Académique Documents
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Lecture Notes
Xiaoping Liu
Department of Electrical Engineering
Lakehead University
ii
Contents
1 Circuit Analysis Using Laplace Transform
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Review of Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Electrical Element Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Analysis of Electrical Network by Laplace Transform
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1
1
2
4
4
6
6
2 Thyristors
2.1 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers . . . . . . .
2.2 Gate-Turn-Off Thyristors . . . . . . . .
2.3 DIAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 TRIAC: Bidirectional Triode Thyristors
2.5 TRIAC-DIAC Applications (Lab 2) . . .
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17
17
19
19
19
20
3 Rectifiers
3.1 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Half-Wave Rectifiers with R Loads . . . . . . .
3.2 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Half-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads . . . . . .
3.3 Single-Phase Controlled Half-Wave Rectifiers with R Loads . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Single-Phase Controlled Half-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads . . .
3.3.2 Freewheeling Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Full-Wave Rectifiers with R Loads . . .
3.3.4 Single-Phase Controlled Full-Wave Rectifiers with R Loads . . . .
3.3.5 Single-Phase Controlled Full-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads . . .
3.4 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Full-Wave Rectifiers with R Loads . . . . . . .
3.5 Three-Phase Controlled Full-Wave Rectifiers with Highly Inductive Loads
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21
21
23
24
26
28
29
30
33
35
38
4 AC Voltage Controllers
4.1 Single-Phase AC Voltage Controllers with R Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
41
5 DC
5.1
5.2
5.3
Choppers
Buck Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boost Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impulse-Commutated Chopper Circuit (for Lab #3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
45
49
52
6 Inverter
6.1 Half-Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Full-Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
55
59
7 DC Drives
7.1 Basic Characteristics of DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Converter Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
63
65
8 AC
8.1
8.2
8.3
69
69
72
73
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Drives
Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage and Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
Chapter 1
Introduction
Example
Consider the RL series circuit shown in Fig. 1.1. Assume that the current through the inductor is iL (0 ) = 1/L
when the switch is open. If the switch is closed at t = 0, then find i(t) for t > 0.
Solution
The current i(t) satisfies the following equation
i(t)R + L
di(t)
=0
dt
(1.1)
This is a first-order differential equation with constant coefficients, which can be solved by substituting i(t) = et and
solving the characteristic equation
R + L = 0
for . is given by
=
R
L
i(t) = Ce L t
C is an integration constant, which can be determined by the initial condition i(0) = iL (0 ) = 1/L, that is, C = 1/L.
Therefore, the current i(t) is
1 R
i(t) = e L t
L
This differential equation can also be solved by using Laplace transform.
1.2
Definition
Let f (t) be a given function defined for t 0. Then, its Laplace transform is defined as
Z
F (s) = L{f (t)} =
est f (t)dt
0
which shows that the function f (t) in time domain is transformed to the function F (s) in s or complex frequency
domain by Laplace transform operation. F (s) and L{f (t)} is called the Laplace transform of f (t), and the original
function f (t) is called the inverse transform or inverse of F (s), denoted by L1 {F (s)}, that is,
f (t) = L1 {F (s)}
Properties
1. Linearity
L{af (t) + bg(t)} = aL{f (t)} + bL{g(t)}
Z
= a
est f (t)dt + b
est g(t)dt
0Z
0
(1.2)
L{eat f (t)} = F (s a)
eat f (t) = L1 {F (s a)}
F (s a)
Z0
(1.3)
e(sa)t f (t)dt
est [eat f (t)]dt
= L{eat f (t)}
3. Transform of Derivatives
L{f (n) (t)} = sn L{f (t)} sn1 f (0) sn2 f 0 (0) sf (n2) (0) f (n1) (0)
Case n = 1
L{f 0 (t)} =
=
Z0
est f 0 (t)dt
est df (t)
(1.4)
3
=
st
e f (t) 0 + s
est f (t)dt
0
d(uv)
= vdu + udv
Z
Z
Z
=
d(uv) = vdu + udv
Z
= uv vdu
uv
Z
(1.5)
udv
Case n = 2
L{f 00 (t)} = sL{f 0 (t)} f 0 (0)
= s[sL{f (t)} f (0)] f 0 (0)
= s2 L{f (t)} sf (0) f 0 (0)
(1.6)
4. Transform of Integral
L
Z
f ( )d
0Z
1
F (s)
s
f ( )d
= L1
F (s)
nR
t
0
f ( )d
= L{f (t)} = L
= sL
Z
= sL
Z0 t
(Z
f ( )d
f ( )d
1
F (s)
s
f ( )d
0
f ( )d
(t)
1(t)
t
t2
2
tn
n!
at
tn at
n! e
sin t
cos t
eat sin t
eat cos t
1
1
s
1
s2
1
s3
1
sn+1
1
s+a
1
(s+a)n+1
s2 + 2
s
s2 + 2
(s+a)2 + 2
s+a
(s+a)2 + 2
0 )
= 1s F (s).
s0
(1.7)
(1.8)
1.3
Differential Equations
= u(t),
y(0) = K1 ,
y (0) = K2
(1.9)
with constant a and b. Here u(t) is the input (driving force and current source or voltage source) applied to the
(mechanical and electrical) system and y(t) is the output (response) of the system. Laplace transform method involves
the following three steps:
1. Taking the transform on both sides of (1.9) gives
0
(1.10)
1
s2 + as + b
If y(0) = y (0) = 0, then (1.10) becomes Y (s) = U (s)Q(s). Thus, Q(s) is the quotient
Q(s) =
L{output}
Y (s)
=
U (s)
L{input}
di(t)
= 0,
dt
i(0) = 1/L
1
1
= LR
Ls + R
s+ L
1.4
1 Rt
e L
L
Partial Fractions
The Solution Y (s) of a subsidiary equation of a differential equation usually comes out as a quotient of two polynomials,
Y (s) =
P (s)
Q(s)
In order to find y(t) by taking the inverse of Y (s), it is better to write Y (s) as a sum of partial fractions. The form
of the partial fractions depends on the types of factors in the product form of Q(s). We often encounter the following
cases.
A2
A1
+
s a1
s a2
Y (s) =
A2
A1
+
s a (s a)2
As + B
As + B
=
[s ( + j)][s ( j)]
(s )2 + 2
A1
A2
A3
2s2 + 15s + 24
=
+
+
s(s + 2)(s + 5)
s
s+2 s+5
Then, multiplying the common denominator s(s + 2)(s + 5) on both sides produces
2s2 + 15s + 24 = A1 (s + 2)(s + 5) + A2 s(s + 5) + A3 s(s + 2)
= A1 (s2 + 7s + 10) + A2 (s2 + 5s) + A3 (s2 + 2s)
= (A1 + A2 + A3 )s2 + (7A1 + 5A2 + 2A3 )s + 10A1
Equating coefficients of like powers of s gives
A1 + A2 + A3
7A1 + 5A2 + 2A3
10A1
= 2
= 15
= 24
s(s + 2)(s + 5)
s
s+2 s+5
Example Find a partial-fraction expansion for the transfer function
10s
(s + 1)(s2 + 4)
Solution Let
10s
A1
A2 s + A3
=
+
2
(s + 1)(s + 4)
s+1
s2 + 4
= 0
= 10
= 0
4 2s
+ 1)(s 1)2
A3
A4
A1 s + A2
4 2s
+
+
=
(s2 + 1)(s 1)2
s2 + 1
s 1 (s 1)2
Then, multiplying the common denominator (s2 + 1)(s 1)2 on both sides produces
4 2s = (A1 s + A2 )(s 1)2 + A3 (s2 + 1)(s 1) + A4 (s2 + 1)
= (A1 s + A2 )(s2 2s + 1) + A3 (s3 s2 + s 1) + A4 (s2 + 1)
= (A1 s3 + A2 s2 2A1 s2 2A2 s + A1 s + A2 ) + A3 (s3 s2 + s 1) + A4 (s2 + 1)
= (A1 + A3 )s3 + (A2 2A1 A3 + A4 )s2 + (2A2 + A1 + A3 )s + A2 A3 + A4
Equating coefficients of like powers of s gives
A1 + A3
A2 2A1 A3 + A4
2A2 + A1 + A3
A2 A3 + A4
= 0
A1
= 0
A4
= 2 A2
= 4
A3
= A3
= A3 1
=1
= 2
+
= 2
(s2 + 1)(s 1)2
s + 1 s 1 (s 1)2
1.5
Resistor
v(t) = Ri(t)
V (s) = RI(s)
Capacitor
i(t) = C
dv(t)
dt
or V (s) =
1
1
I(s) + VC (0)
Cs
s
Inductor
di(t)
V (s) 1
V (s) = LsI(s) LiL (0) or I(s) =
+ iL (0)
dt
Ls
s
The circuit models in both t-domain and s-domain are shown in Fig. 1.2.
v(t) = L
1.6
=
=
Now let
5
s+1
6+s+
8
s
5s
(s + 1)(s2 + 6s + 8)
5s
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 4)
5s
A1
A2
A3
=
+
+
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 4)
s+1 s+2 s+4
5
10/3
5/3
+
1
1
V (s) +
V (s)
R
sL
=
=
=
=
2C
sC + R1 +
s
3
2
3
4
3
1
sL
+ 1s
2s
s2 + 4s + 3
2s
(s + 1)(s + 3)
+
1
1
+3
s+1
s+3
or
1 1.5
1
I(s) 30 + 10 10 s +
= 30 50 103
50 106 s
s
s
20000
3
s
+
=
I(s) 30 +
100
s
s
3
300
300
=
2
(3000s + s + 2000000)
(s + 1000)(s + 2000)
10
11
300
A1
A2
=
+
(s + 1000)(s + 2000)
s + 1000 s + 2000
0.3
0.3
s + 1000 s + 2000
= v0 (0 ) = iL (0 )(2) = (1A)(2) = 2V
iL (0 )
vC (0 )
Then, taking Laplace transform produces the equivalent circuit in s domain in Fig. 1.14.
By writing mesh equations for I1 and I2 , we have
0
4
1
2
2I1 (I1 I2 )
s+1
s
s
2 1
(I2 I1 ) (s + 2)I2 + 1
s s
I1 + I2
s(s
s
s
+ 1)
1 2s 2
(2s + 1)I1 + I2
s s+1
1
1
2
+ 1 + I1 s + 2 +
I2
s
s
s
2+s 1
s2 + 2s + 1
+ I1
I2
s
s
s
1
(2 + s) + I1 (s2 + 2s + 1)I2
s
0 =
=
=
0 =
=
=
that is,
0
0
2s 2
(2s + 1)I1 + I2
s+1
= (2 + s) + I1 (s2 + 2s + 1)I2
(1.11)
12
2s 2
(2s + 1)[(s2 + 2s + 1)I2 (2 + s)] + I2
s+1
that is,
0=
2s 2
+ (2s + 1)(2 + s) [(2s + 1)(s2 + 2s + 1) 1]I2
s+1
=
=
=
=
=
=
2s2
s+1
+ (2s + 1)(2 + s)
(2s + 1)(s2 + 2s + 1) 1
2s2
2
s+1 + 2s + 5s + 2
2s3 + 5s2 + 4s
2s 2 + (s + 1)(2s2 + 5s + 2)
(s + 1)(2s3 + 5s2 + 4s)
2s3 + 7s2 + 9s
(s + 1)(2s3 + 5s2 + 4s)
2s2 + 7s + 9
(s + 1)(2s2 + 5s + 4)
2s2 + 7s + 9
2(s + 1) s2 + 52 s + 2
As a result, the voltage V0 (s) is given by V0 (s) = 2I2 (s), that is,
V0 (s) =
2s2 + 7s + 9
(s + 1) s2 + 52 s + 2
Now we need to do partial-fraction expansion. Note that the second term in the denominator can be factorized as
=
=
6s + 7
8
2 5
s + 1 s + 2s + 2
6s + 7
8
s + 1 s2 + 5 s + 5 2 + 2
2
4
5 2
4
13
14
2
7
s+1
s + 54 + 16
5
6 s+ 4 +7
8
2
s+1
s+ 5 + 7
=
=
30
4
16
s + 54
2 2
s + 54 + 47
8
6
s+1
7
2
4
2
7 s + 5 2 +
7
4
4
!
7
t
= 8e 6e
cos
4
!
2 5t
7
4
+ e
t
sin
4
7
t
54 t
Example
Consider the half-wave rectifier circuit with an inductive R L load, as shown in Fig. 1.15. vi = Vmax sin t =
2V sin t. Find the current i(t) through the load.
Solution
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the diode is forward biased and so current flow commences as
the supply voltage goes positive. The presence of L delays the current change. The current continues to flow at the
end of the positive half cycle because of this inductance. The diode remains on and the load sees the negative supply
voltage until the current decays to zero. This process can be analyzed mathematically as follows.
By writing Kirchhoff voltage equation, we get
vi = VL + VR
that is,
Vmax sin t = L
di(t)
+ Ri(t)
dt
Note that i(0) = 0. Taking the Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation gives
Vmax
= sLI(s) + RI(s)
s2 + 2
Solving for I(s) produces
I(s) =
Let a =
R
L.
(s2
Vmax
Vmax
=
2
2
+ )(R + sL)
L(s + 2 )(s +
R
L)
L(s2
Vmax
Vmax
1
=
2
2
2
+ )(s + a)
L (s + )(s + a)
15
1
As + B
C
= 2
+
(s2 + 2 )(s + a)
(s + 2 ) s + a
= 0
= 0
= 1
The first equation gives C = A and the second gives B = aA. Substituting both C = A and B = aA into the
third equation produces
a2 A 2 A = 1
that is,
A=
1
So, we have C = a2 +
2 and B =
Therefore, I(s) is given by
1
a2 + 2
a
a2 + 2 .
I(s)
=
=
=
=
(
)
1
a
1
Vmax a2 +2 s + a2 +2
a2 + 2
+
L
s2 + 2
(s + a)
Vmax
s
a
1
+
+
L(a2 + 2 ) s2 + 2
s2 + 2
(s + a)
s
a
1
Vmax
2
+ 2
+
2
2
2
2)
s
+
s
+
(s
+
a)
L( R
+
L2
s
a
1
LVmax
+
+
R2 + (L)2 )
s2 + 2
s2 + 2
(s + a)
=
=
=
p
with Z = R2 + (L)2 .
Now let
o
LVmax n
a
at
sin
t
+
e
cos
t
+
R2 + (L)2 )
o
LVmax n a
at
sin
t
cos
t
+
e
R2 + (L)2 )
o
LVmax n a
at
sin
t
cos
t
+
e
Z2
a
sin t cos t = A sin(t )
Then, we have
a
sin t cos t = A sin t cos A cos t sin
L
=
a
R
a2
R2
(L)2 + R2
Z2
=1+
=
=
2
2
2
(L)
(L)
(L)2
16
Hence,
A=
Z
L
LVmax Z
at
sin(t
)
+
e
Z 2 L
L at
Vmax L Z
sin(t ) +
e
Z Z L
Z
Vmax
L at
sin(t ) +
e
Z
Z
=
=
=
Z
L .
Hence
sin =
L
1
=
A
Z
o
R
Vmax n
sin(t ) + sin e L t
Z
Now let us calculate the time at which the current decays to zero. To this end, assume that the current will become
zero at t = , that is,
o
R
Vmax n
sin( ) + sin e L = 0
Z
The solution to this equation has no analytical form, so we have to use the numerical method to solve for .
This differential equation can also be solved as follows:
Let i(t) = if (t) + in (t) where if (t) is force response or steady-state response and in (t) is natural response or
zero-state response.
if (t) is determined by the phasor analysis as
if (t) =
Vmax
vi (t)
=
sin(t )
Z
Z
p
where Z = R2 + (L)2 and = tan1 L
R .
L
t
with = R
.
in (t) is determined by in (t) = Ae
Then, we have
t
Vmax
sin(t ) + Ae
i(t) =
Z
where A is determined from the initial condition i(0) = 0, i.e.
A=
Vmax
sin
Z
Chapter 2
Thyristors
A thyristor is a four-layer seniconductor device of PNPN structure with three PN-junctions. It has three terminals:
anode, cathode, and gate.
There are several members of the thyristor family. The more commonly used thyristors are
1. silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs)
2. gate-turn-off (GTO) thyristors
3. bi-directional triode thyristors (TRIACs)
2.1
Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers
The SCR is a four-layer PNPN semiconductor device. A dc voltage is applied to the SCR across the anode and cathode
through a resistor RA and another dc voltage source is connected to the gate through a switch S and a resistor RG ,
as shown in Fig. 2.1. Assume that the switch is open initially.
In order to see how the SCR works, let us divide the middle PN regions along the dotted line, and model the SCR
by a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor (two transistor model).
S is open initially
In this case, there is no gate current, only small leakage current flows from anode to cathode and no conduction
can take place. The SCR is said to be in the forward blocking or off-state condition, and the leakage current is known
as off-state or forward leakage current ID .
If the anode-to-cathode voltage VAK is increased to a sufficiently large value VBO , the reversed-biased junction will
break. This is known as avalanche break down and VBO is called forward breakdown voltage. A large forward anode
current flows from anode to cathode and the SCR is in a conducting state or on state.
When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the anode, the SCR will be in the reverse blocking state or
off-state and a reverse leakage current would flow through the device. Reverse breakdown will take place if the reverse
voltage reaches reverse breakdown voltage (VRBO ).
S is closed
There is a current iG flowing into the gate, Q2 will conduct and a current from the collector of Q2 to emitter of
Q2 will flow. This is drawn from the base of Q1 which causes Q1 to conduct. Now the main current from Q1 is fed
into the base of Q2 which holds Q2 on. Hence, if the gate current is removed, conduction process continues and the
current iA flows from anode to cathode.
18
CHAPTER 2. THYRISTORS
In the on-state, the voltage drop across the SCR is very small, typically, 1V. The anode current is limited by the
external resistance RL . The anode current must be more than a value known as latching current IL , which is the
minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in the on-state immediately after a SCR has been turned
on and the gate signal has been removed.
Once a SCR conducts, it behaves like a conducting diode and keep on-state until the forward anode current is
reduced below a level known as the holding current IH , which is the minimum anode current to maintain the SCR in
the on-state. IH is in the order of milliamperes and less than IL .
SCR Turn-On
A SCR can be turned on by the following methods.
1. Gate current. If an SCR is forward biased, the injection of gate current by applying positive gate voltage
between the gate and cathode terminals would turn on the SCR. As the gate current is increased, the forward
blocking voltage is decreased.
2. High voltage. If the forward anode-to-cathode voltage is greater than VBO , the SCR will be turned on.
However, this type of turn-on may be destructive and should be avoided.
3. Light. If light is allowed to strike the junctions of a SCR, the elctron-hole pairs will increase; and the SCR may
be turned on. The light-activated thyristors are turned on by allowing light to strike the silicon wafers.
4. Thermals. If the temperature of a SCR is high, the SCR may be turned on. This type of turn-on is normally
avoided because it may cause thermal runaway.
5. dv/dt. The SCR may be turned on by high rate of rise of the anode-to-cathode voltage, which can cause damage
of the SCR and should be avoid.
SCR Turn-Off
A SCR is normally switched on by applying a pulse of gate signal. Once the SCR is turned on and the output
requirements are satisfied, it is usually necessary to turn it off. The turn-off means that the forward conduction of the
SCR has ceased and the reapplication of a positive voltage to the anode will not cause current flow without applying
the gate signal. SCRs can be turned off by reducing the anode current to be lower than their holding currents.
Commutation is the process of turning off a SCR and it normally causes transfer of current flow to other parts of the
circuit. There are many techniques to commutate a SCR. However, these can be broadly classified as two types:
1. Natural commutation
2. Forced commutation
Natural Commutation
If the source (or input) voltage is ac, the SCR current goes through a natural zero, and a reverse voltage appears
across the SCR. The device is then automatically turned off due to the natural behavior of the source voltage. This
is known as natural commutation or line commutation.
The figures 3.5 and 3.6 shows the circuit arrangement for natural commutation and the voltage and current
waveforms with a delay angle .
The delay angle is defined as the angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage and the instant the SCR
is fired. Note that a train of gate current pulses is applied to the gate terminal. The SCR is triggered and turned on
by the gate current pulses whenever the voltage across anode and cathode is positive. On the other hand, the SCR is
switched off whenever the applied voltage goes negative.
The natural commutation is applied in ac voltage controllers, phase-controllerd rectifier, and cycloconverters.
Forced Commutation
In circuits where the signal to be controlled will never have a negative period, the SCR must be switched off by
using an external circuit, which is known as commutation circuit. This is achieved by diverting the anode current flow.
This technique is called forced commutation and normally applied in dc-dc converters (choppers) and dc-ac converters
(inverters).
The circuit for the forced commutation is given in fig. 2.2.
When T1 is fired, the load R1 is connected to the supply voltage Vs , and at the same time the capacitor C is
charged to Vs through the other load with R2 . When T2 is fired, the capacitor is then placed across T1 and the load
R2 is connected to the supply voltage Vs . T1 is reverse biased and is turned off. Once T1 is switched off, the capacitor
voltage is reversed to Vs through R1 , T2, and the supply. If T1 is fired again, SCR2 is turned off and the cycle is
repeated. Normally, the two SCRs conduct with equal time intervals.
19
dvc (t)
+ vc (t)
dt
vc (t) = Vs 2Vs e RC
(b) T2 is fired at t = t2 . Redefining the time origin at t = t2 , vc (t) satisfies
vs (t) = Ri(t) vc (t) = RC
dvc (t)
+ vc (t),
dt
vC (0) = Vs
vc (t) = Vs + 2Vs e RC
2.2
Gate-Turn-Off Thyristors
2.3
DIAC
A DIAC is a device containing five semiconductor layers (PNPNP) that behaves like two PN diodes connected back to
back. It can conduct in either direction once the breakover voltage is exceeded. It turns on when the applied voltage
in either direction exceeds VBO . Once it is turned on, a DIAC remains on until its current falls below IH .
The name DIAC is derived from the word diode with AC applications.
2.4
A TRIAC is a device that behaves like two SCRs connected back to back with a common gate lead. It can conduct in
either direction once its breakover voltage is exceeded. The breakover voltage in a TRIAC decreases with increasing
gate current in just the same manner as it does in an SCR, except that a TRIAC responds to either positive or negative
pulses at its gate. Once it is turned on, a TRIAC remains on until its current falls below IH .
TRI implies three terminal device and AC implies AC application.
Because a single TRIAC can conduct in both directions, it can replace a more complex pair of back-to-back SCRs
in many AC control circuits. However, TRIACs generally switch more slowly then SCRs, and are available only at
lower power ratings. As a result, their use is largely restricted to low- to medium-power applications in 50Hz or 60Hz
circuits, such as light dimmer circuits.
20
CHAPTER 2. THYRISTORS
2.5
Although DIACs can be used as the main power switch device, they are merely always used in the gate circuit of the
TRIAC circuit. Since VBO is accurately known, it can provide an accurate firing (Triggering) voltage to the TRIAC.
The circuit for light dimmer control will be given in fig. 2.3. An adjustable resistance R, together with a capacitor
C, makes a single-element phase shift network. When the voltage across C reaches VBO of the DIAC, the DIAC is
turned on and C is discharged through the DIAC and TRIAC gate. The discharging current triggers the TRIAC into
the conduction mode for the remainder of that half cycle. Triggering is in the 1st quadrant and 3rd quadrant modes
of the circuit. This circuit has many small range applications, such as light dimmer control, heater and fan speed
control.
vC (t) satisfies the following differential equation
vs (t) = RC
dvC (t)
+ vC (t)
dt
Vm C
sin(t )
1 + 2 C 2 R2
1
with = tan1 [ RC
]. vCn (t) satisfies
0 = RC
dvC (t)
+ vC (t)
dt
which has a solution of the form vCn (t) = Ae RC with A determined by vC (0) = 0, that is,
0=
Vm C
sin() + A
1 + 2 C 2 R2
So
A=
Therefore, we get
vCf (t) =
Vm C
sin()
1 + 2 C 2 R2
t
Vm C
sin(t ) + sin e RC
1 + 2 C 2 R2
Chapter 3
Rectifiers
A rectifier is used to convert AC voltages to DC voltages. It is a type of AC-DC converter. Depending on the source
voltages, the rectifiers are classified into single-phase and three phase. Depending on whether the output voltages can
be adjusted or not, the rectifiers are classified into uncontrolled and controlled.
3.1
Positive half-cycle: D is forward biased and conducts. The voltage across D is zero and the output voltage is the
same as the source voltage.
Negative half-cycle: D is reverse biased and turns off, making the current zero. The output voltage is zero and
the voltage across the diode is the same as the source voltage.
vo (t)
vD (t)
vs (t) = Vm sin t
0
0 t
t 2
0
vs (t) = Vm sin t
0 t
t 2
Z
1
=
Vm sin td(t)
2 0
Vm
[cos t]0
=
2
Vm
=
Vo
R.
Vrms
s
s
1
2
Vm2
2
1 cos 2t
d(t)
2
0
s
1
Vm2
=
t sin 2t
4
2
0
=
Vm
2
22
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
vo,io,is
vD
23
v ,i ,i
s o s
2+
2+
2+
2+
VD
3.2
Vrms Irms
Pac
=
=
S
Vs,rms Is,rms
Vm
2 Irms
V
m Irms
2
2
2
As the source voltage goes through zero, becoming positive, the diode becomes forward biased. The current flow in
the circuit satisfies
di(t)
= vs (t) = Vm sin t, i(0) = 0
Ri(t) + L
dt
The solution to the above equation is
i(t) =
i
t
Vm h
sin(t ) + sin e
Z
p
and =
where Z = R2 + (L)2 , = tan1 L
R
It is important to note the following facts:
L
R.
24
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
2. The point when the diode turns off is when the current i(t) reaches zero. The first positive value of t that
results in zero current is called the extinction angle, , which can be determined by
i(/) =
or
Vm h
sin( ) + sin e = 0
Z
sin( ) + sin e = 0
There is no closed-form solution for , and some numerical method is required to solve the equation above.
3. The inductor voltage is negative when the current is decreasing (vL (t) = L di(t)
dt ).
3.3
The output voltage of an uncontrolled rectifier is fixed if the source and load parameters are established. Many
applications, such as DC motor drives, need variable DC voltages. One way to control the output voltages of rectifiers
is to replace diodes with SCRs. The rectifiers built with SCRs are called controlled rectifiers.
Two conditions must be met before an SCR can conduct: (1) the SCR must be forward biased and (2) a current
must be applied to the gate of the SCR.
Unlike the diode, the SCR will not begin to conduct as soon as the source becomes positive. Conduction is delayed
until a gate current is applied, which is the basis for using the SCR as a means of control. Once the SCR is conducting,
the gate current can be removed and the SCR remains on until the current goes to zero.
25
vs
2 2+
2 2+
2 2+
vo,io,is
vSCR
[cos t]
=
2
Vm
(1 + cos )
=
2
26
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
Vo
R.
Vrms
s
s
1
2
Vm2
2
1 cos 2t
d(t)
2
s
1
Vm2
t sin 2t
=
4
2
r
Vm
sin 2
=
1 +
2
2
=
PF
Vrms
R .
Pac
Vrms Irms
=
=
S
Vs,rms Is,rms
r
2
sin 2
1 +
2
Vm
2
q
1
sin 2
2 Irms
V
m Irms
2
Note that = 0 gives Vo = Vm and Vrms = V2m , which are the same as those for an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier.
Example: Design a circuit to produce an average voltage of 40V across a 100 load resistor from a 120V rms
60Hz AC source. Determine the power absorbed by the resistance and the power factor.
Solution: If an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier is used, the average voltage would be
120 2
Vm
Vo =
=
= 54V
Therefore, some means of reducing the average resistor voltage to the design specification of 40V must be formed. A
series resistance or inductance could be added to an uncontrolled rectifier, or a controlled rectifier could be used. The
controlled rectifier has the advantage of not altering the load or introducing losses, so it is selected for this design.
In order to get an output voltage of 40V, the required delay angle is
2Vo
2 40
1 = 61.2 = 1.07rad
= cos1
1 = cos1
Vm
120 2
With this angle, the rms output voltage is
r
r
120 2
Vm
sin 2
1.07 sin(2 61.2)
Vrms =
=
+
= 75.6V
1 +
1
2
2
2
2
The load power is
Pac =
2
75.62
Vrms
=
= 57.1W
R
100
2
2
3.3.1
The analysis of this circuit is similar to that of the uncontrolled half-wave rectifier with the RL load.
Now assume that the delay angle is . Then the SCR will be turned on at t = and conduct until the current
in the circuit reaches zero. The current can be found from
Ri(t) + L
di(t)
= vs (t) = Vm sin t,
dt
i(/) = 0
27
v ,i ,i
s o s
2 2+
2+
2 2+
2+
2 2+
2+
2 2+
2+
vo
VSCR
28
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
Figure 3.9: Single-Phase Uncontrolled Half-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads and Freewheeling Diode
Figure 3.10: Single-Phase Controlled Half-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads and Freewheeling Diode
The solution to the above equation is
i(t) =
i
t
Vm h
sin(t ) sin( )e
Z
p
L
where Z = R2 + (L)2 , = tan1 L
.
and = R
R
The extinction angle is defined as the angle at which the current returns to zero, as in the case of the uncontrolled
rectifier, that is,
i
Vm h
i(/) =
sin( ) sin( )e = 0
Z
or
sin( ) sin( )e = 0
There is no closed-form solution for , and some numerical method is required to solve the equation above.
The angle is called the conduction angle, =
3.3.2
Freewheeling Diodes
Recall that output voltages from both uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers with RL loads contain negative parts,
which result in smaller average output voltages. The average output voltages can be increased by making = ,
which is possible by adding freewheeling diodes to the rectifiers as shown in the figures.
Positive half-cycle: D is forward biased and Df
Positive half-cycle: SCR is forward biased and
reverse biased. The output voltage is the same as
is triggered at t = . Df is reverse biased. The
the source voltage.
output voltage is the same as the source voltage.
Negative half-cycle: Df is forward biased and D
Negative half-cycle: Df is forward biased and
reverse biased. The output voltage is zero.
SCR reverse biased. The output voltage is zero.
The output voltage is given by
The output voltage is given by
vs (t) 0 t
vs (t) t
vo (t) =
vo (t) =
0
t 2
0
otherwise
The average output voltage is Vo = Vm , which is the
same as that for the uncontrolled half-wave rectifier
with R load.
m
The average output voltage is Vo = V2
(1 + cos ),
which is the same as that for the controlled half-wave
rectifier with R load.
29
v ,i
o o
vD1,2
D3,4
3.3.3
Positive half-cycle: Both D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 reverse biased. The output voltage is equal
to the source voltage. The voltages across D1 and D2 are zero and the voltages across D3 and D4 are vs (t).
Negative half-cycle: Both D3 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D2 reverse biased. The output voltage is
vs (t). The voltages across D1 and D2 are the source voltages and the voltages across D3 and D4 are zero.
The voltages across the load and diodes are given by
0 t
vs (t) = Vm sin t
vo (t) =
vs (t) = Vm sin t t 2
0
0 t
vD1,2 (t) =
vs (t) = Vm sin t t 2
vs (t) = Vm sin t 0 t
vD3,4 (t) =
0
t 2
The average output voltage is calculated by
Vo
Z
2
Vm sin td(t)
2 0
2Vm
[cos t]0
=
2
2Vm
=
30
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
Vo
R.
Vrms
s
s
2
2
Z
2Vm2 1 cos 2t
d(t)
2 0
2
s
1
Vm2
=
t sin 2t
2
2
0
=
Vm
V
m Irms
2
V
m Irms
2
=1
Example: A full-wave bridge rectifier is supplied by a sinusoidal voltage source of 110V rms. The load resistance
is 100. Determine the efficiency, power factor of the rectifier, and the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the diode D1 .
Solution:
2 110 2
2Vm
=
= 99V
Vo =
99
Vo
Io =
=
= 0.99A
R
100
Pdc = Vo Io = 99 0.99 = 98W
Vm
110 2
Vrms = =
= 110V
2
2
110
Vrms
=
= 1.1A
Irms =
R
100
Pac = Vrms Irms = 110 1.1 = 121W
Pdc
98
=
=
= 0.81
Pac
121
PF = 1
P IV = Vm = 110 2 = 155.6V
3.3.4
Positive half-cycle: Both SCR1 and SCR2 are forward biased and SCR3 and SCR4 reverse biased. The output
voltage is still zero, the voltages across SCR1 and SCR2 are 12 vs (t) and the voltages across SCR3 and SCR4 are
21 vs (t). When SCR1 and SCR2 are fired at t = , SCR1 and SCR2 conduct until the current becomes zero at
t = . The output voltage is equal to the source voltage. The voltages across SCR1 and SCR2 are zero and the
voltages across SCR3 and SCR4 are vs (t).
Negative half-cycle: Both SCR1 and SCR2 are reverse biased and SCR3 and SCR4 forward biased. The output
voltage is still zero, the voltages across SCR1 and SCR2 are 12 vs (t) and the voltages across SCR3 and SCR4 are
21 vs (t). When SCR3 and SCR4 are fired at t = + , SCR3 and SCR4 conduct until the current becomes zero
at t = 2. The output voltage is equal to vs (t). The voltages across SCR1 and SCR2 are vs (t) and the voltages
across SCR3 and SCR4 are zero.
The voltages across the load and diodes are given by
t
vs (t) = Vm sin t
vs (t) = Vm sin t + t 2
vo (t) =
0
otherwise
31
vs
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
v ,i
o o
vSCR1,2
SCR3,4
32
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
vSCR1,2 (t)
vSCR3,4 (t)
t
0
vs (t) = Vm sin t
+ t 2
=
1
vs (t) = 12 Vm sin t otherwise
2
t
vs (t) = Vm sin t
0
+ t 2
=
1
2 vs (t) = 21 Vm sin t otherwise
Z
2
=
Vm sin td(t)
2
Vm
[cos t]
=
Vm
(1 + cos )
=
Vo
R.
Vrms
s
s
2
2
Vm2
1 cos 2t
d(t)
2
s
1
Vm2
=
t sin 2t
2
2
r
Vm
sin 2
=
1 +
2
2
=
Vrms
R .
Vrms Irms
Pac
=
=
=
S
Vs,rms Is,rms
r
sin 2
=
1 +
V
m
2
q
1
sin 2
2 Irms
V
m Irms
2
Note that = 0 gives Vo = 2Vm and Vrms = Vm2 , which are the same as in the case of an uncontrolled full-wave
rectifier.
Example: A full-wave bridge controlled rectifier has an AC input of 120V rms at 60Hz and 20 load resistor. The
delay angle is = 40 . Determine the average current in the load, the power absorbed by the load, efficiency and the
source volt-amperes.
Solution:
120 2
Vm
Vo =
(1 + cos ) =
(1 + cos 40 ) = 95.4V
95.4
Vo
Io =
=
= 4.77A
R
20
Pdc = Vo Io = 95.4 4.77 = 455W
r
r
120 2
sin 2 40
Vm
sin 2
40
=
+
= 116V
Vrms =
1 +
1
2
180
2
2
2
116
Vrms
Irms =
=
= 5.8A
R
20
Pac = Vrms Irms = 116 5.8 = 673W
Pdc
455
=
= 0.68
=
Pac
673
S = Vs,rms Is,rms = Vs,rms Irms = 120 5.8 = 696V A
33
3.3.5
Discontinuous Current:
Starting the analysis at t = 0 with zero load current, i.e. i(0) = 0, SCR1 and SCR2 are forward biased and SCR3
and SCR4 are reverse biased as the source voltage becomes positive. Assume that gate signals are applied to SCR1
and SCR2 at t = , turning SCR1 and SCR2 on. Then the voltage across the load is vo (t) = vs (t) = Vm sin t, and
the load current is determined from
Ri(t) + L
di(t)
= vs (t) = Vm sin t,
dt
i(/) = 0
p
R2 + (L)2 , = tan1
L
R
i
t
Vm h
sin(t ) sin( )e
Z
,=
L
R,
and is determined by
sin( ) sin( )e
=0
If < + , then the current remains zero until t = + , when the gate signals are applied to SCR3 and
SCR4 , which are then forward biased and begin to conduct. This mode of operation is called discontinuous current.
Continuous Current:
If the load current is still positive at t = + when the gate signals are applied to SCR3 and SCR4 in the
preceding analysis, SCR3 and SCR4 are turned on and SCR1 and SCR2 are forced off. Since the initial condition for
the current in the second half-cycle is not zero, the current expression derived above is no longer valid. The current
in this mode is given by
t
2
Vm
sin(t )
i(t) =
sin(
)e
Z
1 e
The boundary between continuous and discontinuous current is when + . The current at = + must
be greater than zero for continuous current operation, that is,
i
Vm h
+
=
i
sin( + ) sin( )e
Z
Vm
=
sin( ) sin( )e
Z
Vm
=
sin( ) + sin( )e
Z
Vm
sin( ) 1 + e
=
Z
0
which implies that 0, that is, .
In summary, if , the current is continuous; otherwise discontinuous.
Example: The controlled full-wave bridge rectifier has a source of 120V rms at 60Hz, R = 10, L = 20mH, and
= 60 .
1. Check the continuity of the current.
34
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
vs,io
Discontinuous Mode
2+
3+
2+
2+
3+
2+
2+
3+
2+
2+
3+
2+
2+
3+
2+
vo
VSCR1,2
VSCR3,4
VL
Figure 3.16: Single-Phase Controlled Full-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads: Discontinuous Current
v ,i
s o
Continuous Mode
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
2 2+
3 3+
vo
VSCR1,2
VSCR3,4
VL
Figure 3.17: Single-Phase Controlled Full-Wave Rectifiers with RL Loads: Continuous Current
35
L
R
2600.02
10
i(t)
=
=
=
3.4
L
R
= tan1
i
t
Vm h
sin(t ) sin( )e
Z
i
1.047t
120 2 h
sin(t 37 ) sin(60 37 )e 0.754
12.5
t
13.6 sin(t 37 ) 21.2e 0.754
2600.1
10
Suppose three-phase AC voltages are applied to the three-phase uncontrolled full-wave bridge rectifier, which are 120
out of phase and given by
van (t)
= Vm sin t
vbn (t)
= Vm sin(t
vcn (t)
2
)
3
2
)
= Vm sin(t +
3
vab (t)
vbc (t)
vca (t)
)
6
5
)
= vcn van = 3Vm sin(t +
6
= van vbn =
3Vm sin(t +
Conducting Diodes
D5 and D6
D6 and D1
D1 and D2
D2 and D3
D3 and D4
D4 and D5
Output Voltages
vo (t) = vcb (t) = vcn (t) vbn (t)
vo (t) = vab (t) = van (t) vbn (t)
vo (t) = vac (t) = van (t) vcn (t)
vo (t) = vbc (t) = vbn (t) vcn (t)
vo (t) = vba (t) = vbn (t) van (t)
vo (t) = vca (t) = vcn (t) van (t)
36
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
an
bn
cn
D5,D6
D6,D1
v
D1,D2
v
ab
ac
D2,D3
v
bc
2
D3,D4
v
ba
D4,D5
v
ca
D5,D6
v
cb
v ,i
o o
/6
/2
5/6
7/6
9/6
11/6
/6
/2
5/6
7/6
9/6
11/6
/6
/2
5/6
7/6
9/6
11/6
id1
37
5. The output voltage has a frequency of 6, where is the frequency of the source.
The average output voltage is
Vo
=
=
=
Z 2
6
3Vm sin t +
d(t)
2 6
6
3 3Vm h
i 2
cos t +
6 6
3 3Vm
s
s
6
2
9Vm2
i2
3Vm sin t +
d(t)
6
1 cos 2 t + 6
d(t)
2
v
u
u 9V 2
1
2
= t m t sin 2 t +
2
2
6
6
s
3 9 3
+
= Vm
2
4
and the rms output current is Irms = Vrms
R .
Each diode conducts one-third of the time, resulting
ID,avg
ID,rms
1
Io
3
1
Irms
3
r
2
Irms
3
S=
3VLL,rms Is,rms
Example: A three-phase bridge rectifier has a purely resistive load of R. The rectifier delivers Io = 60A at an
output voltage of Vo = 280.7V and the source frequency is 60Hz. Determine the efficiency, the peak inverse voltage
(PIV) of each diode, and the apparent power from the source.
Solution:
Vm
Vrms
Pdc
Pac
P IV
Vo
280.7
= = 169.7V
3 3
3 3
s
s
3 9 3
3 9 3
+
= 169.7
+
= 280.9
Vm
2
4
2
4
Vo
280.7
= 4.68
=
Io
60
Vo Io = 280.7 60 = 16842W
2
280.92
Vrms
=
= 16860W
R
4.68
Pdc
16842
= 99.89%
=
Pac
16860
38
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
VLL,rms
Is,rms
S
3.5
Vm
169.7
3Vphase,rms = 3 = 3 = 208V
2
2
r
r
r
2
2 Vrms
2 280.9
Irms =
=
= 49A
=
3
3 R
3
4.68
=
3VLL,rms Is,rms = 3 208 49 = 17653V A
=
Suppose three-phase AC voltages are applied to the three-phase controlled full-wave bridge rectifier, which are 120
out of phase and given by
van (t)
= Vm sin t
vbn (t)
= Vm sin(t
vcn (t)
2
)
3
2
)
= Vm sin(t +
3
)
6
5
vca (t) = vcn van = 3Vm sin(t +
)
6
SCRs do not conduct until gate signals are applied while forward biased. The delay angle is referenced from where
the SCR would begin to conduct if it were a diode. The delay angle is the interval between when the SCR becomes
forward biased and when the gate signal is applied. SCR i will be fired at t = 6 + (i1)
+ for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
3
The output voltage across the load is one of line-to-line voltages of the source.
Time Interval
SCR fired Conducting SCRs Output Voltages
1
[ 6 + 0
+
,
+
+
]
SCR1
SCR6 and SCR1 vo (t) = vab (t) = van (t) vbn (t)
3
6
3
2
[ 6 + 1
+
,
+
+
]
SCR
SCR1 and SCR2 vo (t) = vac (t) = van (t) vcn (t)
2
3
6
3
3
[ 6 + 2
+
,
+
+
]
SCR
SCR2 and SCR3 vo (t) = vbc (t) = vbn (t) vcn (t)
3
3
6
3
4
[ 6 + 3
+
,
+
+
]
SCR
SCR3 and SCR4 vo (t) = vba (t) = vbn (t) van (t)
4
3
6
3
5
[ 6 + 3 + , 6 + 3 + ] SCR5
SCR4 and SCR5 vo (t) = vca (t) = vcn (t) van (t)
6
[ 6 + 5
+
,
+
+
]
SCR
SCR5 and SCR6 vo (t) = vcb (t) = vcn (t) vbn (t)
6
3
6
3
The average output voltage is
Z 2 +
6
3Vm sin t +
Vo =
d(t)
2 6 +
6
i 2 +
3 3Vm h
cos t +
=
6 6 +
3 3Vm
cos
=
2
6 +
v
u
+
u 9V 2
1
2
= t m t sin 2 t +
2
2
6 +
6
s
3 9 3
+
cos 2
= Vm
2
4
vab (t)
= van vbn =
3Vm sin(t +
an
bn
cn
SCR5,6
SCR6,1
v
SCR1,2
v
ab
SCR2,3
v
ac
2
SCR3,4
v
bc
SCR4,5
v
ba
ca
cb
/6
/6+
/2
/2+
5/6
5/6+
7/6
7/6+
9/6
9/6+
11/6
t
t
ia
/6
/2
5/6
7/6
9/6
11/6
/6
/2
5/6
7/6
9/6
11/6
/6
/2
5/6
7/6
9/6
11/6
SCR1
39
40
CHAPTER 3. RECTIFIERS
Each SCR conducts one-third of the time, resulting
ISCR,avg
ISCR,rms
1
Io
3
1
Irms
3
2
Irms
3
S=
3VLL,rms Is,rms
Chapter 4
AC Voltage Controllers
An AC voltage controller is a converter that converts an AC voltage to an AC voltage with different magnitude
and frequency. Such a converter is also called an AC-AC converter. The most common applications of AC voltage
controllers are light-dimmer circuits and speed control of induction motors.
4.1
Positive half-cycle: S1 is forward biased and S2 is reverse biased. Before S1 conducts, the output voltage is zero
and the voltage across the SCRs is the same as the source voltage. Suppose S1 is fired at t = . Then, the output
voltage is equal to the input voltage and the voltage across the SCRs is zero.
At t = , io (t) = 0A, S1 is turned off because of natural commutation.
Negative half-cycle: S2 is forward biased and S1 is reverse biased. Before S2 conducts, the output voltage is
zero and the voltage across the SCRs is the same as the source voltage. Suppose S2 is fired at t = + . Then, the
output voltage is equal to the input voltage and the voltage across the SCRs is zero.
At t = 2, io (t) = 0A, S2 is turned off because of natural commutation.
The voltages across the load and the SCRs are given by
vs (t) = Vm sin t t
vs (t) = Vm sin t + t 2
vo (t) =
0
otherwise
t
0
0
+ t 2
vSCR1,2 (t) =
r
Vm
sin 2
=
1 +
2
2
and the rms output current is Irms = Vrms
R .
The average and rms SCR currents are given by
ISCR,rms
ISCR,avg
1
Irms
2
Vm
(1 + cos )
2R
41
42
2+
3+
2+
3+
2+
3+
vo,io,is
vSCR
43
PF
Pac
Vrms Irms
=
=
=
S
Vs,rms Is,rms
r
sin 2
=
1 +
V
m
2
q
1
sin 2
2 Irms
V
m Irms
2
Example: The single-phase AC voltage controller has a 120V rms 60Hz source. The load resistance is 15. The
delay angle is 88 . Determine the rms output voltage, the rms source current, the rms and average currents through
SCRs, and the power factor.
Solution:
r
r
Vm
sin 2 88
Vm
sin 2
88
Vrms =
=
+
= 86.7V
1 +
1
2
180
2
2
2
86.7
Vrms
Irms =
=
= 5.78A
R
15
1
1
ISCR,rms = Irms = 5.78 = 4.09A
2
2
120 2
Vm
(1 + cos ) =
(1 + cos 88 ) = 1.86A
ISCR,avg =
2R
2 15
r
r
sin 2 88
sin 2
88
== 1
+
= 0.72
1 +
PF =
2
180
2
44
Midterm Review
Circuit Analysis by Laplace Transform:
i(t) = C
dv(t)
dt
or V (s) =
1
1
I(s) + VC (0)
Cs
s
di(t)
V (s) 1
V (s) = LsI(s) LiL (0) or I(s) =
+ iL (0)
dt
Ls
s
Single-Phase Rectifiers With R Load
UnControlled
Full-Wave Controlled
Half-Wave Controlled
m
Vo = 2Vm
= 0 Vo = Vm (1q
+ cos )
2
Vo = V2
(1q
+ cos )
sin(2)
sin(2)
V
V
V
m
m
m
Vrms = 2
= 0 Vrms = 2 1 + 2
2 Vrms = 2 1
+
2
q
q
sin(2)
sin(2)
P F =1
= 0 P F = 1 + 2
2 P F = 2 1 + 2
p
L
2
2
Single-Phase Rectifier With RL Load: Z = R + (L) , = tan1 L
R , = R
Half Wave hControlled:
i
t
io (t) = VZm sin(t ) sin( )e , t
v(t) = L
Full-Wave Controlled-Discontinuous
Mode:
h
i < ,
t
Vm
io (t) = Z sin(t ) sin( )e , t
Full-Wave Controlled-Continuous
Mode: , i
h
t
Vm
2
io (t) = Z sin(t )
, t +
sin( )e
1e
Three-Phase Rectifiers
Controlled
with Highly L Load
Vo = 3 3 Vm
qcos
= 0
Single-Phase AC Voltage
Controller:
q
q
Vo = 0, Vrms =
ISCR,avg =
Vm
2R
Vm
2
(1 + cos ) ,
sin(2)
2 , P F
ISCR,rms =
Uncontrolled
with R Load
Vo = 3 3 Vm
q
Vrms = Vm 32 +
ID,avg = 13 Io
ID,rms = 13 Irms
q
Is,rms = 23 Irms
1 Irms
2
sin(2)
2 ,
9 3
4
=0
UnControlled
Vo = Vm
=0
Vrms =
=0
PF =
Vm
2
2
2
Chapter 5
DC Choppers
A DC chopper converts directly from DC to DC voltage and is also known as a DC to DC converter. A chopper can
be considered as DC equivalent to an AC transformer with a continuously variable ratio. Like a transformer, it can be
used to step-down or step-up a DC voltage source. Step-down chopper circuit is called buck converter, while step-up
converter is referred to as boost converter. Choppers are widely used for DC power supplies, DC motor drives, and so
on.
5.1
Buck Converter
The figure in the next page shows a buck converter circuit. The chopper switch in this circuit can be implemented by
using a power BJT, power MOSFET, GTO, and so on.
Analysis of the buck converter begins by making the following assumptions:
1. The circuit is operating in the steady state.
2. The inductor current is continuous (always positive)
3. The capacitor is large enough so that the output voltage is held constant at Vo .
4. The switching frequency is f and the switching period is T = 1/f . The switch is closed for time DT and open
for time (1 D)T with D duty cycle, which is defined as a ratio of the on-time and period.
5. The components are ideal.
The operation of the buck converter can be divided into two modes.
Mode 1: 0 t DT
In this mode, the switch is closed and the freewheeling diode is reverse biased. The equivalent circuit for this mode
is given in next page.
The inductor current iL is determined by
vL = Vs Vo = L
diL
dt
that is,
Vs Vo
diL
=
dt
L
Suppose that iL (0) = Imin . Then, integrating both sides of the above differential equation gives
Z
t
0
diL
ds =
dt
t
0
Vs Vo
ds
L
As a result,
Vs Vo
t + Imin
L
which means that the inductor current increases linearly with time t.
Mode 2: DT t T
iL (t) =
45
46
CHAPTER 5. DC CHOPPERS
VsVo
DT
DT
DT
iL
I
max
IR
Imin
i
ImaxIR
IminIR
47
In this mode, the switch is open and the freewheeling diode is forced to conduct by the inductor current. The
equivalent circuit for this mode is given in last page.
The inductor current iL is determined by
diL
vL = Vo = L
dt
that is,
Vo
diL
=
dt
L
Suppose that iL (DT ) = Imax . Then, integrating both sides of the above differential equation gives
Z
t
DT
diL
ds =
dt
t
DT
Vo
ds
L
As a result,
Vo
(t DT ) + Imax
L
which means that the inductor current decreases linearly with time t.
Under the steady state conditions, the inductor current at the end of Mode 1 is the same as that at the beginning
of Mode 2, that is,
Vs Vo
DT + Imin = Imax
(5.1)
L
and the inductor current at the end of Mode 2 is the same as that at the beginning of Mode 1, that is,
iL (t) =
Vo
(T DT ) + Imax = Imin
L
(5.2)
Vo (1 D)T
L
(5.3)
Imin = IL
2
R
2L
It is important to note that the above analysis is valid under the assumption of continuous inductor current, which
means that Imin 0. If Imin < 0, then the freewheeling diode is off and so the inductor current will remain zero until
the switch is closed again.
In order to guarantee the continuity of the inductor current, the inductance L and the switching period T must be
appropriately selected so that
(1 D)T
1
0
Imin = Vo
R
2L
that is,
L
R(1 D)T
2
48
CHAPTER 5. DC CHOPPERS
or
T
2L
R(1 D)
R(1 D)T
2
2L
R(1 D)
R(1 D)
2L
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage at output is determined by
fmin =
Vo =
Vo (1 D)
Vo (1 D)T 2
=
8LC
8LCf 2
Example: A buck converter is supplied by a DC source of 48V. It produces an output voltage of 18V across a
10 load resistor. Assume that the capacitor is large enough so that the output voltage is kept constant.
1. Determine the duty cycle D.
2. Find the minimum inductor size Lmin if the switching frequency is 40kHz.
3. Calculate the inductor current if L = 1.25Lmin and f=40kHz.
4. Select C so that the peak-to-peak output ripple voltage
Vo
Vo
Vo
Vs
2. Lmin =
18
48
= 0.375
R(1D)
2f
10(10.375)
240103
= 78H
3.
L =
IL
Imax
Imin
= 18
= Vo
R
2Lf
10 2 97.5 106 40 103
Note that
T
DT
Vs Vo
L
Vo
L
=
=
=
1
= 0.000025s
40 103
0.375 0.000025 = 0.0000094s
48 18
= 307692
97.5 106
18
= 184615
97.5 106
Vo
Vo
1D
8LCf 2
49
0.005. Then,
Cmin =
1D
1 0.375
=
= 100F
0.005 8Lf 2
0.005 8 97.5 106 (40 103 )2
5.
fmin =
5.2
10(1 0.375)
R(1 D)
=
= 32kHz
2L
2 97.5 106
Boost Converters
The figure in the next page shows a boost converter circuit. The chopper switch in this circuit can be implemented
by using a power BJT, power MOSFET, GTO, and so on.
Analysis of the boost converter begins by making the following assumptions:
1. The circuit is operating in the steady state.
2. The inductor current is continuous (always positive)
3. The capacitor is large enough so that the output voltage is held constant at Vo .
4. The switching frequency is f and the switching period is T = 1/f . The switch is closed for time DT and open
for time (1 D)T with D duty cycle, which is defined as a ratio of the on-time and period.
5. The components are ideal.
The operation of the boost converter can be divided into two modes.
Mode 1: 0 t DT
In this mode, the switch is closed and the freewheeling diode is reverse biased by Vo . The equivalent circuit for
this mode is given in next page.
The inductor current iL is determined by
diL
vL = Vs = L
dt
that is,
diL
Vs
=
dt
L
Suppose that iL (0) = Imin . Then, integrating both sides of the above differential equation gives
Z
t
0
diL
ds =
dt
t
0
Vs
ds
L
As a result,
Vs
t + Imin
L
which means that the inductor current increases linearly with time t.
Mode 2: DT t T
In this mode, the switch is open and the freewheeling diode is forward biased to provide a path for inductor current.
The equivalent circuit for this mode is given in last page.
The inductor current iL is determined by
iL (t) =
vL = Vs Vo = L
diL
dt
that is,
diL
Vs Vo
=
dt
L
Suppose that iL (DT ) = Imax . Then, integrating both sides of the above differential equation gives
Z
t
DT
diL
ds =
dt
t
DT
Vs Vo
ds
L
50
CHAPTER 5. DC CHOPPERS
DT
DT
DT
VsVo
iL
max
IL
Imin
iD
max
IL
Imin
ImaxIR
I
IR
min
iC
51
As a result,
Vs Vo
(t DT ) + Imax
L
Under the steady state conditions, the inductor current at the end of Mode 1 is the same as that at the beginning
of Mode 2, that is,
Vs
DT + Imin = Imax
(5.4)
L
which implies that
Vs DT
(5.5)
Imax Imin =
L
and the inductor current at the end of Mode 2 is the same as that at the beginning of Mode 1, that is,
iL (t) =
Vs Vo
(T DT ) + Imax = Imin
L
(5.6)
Vs
(1 D)2 R
DT
Imax Imin
1
= Vs
+
2
(1 D)2 R
2L
Imax Imin
DT
1
= IL
= Vs
2
(1 D)2 R
2L
= IL +
Note that the above analysis is valid under the assumption of continuous inductor current, which means that
Imin 0. In order to guarantee the continuity of the inductor current, the inductance L and the switching period T
must be appropriately selected so that
DT
1
Imin = Vs
0
(1 D)2 R
2L
that is,
D
1
0
2
(1 D) R 2Lf
or
L
D(1 D)2 R
2f
Vo =
Vo D
Vo DT
=
RC
RCf
Example: A boost converter is supplied by a DC source of 12V. It produces an output voltage of 30V across a
50 load resistor. Assume that the capacitor is large enough so that the output voltage is kept constant.
52
CHAPTER 5. DC CHOPPERS
1. Determine the duty cycle D.
2. Find the minimum inductor size Lmin if the switching frequency is 25kHz.
3. Calculate the inductor current if L = 120H and f=25kHz.
4. Select C so that the peak-to-peak output ripple voltage
Vo
Vo
Solution
2. Lmin =
Vs
Vo
=1
12
30
= 0.6
D(1D)2 R
2f
0.6(10.6)2 50
225103
1. D = 1
= 96H
3.
IL
Imax
Imin
Vs
12
=
= 1.5A
(1 D)2 R
(1 0.6)2 50
D
0.6
1
1
= 2.7A
+
= 12
+
= Vs
(1 D)2 R 2Lf
(1 0.6)2 50 2 120 106 25 103
D
0.6
1
1
= 0.3A
= 12
= Vs
(1 D)2 R 2Lf
(1 0.6)2 50 2 120 106 25 103
=
Note that
T
DT
Vs
L
Vs Vo
L
=
=
=
1
= 0.00004s
25 103
0.6 0.00004 = 0.000024s
12
= 100000
120 106
12 30
= 150000
120 106
DT
)
+
I
max DT t T
L
100000t + 0.3
0 t 0.000024s
=
150000(t 0.000024) + 2.7 0.000024s t 0.00004s
4. Note that
Vo
Vo
D
RCf
0.01. Then,
Cmin =
5.3
D
0.6
= 48F
=
0.001Rf
0.01 50 25 103
At the beginning, trigger T2 and leave T1 off. D is reverse biased. C charges through T2 and R to Vs according to the
equation
dvc
+ vc
Vs = RC
dt
which has a solution of
t
vc (t) = Vs 1 e , = RC
The capacitor current is
Vs t
e
R
When ic (t) becomes zero, T2 is turned off. The load voltage is
ic (t) =
vo (t) = Vs vc
53
Mode 1: T1 is fired.
vc = Vs is applied across T2 so that T2 is cut off. The output voltage is
v0 (t) = Vs
At the same time, D is forward biased by vc (t). C discharges through T1 , D and L according to equation
0 = vc + L
dic
d2 vc
= vc + LC 2
dt
dt
C
sin
L
1
t
LC
1
t
LC
When t = tr = LC, the capacitor current becomes zero, which forces D off, and the voltage across the capacitor is
kept at -Vs because D prevent ic (t) from becoming negative. Now it is ready to fire T2 again.
Mode 2: T2 is fired.
vc = Vs is applied across T1 so that T1 is turned off. C charges through T2 and R to Vs according to the equation
Vs = RC
which has a solution of
dvc
+ vc
dt
t
vc (t) = Vs 1 2e
2Vs t
e
R
54
CHAPTER 5. DC CHOPPERS
Chapter 6
Inverter
The function of an inverter is to convert a DC input voltage to a symmetrical AC output voltage of desired magnitude
and frequency. The output voltage could be at a fixed or variable frequency. A variable voltage can be obtained by
varying the gain of the inverter, which is accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control within the inverter,
Inverter gain =
AC output voltage
DC input voltage
The output waveforms are non-sinusoidal for practical inverters. Ideal inverters will produce sinusoidal voltages. Square
wave voltages may be acceptable for low and medium power applications, and low distorted sinusoidal waveforms for
high power applications.
The harmonic contents of output voltages can be minimized by switching techniques with the use of high-speed
power semiconductor devices.
Inverters are widely used in industrial applications, for example, variable speed AC motor drives, induction heating,
standby power supplies, un-interruptible power supplies, and so on.
Inverters are classified as single phase and three phase. This course will focus on single phase only.
6.1
Half-Bridge Inverter
A pulse with a period of T and duty cycle of 0.5, ig (t), is applied to the base of Q1 , while it is applied to the base of
Q2 through a NOT gate. So, Q1 and Q2 are turned on and off alternately, each 50% of the period, with one transistor
on while the other is off.
Mode 1: 0 t 0.5T
In this mode, either Q1 or D1 is turned on and Q2 and D2 are off. The output voltage is
vo = Vdc
Now assume that io (0) = Imin < 0. Then, D1 is turned on and Q1 is still off at t = 0. The load current is determined
by
dio
vo = Vdc = Rio + L
dt
Solution to this equation takes the form of
t
Vdc
+ Ae
io (t) =
R
with =
L
R.
The constant A is determined by the initial condition io (0) = Imin , that is,
io (0) =
Vdc
+ A = Imin
R
Vdc
R
Vdc
Vdc t
+ Imin
e
R
R
55
56
CHAPTER 6. INVERTER
Vdc
T/2
V
dc i
Imax o
T/2 T/2+t
T/2
I
min i
S1
I
max
I
min i
Imax S2
T/2
I
min i
D1
I
max
T/2+t
max
D2
T/2+t
T/2
max
Q1
T/2
max
Q2
T/2+t
57
This current increases from a negative value, Imin , to the maximum value Imax , which is reached at t = 0.5T , that is
Vdc
Vdc 0.5T
+ Imin
e
Imax = io (0.5T ) =
(6.1)
R
R
i
0.5T
0.5T
Vdc h
(6.2)
=
1 e + Imin e
R
When it goes through zero and become positive, D1 is cut off, Q1 is turned on and begins to conduct. The time when
io (t) becomes zero is determined by
Vdc
Vdc t1
0 = io (t1 ) =
+ Imin
e
(6.3)
R
R
Mode 2: 0.5T t T
In this mode, either Q2 or D2 is turned on and Q1 and D1 are off. The output voltage is
vo = Vdc
Note that io (0.5T ) = Imax > 0. Then, D2 is turned on and Q2 is still off at t = 0.5T . The load current is determined
by
dio
vo = Vdc = Rio + L
dt
Solution to this equation takes the form of
io (t) =
t0.5T
Vdc
+ Be
R
The constant B is determined by the initial condition io (0.5T ) = Imax , that is,
io (0.5T ) =
Vdc
+ B = Imax
R
Vdc
R
Vdc
Vdc t0.5T
+ Imax +
e
R
R
This current decreases from a positive value, Imax , to the minimum value Imin , which is negative and reached at
t = T , that is,
Vdc
Vdc 0.5T
Imin = io (T ) =
+ Imax +
e
(6.4)
R
R
i
0.5T
0.5T
Vdc h
(6.5)
=
1 e + Imax e
R
When it goes through zero and become negative, D2 is cut off, Q2 is turned on and begins to conduct. The time when
io (t) becomes zero is determined by
Vdc
Vdc t2 0.5T
(6.6)
+ Imax +
e
0 = io (t2 ) =
R
R
Adding (6.5) to (6.2) gives
Imax + Imin = (Imax + Imin )e
So Imin = Imax . Substituting it to (6.2) yields
T
Imax =
Vdc 1 e 2
T
R 1 + e 2
0.5T
58
CHAPTER 6. INVERTER
With Imax and Imin , it follows from (6.3) and (6.6) that
t1 = ln
t2
2
T
1 + e 2
0.5T + t1
0.5T t T
R + Imax + R e
io (t) 0 t 0.5T
is1 (t) =
0
0.5T t T
0
0 t 0.5T
is2 (t) =
io (t) 0.5T t T
io (t) 0 t t1
iD1 (t) =
0
t1 t T
io (t) 0.5T t 0.5T + t1
iD2 (t) =
0
otherwise
io (t) t1 t 0.5T
iQ1 (t) =
0
otherwise
io (t) 0.5T + t1 t T
iQ2 (t) =
0
otherwise
The rms output voltage is
s
Vrms =
1
0.5T
0.5T
2 dt = V
Vdc
dc
0
1
0.5T
0.5T
2
Vdc t
Vdc
+ Imin
e
dt
R
R
Imax
0.05
L
=
= 0.005s
R
10
1
1
=
= 0.01667s
f
60
T
Vdc 1 e 2
T
R 1 + e 2
0.01667
=
=
300 1 e 0.01
10 1 + e 0.01667
0.01
20.47A
59
2
T
1 + e 2
= 0.005 ln
2
1 + e
0.01667
0.01
= 0.0026s
io (t) =
+ Imin
+ 20.47
=
e
e 0.005 = 30 50.47e 0.005
R
R
10
10
So, the average transistor current is
Z
Z 0.00833
t
1 0.5T
1
io (t)dt =
[30 50.47e 0.005 ]dt
IC =
T t1
0.01667 0.0026
i0.00833
h
1
t
=
30t 54.47 (0.005)e 0.005
0.01667
0.0026
i
h
0.00833
0.0026
1
=
30(0.00833 0.0026) 54.47 (0.005) e 0.005 e 0.005
0.01667
= 4.18A
4. The average diode current is calculated as follows:
Z
Z 0.0026
t
1 t1
1
ID =
io (t)dt =
[30 50.47e 0.005 ]dt
T 0
0.01667 0
i0.0026
h
1
t
=
30t 54.47 (0.005)e 0.005
0.01667
0
i
h
0.0026
1
0
=
30(0.0026 0) 54.47 (0.005) e 0.005 e 0.005
0.01667
= 1.46A
6.2
Full-Bridge Inverter
A pulse with a period of T and duty cycle of 0.5, ig (t), is applied to the bases of Q1 and Q2 , while it is applied to the
bases of Q3 and Q4 through a NOT gate. So, Q1 and Q2 are turned on and Q3 and Q4 off during the first half cycle,
while Q1 and Q2 are off and Q3 and Q4 on during the second half cycle
Mode 1: 0 t 0.5T
In this mode, Q1 or D1 and Q2 or D2 are turned on and Q3 , D3 , Q4 and D4 are off. The output voltage is
vo = Vdc
Similar to the half-bridge inverter, the load current is determined by
vo = Vdc = Rio + L
Solution to this equation is given by
with =
L
R
dio
dt
Vdc
Vdc t
io (t) =
+ Imin
e
R
R
and
T
Imin =
Vdc 1 e 2
T
R 1 + e 2
When the current io (t) is negative, both D1 and D2 conduct, otherwise both Q1 and Q2 conduct.
Mode 2: 0.5T t T
In this mode, Q3 or D3 and Q4 or D4 are turned on and Q1 , D1 , Q2 and D2 are off. The output voltage is
vo = Vdc
Similar to the half-bridge inverter, the load current is determined by
vo = Vdc = Rio + L
dio
dt
60
CHAPTER 6. INVERTER
dc
Vdc
Imax
T/2
T/2
T/2
T/2
T/2
min
Imax
iS1,2
min
S3,4
max
min
max
min
61
Vdc t0.5T
Vdc
+ Imax +
e
R
R
with
Imax =
Vdc 1 e 2
T
R 1 + e 2
When the current io (t) is positive, both D3 and D4 conduct, otherwise both Q3 and Q4 conduct.
In summary, currents through the devices in the circuit is given below.
(
t
Vdc
Vdc
0 t 0.5T
R + Imin R e
io (t) =
t0.5T
Vdc
Vdc
0.5T t T
R + Imax + R e
0 t 0.5T
io (t)
is (t) =
io (t) 0.5T t T
io (t) 0 t 0.5T
is1 (t) = is2 (t) =
0
0.5T t T
0
0 t 0.5T
is3 (t) = is4 (t) =
io (t) 0.5T t T
The rms output voltage is
s
Vrms =
1
0.5T
0.5T
0
2 dt = V
Vdc
dc
1
0.5T
0.5T
0
2
Vdc t
Vdc
+ Imin
e
dt
R
R
Imax
L
0.025
=
= 0.0025s
R
10
1
1
=
= 0.01667s
f
60
T
Vdc 1 e 2
T
R 1 + e 2
0.01667
=
=
io (t)
100 1 e 0.005
10 1 + e 0.01667
0.005
9.31A
(
t
Vdc
Vdc
0 t 0.5T
R + Imin R e
t0.5T
Vdc
Vdc
0.5T t T
R + Imax + R e
(
t
100
0.0025
100
0 t 0.00833
10 + 9.31
10 e t0.00833
100
100
10 + 9.31 + 10 e 0.0025
0.00833 t 0.01667
(
t
10 19.31e 0.0025
0 t 0.00833
t0.00833
0.0025
10 + 19.31e
0.00833 t 0.01667
62
CHAPTER 6. INVERTER
2. The rms load current is
s
s
Z
Z 0.00833
2 0.5T
2
t
2
Irms =
[io (t)] dt =
[10 19.31e 0.0025 ]2 dt
T 0
0.01667 0
r
i
h
2
t
2t
=
100 38.62e 0.0025 + 19.312e 0.0025 dt
0.01667
s
0.00833
2
0.0025 2t
t
100t + 38.62 0.0025e 0.0025 19.312
e 0.0025
=
0.01667
2
0
s
2
0.0025 20.00833
0.00833
2
0.0025
0.0025
0.83 + 38.62 0.0025 e
=
1 19.31
1
e
0.01667
2
= 6.64A
Po
2
= Irms
R = 6.642 10 = 441W
Z 0.00833
t
2
=
io (t)dt =
[10 19.31e 0.0025 ]dt
0.01667
0
0
i0.00833
h
2
t
=
10t 19.13 (0.0025)e 0.0025
0.01667
0
i
h
0.00833
2
=
10(0.00833 0) 19.13 (0.0025) e 0.0025 1
0.01667
= 4.41A
2
T
0.5T
Chapter 7
DC Drives
7.1
The equivalent circuit for a separately excited dc motor is shown in Fig. 7.1. When a separately excited motor is
excited by a field current if and an armature current ia flows into the armature circuit, the motor develops a back
emf and a torque to balance the load torque at a certain speed. The equations describing the characteristics of a
separately excited motor can be determined as follows:
The instantaneous field current if can be found from
vf = Rf if + Lf
dif
dt
dia
+ ea
dt
d
+ B + L
dt
where
B
Kv
Kt
La
Lf
Ra
Rf
L
J
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Under steady state conditions, the time derivatives become zero. Therefore, the steady-state average quantities
are
Vf
Va
Ea
d
=
=
=
=
=
Rf If
Ra Ia + Ea
Kv If
Kt If Ia
B + L
63
(7.1)
64
CHAPTER 7. DC DRIVES
Va Ra Ia
Va Ra Ia
=
Kv If
Kv Vf /Rf
(7.2)
If
Ea
2 1200
2n
=
= 125.66rad/s
60
60
Vf
220
= 1.497A
=
=
Rf
147
= Kv If = 0.7032 125.66 1.497 = 132.28V
65
d
45
= 42.75A
=
Kt If
0.7032 1.497
= Ra Ia + Ea = 0.25 42.75 + 132.28 = 142.97V
=
7.2
Prated
15 746
=
= 50.87A
Vrated
220
In order to control the speed of the motor, we need to adjust the armature supply voltage Va or the field supply voltage
Vf , which implies that we need variable dc voltage supplies. As we know, controlled rectifiers provide a variable dc
output voltage from a fixed ac voltage, whereas choppers can provide a variable dc voltage from a fixed dc voltage.
According to variable dc supplies, dc drives can be classified into three types:
1. Single-phase drives
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Single-phase
Single-phase
Single-phase
Single-phase
2. Three-phase drives
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Three-phase
Three-phase
Three-phase
Three-phase
3. Chopper drives
We shall consider only single-phase full-wave converter drive here due to time limitations.
The connection of single-phase full-converter drive is shown in Fig. 7.2. Both armature and field circuits are
supplied by single-phase full-wave converters.
Recall that a single-phase full-wave converter provides an output voltage
Va =
2Vm
cos a ,
0 a
Vf =
2Vm
cos f ,
0 f
66
CHAPTER 7. DC DRIVES
1. the torque developed by the motor d ,
2. the speed ,
Solution: Vs = 440V , Vm =
1. The maximum field voltage (and current) would be obtained for a delay angle of f = 0 and
Vf =
2 622.25
2Vm
=
= 396.14V
Vf
396.14
= 2.26A
=
Rf
175
2Vm
2 622.25
cos 60 =
cos 60 = 198.07V
186.82
Ea
= 59.05rad/s or 564rpm
=
Kv If
1.4 2.26
Example
A 220V, 3hp, 1800rpm separately excited DC motor is controlled by a one-phase full-wave converter with an AC
source of 230V at 60Hz. Assume that full load efficiency of the motor is 88% and enough field inductance is added to
ensure continuous current for any torque greater than 25% of rated torque. Ra = 1.5.
1. Determine the firing angle to obtain the rated torque at 1200rpm.
2. Compute the firing angle for the rated breaking torque at -1800rpm.
3. Find the firing angle corresponding to a torque of 35N m and speed of 480rpm, assuming continuous conduction.
Solution
1. Since = Pout /Pin and Pin = Va Ia , we have
Ia =
Pin
Pout
746 3 0.88
= 11.56A
=
=
Va
Va
220V
It follows from Va = Ea + Ia Ra that the back emf at rated speed of 1800rpm is given by
(Ea )1800 = Va Ia Ra = 220 11.56 1.5 = 202.66V
Note that (Ea )1800 = Kv 1800 If and (Ea )1200 = Kv 1200 If . Then, we have
(Ea )1800
1800
=
(Ea )1200
1200
As a result, the back emf at the speed of 1200rpm is
(Ea )1200 =
1200
1200
202.66 = 135.11V
(Ea )1800 =
1800
1800
2 2Vs cos
2Vm cos
Va =
=
67
2. Note that (Ea )1800 = 202.66V , which means that the armature voltage for the rated braking torque at
-1800rpm is
Va = (Ea )1800 + Ia Ra = 202.66 + 11.56 1.5 = 185.32
To get -185.32V, reverse the armature connections. Then, we get
185.32
Va
= 0.8953
=
cos =
2 2Vs
2 2 230
So, the firing angle is = 26.45.
3. The speed in radian per second for n = 1800rpm is
=
2 1800
2n
=
= 188.57rad/s
60
60
202.66
Ea
=
= 1.075
188.57
d
35N m
= 32.56A
=
Kv If
1.075
2 480
= 54V
60
68
CHAPTER 7. DC DRIVES
Chapter 8
AC Drives
8.1
Induction Motor
A set of three-phase AC voltages is needed to drive a three-phase induction motor. The per-phase equivalent circuit
of an induction motor is shown in Fig. 8.1.
The relationship between torque and speed for an induction motor is given by
d =
ssync
3Rr Vs2
i
2
Rs + Rsr + (Xs + Xr )2
where Rr is the per-phase resistance of the rotor winding referred to the stator winding, Xr is the per-phase reactance
of the rotor winding referred to the stator winding, Rs is the per-phase resistance of the stator winding, Xs is the
per-phase leakage reactance of the stator winding, Rm represents the per-phase resistance for core losses, Xm is the
m
per-phase magnetizing reactance, s = s
is the slip of the motor, s = 4f
s
P is the synchronous speed of the motor,
m is the speed of the motor, f is the supply frequency, P is the number of poles in the motor, Vs is the rms phase
voltage applied to the stator winding.
Starting Torque is the torque when s = 1, that is, m = 0, which is given by
s =
3Rr Vs2
sync [(Rs + Rr )2 + (Xs + Xr )2 ]
The maximum developed torque during motoring is called pullout torque or breakdown torque which is given by
mm =
3V 2
p s
2sync [Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2 ]
which is reached at
Rr
sm = p
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )2
The maximum regenerative torque is the developed torque when s = sm , which is given by
mr =
3V 2
ps
2sync [Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2 ]
If the motor is supplied from a fixed voltage at a constant frequency, the developed torque is a function of the slip
and the torque-speed characteristics can be determined by the equation above. A typical plot of the developed torque
as a function of slip or speed is shown in Fig. 8.2.
There are three operation regions:
1. Motoring or powering, 0 s 1:
In this region, the motor rotates in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field. As the slip increases from
zero, the torque also increases (almost linearly). Once the torque reaches its maximum Tmm at s = sm , the
torque begins to decrease with the increase in slip.
69
70
CHAPTER 8. AC DRIVES
Regenerating
m>s>0
Motoring
0<m<s
Plugging
m<0,s>0
mm
s
1
2
0 sm
1
0
2
s
mr
71
2. Regeneration, 1 s 0:
In the regeneration region, the speed m is greater than the synchronous speed s with m and s being in the
same direction and the slip is negative. As a result, Rsr is negative, so is the torque d . This means that power
is being fed back from the shaft into the rotor circuit and the motor operates as a generator. The motor returns
power to the supply.
3. Plugging, 1 s 2:
In plugging, the speed is opposite to the direction of the rotating magnetic field and the slip is greater than
one. This may happen if the sequence of the supply source is reversed while motoring, so that the direction of
the rotating magnetic field is also reversed. The developed torque, which is in the same direction as the field,
opposes the motion and acts as braking torque. Since s > 1, the motor currents will be high, but the developed
torque will be low. The energy due to a plugging brake must be dissipated within the motor and this may cause
excessive heating of the motor. This type of braking is not normally recommended.
It can be noticed from the torque equation that the speed and torque of the induction motor can be varied by one
of the following methods:
1. Stator voltage control
2. Rotor voltage control for wound rotor motors
3. Frequency control
4. Stator voltage and frequency control
5. Stator current control
6. Voltage, current and frequency control
Example: A three-phase 460V 60Hz four-pole Y-connected induction motor has the following per-phase equivalent
circuit parameters: Rs = 0.42, Rr = 0.23, Xs = Xr = 0.82. The rotor speed is 1750rpm. Determine s , s, d , s ,
sm , mm , mr .
Solution:
Vs
s =
d
460
= 265.58V
3
2 1750
2nm
=
= 183.27rad/s
60
60
4 60
4f
=
= 188.5rad/s
P
4
s m
188.5 183.27
= 0.028
=
s
188.5
3Rr Vs2
h
i
2
2
ss Rs + Rsr + (Xs + Xr )
3 0.23 265.582
i = 119.38N m
h
2
0.23 2
0.028 188.5 0.42 + 0.028
+ (0.82 + 0.82)
3Rr Vs2
h
i
s (Rs + Rr )2 + (Xs + Xr )2
3 0.23 265.582
i = 82.96N m
h
2
2
188.5 (0.42 + 0.23) + (0.82 + 0.82)
sm
Rr
0.23
p
=p
= 0.1359
2
2
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )
0.42 + (0.82 + 0.82)2
mm
3V 2
p s
2sync [Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2 ]
3 265.582
p
= 265.64N m
2 188.5[0.42 + 0.422 + (0.82 + 0.82)2 ]
72
CHAPTER 8. AC DRIVES
mr
8.2
3V 2
p s
2sync [Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2 ]
3 265.582
p
= 440.94N m
2 188.5[0.42 + 0.422 + (0.82 + 0.82)2 ]
Frequency Control
Vs
km
where km is a constant.
At the rated voltage and rated frequency, the flux will be the rated flux.
Case 1: Decrease frequency If the voltage Vs is kept constant at its rated value while the frequency is reduced
below its rated value, the flux will increase, which would cause saturation of the air-gap flux and the motor parameters
would not be valid in determining the torque-speed characteristics. At low frequency, the reactances will decrease and
the motor current may be too high. This type of frequency control is not normally used. In this case, we need to
reduce the voltage Vs to keep constant.
Case 2: Increase frequency If the frequency is increased above its rated value, the flux and torque would
decrease. If the synchronous speed corresponding to the rated frequency is called the base speed b , the synchronous
speed at any other frequency f = frated becomes
s =
4frated
4f
=
= b
P
P
and
s=
b m
m
=1
s
b
mm
sm
ss
2s
3Rr Vs2
i
2
Rs + Rsr + (Xs + Xr )2
3Vs2
i
p
Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2
Rr
p
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )2
3Vs2
2b (Xs + Xr )
3Vs2
3Vs2
3Vs2
mb
1
=
=
= 2
s + X
r )
2b (Xs + Xr )
2b (Xs + Xr ) 2
2s (X
which implies that the maximum torque is inversely proportional to frequency squared and mm 2 remains constant.
The slip for the maximum torque is
Rr
sm =
Xs + Xr
73
Example: A three-phase 1750rpm 460V 60Hz 4-pole, Y-connected induction motor has the following parameters:
Rr = 0.38, Xs = 1.14, Xr = 1.71, and Xm = 33.2. The motor is controlled by varying the supply frequency.
Calculate the speed at the maximum torque for f = 1.5frated and for Rs = 0 and Rs = 0.66.
Solution:
Vrated
b
460
= 265.58V
3
4 60
4frated
=
= 188.5rad/s
=
P
4
= 1.5
= b = 1.5 188.5 = 282.75rad/s
=
The case of Rs = 0
sm
nm
mm
Rr
0.38
= 0.089
=
Xs + Xr
1.5 1.14 + 1.5 1.71
(1 sm )s = (1 0.089) 282.75 = 257.61rad/s
60 257.61
60m
=
= 2460rpm
2
2
2
3Vs
3 265.582
h
i =
i = 87.5N m
h
p
p
2s Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2
2 282.75 0 + 02 + (1.5 1.14 + 1.5 1.71)2
nm
mm
8.3
Rr
0.38
p
=p
0.088
2
2
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )
0.66 + (1.5 1.14 + 1.5 1.71)2
(1 sm )s = (1 0.088) 282.75 = 257.9rad/s
60 257.61
60m
=
= 2463rpm
2
2
3Vs2
3 265.582
h
i=
i = 75N m
h
p
p
2s Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2
2 282.75 0.66 + 0.662 + (1.5 1.14 + 1.5 1.71)2
Voltage and frequency control is to adjust the frequency and voltage at the same time so that the ratio of voltage and
frequency is kept constant. This type of control is known as volts/hertz control.
The ratio of the rated phase voltage Vrated to the base speed b is defined by
d=
Vrated
b
Now the synchronous speed is s = b . In order to keep d constant, the phase voltage Vs must be changed so that
Vs
=d
s
which means that
Vs = ds = db = Vrated
So if the frequency is decreased, the voltage Vs must be reduced to keep d constant.
At the frequency f = frated , the torque equations become
d
=
ss
mm
h
h
3Rr Vs2
i
2
Rs + Rsr + (Xs + Xr )2
2s Rs +
sm
3Vs2
i
p
Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2
Rr
p
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )2
74
CHAPTER 8. AC DRIVES
As the frequency is reduced, decreases and the slip for maximum torque increases. By varying both the voltage
and frequency, the torque and speed can be controlled.
The voltage at variable frequency can be obtained from three-phase inverters.
Example: A three-phase 1750rpm 460V 60Hz 4-pole, Y-connected induction motor has the following parameters:
Rs = 0.66, Rr = 0.38, Xs = 1.14, Xr = 1.71, and Xm = 33.2. The motor is controlled by varying both
the voltage and frequency. The volts/hertz ratio, which corresponds to the rated voltage and rated frequency, is
maintained constant. Calculate the maximum torque and the corresponding speed for 60Hz and 30Hz.
Solution:
Vrated
d =
460
= 265.58V
3
4 60
4frated
=
= 188.5rad/s
P
4
Vs
265.58
= 1.409
=
b
188.5
For f = 60Hz,
s
Vs
sm
nm
mm
4 60
4frated
=
= 188.5rad/s
P
4
s
188.5
=1
=
b
188.5
Vrated = 265.58V
Rr
0.38
p
=p
= 0.1299
2
2
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )
0.66 + (1 1.14 + 1 1.71)2
(1 s)s = (1 0.1299) 188.5 = 164.01rad/s
60 164.01
60m
=
= 1566rpm
2
2
3Vs2
h
i
p
2s Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2
3 265.582
i = 156.55N m
h
p
2 188.5 0.66 + 0.662 + (1 1.14 + 1 1.71)2
For f = 30Hz,
s
Vs
sm
nm
mm
4 30
4frated
=
= 94.25rad/s
P
4
s
94.25
= 0.5
=
b
188.5
Vrated = 0.5 265.58 = 132.79V
Rr
0.38
p
=p
= 0.242
2
2
2
Rs + (Xs + Xr )
0.66 + (0.5 1.14 + 0.5 1.71)2
(1 s)s = (1 0.242) 94.25 = 71.44rad/s
60 71.44
60m
=
= 682rpm
2
2
3Vs2
h
i
p
2s Rs + Rs2 + (Xs + Xr )2
3 132.792
i = 128.82N m
h
p
2 94.25 0.66 + 0.662 + (0.5 1.14 + 0.5 1.71)2
75
200
=.4
=.6
=.8
=1
=1.2
=1.4
100
=.2
0
torque d (N.m)
100
200
300
400
500
600
500
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slip s
2000
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3000