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Strength
of materials, also called mechanics of materials, is a subject which
Wikipedia
deals
withstore
the behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. The
complete theory began with the consideration of the behavior of one and two
Interaction
dimensional members of structures, whose states of stress can be approximated
Help
as two
dimensional, and was then generalized to three dimensions to develop a
About Wikipedia
more
complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of materials. An
Community
portal pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko.
important
founding
Recent changes

TheContact
studypage
of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating
the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and
Tools The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under
shafts.
loading
and here
its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the
What links
properties
of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's
Related changes
modulus,
and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's macroscopic
Upload file
properties
(geometric properties), such as it length, width, thickness, boundary
Special pages
constraints
Permanentand
link abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
Page information

Contents [hide]
1 Definition
Cite this page
1.1 Types of loadings
1.2 Stress terms
Print/export
1.3 aStrength
terms
Create
book
1.4 Strain
(deformation) terms
Download
as PDF
1.5
Stressstrain
relations
Printable version
2 Design terms
Languages
2.1 Failure theories

3 Microstructure
4 See
also
Azrbaycanca
5 References
6 Further
reading

7 External
links
Wikidata item

Internal force lines are denser

near the hole, a common stress
concentration

Catal
etina

Definition
Deutsch

[edit]

Eesti

In materials
science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure. The field of
strength
Espaolof materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a
mechanical
Esperanto member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a
unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various manner. Deformation of the
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Strength of materials - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

material
is called strain when those deformations too are placed on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile
Franais
or compressive),
or shear. The stresses and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in
Gaeilge
order
to assess the load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the member,

its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of which the member is composed.
Hrvatski
With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at
Bahasa Indonesia
any point within the member can be calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the
Italiano
strength
(load carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to

maintain
its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure
of the strength of the member such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member
may
be compared to a deflection criteria that is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the

member may be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be
usedNederlands
to calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic environment in which it will be

used.
Norsk nynorsk
Material
strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve (yield stress) beyond which the material
Polski
experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed upon removal of the loading and as a result the member
willPortugus
have a permanent deflection. The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve
Romn
corresponding
to the stress that produces fracture.

Shqip
Types
of loadings

[edit]

Simple English

Transverse
Slovenina

loading - Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member. Transverse loading causes
the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with internal tensile and compressive strains
Slovenina
accompanying
the change in curvature of the member. [1] Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause
Srpskohrvatski
/

shear deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the member.
Suomi
Axial loading - The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member. The forces cause the
Svenska
member to either stretch or shorten. [2]
Trke
Torsional loading - Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and oppositely directed force

couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple applied to a member that has one end fixed against
Ting
Vit
rotation.

Stress terms
Edit links
[edit]
Uniaxial stress is expressed by

where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2 ]. [3] The area can be the
undeformed area or the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress
or true stress is of interest.
Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied
load that acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member)
A material being loaded in a)
along the axis of the applied load, it is in other words a stress state that
compression, b) tension, c) shear.
causes a squeezing of the material. A simple case of compression is the
uniaxial compression induced by the action of opposite, pushing forces.
Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than their tensile strength. However, structures loaded in
compression are subject to additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are dependent on the member's
geometry.
Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the material along the axis of the
applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling the material. The strength of structures of equal cross
sectional area loaded in tension is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in geometry. However, materials
exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals for example) can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as
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Strength of materials - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

ceramics) can fail well below their ultimate material strength.

Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing forces acting along parallel
lines of action through the material, in other words the stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one
another. An example is cutting paper with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.

Strength terms

[edit]

Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a material. In some materials, like
aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to
cause 0.2% plastic strain. This is called a 0.2% proof stress.[5]
Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a material in the manner of
ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure (rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding
along a weak plane - see shear strength).
Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile failure in the
manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure, some hardening in the second stage and breakage
after a possible "neck" formation) or brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state).
Tensile strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering stress is the most
commonly used.
Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under cyclic loading,[6] and is usually
more difficult to assess than the static strength measures. Fatigue strength is quoted as stress amplitude or stress
range (
), usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of cycles to failure under that
condition of stress.
Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is expressed in terms of
energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the
impact energy required to fracture a sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield
strength affect the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high impact strength the
stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also must have a large volume with a low modulus of
elasticity and a high material yield strength.[7]

Strain (deformation) terms

[edit]

Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied (as a result of applied forces,
gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of
the material. [8]
Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the deformation change among
the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit length.[9] In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a
specimen (for example a bar element) lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the displacement
and the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is expressed as derivatives of displacement
functions in terms of a second order tensor (with 6 independent elements).
Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is displaced when subject to an
applied load.[10]

Stressstrain relations

[edit]

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous

shape after stress is released. In many materials, the relation
between applied stress is directly proportional to the resulting
strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing those two
quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the
"modulus of elasticity." The modulus of elasticity can be used to
determine the stressstrain relationship in the linear-elastic portion

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Strength of materials - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

of the stressstrain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below

the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the
stressstrain plot it is defined to be between 0 and 0.2% strain, and
is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding (permanent
deformation) occurs.[11]
Basic static response of a specimen under
Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic
tension
deformation and is defined as unrecoverable strain. Plastic
deformation is retained after the release of the applied stress.
Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable
of plastic deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic deformation and will fracture
under relatively low stress, while ductile materials such as metallics, lead, or polymers will plasticly deform much
more before a fracture initiation.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before breaking.
The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.

Design terms

[edit]

Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen made of the material, and as
such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area (N/m2 ). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a
material can withstand before it breaks or weakens. [12] For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018
Steel is 440 MN/m2 . In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 . In Imperial units, the unit of
stress is given as lbf/in or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is
abbreviated ksi.
A Factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve.

where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate stress (psi or N/m 2 ) [13]
Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure Load/(Factor of Safety *
Predicted Load) - 1
For example to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel component can be calculated
to be
= 440/4 = 110 MPa, or = 11010 6 N/m 2 . Such allowable stresses are also known as
"design stresses" or "working stresses."
Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the materials give safe and reliable
results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts fail when subjected to a non steady and continuously
varying loads even though the developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The
failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding. However, when the stress
is kept below "fatigue stress" or "endurance limit stress", the part will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic
stress is one that alternates between equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a
purely cyclic stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as stress range
(Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude
of the stress range is below the materials yield strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of
reversals needed for failure.

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Strength of materials - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Failure theories

[edit]

There are four important failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal stress theory, maximum
strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of these four theories of failure, the maximum normal
stress theory is only applicable for brittle materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile
materials. Of the latter three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress
conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poissons ratio of the part material, which is often not readily
available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are
equivalent, which means all theories will give the same result.
Maximum Shear stress Theory- This theory postulates that failure will occur if the magnitude of the maximum
shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the material determined from uniaxial testing.
Maximum normal stress theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur if the maximum normal stress in the
part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with
brittle materials only. The maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided by
factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less than ultimate compressive stress
divided by factor of safety.
Maximum strain energy theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur when the strain energy per unit
volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial
testing.
Maximum distortion energy theory - This theory is also known as shear energy theory or von Mises-Hencky
theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied
stresses in a part equals the distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total elastic
energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in volume, and the other part causes
change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of energy that is needed to change the shape.
Fracture mechanics was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine Irwin. This important theory is
also known as numeric conversion of toughness of material in the case of crack existence.
Fractology was proposed by Takeo Yokobori because each fracture laws including creep rupture criterion must be
combined nonlinearly.

Microstructure

[edit]

A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a material is subjected can
alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms that alter the strength of a material includes work
hardening, solid solution strengthening, precipitation hardening and grain boundary strengthening and can be
quantitatively and qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some other
mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the material stronger. For example, in
grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small
grain sizes make the material brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the
material's mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the parameter that predicts
plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions on how to increase the strength of a material
depending its microstructural properties and the desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting
values of the compressive stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic
loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials, especially the problem of
fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress
concentrations, especially changes in cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far
lower than those quoted for the strength of the material.

See also

[edit]

Creep of materials
Deformation-mechanism maps

Fatigue of materials
Forensic engineering

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Material selection
Specific strength

Strength of materials - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Diffusion in materials
Dynamics

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^

Fracture mechanics
Fracture toughness

Statics
Universal testing machine

[edit]

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.210. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.7. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.5. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp.910. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston. Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.52. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.60. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp.693696. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.47. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.49. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
R. C. Hibbeler (2009). Structural Analysis (7 ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. p.305. ISBN978-0-13-602060-8.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp.5356. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp.2728. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p.28. ISBN978-0-07-352938-7.

Further reading

[edit]

Fa-Hwa Cheng, Initials. (1997). Strength of material.

Ohio: McGraw-Hill
Mechanics of Materials, E.J. Hearn
Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials I. Tehnika
knjiga, 1995. ISBN 953-172-010-X.
Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials II. Tehnika
knjiga, 1999. ISBN 953-6168-85-5.
Ashby, M.F. Materials Selection in Design.
Pergamon, 1992.
Beer, F.P., E.R. Johnston, et al. Mechanics of
Materials, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 007-248673-2
Cottrell, A.H. Mechanical Properties of Matter.
Wiley, New York, 1964.
Den Hartog, Jacob P. Strength of Materials. Dover
Publications, Inc., 1961, ISBN 0-486-60755-0.
Drucker, D.C. Introduction to Mechanics of
Deformable Solids. McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Gordon, J.E. The New Science of Strong Materials.
Princeton, 1984.
Groover, Mikell P. Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing, 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,
2002. ISBN 0-471-40051-3.
Hashemi, Javad and William F. Smith. Foundations of
Materials Science and Engineering, 4th edition.
McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 0-07-125690-3.
Hibbeler, R.C. Statics and Mechanics of Materials, SI
Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2004. ISBN 0-13-129011-8.
Lebedev, Leonid P. and Michael J. Cloud.
Approximating Perfection: A Mathematician's Journey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_of_materials[6/28/2015 9:40:49 PM]

into the World of Mechanics. Princeton University

Press, 2004. ISBN 0-691-11726-8.
Chapter 10 Strength of Elastomers , A.N. Gent,
W.V. Mars, In: James E. Mark, Burak Erman and
Mike Roland, Editor(s), The Science and Technology
of Rubber (Fourth Edition), Academic Press, Boston,
2013, Pages 473-516, ISBN 9780123945846,
10.1016/B978-0-12-394584-6.00010-8
Mott, Robert L. Applied Strength of Materials, 4th
edition. Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN 0-13-088578-9.
Popov, Egor P. Engineering Mechanics of Solids.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1990. ISBN 013-279258-3.
Ramamrutham, S. Strength of Materials.
Shames, I.H. and F.A. Cozzarelli. Elastic and
inelastic stress analysis. Prentice-Hall, 1991. ISBN 156032-686-7.
Timoshenko S. Strength of Materials, 3rd edition.
Krieger Publishing Company, 1976, ISBN 0-88275420-3.
Timoshenko, S.P. and D.H. Young. Elements of
Strength of Materials, 5th edition. (MKS System)
Davidge, R.W., Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics,
Cambridge Solid State Science Series, (1979)
Lawn, B.R., Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge
Solid State Science Series, 2nd Edn. (1993)
Green, D., An Introduction to the Mechanical
Properties of Ceramics, Cambridge Solid State
Science Series, Eds. Clarke, D.R., Suresh, S., Ward,
I.M.Babu Tom.K (1998)

Strength of materials - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

External links

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Failure theories
case studies in structural failure
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Deformation (mechanics)

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