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1.
Introduction
In recent times, reduced visibility has become a recurrent phenomenon across areas of Southeast Asia,
resulting from biomass burning in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Haze events have been recorded in 1983,
1990, 1991, 1994, 1997 and 1998 (Radojevic and Hassan 1999, Muraleedharan et al. 2000). Koe et al.
(2001) noted that reduced visibility in Malaysia during the 1997 haze episode was the result of long
range transport of smoke from Sumatra. Haze from biomass burning contains large amount of trace
gases (e.g., CO, NO2, SO2) and particles matter (e.g., organic matter, graphitic carbon), which are
hazardous to health. Lung and eye deceases have been identified as the common immediate effect of
haze. In long term, haze is capable of increasing the atmospheric greenhouse effects besides affecting
the tropospheric chemistry. In big cities, emission from industrial and vehicle have acted as local
contributors that worsen the situation.
Main constrains over conventional monitoring instruments are that they could not detect an early sign
of haze and is impractical for large areas or for continuous monitoring. Besides that they are also
logistically expensive and time consuming. The 1997 haze events prompt the need for searching of an
alternative method for determining and monitoring haze in Malaysia.
Remote sensing offers a cheap, fast and more reliable alternative to monitor haze continuously over any
given areas and at any time. The current study is an extension of previous work that earlier discussed
on techniques for determination and mapping of haze from NOAA-14 AVHRR scene (Asmala and
Mazlan, 1997, 2000, 2002).
2.
Materials
(a)
Station
A. Kuala Lumpur, Wilayah
P ersekutuan
. Prai, Penang
C . Pasir Gudang
,
Johor
B
D.
Bukit Rambai
Melaka
Bukit Kuang
Terengganu
(b)
Figure 1 : (a) Study area, and (b) Combination of band 1 (0.58 - 0.68 m), 2 (0.725 - 1.00 m) and 4
(10.30 - 11.30 m) of NOAA-14 AVHRR data dated 22 September 1997, were used to
differentiate between haze (orange), low clouds (yellow) and high clouds (white).
2.2 Satellite data
Seven sets of NOAA-14 AVHRR data dated 22, 23, 25, 2, 28, 29 and 30 September 1997 acquired from
SEAFDEC (Southeast Asia Fishery Development Centre) receiving station were used. NOAA-14
AVHRR was suitable for haze study as it offers high spectral and temporal resolution with a minimum
cost. Some useful characteristics of NOAA-14 AVHRR satellite are shown in Table 1.
2.3 Ancillary data
Meteorological information over study area, including visibility, air temperature, pressure, relative
humidity, wind, etc were obtained from MMS (Malaysian Meteorological Service).
2399km
Resolution at nadir
1.1km approx.
Altitude
833km
Quantisation
10 bit
Orbit type
Sun synchronous
14.1 (approx.)
Wavelength (microns)
Typical use
0.58 - 0.68
0.725 - 1.00
Land-water boundaries
3.55 - 3.93
3A
N/A
3B
N/A
10.30 - 11.30
11.50 - 12.50
Method
Four modules incorporated in this study are (a) Derivation of haze model, (b) Sampling and Regression
analysis, (c) Multi-temporal analysis, and (d) Visual analysis from other satellite data.
3.1 Derivation of haze model
Prior to further data processing, post launch calibration of visible and near infrared channel was earlier
implemented in order to compensate data degradation due to extreme temperature change before and
after launching of AVHRR sensor to space (Rao et al., 1996). Clouds and haze were successfully
differentiated using thresholding technique (Baum et al., 1997). This to ensure both were not being
misinterpreted between each other. Model used in this study is based on Siegenthaler and Baumgartner
(1996), which make use of skylight to indicate the existence of haze. Skylight is an indirect radiation,
which occurs when radiation from the sun being scattered by elements within the haze layer. It is not a
direct radiation, which is dominated by pixels on the earth surface. Figure 2 shows electromagnetic
radiation path propagating from the sun towards the NOAA-14 AVHRR satellite penetrating through a
haze layer. Path number 1, 3 and 4 are skylight caused by direct radiation, whereas path 2 is indirect
radiation.
(1)
reflectance recorded by satellite sensor,
reflectance from known object from earth surface ,
skylight, and
lost radiation caused by scattering and absorption.
250
PM10 (API)
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Band 1 (Reflectance )
RMSE
2
1
API calculated API measured
(2)
where:
n
APIcalculated
APImeasured
:
:
:
sample size,
Air Pollution Index calculated by model
Air Pollution Index measured by air station
Result of this study was presented as PM 10 concentration map for the whole Peninsular Malaysia. PM
10 condition for 26 September 1997, 7.29 GMT is shown in Figure 5. RMSE for selected big cities;
Prai and Pasir Gudang are 31 and 27 respectively. It was believed that the relatively high gained RMSE
was due to limited number of air pollution stations used. Future study will consider of using more air
pollution stations as well as higher resolution satellite data in order to obtain better accuracy.
5.
PM10 (API)
Prai, Penang
31
27
Conclusion
The study shows that remote sensing technique is capable of monitoring and quantifying PM 10
concentration continuously with minimum cost and time. These are useful in order to provide haze
early warnings, so that necessary measures could be taken effectively by both government authorised
party as well as public.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4 : Multitemporal trend of calculated and measured PM 10 at (a) Prai, Penang, and (b) Pasir Gudang, Johor.
PM10(API)
0 (Awan)
151-200
1-50
201-250
51-100
251-300
101-150
Figure 5 : PM 10 concentration map of Peninsular Malaysia for 26 September 1997, 7.29 GMT
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Figure 6 : Haze visual analysis from band 1, 2 and 4 of NOAA-14 AVHRR satellite data for March 1997 (a)22 nd,
(b)23rd, (c)25th, (d)26th, (e)28th, (f)29th and (g)30th .
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Landcover
Water
Stable
Fire
Cloud
Boundary
N/A
References
Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sd. Bhd. (1998). Measurement of Air Pollution Index (API). ASMA:
Unpublished.
Asmala Ahmad and Mazlan Hashim (2002). Determination of Haze Using NOAA-14 Satellite Data.
Proceedings on The 23rd Asian Conference on Remote Sensing 2002 in Kathmandu, Nepal, 25-29
November 2002.
Asmala Ahmad, and Mazlan Hashim, (1997). Determination of Haze from Satellite Remotely Sensed
Data : Some Preliminary Results. Proceedings on The 18th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing
1997 at Nikko Hotel, Kuala Lumpur.
Asmala Ahmad, and Mazlan Hashim, (2000). Determination of Haze Air Pollution Index from Forest
Fire Emission during the 1997 Thick Haze Episode in Malaysia using NOAA AVHRR Data.
Malaysian Journal of Remote Sensing & GIS. 1 : 77-84.
Baum, B.A. (1997). Discrimination between clouds and smoke/fires in daytime AVHRR data. NASA
Langley Research Center Atmospheric Sciences Division Radiation Sciences Branch Homepage
[Online] Available, http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/~baum/Pathfinder/smoke.html
Defense Meteorological Satellite Programme (DMSP) Website, http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html
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