Boilers - Water Treating 0

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Boilers - Water Treating
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels
File Reference: MEX10504
For additional information on this subject, contact

John Thomas on 875-2230
Vessels
CONTENTS
PAGE
IMPURITIES IN WATER AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS ................................. 1

Sources of Water .......................................................................................... 1
Uses of Water ............................................................................................... 1
Boiler Feedwater .......................................................................................... 2
Hydrostatic Testing Water............................................................................ 2
Impurities in Water....................................................................................... 2
Quality of Water........................................................................................... 4
Scale.................................................................................................. 4
Corrosion .......................................................................................... 4
Solids ................................................................................................ 8
Caustic .............................................................................................. 8
Boiler Water Quality Limits ......................................................................... 9
BOILER WATER TREATMENT ......................................................................... 10
Deaeration .................................................................................................. 12
Internal Chemical Treatment - Deaerator ................................................... 13
Internal Chemical Treatment - Boilers ....................................................... 13
CALCULATING BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE ................................................ 14
Priming and Foaming ................................................................................. 15
Turbine and Superheater Fouling ............................................................... 15
Solids, Sludge, and Silica ........................................................................... 15
Continuous Blowdown Rate....................................................................... 16
Blowdown Facilities ................................................................................... 17
WORK AID 1 - CALCULATE BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE .......................... 19
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................... 20
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IMPURITIES IN WATER AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

Sources of Water
The usual sources of water are:
Purchased or municipal water.

Surface fresh water.
Subsurface groundwater.
Sea water.
The major concerns with purchased water are the cost, the reliability of supply, and the
potential quality variations. Water for Juaymah and Yanbu Gas Plants is purchased.
Surface fresh water can come from rivers, streams, lakes, or ponds. These waters usually
contain suspended matter, organic matter, dissolved solids, dissolved gases, and other manmade and natural pollutants. Surface fresh water is rare in Saudi Arabia.
Subsurface groundwater can originate from springs and shallow or deep wells. These waters
are usually relatively free of suspended matter. They can have wide quality variations. Even
normally fresh water wells can have salt water intrusion or limited availability during dry
periods. Wells are a common source of water throughout Saudi Aramco.
Seawater is often used offshore or in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia. This water has a high
dissolved solids content, frequently over 45,000 ppm. Waste heat or low-level heat is used in
many cases to evaporate seawater as a first step in water treatment. Desalination plants are
used to produce high-quality water.
Uses of Water
Water has many uses both in municipalities and in plants. The main uses of water in Saudi
Aramco plants are:
Once-through cooling water.

Recirculating cooling makeup water.
Domestic (sanitary) water.
Boiler feedwater.
Firefighting water.
Crude desalting.
In addition to these main uses, water is used for engine cooling, chemical mixing, hydrostatic
testing, and other minor uses.
Vessels
Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater is one of the main uses of water by Saudi Aramco. Boiler feedwater consists
of returned condensate and makeup water.
Makeup water is frequently a low percentage of total feedwater, often less than 10%, because
most of the condensate is returned. Makeup water must be treated in nearly all cases.
Returned condensate can also require treatment, particularly to remove oil and control pH.
The water quality required depends on the use of the water. Higher pressure boilers require a
better quality of water.
Hydrostatic Testing Water
Fresh water is preferred for hydrostatic testing because it is less corrosive than brackish or salt
water. Almost any source of fresh water is acceptable. Protection from corrosion must be
considered.
If chemical additives are used for corrosion protection, disposal of the water must be planned
and environmental requirements considered.
Impurities in Water
Water supplies contain dissolved ions shown below. A water analysis must be performed in
order to determine if these impurities are within acceptable limits for the intended use. These
impurities consist of cations, which are positively charged ions in water, and anions, which
are negatively charged ions. Impurities are conventionally expressed in parts per million by
weight (ppmw), which is equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/l).
The total hardness is equal to the sum of calcium plus magnesium. The total alkalinity is
equal to the sum of bicarbonate plus carbonate plus hydroxide.
Hardness and alkalinity are usually expressed in ppmw of calcium carbonate equivalent
(CaCO3). Factors to convert impurities to CaCO3 equivalent are listed in Figure 1.
Vessels
COMMON IMPURITIES IN A WATER SUPPLY
Cation Impurities
Calcium
MagnesiumHardness in water
Sodium
Chemical Symbol
Factor to Convert
to CaCO3 Equivalent
Ca+2
Mg+2
Na
2.5
4.1
HCO3-1
CO3-2
0.8
1.67
2.9
2.18
Anion Impurities
Bicarbonate
Carbonate Alkalinity
Hydroxide
Chlorides
Sulfates
OH-1
Cl-1
SO4-2
Nitrates
NO3-1
0.8
CO2
SiO2
1.14
0.83
1.4
1.0
Other Impurities
Carbon Dioxide
Silica
FIGURE 1
Vessels
Quality of Water
The following types of impurities found in water are a concern in steam generating systems.
For a summary of water impurities, difficulties, and treatment methods, see Figure 2.
Scale-forming and deposit-forming insoluble solids.
Soluble salts and dissolved gases that can enhance or cause corrosion.
Dissolved solids, oil, and silica that can carry over into the steam from a boiler.
Caustic (sodium hydroxide - NaOH), which can cause embrittlement.
Scale
Scale and deposits result when insoluble salts deposit on heat transfer surfaces. These
deposits reduce heat transfer, increase tube metal temperatures, and cause possible equipment
failure.
Among the significant scale- and deposit-forming impurities are:
Calcium.
Magnesium.
Silica.
Phosphates.*
Oil.
Iron, copper.
Other suspended solids and turbidity.
* NOTE: This impurity can be added unintentionally during internal chemical
treatment.
Corrosion
Corrosion affects distribution piping, feedwater piping and heaters, boiler internals, and
condensate piping. The main causes are oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine, and excess
alkalinity.
Corrosives act in different ways. Oxygen causes pitting or formation of small pits in
distribution piping, feedwater systems, and boilers. It also aggravates corrosion in condensate
systems. Oxygen can be removed externally in a deaerator, or it can be scavenged internally
by adding sulfite or hydrazine.
Vessels
Page 1 of 3
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER
CONSTITUENT
Turbidity
Color
Hardness
Alkalinity
Free Mineral Acid
Carbon Dioxide
pH
Sulfate
Chloride
CHEMICAL FORMULA
DIFFICULTIES CAUSED
None. Usually expressed Imparts unsightly appearance to
in Jackson Turbidity
water; deposits in water lines,
Units
process equipment, boilers, and
so on; interferes with most
process uses.
None
Decaying organic material and
metallic ions causing color may
cause foaming in boilers;
hinders precipitation methods
such as iron removal, hot
phosphate softening; can stain
product in process use.
Calcium, magnesium,
Chief source of scale in heat
barium, and strontium
exchange equipment, boilers,
salts expressed as
pipe lines, and so on; forms
.
curds with soap; interferes with
CaCO3
dyeing and so on.
Foaming and carryover of
Bicarbonate (CHO3-1)
solids with steam;
-2
carbonate, (CO3 ), and
embrittlement of boiler steel;
hydroxyl (OH-1),
bicarbonate and carbonate
expressed as CaCO3
produce CO3 in steam, a source
of corrosion.
H2SO4, HCl, etc.,
expressed as CaCO3
titrated to methyl orange
end-point.
CO2
Corrosion
Hydrogen ion
concentration defined as:
pH = log 1
(H+1)
(SO4)-2
pH varies according to acidic or

alkaline solids in water; most
natural waters have a pH of 6.0
- 8.0
Cl-1
Corrosion in water lines and

particularly steam and
condensate lines.
Adds to solids content and

increases corrosive character of
water.
Adds to solids content and
increases corrosive character of
water.
MEANS OF
TREATMENT
Coagulation, settling, and
filtration.
Coagulation, filtration,
chlorination, adsorption
by activated carbon.
Softening, distillation,
internal boiler water
treatment, surface active
agents, reverse osmosis,
electrolytes.
Lime and lime-soda
softening, acid treatment,
hydrogen zeolite
softening,
demineralization,
dealkalization by anion
exchange, distillation,
degasifying.
Neutralization with
alkalies.
Aeration, deaeration,
neutralization with
alkalines, liming, and
neutralizing amines.
pH can be increased by
alkalies and decreased by
acids.
Demineralization,
distillation, reverse
osmosis, electrodialysis.
Demineralization,
distillation, reverse
osmosis, electrodialysis.
FIGURE 2
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Page 2 of 3
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER (CONTD)
CONSTITUENT
Nitrate
Fluoride
Silica
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
(NO3)-1
F-1
SiO2
Iron
Fe-2 (ferrous)
Fe-3 (ferric)
Manganese
Oil
Mn+2
Expressed as oil or
chloroform
extractable matter,
ppmw.
O2
Oxygen
Hydrogen Sulfide
H2S
Ammonia
NH2
Conductivity
DIFFICULTIES CAUSED
Adds to solids content, but is
not usually significant
industrially; useful for control
of boiler metal embrittlement.
Not usually significant
industrially.
Scale in boilers and cooling

water systems: insoluble
turbine blade deposits due to
silica vaporization.
Discolors water on
precipitation; source of
deposits in water lines, boilers,
and so on; interferes with
dyeing, tanning, paper mfr.,
and so on.
Same as Iron.
Scale, sludge, and foaming in
boilers; impedes heat
exchange; undesirable in most
processes.
Corrosion of water lines, heat
exchange equipment, boilers,
return lines, etc.
Cause of rotten egg odor;
corrosion.
Corrosion of copper and zinc
alloys by formation of
complex soluble ion.
Expressed as
micromhos, specific
conductance.
Conductivity is the result of

ionizable solids in solution;
high conductivity can increase
the corrosive characteristics of
a water.
MEANS OF TREATMENT
Demineralization, distillation,
reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis.
Adsorption with magnesium
hydroxide, calcium
phosphate, or bone black;
Alum coagulation; reverse
osmosis, electrolytes.
Hot process removal with
magnesium salts; adsorption
by highly basic anion
exchange resins, in
conjunction with
demineralization; distillation.
Aeration, coagulation, and
filtration, lime softening,
cation exchange, contact
filtration, surface active
agents for iron retention.
Same as Iron.
Baffle separators, strainers,
coagulation, and filtration,
diatomaceous earth filtration.
Deaeration, sodium sulfite,
corrosion inhibitors,
hydrazine or suitable
substitutes.
Aeration, chlorination, highly
basic anion exchange.
Carbon exchange with
hydrogen zeolite,
chlorination, deaeration,
mixed bed demineralization.
Any process which decreases
dissolved soils content will
decrease conductivity;
examples are
demineralization, lime
softening.
FIGURE 2 (CONT'D)
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Page 3 of 3
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER (CONTD)
CONSTITUENT
Dissolved Solids
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
None
Suspended Solids
None
Total Solids
None
DIFFICULTIES CAUSED
MEANS OF TREATMENT
Dissolved Solids is a
measure of total amount of
dissolved matter,
determined by evaporation;
high concentrations of
dissolved solids are
objectionable because of
process interference and as
a cause of foaming in
boilers.
Suspended Solids is the
measure of undissolved
matter, determined
gravimetrically; suspended
solids plug lines, cause
deposits in heat exchange
equipment, boilers, etc.
Total Solids is the sum of
dissolved and suspended
solids, determined
gravimetrically.
Various softening processes,

such as lime softening and
cation exchange by hydrogen
zeolites, will reduce dissolved
solids; demineralization;
distillation; reverse osmosis,
electrolytes.
Subsidence, filtration, usually

preceded by coagulation and
settling.
See Dissolved Solids and

Suspended Solids.
Source: GPSA Engineering Data Book
FIGURE 2 (CONT'D)
Vessels
Carbon dioxide also causes condensate system corrosion. It can be removed in a deaerator,
degasifier, or decarbonator.
Ammonia attacks copper alloys. Ammonia is sometimes added for pH control in feedwater or
condensate. It can also be formed by hydrazine decomposition. A deaerator will remove
ammonia.
Abnormal alkalinity produces film corrosion and turbine fouling.
Excessive chelates or dispersants can cause corrosion in steam piping and throughout the
steam system.
Impurities that enhance corrosion include:
Oxygen.
Carbon dioxide.
Ammonia.*
Alkalinity.*
Chlorides.
Sulfites.*
Hydrazine.*
Chelates.*
Organics.
* NOTE: These impurities can be added unintentionally during internal chemical
treatment.
Solids
Carryover of solids from boiler water into the steam is caused by inadequate separation in a
boiler drum, by volatilizing of silica, and by foaming resulting from oil contamination of
boiler water. Solids carryover can result in superheater failure, steam turbine blade fouling,
and process catalyst fouling. The main causes of such problems are high total dissolved
solids (TDS), alkalinity, oil, and silica in the boiler drum.
Caustic
Caustic embrittlement is the cracking of metal along grain boundaries. It can result from too
much caustic in boiler water, particularly in poorly controlled caustic-pH programs where
caustic is added for pH control.
Vessels
Boiler Water Quality Limits

Saudi Aramco has established boiler water quality limits for gas plant boilers operating in the
range of 400-650 psig. This covers most of Saudi Aramco's boilers. Quality limits for boiler
feedwater, steam drum water, condensate return, and steam are listed in
Work Aid 1.
These boiler feedwater and steam drum water qualities are based on the use of demineralized
or desalinated water. All limits are the same for the two sources, except that limits on the
chloride content are added when desalinated water is used.
Silica limits are well established, based on the maximum level to prevent vaporization and
carryover of silica, which can foul turbine blades.
The chloride limit is specified for desalinated makeup water to prevent internal corrosion.
The conductivity levels specified are typical operating levels, rather than absolute limits.
Conductivity is correlated to the maximum level of the limiting constituent in boiler water (for
example, silica or chloride). Because of the ease and reliability of measuring conductivity,
conductivity is the primary parameter for controlling boiler water blowdown.
Alkalinity should not be a limiting or controlling parameter. However, it should be monitored
to confirm that alkalinity levels, particularly hydroxyl alkalinity (B alkalinity), do not exceed
40 mg/l. Excessive free hydroxyl alkalinity introduces the potential for caustic attack. High
levels of total alkalinity may cause carryover of boiler water salts into the steam system,
leading to possible fouling of superheater tubes or turbine blades.
Vessels
BOILER WATER TREATMENT

The four main steps for treating boiler water and reducing impurities are the following:
External treatment, upstream of the boiler and deaerator. This can reduce the hardness
ions of calcium and magnesium, silica, chlorides, oil, organics, suspended solids, and
other impurities.
Deaeration. This can reduce the amount of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ammonia in the
water.
Internal chemical treatment in the boiler or deaerator. This can control scale and
corrosion that result from impurities not removed in external treatment.
Blowdown. This can remove solids that accumulate and concentrate in the boiler
because of evaporation.
Boiler water treatment is illustrated in Figure 3, which is a simplified flow plan of the water
treatment facilities at Uthmaniyah. This shows the many treatment steps that can be required
in a single plant. The flow sequence includes the following steps:
Wells as the water source.
External water treatment.

-
Sulfuric acid injection.

Aeration in a tower.
Iron removal filters.
Cartridge filters.
Electrodialysis.
Demineralization.
+
+
Preheating.
Other external water treatment processes are used in other plants. These include the
following:
-
Cation units.
Anion units.
Reverse osmosis.
Sodium zeolite softening.
Multistage flash evaporation.
Deaeration.
10
Vessels
SIMPLIFIED FLOW PLAN - WATER TREATING FACILITIES AT

UTHMANIYAH
FIGURE 3
11
Vessels
Internal chemical treatment.

-
Nalco 356 injection.

Sulfite injection.
Nalco 7200 injection.
Blowdown.
Deaeration
Gases dissolved in water, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, must be minimized. Both
carbon dioxide and oxygen can cause corrosion of carbon steel in steam generation facilities.
Dissolved oxygen is a major contributor to the pitting corrosion experienced in boilers,
especially in economizers and downcomer tubes. Corrosion frequently is more severe in the
cooler portions of boilers, because the oxygen is released there first. Carbon dioxide causes
condensate line corrosion, especially in combination with oxygen.
Deaerators are required to remove oxygen in the boiler feedwater before the water is fed to
the boilers. Boilers operating above 600 psig require deaerators capable of reducing oxygen to
less than 0.007 ppm.
In pressure-type deaerating heaters and deaerators, the oxygen removal (deaeration) level
achieved is a function of the temperature, pressure, and degree of stripping. Deaeration is
based on the fact that oxygen has an inverse solubility curve in water. A pressure deaerator
uses steam to heat the water to the saturation temperature, where the oxygen solubility is very
low. Steam stripping is provided to reduce the oxygen partial pressure in the vapor phase.
Since the solubility of oxygen is a function of the partial pressure, these two steps remove the
maximum amount of oxygen. If the deaerator is working properly, the temperature of the
storage section of the deaerator will be within 2 to 3F of the steam saturation temperature at
the operating pressure of the deaerator. A positive steam plume is required at the vent on
pressure units to assure effective venting of the stripped gases. Typical steam pressures used
in pressure-type deaerators vary from 2 to 60 psig.
There are two basic types of deaerators, tray and spray. In the tray type, the water is
distributed over trays, and steam is injected to strip the dissolved gases from the water as it
cascades down from tray to tray. The spray type uses spray nozzles to atomize the water into
droplets. Some deaerators combine both trays and sprays.
12
Vessels
Internal Chemical Treatment - Deaerator

After deaeration, an oxygen scavenger is added to the boiler feedwater to destroy the residual
free oxygen in the water. Hydrazine and sodium sulfite are the most cost effective oxygen
scavengers.
Catalyzed sodium sulfite is used in most Saudi Aramco plants. This removes the free,
dissolved oxygen, but adds dissolved salts to the boiler water. Sulfite reacts with oxygen to
form sodium sulfite salt. Sodium sulfite is added to the boiler feedwater to maintain a residual
concentration of 20 to 30 ppm SO3 in the boiler blowdown. Some plants have replaced
sodium sulfite injection with diethyl hydroxylamine (DEHA).
Internal Chemical Treatment - Boilers
Many types of chemical treatments are available for use with boiler water to protect the boiler
from scale and corrosion. These chemicals generally react with the impurities in the water to
form compounds that will not deposit on the boiler tube surfaces and can be removed with the
blowdown. These compounds can be completely water soluble or can be free-flowing
sludges.
The choice of chemicals used depends upon the type and amount of impurities in the water,
which are largely the result of the type of water treating system used. Improper use of boiler
chemicals can cause additional problems in the boiler, including corrosion or other types of
deposits on the boiler tubes.
Polymers are used in most Saudi Aramco boilers to control scale deposition on the boiler tube
surfaces. Nalco 7200 Transport-Plus is injected into the boiler feedwater at a rate of 2.5
ppm. This chemical solubilizes the hardness ions in the feedwater. Particulate iron is also
dispersed by the action of the polymer. This chemical also helps prevent carryover by
controlling foaming in the steam drum.
The dosage rate is determined by the total hardness and total iron in the feedwater. Control
includes monitoring the total reacted and residual product in boiler feedwater. Testing for
residual product in the boiler water is also required. Determination of product effectiveness is
by measurement of % transport of Ca, Mg, Fe, and SiO2. Aim for 100% transport. This
indicates that the system is in balance.
% transport =
boiler water concentration

x 100
(feedwater concentration x cycles)
where: cycles = ratio of feedwater rate to blowdown rate.
13
Vessels
CALCULATING BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE

All dissolved and suspended solids entering a boiler with the feedwater remain in the drums
and tubes as steam is generated. The continual addition of feedwater produces higher and
higher concentration of solids in the boiler water. A point can be reached beyond which
operation is completely unsatisfactory. This situation may be caused by dissolved solids,
silica content, or alkalinity. Every boiler has a limit above which foaming and carryover
occur. To keep boiler water concentrations below this limit, remove some of the concentrated
boiler water from the unit as blowdown.
The intermittent or manual blowdown is taken from the bottom of the mud drum. This
blowdown is mainly intended to remove any sludge formed in the boiler water. With polymer
treatment, both suspended and dissolved solids are present in the water. These must be
removed to prevent solids from settling and caking on the heat transfer surfaces. The manual
blowdown should be used approximately once per day for a few seconds to remove
suspended solids which may have settled in the mud drum.
A continuous blowdown system helps to keep the boiler water within the concentration limits
on a relatively constant basis. Removing a small stream of water continuously saves water,
chemicals, and heat. The heat in the continuous blowdown water can be recovered in a heat
exchange system installed in the blowdown system. The continuous blowdown is usually
located below the normal water level in the steel drum.
Proper regulation of boiler blowdown is very important in boiler operation. Too little
blowdown allows the concentration of suspended and dissolved solids to become too great,
resulting in scale formation and carryover of impurities in the steam. Too much blowdown
wastes fuel and feedwater. Globe valves with position indicators allow for accurate control.
Boiler concentration limits applied to control corrosion and fouling in the boiler vary as a
function of the operating pressure. In some cases, the blowdown from a high pressure
application is suitable for makeup to a lower pressure steam generator.
Steam that is dirty and wet can cause deposits in superheaters, turbines, and control valves,
and process contamination can result. A good separation of water and steam must occur
inside the boiler to produce clean and dry steam. Most boilers have effective mechanical
separators in the boiler drum when the water boils smoothly. When boiler water primes or
foams, however, impurities are carried over in the steam. While water priming and foaming
are partly controlled through careful operation of the boiler drum level and chemical
injections, respectively, they are highly dependent on maintaining proper boiler blowdown.
14
Vessels
Priming and Foaming

Priming is caused by too
area for steam release, or
increases, erratic hot gas
operator must maintain
instructions.
high a water level in the boiler drum, which decreases the surface
by upsets in boiler water circulation because of sudden steam load
flow, or sudden increases in heat input. To prevent priming, the
the boiler water level in accordance with the manufacturer's
Foaming is caused by chemical conditions in the boiler water that result in excessive
dissolved and suspended solids. Some boiler waters will foam when a sudden change in their
chemical composition occurs. High amounts of dissolved and suspended solids, alkalinity,
oil, and organic contaminants that can act as surfactants in the boiler water promote foaming.
Commercial antifoams, blended into water treating formulations, have been successful and
can be verified for effectiveness by monitoring steam purity with a sodium analyzer.
Turbine and Superheater Fouling
The measure of steam carryover is the rate of turbine and superheater fouling. Superheater
fouling results in increased pressure drop and ultimately tube rupture because of high tube
wall temperatures. Turbine fouling can be measured by frequent monitoring of turbine steam
flow and corresponding steam chamber pressure and comparing the information to the clean
condition. The method can indicate a fouling condition over a period of three to four days. It
is not useful, however, for isolating a steam carryover problem where a number of boilers
supply a common steam header that then supplies a turbine.
Solids, Sludge, and Silica
Boiler blowdown is adjusted to maintain steam purity. Procedures for determining total
dissolved solids, sludge, and silica are as follows:
Total dissolved solids (conductivity): The amount of dissolved solids can be calculated
from the sodium salts naturally present in the feedwater, soluble silica, and any soluble
chemicals added for treatment. The amount of dissolved solids in the boiler drum is
measured with a conductivity meter, which indicates the amount of dissolved salts by
the electrical conductivity of the water. Excessive amounts of dissolved salts cause
foaming and carryover of impurities in the steam. A continuous conductivity
monitor/recorder on the boiler blowdown is recommended.
15
Vessels
Continuous Blowdown Rate

The blowdown rate depends on the boiler feedwater quality. Blowdown is usually calculated
as a percent of steam production. Because of the high quality of demineralized water,
blowdown may be about 1% with a system designed for a 5 to 10% blowdown rate. With
zeolite-softened water, blowdown may be 5 to 10%, with a system designed for 10% or more.
X =
A
100
(100) =
B - A
C - 1
(Eqn. 1)
where: X = Blowdown rate, % of steam flow.

A = Concentration of impurity in boiler feedwater.
B = Target concentration of impurity in steam drum. Refer to Work Aid 2 for
target concentration limits.
C = Cycle of concentration.
= Ratio of feedwater rate to blowdown rate.
Y =
100
C
(Eqn. 2)
where: Y = Blowdown rate, % of feedwater rate.

For example, assume that for a 600 psig boiler, the feedwater has 0.05 ppmw silica, and the
target concentration in the boiler water is 10 ppmw. The blowdown rate required to control
silica would be:
X =
0.05
(100) = 0.502% = 0.5%
10 - 0.05
The cycle of concentration would be:

C =
100
+ 1 = 200
X
16
Vessels
Blowdown Facilities
Blowdown facilities limit solids buildup in the boiler water caused by evaporation. The
system must safely dispose of the flashing steam and hot liquid.
Blowdown from high-pressure boilers may be flashed at several levels. For example,
600-psig blowdown may be flashed at 125 psig, at 15 psig, and at atmospheric pressure.
Drums are used as the flash vessels. Flashed steam is recovered except for that steam flashed
at atmospheric pressure. The liquid is flashed at a lower pressure or sent to the sewer or waste
disposal. Flashing in the sewer should be avoided because of the personnel hazard. Heat
exchange between the blowdown waste liquid and cold makeup water is common when
energy costs are high.
Figure 4 shows a typical blowdown system arrangement. It includes a medium-pressure and
low-pressure flash drum for continuous blowdown from a boiler steam drum and atmospheric
flash drum for intermittent blowdown from a boiler mud drum. Condensate from the
continuous blowdown low-pressure flash drum is routed through a heat exchanger to site
drainage. Condensate from the intermittent blowdown drum is sent directly to the sewer after
an atmospheric flash. The intermittent blowdown drum is piped so that it can spare the
continuous blowdown system for maintenance.
17
Vessels
TYPICAL BOILER BLOWDOWN FACILITIES
FIGURE 4
18
Vessels
WORK AID 1 - CALCULATE BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE

SAUDI ARAMCO WATER QUALITY CONTROL LIMITS
The following quality limits apply to demineralized or desalinated water.
Boiler
Feedwater
Steam Drum
Water
Condensate
Return
Steam
<10
1000-1500
10
10
pH
8.2-9.5
10.0-11.5
8.2-9.2
8.2-9.2
Iron, mg/l
<0.025
Conductivity at
25 C, S/cm
<0.05
Copper, mg/1
Silica, mg/l
< 0.025
<0.05
0-15
Sodium, mg/l
<0.02
<0.05
Chloride, mg/l
<0.05*
Dissolved Oxygen, mg/l
<0.007
<50*
Residual Sulfite, mg/l
20-30
Total Alkalinity, mg/l
50-300
Hydroxyl Alkalinity
(B Alkalinity), mg/l
<40
Suspended Solids, mg/l
<50
N-7200, mg/l
2.5 x Cycles
* Monitored when desalinated water is used.

mg/l = ppm
Source:
Saudi Aramco Report PD-4L/324/84
19
Vessels
GLOSSARY
alkalinity
The total carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ion

concentration in the water expressed as ppm calcium carbonate
equivalent. These ions react with acid.
anion exchanger
A vessel containing insoluble resin that is capable of

exchanging one anion, usually hydroxide ions, for other
undesirable anions in the water, for example, sulfates, chlorides,
and nitrates.
anions
Negatively charged ions in the water, for example, sulfates,

chlorides, nitrates, and bicarbonates.
attemperating
Spraying water on steam coming out of a boiler to lower the

temperature of the steam.
biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
A measure of the oxygen consumed in the oxidation of organic

and oxidizable inorganic materials in wastewater (expressed in
ppm).
biocide
A poisonous chemical substance that can kill living organisms.
blowdown
The removal of a portion of water from a system or boiler drum

to control the concentration of dissolved and suspended
impurities in the system or boiler water.
calcium and
magnesium hardness
The concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water,

expressed as ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.
cations
Positively charged ions in the water, for example, calcium,

magnesium, and sodium.
caustic or caustic
soda
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
caustic embrittlement
A type of boiler corrosion characterized by cracking of the

metal along the grain boundaries. It may occur when highly
stressed metal is exposed to concentrated boiler water. It is
usually associated with high concentrations of sodium
hydroxide.
20
Vessels
coagulation
A process whereby suspended and colloidal particles, which

cause turbidity and color in water, are combined by physical
means into masses large enough to settle.
21
Vessels
degasification/
decarbonation
The process of removing dissolved gases other than air from

water. Air from a blower comes into intimate, countercurrent
contact with the water droplets and scrubs out the gases.
Degasification in boiler water treatment is usually used to
remove carbon dioxide.
demineralization
The removal of dissolved ionic matter from water.
desuperheating
Spraying water on steam in the system to reduce the

temperature of the steam.
dissolved solids
See Total Dissolved Solids.
dolomitic lime
Lime containing 30-35wt% magnesium oxide.
filtration
The process of passing water containing suspended matter

through a porous material to remove the suspended matter.
The suspended matter is normally reduced to less than one
NTU of turbidity.
hardness
Same as calcium and magnesium hardness.
ion
Electrically charged particle formed when a molecule

dissociates into positive and negative particles, for example,
salt into positive sodium and negative chloride ions.
makeup water
Water added to a system to make up for losses or blowdown.
nephelometric
turbidity unit (NTU)
A measurement of the turbidity of a sample of water,

determined by light reflection.
organics
As used in this course, complex acids resulting from decaying

plants and other forms of pollution.
pH
A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a system. The

reference temperature for pH is 25C (77F) and the pH scale
runs from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic), with pH=7.0
being neutral.
potable water
Drinkable water.
raw water
Water that has not yet been processed by a water treating

plant.
22
Vessels
23
Vessels
silica
An impurity present in water sources, expressed as reactive

SiO2.
suspended solids
Finely divided insoluble matter present in water. The

suspended solids are normally inorganic material, such as
clay, rock, silt, and so on.
total dissolved solids

(TDS)
Impurities, normally salts, that are present in the water in

solution, usually as ionic material.
total hardness
Calcium plus magnesium hardness.
total solids
The sum of the suspended and dissolved solids in water.
treated water
Water that has been processed to reduce the suspended and

dissolved impurities.
turbidity
Lack of clarity due to the presence of suspended or colloidal

matter, expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
24

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