confidence about the
maximum error if he uses x =78.4 seconds as an estimate of the true
average time required to complete this standard order?
8. A company surveyed 4400 college graduates about the lengths of time
required to earn their bachelors degrees. The mean is 5.15 years, and the
standard deviation is 1.68 years. Based on these sample data, construct the
99% confidence interval for the mean time required by all college
graduates.
9. In a time-use study, 20 randomly selected managers were found to spend
an average of 2.4 hours each day on paperwork. The standard deviation of
76
2009
the 20 observations is 1.30 hours. Construct a 95% confidence interval for

the mean time spent on paperwork by managers.
10.
In a study of physical attractiveness and mental disorders 231
subjects were rated for attractiveness, and the resulting sample mean and
standard deviation are 3.94 and 0.75, respectively. Determine the sample
size necessary to estimate the sample mean, assuming you want a 95%
confidence and a margin of error of 0.05.
11.
The number of incorrect answers on a true-false test for a sample of
15 students was recorded as follows: 2, 1, 3, 0, 1, 3, 6, 0, 3, 3, 5, 2, 1, 4, 2.
Estimate the variance.
12.
In a study of the use of hypnosis to relieve pain, sensory ratings were
measured for 16 subjects, with the results given below. Use these sample
data to estimate the mean.
8.8 6.2 7.7 7.4 6.4 6.1 6.8 9.8 8.3 11.9 8.5 5.2
6.1 11.3 6.0 10.6
77

Statistics

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Lecture Notes : Statistics

DEFINITION, NATURES AND IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

DEFINITION OF SOME BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS

The following are terms commonly used in Statistics:

Lecture Notes : Statistics

6. Survey is often conducted to gather opinions or feedbacks about a variety of

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

1.3 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Another common way to classify data is to use four levels of measurement.

Lecture Notes : Statistics

DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Explore the different ways of presenting data;

2.1 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Example of a not simple question:

Lecture Notes : Statistics

FOUR IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN COLLECTING DATA

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Topic of your interest

Title of the survey/mini research

Purpose /objectives of the survey

Importance objectives of the survey

Population and Sample of the study

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Where: n = number of sample/sample size

= population of each strata/stratum

Lecture Notes : Statistics

random. K is called the sampling interval and the reciprocal

4. Cluster Random Sampling

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Lecture Notes : Statistics

6. In conducting research for a psychology course, a student of CvSU-CBE

2.3 Methods of Data Presentation

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Staff Perception of the Leadership Behavior of

2. Quantitative FDT is a frequency distribution table where the data are

Lecture Notes : Statistics

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Lecture Notes : Statistics

2.3.2 Graphical Presentation of data

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Common Types of Graph:

Lecture Notes : Statistics

2. The following are the body weights (in grams)

of 50 rats used in a study of

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Lecture Notes : Statistics

Suppose that a variable X is a variable of interest, and that n measurements

indicate the summation of, thus we can write the

sum of the observations as:

Lecture Notes : Statistics

( ai+ bi +..+ z i )= ai+ bi +..+ z i

B. Write each of the following expressions in summation with appropriate

Lecture Notes : Statistics