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5
Soil Engineering for
the Technician
A main responsibility of the soil technician is to help confirm that the recommendations presented in the geotechnical report are implemented in the field
during the grading and other construction processes. To properly interpret the
recommendations, the technician must be familiar with soil engineering terminology. Both trainees and more experienced field personnel can use the glossary in Appendix A as a quick reference.
Project Preparation
Many grading recommendations in the geotechnical report are common practice, such as removing debris, stockpiles, and the stripping of vegetation. Minimum requirements typically include the removal of undocumented fill, as well
as porous (collapsible) and loose or soft soils, followed by the preparation
of the exposed soils by scarification, moisture conditioning, and compaction.
However, each soil report is based on specific site conditions and must be read
carefully. Too often, technicians may become overconfident and neglect to read
the geotechnical report closely, thus overlooking a recommendation that may
not be typical during normal grading operations.
It is good practice for the technician to prepare for a new project by highlighting specific recommendations in the geotechnical report. These include the
following:
depth of removals (cut or over-ex);
type of materials to be removed (such as loose, soft, porous, expansive,
or highly cemented soils);
degree of compaction recommended (which may vary with soil conditions
or proposed structure type);
moisture limits to be targeted during compaction (i.e., near optimum, 2 to
4% over optimum, etc.);
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Flatland Projects
When grading generally flat sitesafter removal of unacceptable materialthe
degree of compaction and percent moisture content are usually the most critical factors. However, prior to placing any fill, the existing ground surface must
be prepared by scarification (typically 6 in. deep), moisture conditioning, and
then compaction.
When placing expansive soils, the moisture content of the material is as important as the degree of compaction. Many silty and clayey soils are extremely sensitive to moisture changes. In some silty soils (diatomaceous soils, for example), a variation of only a few percent in water content could change the soils
dry density by as much as 5 or 10 lb/ft3 during compaction. Also, many plastic
soils increase in volume (expand) with added moisture (and, conversely, shrink
when dried back); therefore it is standard practice to place expansive soils in a
slightly over-optimum condition, and often at a lower degree of compaction
compared with nonexpansive soilsto help limit expansion potential.
Even sandy and silty noncohesive soils generally compact better when placed
at or slightly above optimum, thus lubricating the particlesas well as helping
to mitigate any future settlement or consolidation caused by increases in moisture from landscape watering or heavy rains.
Road Construction
The final surface of the road sectionthe asphaltdepends on the materials
supporting it: the aggregate base and the subgrade. The first step is the preparation of the existing ground surface to create a compact, stable subgrade. Often
the area must be cut down to reach the proposed finish subgrade elevation,
during which time rocks and/or soft pockets are often exposed. To create a
homogeneous subgrade, it is important to prepare the cut surface (prior to placing aggregate base) by scarifying, removing cobbles and larger rock, moisture
conditioning, and then compacting. Improperly prepared subgrade is often the
cause of potholes, cracks, and areas of uneven pavement.
During the grading of subgrade and aggregate base course for road construction
it is important not only to test for compaction, but also to observe the actions
Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation
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of the compaction equipment on the road material during the compaction process. For instance, although a density test taken on the subgrade may indicate
that the moisture content of the material is only a few percentage points over
optimum (which is generally desirable within building areas), you may notice
that the subgrade soil is moving (pumping or rolling) beneath the compaction
equipment. Soft and yielding soils are not acceptable. The surface must be firm
and relatively unyielding prior to paving. Soils that deflect or move can be detrimental to pavement.
Tip: It is a good idea to walk next to the compaction equipment during
the final compaction of both the finished subgrade and aggregate base
surfaces to closely observe the action of the material for any movement
or deflection beneath the tires or roller. Before accepting a subgrade or
aggregate base as finished, the surface should be proof rolled. A fully
loaded water truck works well for proof rolling. Beware that some contractors will try to proof roll with a partially filled truck!
Often, remixing and/or drying back of the material to bring it closer to optimum,
followed by recompaction, will stabilize the subgrade. However, sometimes
overly wet or soft soils need to be excavated and replaced with compacted
aggregate base or other acceptable material. For more severe cases of unstable subgrade, stabilization may first include the placement of woven fabric or
geogrid, overlain by compacted aggregate base. (See Fig. 5-1.)
Tip: Woven stabilization fabrics work quite well when used properly.
However, all too often the fabrics are placed improperly and are not
overlapped enough, or not loaded down with sufficient aggregate base
or other material. A minimum overlap is usually 24 in., and experience
has shown that less than 18 in. of aggregate base cover is often inadequate.
The technician should also watch the finished baserock surface for any nesting
or segregation of the material. Sometimes surface areas or pockets containing
mostly gravel with few or no fines may occur. This segregation (nesting) may
be due in part to too much rubber-tire traffic allowed on the baserock prior to
paving. Surface areas that are not homogeneous or fail to meet gradation standards should be remixed and recompacted.
Density testing of aggregate base can sometimes be tricky. If a baserock section is relatively thin, 5 in. or less, better test results may be obtained by using
the backscatter mode of a nuclear gauge. Many times when the drill rod is
being driven in (to prepare for a direct transmission test), the baserock may
move and become too disturbed to accurately test. Using the backscatter mode
will not disturb the aggregate base, and silica sand (or aggregate base fines)
may be used to fill in any minor surface voids, thus providing a more reliable
test. Through experience, a technician will develop a better feel for which test
method may work best in a specific situation.
Geotextile products.
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(A)
(B)
(C)
(A) This combination of a nonwoven filter fabric overlain by a geogrid was used to stabilize
a seasonally wet, soft subgrade for a parking lot at a U.S. Post Office in Riverside, California.
(B)The nonwoven fabric was placed to limit the piping of fines into the overlying aggregate base
layer. The strengthening geogrid was placed to limit pumping and deflection of the aggregate base
caused by heavy postal trucks and other vehicles. (C) The aggregate base was then compacted
to 95% over the geogrid/filter fabric combination. At completion the aggregate base was proof
rolled, and no pumping was observed.
Hillside Grading
On hillside projects, a technician will observe a multitude of conditions. The
first stepas alwaysis to become familiar with the project by reviewing the
geotechnical report, and then to highlight project-specific recommendations.
The approved grading plans should also be reviewed, taking notice of important
surface features, such as canyons, landslides, steep slopes, seeps, and the like.
Areas of concern during grading include the following:
Cleanout of soft or otherwise unacceptable materials from swales,
canyon sides and bottoms, previously farmed areas, etc. (Fig. C-18).
Adequate compaction or overbuilding of fill slopes.
Proper keyway construction at the toe of fill slopes that are steeper than
5:1 (Fig. C-16).
Proper benching into competent material as fill is placed against existing
slope or canyon sides (Figs. C-16 and C-18).
Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation
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Observation of cut slope faces for any loose materials, seeps, slide planes,
or out-of-slope bedding planes.
Close observation of slide removals or buttress fills (Fig. C-16).
Placement of drainage systems in canyon and buttress fills (Figs. 5-2 and
5-3 and Fig. C-18).
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Areas in which rocks have been blasted (Fig. 5-4), with close observation
to help determine that significantly fractured material has been removed.
Full-time observation of rock fillsfill composed of 30% or more material larger than in. in size (and therefore not testable per ASTM D1557).
Consider as an example a canyon in Lake Elsinore, California. During grading,
seepage was observed near the top of the canyon. The canyon was cleaned
out, a slot was cut, and a burrito-type subdrain was installed. The drain was
formed by placing a few inches of -in. crushed rock atop a woven geotextile
filter fabric, on which a 6-in. perforated pipe was laid, covering with more -in.
rock, and then finally wrapping the fabric over the top to completely envelop
the rock and pipe. A 40-ft length of solid pipe was connected at the outlet end
of the drain.
Engineered fill was then placed in the canyon, benching the sides as the fill
was placed in level lifts. This particular subdrain continues to run, nearly yearround.
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Subdrain installation.
Figure 5-3
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Figure 5-4
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(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
This hard granite formation in Riverside, California, could not be broken up with conventional
grading equipment. Holes were drilled and packed with explosives (A), then blasted to predetermined depths (B). Remaining boulders were then broken down by an excavator with a rock
hammer attachment (C). The oversize material was then placed in shallow basins. Dozers and
loaders spaced the large material out, then relatively clean sand was flooded and compacted
around the boulders (D).
Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation
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Deep Foundations
Driven piles, drilled piers, and caissons all require special observation, and this
work is usually carefully coordinated with the project engineer. Although shallow foundations may depend wholly on the bearing material, deeper foundations may gain support from friction and/or bearing. Therefore during the drilling of shafts for deep foundations it is critical to log the soil and rock strata
accurately.
Some important areas of observation include the following:
Log the strata of the material as it is drilled into and confirm that it matches
geotechnical recommendations. If different soil conditions are observed,
inform the project engineer or geologist immediately.
The straightness of the excavated shaft should be checked; it should be
vertical with no overhanging material.
Ensure that the tip depth and elevation are per plan.
Measure the hole diameter, and confirm that it is per plan.
Check the cleanliness of the hole; note any caving, water seepage, etc.
Note the time and date of completion. Holes should only remain open a
limited amount of time before placing steel and pouring concrete. (Check
with the project specifications or the project engineer for time constraints.)
Confirm that steel placement is correct: The cage must have proper clearance from the walls and bottom of the drilled shaft.
Watch that the concrete is tremied to the bottom of the hole during the
pour.
Compare the theoretical volume with the actual volume of concrete
placed. (Too much concrete may indicate a hole blow-out, whereas too
little may indicate hole caving.)
Shallow Foundations
Technicians are often called on to observe foundation excavations. The usual
areas of concern are the depth of the foundations and the density of the bearing
Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation
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Retaining Walls
There are many types of retaining walls, with design determined not only by
structural needs but also by financial and even aesthetic reasons. Most retaining wall construction requires good bearing material at the wall base or footing.
Similar to continuous footings, the wall footings should be founded in dense
undisturbed soil, relatively unfractured rock, or compacted fill. In all cases
the technician must take time to review the wall foundation recommendations
from the geotechnical report, as well as the plan details. A few commonly used
retaining wall types, along with some important construction criteria to watch
for, are described in the following.
Gabion Baskets
As shown in Fig. 5-5 gabion baskets are often used as both erosion protection
and slope support. The baskets may be pre-formed or constructed on site. The
baskets are usually made from twisted heavy steel wire mesh to create the
desired size baskets; these are then filled with rock. The tops of the baskets
are then wired closed. These baskets are then wired together end to end and/or
stacked on each other.
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Gabion baskets.
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Check the plans for proper geogrid installation; usually the elongated direction is perpendicular to the wall. The geogrid should be pulled taut across the
compacted horizontal surface.
Check that there are no loose zones between the drainrock and the adjoining
backfill; use your hand probe to help verify this.
Rockery Walls
These types of walls are becoming more common. They are especially advantageous in developments in which the grading process (sometimes blasting) has
generated large quantities of angular rock of varying size. Rockery walls are not
only cost effective but can be aesthetically pleasing (Fig. 5-7).
Pay attention to the following during rockery wall construction:
Check footing depth for minimum embedment (typically a minimum of one
foot); the footing should be wide enough (front to back) to allow for a flush
Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation
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Figure 5-7
fit at the face of the base rock or rocks. Check to see that the back cut is free
of loose material and is laid back at a safe gradient prior to placing the filter
fabric.
If a perforated drain pipe is placed along the bottom back of the wall, check
to see that the perforations are facing downwardallowing the water to flow
up into the pipe, but limiting the silting-up of the pipe with fines.
As the wall is being built, check for the proper batter (incline into the
slope).
Watch for the specified size of rocks and that they are angular and placed
according to recommendations. The long dimensions of the rocks should be
placed perpendicular to the wall, and each rock should bear on two rocks
below. If rocks are double stacked, the larger rock shall be at the face of the
wall.
The drain rock placed between the back of the wall and the filter fabric shall
be free draining and is usually 1.5 to 6 in. in size.
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Watch for footing bottoms that span cut and fill soils, or for foundations that
cross native rock and engineered fill. In these cases consult the project engineer to determine whether over-excavation or other methods are necessary
to mitigate the potential of differential settlement.
Prior to placing steel, ensure that footings are free of water, ice, snow, loose
material, and any other debris.
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Chapter Questions
1. Minimum requirements in a geotechnical report often include the
following two recommendations:
A) The over-excavation of all sandy soils
B) The scarification of all existing surfaces prior to placing any fill
C) Removal of all undocumented fill
D) The placement of fill in lifts no thicker than 12 in.
2. Expansive soils are often compacted at lower densities and higher
moistures.
A) True
B) False
3. Pumping or deflection of clayey soils is acceptable in roadway
subgrade.
A) True
B) False
4. The backscatter method of testing with a nuclear gauge should not
be used when testing a thin layer of aggregate base.
A) True
B) False
5. Which two conditions are not desirable across a footing bottom?
A) Dense native soil
B) Compacted fill contacting bedrock
C) CL/CH soil at under-optimum
D) Bedrock
6. A caisson was drilled to a depth of 20 ft, and upon completion water
had seeped in and filled up 5 ft of the hole; what is not the proper
action to take prior to pouring concrete?
A) Remeasure the hole, and then redrill it to remove slough/sediment if
necessary.
B) Confirm that the contractor will place a tremie to the bottom of the caisson during the pour.
C) Pour low-slump concrete from the top of the caisson, making sure to
vibrate from the bottom of the hole during the pour.
D) Calculate the amount of concrete necessary to fill the caisson, with no
adjustment made for the 5 ft. of water.
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