AnatomyandPhysiologyReview

OrganSystems
Integumentary(Skin,hair,andnail)functionsincludeprotection,temperature
regulation,waterretention,andsensation.
Skeletal(bones,cartilage,andligament)functionsincludeprotectionofbodyorgans,
support,movement,andbloodformation
Muscular(skeletalmuscles)movement,posture,andheatproduction
Lymphatic(lymphnodes,lymphaticvessels,lymph,thymus,spleen,andtonsils)
functionsincluderoleinfluidbalance,productionofimmunecells,defenseagainst
disease
Respiratory(nose,pharynx,larynx,trachea,bronchi,andlungs)functionsinclude
absorptionofoxygen,dischargeofcarbondioxide,acidbasebalance,speech
Urinary(Kidneys,ureters,urinarybladder,andurethra)functionsincludeexcretionof
wastes,regulationofbloodvolumeandpressure,controloffluid,electrolyte,andacid
basebalance.
Nervous(brain,spinalcord,nerves,andsenseorgans)functionsincludecontrol,
regulation,andcoordinationofothersystems,sensation,andmemory.
Endocrine(pituitarygland,adrenals,pancreas,thyroid,parathyroid,andotherorgans)
functionsincludehormoneproduction,controlandregulationofothersystems.
Circulatory(heart,arteries,veins,andcapillaries)functionsincludedistributionof
oxygen,nutrients,wastes,hormones,electrolytes,immunecells,andantibodies;fluid,
electrolyte,andacidbasebalance.
Digestive(stomach,smallandlargeintestines,esophagus,liver,mouthandpancreas)
functionincludesbreakdownandabsorptionofnutrients,eliminationofwastes
MaleReproductive(testes,vasdeferens,prostate,seminalvesicles,andpenis)function
includesproductionanddeliveryofsperm,secretionofsexhormones.
FemaleReproductive(ovaries,fallopiantubes,uterus,vagina,andbreasts)function
includesproductionofeggs,siteoffertilizationandfetaldevelopment,birth,lactation,
secretionofsexhormones
AnatomicalTerms
Medialtowardthebodysmidline
Lateralawayformthebodysmidline
Distalfarthestfromthepointoforigin
Superiorabove
Anterior(Ventral)towardthefrontofthebody
Posterior(Dorsal)towardthebackofthebody
SuperficialAtornearthebodyssurface
DeepAwayfromthebodyssurface
Inferiorbelow
BodyCavities
Printpages9and10
Metabolism

Catabolisminvolvesbreakingdowncomplexcompoundsintosimplerones.This
breakdownreleasesenergy.
Anabolisminvolvesbuildinglargerandmorecomplexchemicalmoleculesfromsmall
subunits.Thisrequiresenergyinput,whichisobtainedfromATPmolecules.

Water
Waterisasolventwaterdissolvesmoresubstancesthananyotherliquid
Waterisalubricantwaterclingstothebodystissuesandformsalubricatingfilmon
membranes
Waterchangestemperatureslowlywatercanabsorbandreleaselargeamountsofheat
withoutchangingtemperature.
PHScale
Rangesfrom0to14

Tonicity
Isotonicsolutionisoneinwhichtheconcentrationofsolutesisthesameasitisinthe
cell.Redbloodcellinisotonicsolutionwillremainnormalinsizeandwatercontent.
IsotonicfluidstayswhereIputitExamples:NormalSalineandLactateRingers,used
forhypernatremia.
Hypertonicsolutioncontainsahigherconcentrationofsolutescomparedtothefluid
withinthecell.Redbloodcellwillshrivelduetowatershiftingoutofthecell.
Examples:3%NormalSaline.Administerslowly&cautiouslyIfadministeredtoo
quicklyorinlargevolumescancausecirculatoryoverload&dehydration
Hypotonicsolutioncontainsalowerconcentrationofsolutescomparedtothefluidwithin
thecell.Redbloodcellwillswell.HypotonicfluidsmovesOUTofthevessel
Examples:Normalsaline.Ifcellswellsandburst,thisiscalledlysis.Usedtoreplace
cellularfluid.

TissueRepair
Regenerationoccurswhendamagedtissuecellsarereplacedwiththesametypeofcells,
resultinginfunctionalnewtissue.Mostinjuriestotheskin,suchascutsandscrapesheal
byregeneration
Fibrosisoccurswhendamagedtissueisreplacedwithscaretissue,whichiscomposedof
mainlycollagen.Thisdoesnotrestorenormalfunction.
Stepsintissuerepair(Inflammation,organization,andregenerationorfibrosis)
o Step1Severedbloodvesselsbleedintothewound
o Step2Bloodclotformsandformsscab,beneaththescabWBCbeginto
ingestbacteriaandcellulardebris(phagocytosis),
o Step3Thehealthytissuesurroundingthewoundsendsblood,nutrients,
proteins,andothermaterialsnecessaryforgrowingnewtissuestothe
damagedarea.Thenewlyformtissueiscalledgranulationtissue.
Fibroblastsinthegranulationtissuesecretecollagen,whichformsscar
tissueinsidethewound.
o Step4thesurfacearoundthewoundgeneratesnewepithelialcells.
Membranes
Mucousmembraneslinebodysurfacesthatopendirectlytothebodysexterior,suchas
therespiratory,digestive,urinary,andreproductivetracts
Cutaneousmembraneknownastheskin,thisisthebodyslargestmembrane
Serousmembranelinessomeoftheclosedbodycavitiesandalsocovermanyofthe
organsinthosecavities.
o Pleurasurroundseachlungandlinesthethoraciccavity
o Pericardiumsurroundstheheart
o Peritoneumlinetheabdominalcavityandcoverstheabdominalorgans
Burns
1stDegree(Partialthickness)Involvesontheepidermis
2ndDegree(DeepPartialthickness)involvestheepidermisaswellaspartofthedermis
3rdDegree(Fullthickness)extendsthroughtheepidermisanddermisintothe
subcutaneouslayer
Bones
Electrolytebalance:Bonesstoreandreleasemineralssuchascalciumandphosphorus
necessaryingredientforavarietyofchemicalreactionthroughoutthebody
Bloodproduction:Bonesencasebonemarrow,amajorsiteofbloodcellformation
Acidbasebalance:BoneabsorbsandreleasesalkalinesaltstohelpmaintainastablepH.

Bonetissuesinclude:
Osteoblasthelpformbonebysecretingsubstancesthatcomprisethebonesmatrix
Osteoclastsdissolveunwantedorunhealthybone
Osteocytesarematureosteoblastshavebecomeentrappedinthehardenedbone
matrix.Theydissolveboneanddepositnewbone.Theycontributetothe
maintenanceofbonedensity.
Redbonemarrowproducesredbloodcells.Nearlyallofachildsbonescontainredbone
marrow
Inanadultredbonemarrowcanbefoundonlyintheribs,sternum,vertebrae,skull,
pelvis,andupperpartsofthehumerus(arm),andfemur(thigh)
YellowbonemarrowisfattyandnolongerproducesRBCs.Intheeventofchronicblood
lossyellowcanturnbacktoredtohelpproduceRBC
NeurotransmitterAchemicalmessenger
Acetylcholine(Ach)Chemicalmessengerreleasedfromtheendofnamotorneuron
NervousSystem
Thenervoussystemcontainstwomaindivisions:CentralNervousSystemandPeripheral
Nervoussystem

CentralNervousSystembrainandspinalcord
Peripheralnervoussystemeverythingoutsideofthebrainandspinalcord
Peripheralnervoussystem>Sensory(afferentdivision)carriessignalsfromnerveending
toCNS>SomaticSensorycarriessignalsfromskin,bones,jointsandmuscles>Visceral
sensorycarriessignalsfromvisceraofheart,lungs,stomach,andbladder
Peripheralnervoussystem>Motor(efferent)divisiontransmitsinformationfromCNSto
restofbody>somaticmotorallowsvoluntarymovementsofskeletalmuscles
Peripheralnervoussystem>motor(efferent)division>transmitsinformationfromCNS
torestofbody>autonomicmotorprovidesautomaticactivitiessuchascontrolof
bloodpressureandheartrate>parasympatheticdivisionhasacalmingeffect>
Sympatheticdivisionarousesthebodyforaction
Neurons
SensoryNeurons(afferent)detectstimuliandthentransmitinformationaboutthe
stimulitotheCNS
InterneuronsarefoundonlyintheCNS,Theyreceive,process,andstoreinformation,
theconnectsmadebytheseneuronsmakeeachofusuniqueinhowwethink,fell,and
act.
MotorNeurons(efferent)relaymessagesfromthebraintothemuscleorglandcells.
Myelinhelpsspeedimpulseconduction
NervesinthePNScanregenerateaslongasthesomaandneurilemmaareintact.Cellsinthe
CNSlackneurilemmmaandthereforecannotregenerate.
SpinalCordandSomaticReflexes

Thespinalcordistheinformationpassagewaythatrelaysmessagesfromthebraintotherestof
thebody
CategoriesofSpinalNerves
8Cervicalnerves(C1C8)
12thoracicnerves(T1T12)
5lumbarnerves(L1L5)
5Sacralnerves(S1S5)
1Coccygealnerve(Co)
FourMajorPlexus
Cervicalplexuscontainsthenervesthatsupplythemusclesandskinoftheneck,topsof
shoulders,andpartofthehead
Brachialplexusinnervatesthelowerpartoftheshoulderandthearm
Lumbarplexussuppliesthethighandleg
Sacralplexusthesciaticnervearisesfromhereandrunsdownthebackofthethigh
DermatomesEachspinalnerve(exceptC1)innervatesaspecificareaoftheskin.
Somaticreflexesinvolvesthecontractionofskeletalmuscleafterbeingstimulatedbyasomatic
motorneuron.Somaticreflexesoftenhelpprotectthebodyagainstharm.

DivisionsoftheBrain

Brainstemincludesthemidbrain,pons,andmedullaoblongata
Midbraincontainstractsthatrelaysensoryandmotorimpulse,containscentersfor
auditoryandvisualreflexesaswellasclustersofneuronsintegral
Ponscontainstractsthatconveysignalstoandfromdifferentpartsofthebrain.Several
cranialnervesarisefromthisarea.
Medullaoblongataattachesthebraintothespinalcord.Itrelayssensoryandmotor
signalsbetweenthebrainandspinalcord,themedullacontainsnucleithatperform
functionsvitaltohumanlife.Suchasthecardiaccenter,vasomotorcenter(controlsblood
vesseldiameter)
Tworespiratorycentersregulatesbreathing
Diencephalonistheregiondeepinsidethebrainconsistingofseveralstructuressuchasthe
thalamusandhypothalamus
Thalamusresidesontopofthebrainstem.Itactsasagatewayfornearlyeverysensory
impulsetravelingtothecerebralcortex.Itisalsoisinvolvedinmemoryandemotion.
HypothalamusInfluencestonearlyeveryorganofthebody.ItcontrolstheANS,
containscenterresponsibleforhunger,thirst,andtemperature,controlsthepituitary
gland,isinvolvedinmultipleemotionalresponses.
CranialNerves(Pg182183)

AutonomicNervousSystem
TheANSisasubdivisionofthenervoussystemresponsibleforregulatingtheactivitiesthat
maintainhomeostasis,suchassecretionofdigestiveenzymes,theconstrictionanddilationof
bloodvesslsformaintenanceofbloodpressure,andthesecretionofhormones.BecausetheANS
targetsorgansitissometimescalledthevisceralmotorsystem.
VisceralReflexs:
1. Receptorsdetectchangesinbodyconditions
2. AfferentneuronstransmitinformationaboutthischangetotheANS
3. Thebrainprocessesthisinformationandtransmitsasignalalonganefferentnerve
4. Theeffectororganreceivesthemessageandresponds
ANSincludesthesympatheticdivisionandparasympatheticdivision.Thesympatheticdivision
preparesthebodyforactivity.Theparasympatheticdivisionhasacalmingeffectonthebody.
SympatheticDivision
Increasesalertness
Increasesheartrate
Dilatesbronchialtubestoincreaseair
flowinthelungs
Dilatesbloodvesselsofskeletal
musclestoincreasebloodblow
Inhibitsintestinalmotility
Stimulatessecretionofthicksalivary
mucus
Stimulatessweatglands
Stimulatesadrenalmedullatosecrete
epinephrine
Hasnoeffectontheurinarybladderor
internalsphincter

ParasympatheticDivision
Hasacalmingeffect
Decreasesheartrate
Constrictsbronchialtubestodecrease
airflowinlungs
Hasnoeffectonbloodvesselsof
skeletalmuscles
Stimulatesintestinalmotilityand
secretiontopromotedigestion
Stimulatessecretionofthinsalivary
mucus
Hasnoeffectonsweatglands
Hasnoeffectonadrenalmedulla
Stimulatesthebladderwalltocontract
andtheinternalsphinctertorelaxto

Causesflightoffightresponse
Employsmostlynorepinephrineasa
neurotransmitter(occasionallyuses
acetylcholine)
Produceswidespread,generalized
effects

causeurination
Causestherestingandigestingstate.
EmploysAcetylcholineasa
neurotransmitter
Produceslocaleffects

TheANSemploystwodifferentneurotransmitters;acetylcholine(Ach)andnorepinephrine(NE).
Fibersthatsecreteacetylcholinearecalledcholinergicfibers.FibersthatsecreteNE
(sometimescallednotadrenaline)arecalledadrenergicfibers
CholinergicFibers
Includethepreganglionicfibersof
boththesympatheticand
parasympatheticdivisions
Secreteacetylcholine
Includethepreganglionicfibersofthe
parasympathetic

Adrenergicfibers
Includemost(butnotall)ofthe
postganglionicfibersofthe
sympatheticdivision
Secretesnorepinephrine

Rememberinallpathways,preganglionicfibersarecholinergicandsecreteacetylcholine.
Mostsympatheticpostganglionicfibersareadrenergic.

Receptors
Afterbeingreleasedtheneurotransmitterbindtoreceptorsontheeffectorcellsofthetarget
organs.InbriefAchbindstocholinergicreceptorsandNEbindstoadrenergicreceptors.
Cholinergicreceptors:Achmaybindtooneoftwodifferenttypesofreceptors:
NicotinicReceptors
Thesereceptorsoccurwithinthe
gangliaoftheANS,intheadrenal
medulla,andintheneuromuscular
junction
Allcellswithnicotinicreceptorsare
excitedbyAch.

MuscarinicReceptors
Thesereceptorsoccurontheglands,
smoothmuscle,andcardiacmuscle
cellsoftheorgansinnervatedby
cholinergicfibers
Cellwithmuscarinicreceptorsexhibit
avariableresponsetoAch:someare
excitedwhileothersareinhibited.
ThisvariableresponseallowsAChto
stimulateintestinalsmoothmuscle
whileinhibitingcardiacmuscle

AdrenergicReceptors
Therearetwotypesofadrenergicreceptors:AlphaandBeta
AlphaadrenergicreceptorsareexcitedbyNE,generallyproducesexcitatoryresponse

NEbindstoalphaadrenergicreceptorandcausesbloodvesselstoconstrict
BetaadrenergicreceptorsareinhibitedbyNE,generallyproducesinhibitoryresponse
NEbindstobetaadrenergicreceptorsandcausesthevesselstodilate

Norepinephrine
Epinephrine

SenseOrgans
ClassificationofReceptorsReceptorsareclassifiedaccordingtothetypeofstimulitheydetect.
Chemoreceptorsthesereceptorsreacttovariouschemicals,includingodorsandtastes,
aswellastheconcentrationofvariouschemicals(suchasglucoseorcarbondioxide)
Mechanoreceptorsrespondtofactors,suchaspressure,stretch,orvibration,thatchange
thepositionofareceptor
Thermoreceptorsareactivatedbyachangeintemperature
Nociceptorsthesearepainreceptorsthatrespondtotissuedamagefromtraumaaswell
asfromheat,chemicals,pressure,oralackofoxygen
PhotoreceptorsFoundonlyintheeyes,theyrespondtolight
BalanceThevestibuleandsemicircularcanalsoftheinnerearplayakeyroleintheprocessof
balance
Theprocessofvision
1. Lightmustentertheeyeandfocusontheretinatoproduceatiny,upsidedownimageof
theobjectbeingviewed.
2. Thephotoreceptorsintheretina(rodsandcones)mustconvertthatimageintonerve
impulses
3. Theimpulsesmustbetransmittedtothebrainforinterpretation

EndocrineSystem
Theendocrinesystemproducesamultitudeofhormoneswithwiderangingeffects.
Hormonesareclassifiedassteroidornonsteroid
Steroidhormonesaresynthesizedfromcholesterol;theyincludemaleandfemalesex
hormones,andaldosterone
Nonsteroidhormones,orproteinbased,hormonesaresynthesizedfromaminoacids