LATEST MATERIALS COMMONLY USED BY TODAYS BUILDING

STRUCTURES
I.

STEEL & IRON

A material having a high strength in tension & compression that is able to resist bending and axial
loads w/ equal facility. It is twenty times stronger than timber & 10 times stronger than concrete.

ADVANTAGES
Preferred structural material for tall buildings &
enclosures having long spans.
Crucial to the development of the glass-clad
framework
Strength: has a high ratio of strength to weight
Manufactured under conditions of strict quality
control
Has an appearance characterized by slender
elements, smooth surfaces & straight sharp
edges
Assembled from prefabricated components
which are produced off-site allowing their
dimensions and quality under control
Shorter on-site construction time required

DISADVANTAGES
Poor durability as they are easily corroded
Poor performance in fire (around 500 degrees
Celsius)
Difficulty of shaping it into useful components
Large ecological costs in terms of
transportation of raw materials
High energy consumption and pollution
associated w/ its manufacture
High density thus affecting its weight requiring
the use of machines i.e. cranes to assemble it
Its cost is greater compared to timber and
reinforced concrete

APPLICTIONS:
A) Tensioned Cables: The Hangar and the Tie Example

Millenium Wheel, London, England, U.K. (2000)

Architect:Marks Barfield Architects; Structural Engrs: Jane Wernick of Arup
*The rods provide only means of Support for outer trussed ring
*Socket-type anchorages for tensioned Cables. Small attachments are dampers to minimize vibrations.
*Museum for the History of Hamburg, Germany (1989): iconographic fan connection detail used to anchor
radiating tension cables stabilizing vault over museums courtyard.
B) Adjustable Steel Canopy: the Beam and the Slab Steel and Glass combination

Yarakucho Subway Station Canopy, Tokyo, Japan (1996); Architect:

Dewhurst Macfarlane and Partners
* Overlapping Glass Plates gradually increase in depth toward
cantilevered canopys base support

C) Form Follows Diagram: the Beam and the Slab Steel and Plastic combination
Madrid-Barajas Airport, Madrid, Spain (2006)
Archits: Richard Rogers Prtnership and Estudio Lemela
Structural Engrs: Anthony Hunt Associates, OTEP internacional, TPR

D) The Birds Nest: Beyond Surface and Geometric Purity Example

The Birds Nest, Beijing National Stadium, Baijing China (2008)
Architect: Herzog & de Meuron
Structural Engineer: Arup
*Axon showing how trussed steel frames make up the backbone of
the complex pattern of structural lines which is perceived as a
Nest. Note the variation in the dimension of an individual truss,
reflecting changing bending moment demand.

D) Steel Arch and light relationship: the Arch and Vault Example
City of the Arts and Sciences, Valencia. Spain (2002)
Architect and Structural Engineer: Santiago Calatrava
Nearly Paraboolic Profile Of light Steel Arch Ribs corresponds to
Uniform-along-the-arch loading Produced by self-weight of ribs and
cross bars

(ALUMINUM ALLOY) steel: Additional Lesson

A silvery white metal easily forged, light with a favourable strength to weight ratio. It is alloyed with
copper, manganese, zinc, silicon and magnesium if to be used for construction purposes. It has an
elastic modulus E about 1/3 that of steel.

ADVANTAGES
A material that is 100% recyclable and requires
less energy
Actual production of structural elements
require less energy and far cheaper than the
steel production
Excellent anti-corrosion attributes
Used more on household Fixtures and furniture

DISADVANTAGES
Extracted at an extremely energy-consuming
process
Greater thermal expansion & lower fire
resistance than steel
Structural capability in handling tension and
compression forces are limited.

APPLICTIONS:
A) Aluminum Finished Faade: The Frame and Lateral Stability Example
30 St. Mary Axe, London, U.K. (2004)
Architect: Foster + Partners
Structural Engr: Arup

II.

GLASS
An inorganic, transparent/opaque, & brittle material with a much high compression than tension
strength. Its productions starts with melting together quartz sand (silica), sodium carbonate, and
lime.

ADVANTAGES
A material that allows visual penetration
Unmatched resistance to deterioration
Easily recycled

DISADVANTAGES
Weak load bearing capacity
Intensive, energy-consuming manufacturing
process
Special protection against alkaline emitting
materials such as concrete or lime mortars

APPLICTIONS:
A) Jazz on Central Park: the Hangar and the Tie example
Time Warner Center and the Allen Room of Jazz at Lincoln Center, N.Y.,U.S.A.
(2003)
Architect: Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill; for glass wall, James Carpenter Design
Assoc.; Structural Engr.: WSP Cantor Seinuk,schlaich, Bergermann und Partner.
*Glass wall is suspended from truss above performance space; Exterior cable is
also anchored at sides and bottom edges.

B) Glass Bridge: the Frame and Lateral Stability example

Glass Bridge for Kraaijvanger Urbis, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (1994)
Atchitect: Dirk/Jan Postel/Kraaijvanger Urbis
Structural Engr: AGT/Rob Nisse

C) Beijing National Aquatics Center: Space Frame Structure Example

Beijing National Aquatics Center, the Watercbe, Beijing, China (2008)
Architects: PTW Architects
Structural Engr: Arup
*Space Frame Structure Based on Weaire & Phelan bubbles, Glass
Facade

III.

FIBERS AND FABRICS

Mineral and synthetic fibers are materials of crucial importance in contemporary light-weight tensile
membranes and in polymer (plastics) composites. Their tensile strength is exploited in pre-stressed
membrane structures, in w/c woven fabrics commonly form doubly curved structural shapes.

ADVANTAGES
It lends strength to polymer that envelops &
holds them in place.
Can be combined with other materials i.e. glass
to further strengthen its structural property
High tensile strength
Pre-stressed during manufacturing

DISADVANTAGES
No appropriate aging and weathering
properties.
Weak compression strength
Weak against moisture, UV radiation & fungus

APPLICTIONS:
A) Pneumatic Membranes: The inflated new type Vault Example
Allianz Arena,Munich, Germany (2004)
Architect: Herzog and De Meuron
Structural Engr: Arup
*Air-inflated Cushions of EFTE foil

Mobile Performance Venue (2009)

Structural engr: Ramboll Whitby-Bird
*Air-inflated Tubes in hexagonal Pattern as skin structure

B) Dynamic Earth: Hyper Shells Example

DynamicEarth, Edinburgh, U.K. (1999)
Architect: Michael Hopkins and Partners
Structural Engr: Arup
*Steel Mast-supported membrane stretched over a steel
skeleton covered in a tensile structure.

IV.

PLASTICS

&

V. COMPOSITES

Plastics are large chain-like molecules that are based on carbon atoms, & are present in such
substance as plastics, rubbers, & adhesives. Its most important material is oil. It is grouped into two:
the thermosetting plastics and the thermoplastics.
Thermosetting plastics-have a complex molecular structure that resists being reshaped by heating
i.e. epoxy and polyester.
Thermoplastics- it deforms under heat and pressure, & can thus be given new shapes multiple times
i.e. PVC, PTFE, ETFE, as well as acrylic glass and polycarbonate. They are recyclable materials that
regain their properties after cooling.
Composites consists of two or more different material components w/c are joined to give a
combination of properties that cant be attained by the original materials independently.
ADVANTAGES
Plastics
Good substitute for glass material
Some have good optical properties having a
density about half of the glass of the same size
Acrylic glass have 2-3 times the tension
strength of a glass
Thermoplastics experience both elastic and
plastic deformation when subjected to stresses.
Polycarbonate displays good strength to resist
impact loads, better than float glass having the
same thickness
Very durable and degrade slowly
Composites
High strength-to-weight ratio
Good anti-corrosion and weather resistant
Design can have a great influence on material
properties such as strength & stiffness.

APPLICTIONS:
A) Acrylic Glass: Irregular Domes and Shell Example for Plastics

DISADVANTAGES
One-twentieth elastic modulus compared to
that of a glass, which means that where
deformations are a critical issue, larger
structural thickness are needed
Even if weather resistant, polycarbonate
discolours if left untreated
Burnt plastics release toxic fumes fatal to all
living beings
Its manufacture can create undesirable
chemical pollutants

High cost

Kunsthaus Graz, Graz, Austria (2003)

Architect: Spacelab Cook-Fournier; Architektur Consult
Structural Engr: Bollinger + Grohmann

B) Fiber-Reinforced Plastic: Wall faade Example for Composite

Chanel Mobile Art Container (2008)
Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects
Structural Designer: Arup
Manufactured by: Stage One

B) The Eden Project: Plastic Domes and Shell Example

The Eden Project, St. Bazey, Cornwall, England, U.K. (2001)

Architect: Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners
Structural Engr: Anthony Hunt and Associates
*Bubble-like Domes nestled into landscape. Exterior surface covered by inflated EFTE pillows whose relative
transparency to UV rays promotes the Growth of Plants in one of the worlds largest greenhouses.