Cement Concrete

CEMENT CONCRETE
Cement concrete is a composite building material. It is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or
crushed rock and water. This when placed in a skeleton of forms (formwork) and allowed to cure,
becomes hard like stone. An old name for concrete is liquid stone. Now days it is a major building
material and is used in all branches of modern construction. This is so because:
1. It can be easily moulded into different shapes and sizes to give a durable structure.
2. There is very less labour expenditure.
3. It is possible to control its properties, within a wide range using appropriate ingredients and
techniques.
4. Complete mechanisation during its preparation and placing is possible.
5. It has adequate plasticity for mechanical working.
Properties of Cement Concrete (from Rangwala)
During hydration and hardening, concrete needs to develop certain physical and chemical
properties.

Materials used in R.C.C. work

1.
2.

Cement
Coarse aggregates
Water

Fine aggregates
Steel
Admixtures

Cement: (from Rangwala).

Aggregates: These are chemically inert. Form the bulk of concrete. They should be hard,
durable and clean, completely free from clay lumps, organic and vegetable matter, fine dust,
etc. They should conform to IS 383. Preference should be given to natural aggregates.
i. Fine aggregates: Pass through BIS sieve no. 480. Usually river sand is used. Crushed
stone may be used in its place.
ii. Coarse aggregates: Retained on BIS sieve no. 480. Usually broken stone is used. The
nature of work decides its max. size. For thin slabs, beams and walls, generally 1/3rd the
thickness of the section is taken.
Choice of Aggregates: The choice of aggregates may depend on several factors, the most
important being availability. Otherwise it depends on the following factors which in turn
influence the performance of concrete.
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Factors
Specific gravity / porosity
Chemical stability
Surface texture
Shape
Gradation or particle size
distribution
Maximum size
Deleterious materials

Influence on concrete property

Strength / absorption
Durability
Bond grip
Water demand (strength / workability)
Water demand (strength), cohesion, bleeding and
segregation
Strength and water demand
Water demand (strength), bond, cohesion, durability

Quality of Aggregates
Crushed aggregate generally not contain clay, silt or mud but may contain a percentage of
dust or grit. This dust of present as a coating around the larger aggregate will result in drop in
strength of concrete. Similarly grit and dust proportions of the aggregate will cause an
increase in water demand and subsequent drop in concrete strength.

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S.
No.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Limits of Deleterious Materials

Method of Test
Fine Aggregate % by
Weight, Max.
Uncrushed Crushed
(a)
(b)
Coal and lignite
IS 2386 (P2): 63
1.00
1.00
Clay lumps
IS 2386 (P2): 63
1.00
1.00
Materials finer than 75 IS 2386 (P1): 63
3.00
15.00
IS sieve
Soft fragments
IS 2386 (P2): 63
Shale
IS 2386 (P2): 63
1.00
Total of %s of all
deleterious
materials
(except mica) incl. 1 5
5.00
2.00
for a, c and d and 1, 2
for b.
Deleterious Substances

Coarse Aggregate %
by Weight, Max.
Uncrushed Crushed
(c)
(d)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
3.00

3.00

3.00
-

5.00

5.00

Texture of Aggregates
The surface texture influences the bond between the aggregate and cement. Smooth surface
such as that found on gravels will have poor bond. Crushed aggregates have a rough texture
and give a good mechanical bond with cement.
Shape of Aggregates
The aggregate shape can be broadly classified as follows in order of desirability:

Rounded: Min. surface area for the same mass. Therefore, requires minimum cement
paste for bonding. Less water cement ratio required for the same workability.

Irregular Rounded

Cubical

Flaky angular

Elongated

Flaky elongated
Flaky (least dimension is less than 3/5th of its mean dimension) and elongated (length is 1.8
times its mean dimension) shapes have larger surface area for the same mass as compared to
rounded or cubical shapes. The cement paste required to coat the surface and hence the water
demand is much more. These shapes are therefore generally not preferred.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of the aggregates is generally indicative of its quality. It is very important for
the aggregates to have high specific gravity generally between 2.4 and 2.9 as the concrete
density will generally depend on it.
Surface Moisture Content, Absorption and Porosity
Natural aggregates generally contain moisture. Generally the moisture is present in the
following forms:

Moist or surface wet

Surface dry but saturated

Air dry

Oven dry
The moisture in the surface determines the free water which is to be considered while
measuring the water cement ratio. The absorbed moisture within the aggregates is not
considered. Porous aggregates will absorb more moisture or water than dense aggregates, so
concrete will lose its workability at a faster rate.
Grading of Aggregates
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They can influence various properties of concrete such as cohesion, water demand,
workability and strength. In order to obtain concrete of denser quality, the fine and coarse
aggregates need to be properly graded.
The grading of fine aggregates has a marked effect on the uniformity, workability and
finishing quality of concrete. The grading of the coarse aggregate may be varied through
wider limits without appreciable effect on workability of concrete.
Grading Limits for Fine Aggregates
IS Sieve
10 mm
4.75 mm
2.36 mm
1.18 mm
600 micron
300 micron
150 micron

Zone 1
100
90 100
60 95
30 70
15 34
5 20
0 10

Percentage Passing For

Zone 2
Zone 3
100
100
90 100
90 100
75 100
85 100
55 90
75 100
35 59
60 79
8 30
12 40
0 10
0 10

Zone 4
100
95 100
95 100
90 100
80 100
15 50
0 15

If a particular sieve size is not present in aggregates, it is called gap graded.

Size of Coarse Aggregates
For most of work, 20mm aggregate is suitable. Where there is no restriction to the flow of
concrete into sections, 40mm or larger size may be permitted. In concrete elements with thin
sections, closely spaced reinforcement or small cover, 10mm nominal max. size aggregates
should be used.
Other Impurities

Organic: Even a very small fraction of organic matter will delay or prevent the
hardening of concrete.

Chloride: If present in fine aggregates, will not be harmful to concrete or mortar but
will be harmful to the reinforcement or other steel embedments in concrete or mortar.

Alkali Reactivity: Aggregates should not be alkali reactive as they react with cement.
Expansive forces are created because of it which in turn causes cracking and
disintegration of concrete. Such reaction generally takes place after a lapse of 2 to 3
yrs.
Importance of Bulking of Sand

The bulking of sand should be taken into account when volumetric proportioning of the
aggregates is adopted. Otherwise it which will increase the cost.

There would be less quantity of fine aggregates in the concrete mix, which may make
the concrete difficult to place.

Proportioning by weight avoids this difficulty.

3.

Steel: It is generally in the form of round bars (mild steel / twisted / ribbed) of mild steel. The
diameter varies from 5mm to 40mm. Sometimes square bars are also used as steel
reinforcement.
Structural requirement of Reinforcing Steel
All reinforcement shall be free from loose mill scales, loose rust and coats of paints, oil, mud
or any other substances which may destroy or reduce bond.

4.

Water: It should be potable. That is, it should be free from harmful impurities like oil, alkali,
acid etc. Water that is drinkable and having no pronounced taste or odour is suitable for use

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in making concrete. The pH value of water shall not be less than 6. The impurities in mixing
water, when beyond the specified limits, may affect the following properties of concrete:

Strength
Volume stability
Corrosion of reinforcement (durability)

Setting time
Efflorescence

Sea Water for Making Concrete (from Rangwala)

5.

Admixtures: These are added to concrete to improve its qualities. Also for changing
different physical properties in fresh and hardened state. Admixtures may improve concrete
w.r.t:
i. Its strength
ii. Hardness
iii. Workability
iv. Water resistance power
v. Resistance to acids and alkalis
vi. Setting time

Admixtures
Admixtures are organic or non-organic materials in form of solids or fluids that are added to the
concrete either before or during its mixing to alter its properties, such as workability, curing
temperature range, set time or colour and to give it certain characteristics. These generally make
up less than 5% of the cement weight and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.
The most used types of admixtures are:

Accelerators: These speed up the hydration (strengthening) of the concrete, shorten the set
time of concrete, allowing a cold-weather pour, early removal of forms, early surface
finishing, and in some cases, early load application.

Retarders: These slow down the hydration of cement, lengthening set time. Used in hot
weather conditions and large masses of concrete on concrete setting time.

Air-entrainers: Add and distributes tiny air bubbles to the concrete, which reduces damage due
to freeze-thaw cycles.

Plasticizers: Used to increase the workability of concrete, allowing it to be placed more easily
with less compactive effort. Alternatively, they can be used to reduce the water content of a
concrete (termed water reducers) yet maintain the original workability.

Pigments: Change the colour of concrete for aesthetics.

Water reducing admixtures: Require less water to make a concrete of equal slump, or increase
the slump of concrete at the same water content. These are used for hot weather concrete
placing and to aid pumping.

Waterproofing and damp proofing admixtures: These are used to decrease the amount of water
penetration into the larger pores of concrete.
Additions

Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fire electric generating plants; it is used to partially replace
Portland cement by up to 40% by weight.

Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS): A by-product of steel making, it is used to

partially replace Portland cement by up to 80% by weight.

Silica fume: It is used to increase strength and durability of concrete.

Crushed Glass: Recycled, crushed glass can also be added in the production of concrete for an
aesthetic effect in the construction of walkways.

Water Cement Ratio

The water in concrete has to perform the following two functions:
1. The water enters into chemical action with cement and this action causes the setting and
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hardening of concrete.
The water lubricates the aggregates and it facilitates the passage of cement through voids of
aggregates. This means that water makes the concrete workable.
Water required for these two functions is about 0.5 to 0.6 times the weight of cement. This ratio of
the amount of water to the amount of cement by weight is termed as the water cement ratio. The
strength and quality of concrete primarily depends upon this ratio.
The quantity of water is usually expressed in litres per bag of cement.
Important points to be observed in
connection with the water-cement ratio
are as follows:
1. The minimum quantity of water
should be used to have reasonable
degree of workability.
2. The water-cement ratio for
structures which are exposed to
weather should be carefully
decided.
3. Some
rules-of-thumb
are
developed for deciding the
quantity of water in concrete. The
two such rules are:
a. Weight of water = 28% of the
weight of cement + 4% of the
weight of total aggregates.
b. Weight of water = 30% of the
weight of cement + 5% of the
weight of total aggregates.

2.

Water cement ratio is important

because:
1. Water cement ratio and strength
of concrete: The strength of
concrete is inversely proportional
to the water-cement ratio.
2. Water cement ratio and
durability of concrete: W/C governs the porosity of the hydrated cement paste. Thus the value
of W/C is relevant to many aspects of durability.

Workability
The term workability (or consistence, as it is known in Europe) is used to describe the ease or
difficulty with which the concrete is handled, transported and placed between the forms with
minimum loss of homogeneity. If the concrete mixture is too wet, the coarse aggregates settle at the
bottom of concrete mass. On the other hand, if the concrete mixture is too dry, it will be difficult to
handle and place it in position and have more entrapped air within the concrete. Both these
conflicting conditions should be correlated by proportioning carefully various components of
concrete mixture.
The important facts in connection with workability are as follows:
1. If more water is added to attain the required degree of workmanship, it results into concrete of
low strength and poor durability.
2. If the strength of concrete is not to be affected, the degree of workability can be obtained:
a. By slightly changing the proportions of fine and coarse aggregates, in case the concrete
mixture is too wet; and
b. By adding a small quantity of water cement paste in the proportion of original mix, in
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3.
4.
5.

case the concrete mixture is too dry.

A concrete mixture for one work may prove to be too stiff or too wet for another work.
The workability of concrete is affected mainly by water content, water-cement ratio and
aggregate-cement ratio.
The workability of concrete is also affected by the grading, shape, texture and maximum size
of the coarse aggregates to be used in the mixture.

The slump test (from Rangwala)

Recommended Slumps of Concrete (from Rangwala)
Classification of Concrete Mixes (from Rangwala)

Proportioning of Concrete
The process of selection of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water, so as
to obtain a concrete of desired quality is known as the proportioning concrete.
It is observed that if a vessel is taken and filled with stones of equal size, the voids to the extent of
about 45% are formed. This result is independent of the size of stones. The theory of formation of
concrete is based on this phenomenon of formation of voids. When coarse aggregate is placed, such
voids are formed. When fine aggregate (sand) is added, it occupies these voids. Further when finely
powered cement is added, it occupies the voids of sand particles. Finally, when water is added, it
occupies very fine voids between cement particles. During the process of setting, a chemical
reaction takes place between water and cement. This results in an absolutely solid substance,
known as the concrete.
In general, the proportions of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and water should be such
that the resulting concrete has the following properties:
1. When concrete is fresh, it should have enough workability so that it can be placed in the
formwork economically.
2. The concrete must possess maximum density or in other words, it should be the strongest and
most watertight.
3. The cost of materials and labour required to form the concrete should be minimum.
4. The concrete should be cohesive.
5. The concrete should be homogeneous, so that the properties of concrete are uniform.
The different methods of proportioning concrete (from Rangwala)

Batching of Concrete
The concrete batching is done using the following methods:
Volumetric Batching: Fermas or boxes of certain size are made and with the help of these the
mixing is done. The bulking of sand needs to be taken into consideration while using this method.
Weigh Batching: The concrete proportioning is done according to the weights of the material. The
mix is properly designed in this case. The bulking of sand does not have a marked effect on
concrete while using this method.

Mixing the Materials of Concrete

The process of rolling, folding, and spreading of particles is known as the mixing of concrete.
Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality concrete. It ensures that
cement water paste completely covers the surface of aggregates and fills all the spaces between
them with cement paste. Concrete can be mixed either by hand or by machine.
Hand Mixing: The materials are stacked on a watertight platform, and mixed thoroughly in dry
condition at least three times, before water is added. Then it is again thoroughly mixed. The mix
should be used within 30mins after the addition of water. It is done in case of small unimportant
works, where small quantity of concrete is required.
Machine Mixing: Machine mixing makes more uniform batches. The methods for mixing concrete
by machines vary. The concrete may be mixed by machines at the place where the concrete will be
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used. Ready-mix companies make huge batches of concrete at mixing plants, and take it to the work
site in trucks.
All the materials of concrete including water are collected in a revolving drum and then the drum is
rotated for a certain period. The resulting mix is then taken out of the drum.

The mixing of materials of concrete with the help of machines is more efficient and it
produces concrete of better quality.

The mixtures of various types and capacities are available. They may be either of tilting or non
tilting drum type. They are generally provided with power operated loading hoppers.

The water should enter the mixer at the same time or before the other materials are places, to
ensure even distribution of water.

The mixing should be carried out till the mix is observed to be of uniform colour and
consistency.

The drum should not be overloaded.

There should be some additional sand and cement in the first batch, as some of it sticks to the
sides and the blades. It would require more water, but the W/C should remain unchanged.

The mixer should be thoroughly washed and cleansed after use.

The damaged or broken blades should be removed.

The mixing time should preferably be 2 mins.

The concrete discharged by the mixer should be used within 30 mins.

Transportation and Placing of Concrete

The mixed concrete is to be transported from the mixing point to the placing point on the formwork
in the shortest possible time so that it does not lose its workability. Concrete is required to be
transported in both horizontal and vertical direction.
The type of equipment used for this purpose depends on the nature of work, height above ground
level and distance between the point of preparation and placing of concrete.
There are several modes of transportation of concrete mixes. They can be classified as:
1. Fully Manual: Concrete is transported by head load. This is done for ordinary building works.
A human ladder is formed and the concrete is conveyed in pans from hand to hand. Proper
walkways and staging should be provided for the worker to work quickly, safely, and
comfortably.
2. Semi Manual and Semi Mechanised: The concrete is transported horizontally by manual
means and vertically by mechanical means such as a builders hoist, cranes etc. It is done in
most of the building works.
3. Fully Mechanised: The concrete is transported both vertically and horizontally by mechanical
means such as dumpers and truck mixers for horizontal transportation, hoists for vertical
transportation and conveyors, concrete pumps, cranes, helicopters with buckets (in hilly areas)
for both vertical and horizontal transportation. It is used for important works.
Precautions while transporting concrete:
a. There should be no segregation of aggregates or bleeding of concrete during transportation as
it can result in the loss of strength, non uniformity, porosity and poor durability.
b. Water should not be added to the concrete during its passage from mixer to formwork.
Placing. Workers pour the wet concrete into forms made of wood, plywood, or steel. The forms
hold the concrete in shape until it hardens. The concrete may be dumped directly into the forms, or
poured down chutes.
Precautions: (from Rangwala)
a. Formwork should be properly cleaned and well watered.
b. Concrete should be deposited as near as practicable to its final position.
c. Large quantities of concrete should not be deposited at a time.
d. The concrete should be dropped vertically from a reasonable height.
e. The concrete should be deposited in horizontal layers of about 150mm in height.
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f.
g.

Concrete should be placed in single thickness.

Cold joints should be avoided by placing the layer of concrete over the previous layer which
can still be compacted.
h. The concrete should be thoroughly worked around the reinforcement and tapped in such a way
that no honeycombed surface appears on the removal of formwork.
i. The concrete should be placed on formwork as soon as possible.
j. During placing, it should be seen that all the edges and corners of concrete surface remain
unbroken, sharp, and straight in line.
k. There should not be any obstruction along the path of placing concrete as it will cause
segregation.
l. The location at which the concrete is being placed should be visible to the naked eye.
m. For good and uniform finish in wall and columns, it is necessary to fill the forms at a rate
greater than 2.0 to 3.0 m height per hour.

Consolidation of Concrete
It is used to mean the compaction between aggregate and aggregate, between aggregate and
reinforcement, and between aggregate and forms. Compacting process consolidates fresh concrete
within the mould of formworks and around the embedded parts and steel reinforcement.
The main aim of consolidation is to eliminate air bubbles and thus give maximum density to
concrete. It is important as a presence of 5% of voids reduces 30% of strength of concrete. The
amount of entrapped air is directly related to workability of concrete. Lower the workability, higher
the percentage of entrapped air.
The process of consolidation of concrete can be carried out either by hand or with the help of
vibrators.
Hand Compaction: It is done for unimportant works. The methods include ramming, tamping,
spading and slicing with suitable tools. It requires fairly wet concrete. Wherever feasible, hand
compaction should be preferred as the use of vibrator may lead to segregation of aggregates. The
concrete mixes that can be hand compacted should not be compacted using vibrators.
Vibrators: Compaction is best done by vibration. As hand compaction requires very sincere
manual effort, good supervision, and high workability, under present circumstances it is not
possible to achieve this, and hence compaction by mechanical means is preferred.
Advantages:
1. It is possible by means of vibrators to make a harsh and stiff concrete mix, with a slump of
about 40 mm or less, workable.
2. The quality of concrete can be improved by use of vibrators as less water will be required or
in other way, economy can be achieved by adopting a leaner mix when vibrators are used.
3. The use of vibrators results in the reduction of consolidation time. Hence the vibrators are
used where the rapid progress of work is of great importance.
4. With the help of vibrators, it is possible to deposit concrete in small openings or places where
it will be difficult to deposit concrete by hand methods.
Types of vibrators: (from Rangwala)
Over vibration should be avoided. A good cohesive mix will withstand over vibration but lean
concrete mix will segregate and result in concrete of non uniform strength, quality and durability.

Curing of Concrete
Curing is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition, i.e. to maintain
an environment of humidity around freshly placed concrete till the process of hydration is relatively
complete. Good curing is typically considered to provide a moist environment and control
temperature. A moist environment promotes hydration resulting in a higher quality material. It
makes concrete harden properly. Allowing the concrete surface to dry out excessively can cause the
concrete to crack.
Improper curing can lead to several serviceability problems including cracking, increased scaling,
and reduced abrasion resistance.
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After the concrete becomes firm enough to resist marring, should be sprinkled with water, and then
covered with wet canvas, wet burlap, or wet sand. This cover keeps the concrete from drying too
rapidly.
Purpose of curing (from Rangwala)
Period of curing (from Rangwala)
Effects of improper curing (from Rangwala)
Factors affecting evaporation of water from concrete (from Rangwala)
Methods of Curing:
Selection of method of curing is done according to the following factors:

Specifications

Availability of curing materials

Economics

Type of concrete structure (pre-cast / cast in situ)

Shape and size of concrete surface

Aesthetic appearance
All the methods of curing are derived from the basic principle of lowering of the surface
temperatures and prevention of water evaporation.
Several specialized curing techniques are employed in the modern construction work, but the most
commonly employed methods of curing are as follows:
1.
Ponding with water: It is the best of the methods. It consists of little earthen dams which are
built over the entire surface to be cured. 1he squares thus formed are then flooded with water
to a depth of about 50 mm or so. This is an effective method for flat horizontal surfaces. But
it is not practicable on vertical surfaces.
2.
Covering concrete with wet jute bags: Covering of concrete surfaces with wet jute bags has
also practical limitations on account of difficulty in maintaining them close to the surface
especially in localities having winds blowing at high speed.
3.
Covering concrete with wet sand, saw dust, etc.: They can be used only under specific
circumstances.
4.
Covering concrete with water-proof paper or polythelene sheets and holding it in position
5.
Intermittent spraying with water and continuous sprinkling of water: It is the most common
method of curing under Indian conditions. It is however observed that the intermittent
spraying of water takes place after the surface water has dried out. It results into harmful
effects as young concrete is constantly subjected to multiple wetting and drying leading to
early deterioration.
6.
Applying curing compounds: It is a simple operation and it can be brought about by praying
while the concrete is wet. The application is generally carried out by tree sprayers which are
employed for spraying of insecticides.

Formwork
It is a temporary construction to contain wet concrete in the required shape while it is cast and
setting.
Or
It is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar
materials are poured.
Or
Formwork is a complete system of temporary structure to support a construction.
In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering moulds.
Falsework is the temporary structure erected to support work in progress of construction. It is
composed of shores, formwork for beams or slabs (or both), lateral bracings, and that part of
formwork that supports the forms usually for a large structure such as bridge.
The concrete is contained in a timber or steel casing for a certain period after its placing. This
casing is known as the shuttering, centering, form work or moulds and it is to be removed when
concrete has hardened sufficiently to support its own weight.
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Shuttering

Centering is the specified formwork for soffit used in construction of arches, shells, space
structures, or any continuous structure where the entire falsework is lowered decentered or struck
out in the predetermined phases, as a unit, to avoid introducing injurious tress in any part of the
structure. Loosely the term is also used for the parts of formwork required for soffit of beams and
slabs.
Formwork Types
Formwork comes in three main types:

Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood or
moisture resistant particleboard. It is easy to produce but time consuming for larger structures,
and the plywood facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the
labour costs are lower than the costs for procuring re-usable formwork. It is also the most
flexible type of formwork

Engineered Formwork systems or Modular Formwork. This formwork is built out of

prefabricated modules with a metal frame (usually steel) and covered on the application
(concrete) side with material having the wanted surface structure (steel, timber, etc.). The two
major advantages of formwork systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed
of construction (modular systems clip or screw together quickly) and lower life-cycle costs

Stay-In-Place Formwork systems. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of

prefabricated insulating concrete forms. The formwork stays in place (or is simply covered
with earth in case of buried structures) after the concrete has cured, and may provide thermal
and acoustic insulation, space to run utilities within, or backing for finishes.
Following precautions should be taken for form work of concrete:
1. The formwork should be designed in such a way that it can be easily removed and used again.
2. The formwork should be fixed in such a way that the least hammering is required for its
removal. Otherwise it may injure the concrete.
3. The inside surface of formwork should be coated with crude oil or soft soap solution or grease.
This will make removal of form work easy.
4. The formwork should be sufficiently strong to bear the dead load of wet concrete as well as
the impact of ramming or vibrating the concrete. The over-estimation of loads results in
expensive form work and the under-estimation of loads results in the failure of formwork.
5. It is desirable to bring down the cost of form work to a minimum consistent with safety.
6. The formwork should be so arranged that there is minimum of leakage through the joints. This
is achieved by providing tight joints between adjacent sections of the formwork.

Joints in Concrete Structure

The types of joints provided in concrete structures are:
1.
Construction joints: The construction joints are
provided at locations where the construction is stopped
either at the end of day or for any other reason, where
the placement of concrete is stopped for more than the
initial setting time of concrete. Here the two successive
placements of concrete meet. The provision of a
construction joint becomes necessary to ensure proper
bond between the old work and the new one.
The construction joints may be horizontal or vertical.
For inclined or curve member, the joint should be at
right angle to the axis of the member.
(See Rangwala also)
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Expansion and contraction Joints: These joints are provided in all the concrete structures of length
exceeding 12 m, mainly for two purposes:

To allow changes in volume of concrete due to temperature

To preserve the appearance and the original shape of the concrete structures
These joints generally consist of some elastic material, known as the joint filler and dowels or keys.
2.

3.

Expansion or isolation joints: These are used to separate or isolate slabs from other parts of
the structure, such as walls, footings, or columns etc. They permit independent horizontal and
vertical movement between adjoining parts of the structure and help minimise cracking when
such movements are restrained.
Contraction joints: These are intended to create weak places in concrete and regulate the
locations where cracks resulting from dimensional changes, will occur. These are installed to
allow for shrinkage movement in the structure. It can either be a complete contraction joint
(where both steel and concrete are completely discontinuous) or partial contraction joint
(there is discontinuity of concrete but reinforcements continue across joint). No gap is
provided for the joint.

Guniting (from Rangwala)

Quality Control of Concrete
The term quality control in civil engineering parlance is used to mean that the work is done
according to the specifications provided in a contract document.
For preparing a high quality concrete, the field organisation, may broadly be divided into the
following three divisions:
1. The engineering division which provides lines and grades and makes the initial inspection of
all forms, reinforcement and installation of all embedded parts.
2. The manufacturing division which exercises control over concrete materials, batching and
mixing.
3. The placing division which is concerned with the control of concrete placing and of related
operations prior and subsequent thereto.
The concrete produced at site should be strongest, densest, most workable and most economical for
the job for which it is prepared. The amount of cement should be low and that of aggregates should
be high.
The most economical concrete with the highest possible density is obtained by observing the
following general requirements
1. The air bubbles should be eliminated from the body of the concrete.
2. The cement particles should be of the smallest size.
3. The concrete would be compacted fully so as to remove voids.
4. The concrete should be cured sufficiently and adequately, say for 28 days.
5. The cubical particles of the aggregates should be used so that good interlocking is gained.
6. The water-cement ratio should be kept low.
The quality control of concrete demands a high degree of awareness
The quality control, if properly achieved to, grants the following advantages:
1. It helps in improved utilization of scarce resources and in extended utilization of low-grade
materials.
2. It helps to minimize failures.
3. It results into lower costs of construction as higher stresses can be assumed.
4. The structure becomes durable with lower costs of maintenance.

Concrete Testing
Engineers usually specify the required compressive strength of concrete which is normally given as
the 28 day compressive strength in megapascals (Mpa) or pounds per square inch (psi). Slump test
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of concrete is done using the slump cone to check the workability of concrete. The concrete test
cubes are cast to find out the compressive strength of the concrete.

Use of Concrete in Structures

Mass concrete structures: These include gravity dams such as the Hoover Dam and large
breakwaters.
Reinforced concrete: Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing that is designed and placed in
structural members at specific positions to cater for all the stress conditions that the member is
required to accommodate.
Post-tensioned concrete structures: Buildings with monostrand post-tensioned slabs are a widely
used application of prestressed concrete. This method achieves performance and construction
improvements over other construction methods. Post-tensioned slabs are a preferred method for
industrial, commercial and residential floor slab construction. Prestressed floor systems using
monostrand cables may be designed as either one or two way slab systems, and may be flat plate,
flat slab waffle slab, or other slab sections.
Precast concrete: Ancient Roman builders made use of concrete and soon poured the material into
moulds to build their complex network of aqueducts, culverts and tunnels. Modern uses for precast
technology include a variety of architectural applications including free-standing walls used for
landscaping, soundproofing and security walls. Precast architectural panels are also used to clad all
or part of a building facade. Storm-water drainage, water and sewage pipes and tunnels make use of
precast concrete units.

Varieties of Concrete
Regular Concrete: It is the lay term describing concrete that is produced by mixing cement, with
sand or coarse aggregate. This concrete can be produced to yield a varying strength from about 10
MPa to about 40 MPa, depending on the purpose, ranging from blinding to structural concrete
respectively.
Reinforced Concrete: It is made by casting concrete around steel rods or bars. The steel
strengthens the concrete. Almost all large structures require this extra strong type of concrete.
Prestressed Concrete: It is usually is made by casting concrete around steel cables stretched by
hydraulic jacks. After the concrete hardens, the jacks are released and the cables compress the
concrete. Concrete is strongest when it is compressed.
Pervious Concrete or No Fines Concrete (from Rangwala)
Coloured Concrete (from Rangwala)
Lightweight Concrete (from Rangwala)
Precast Concrete (from Rangwala)
Aerated Concrete: It contains tiny air bubbles. These bubbles are formed by adding soaplike
resinous or fatty materials to the cement, or to the concrete when it is mixed. The bubbles give the
water in concrete enough room to expand as it freezes. Such qualities make aerated concrete a good
material for roads and airport runways.
High-Early-Strength Concrete: It is chiefly used in cold weather. This concrete is made with
high-early-strength Portland cement, and hardens much more quickly than ordinary concrete. It
costs more than ordinary concrete. But it is often cheaper to use, because it cuts the amount of time
the concrete must be protected in cold weather.

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High Strength Concrete: It has a compressive strength generally greater than 40 MPa. Highstrength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (w/c) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica
fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix,
which might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate bond. Super plasticizers are commonly
added to high-strength mixtures to increase its workability.
High Performance Concrete (HPC): It can be defined as A concrete, meeting special
performance requirements that may involve enhancement of placement, and compaction without
segregation, early age strength, toughness, volume stability, or service life in severe
environment. The concrete has high workability, high strength and high durability.
Proportioning of materials, limiting total cement paste content to 1/3rd by volume of concrete
achieves dimensional stability. Substituting Portland cement by pozzolanic or cementitious
admixture helps improving the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete in addition to making
HPC more economical.
While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all high-performance concrete is
high-strength.
Self Compacting Concrete
These self-compacting concretes (SCCs) are characterized by:
extreme fluidity as measured by flow
Self-compacting concretes are also known as self-consolidating ally between 700-750 mm,
rather than slump
no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
placement is simpler
no bleeding of water, or aggregate segregation
SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and tear on
formwork.
Roller Compacted Concrete: Roller-compacted concrete is a low-cement-content stiff concrete
placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed on
the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically used in
earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong monolithic
block. Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement.
Glass Concrete: The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete. This greatly enhances the
aesthetic appeal of the concrete.
Shotcrete: Shotcrete uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete onto (or into) a frame or
structure. Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need
for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunnelling.
The term Gunite is occasionally used for shotcrete, but properly refers only to dry-mix shotcrete,
and once was a proprietary name.
Fibre Reinforced Concrete
In conventional concrete, micro cracks develop even before loading because of drying shrinkage
and other causes of volume change. When the structure is loaded, the micro-cracks open up and
propagate.
However, the addition of small, closely spaced and uniformly dispersed fibres in concrete
substantially improves its static and dynamic properties. These fibres offer increased resistance to
crack growth, through a crack arresting mechanism and improve tensile strength and ductility of
concrete.
Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) can be defined as a composite material consisting of cement
mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed fibres.
The inclusion of fibres in concrete and shotcrete generally improves material properties including
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ductility, toughness, flexural strength, impact resistance, fatigue resistance, and to a small degree,
compressive strength. The type and amount of improvement is dependent upon the fibre type, size,
strength and configuration and amount of fibre.
Type of Fibres
The types of fibres that can be used are:

Steel Fibres: Used in roads, pavements, airfields, bridge deck etc.

Glass Fibres: Used for decorative applications.

Plastic Fibres

Carbon Fibres

Mineral Fibres: Asbestos fibre is generally used. The composite has considerably high
flexural strength.
Advantages of Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Reduction in Shrinkage and Cracking.

Improved Bond Strength.

Enhancement of Fatigue Strength and Endurance Limit.

Better Toughness.

Lowers Permeability of Concrete as fibres reduce micro-crack formation.

Reduces Rebound or scattering in Concrete.

Applications of FRC
Fibre reinforced concrete finds application in situations given below.

Pavements and Floors.

Blast Resistant Structures.

Water Retaining Structures.

Wearing Surface to Existing Bridges / Culverts.

Repairs and Rehabilitation Works.

Hot Weather Concreting
The concrete during the hot weather requires special care in its preparation, transportation,
placement and curing. The problems faced due to the hot weather, impact on quality of concrete, so
precautions need to be taken.
Effects: The control of temperature of concrete is very important as temperature has major effects
(useful and harmful) on its workability, delivery, placing and other properties. The major effects
are:
a.
Useful:
i.
Accelerates setting of concrete
ii.
Rapid initial gain of strength (up to 7 days)
b.
Harmful:
i.
Faster evaporation of mixing water
ii.
Loss of workability
iii.
Formation of cold joints
iv.
Excessive plastic shrinkage
v.
Rapid evaporation of water during curing period
vi.
Rapid hardening makes finishing difficult
vii.
Reduction in 28 days compressive strength
viii.
Increased tendency to crack
The ideal temperature of fresh concrete for placing is between 15 0C to 25 0C. It otherwise needs
heating or cooling.
Remedial measures or precautions that can be taken during hot weather concreting:
a.
The most direct way to keep the concrete temperature down is by controlling the temperature
of its ingredients esp. aggregates and mixing water. This can be done by:
i.
Keeping aggregates under shade
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b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

j.
k.
l.

ii.
Cooling aggregates by sprinkling water
iii.
Using cooled water or ice
Mix should be designed to have min. cement content consistent with the other functional
requirements such as durability.
Use of plasticizers / super plasticizers and retarders.
Ambient temperature shall be below 40 0C at the time of placement.
The period between mixing and placing shall be kept an absolutely minimum.
Formwork, reinforcement and sub grade shall be sprinkled with cool water just prior to
placement of concrete.
The area around the work shall be kept wet to the extent.
The speed of placement and finishing should be maximum.
Immediately after compaction and surface finish, concrete shall be protected from
evaporation of moisture (3 to 4 hrs. after placing). It shall be covered with wet (not dripping)
gunny bags, etc.
Once the concrete has attained hardening sufficient to withstand surface damage (approx. 12
hrs. after mixing), moist curing shall commence.
Moist curing for hot weather shall not be less than for 10 days.
Cure continuously.

The climatic factors affecting concrete in hot weather are high ambient temperature and reduced
relative humidity. The effects may be more pronounced with increased wind velocity.
Cold Weather Concreting
The concrete during the cold weather requires special care in its preparation, transportation,
placement and curing. The problems faced due to the cold weather, impact on quality of concrete,
so precautions need to be taken.
Effects: The control of temperature of concrete is very important as temperature has major effects
(useful and harmful) on its workability, delivery, placing and other properties. The major effects
are:
a.
Useful:
i.
Slower evaporation of mixing water
ii.
Less loss of workability
iii.
Less plastic shrinkage
b.
Harmful:
i.
Decreases setting of concrete
ii.
Slow initial gain of strength
iii.
Reduction in 28 days compressive strength
Remedial measures or precautions that can be taken during cold weather concreting:
a.
The most direct way to keep the concrete temperature high is by controlling the temperature
of its ingredients esp. aggregates and mixing water. This can be done by:
i.
Keeping aggregates under in sun
ii.
Using hot water or steam
b.
Use of accelerators
c.
Ambient temperature shall be above 50C at the time of placement.
d.
The period between mixing and placing shall be on the higher side.

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