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12112
B J OR N H E D M A N * , J I W E I R E N , G U A N G H U I X I E and S H A O J U N X I O N G *
*Division of Biomass Technology and Chemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE 901 83 Umea, Sweden,
Centre of Biomass Engineering, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian, Beijing 100094, China,
National Energy R&D Centre for Nonfood Biomass, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuanxilu, Haidian,
Beijing 100094, China
Abstract
Given the growing global population, mankind must find new ways to lower competition for land between food
and fuel production. Our findings for cassava suggest that this important crop can substantially increase the
combined production of both food and fuel. Cassava stems have previously been overlooked in starch and
energy production. These food-crop residues contain about 30% starch (dry mass) mostly in the xylem rather
than phloem tissue. Up to 15% starch of the stem dry mass can be extracted using simple water-based techniques, potentially leading to an 87% increase in global cassava starch production. The integration of biofuel
production, using residues and wastewater from starch extraction, may bring added value. The cassava roots on
which biofuels and other products are based can be replaced by cassava stems without land use expansion,
making root starch available as food for additional 30 million people today.
Keywords: combined food and fuel, crop residue, dietary energy, land use, starch, tropic and subtropic region
Introduction
Biofuel production has accelerated globally in recent
decades (IEA, 2009), and concerns about food supply
are increasing as first-generation bioethanol and biodiesel products are generated from the edible parts of food
crops (Fargione et al., 2008; Searchinger et al., 2008;
Thomson et al., 2009; Glover et al., 2010; Cheng & Timilsina, 2011). Indeed, pressure on food supplies is now
more significant than ever, given the continuous growth
of the global population. Between now and 2050 the
worlds population is predicted to increase by more
than two billion people (Granham-Rowe, 2011; Haub &
Gribble, 2011), or more than 28%. Today, more than one
in seven people in the world are suffering from malnutrition (FAO, 2008; Glover et al., 2010), while at the same
time first-generation biofuels are being produced from
sugars (sugarcane), starch (e.g., maize, cassava), and
plant oils (rape seeds, soybean). These conventional
food crops provide sustenance for billions of people
and livestock (Bruinsma, 2003); production of biofuel
from these crops is therefore competing with food and
animal feed production for the limited amount of available arable land (Cheng & Timilsina, 2011). If this competition occurs in a laissez-faire environment, expansion of
arable land is likely to be achieved at the price of deforestation and deterioration of other natural ecosystems,
especially in countries with poorer economies and lower
incomes; in addition, increased food prices are likely to
arise (FAO, 2011; Granham-Rowe, 2011).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) is cultivated for
its root starch, which is used mainly as food (48%) and
feed (34%), but also as feedstock (18%) for biofuels and
biochemicals (FAO, 19902011, 2008). The production of
cassava roots has kept growing in last 10 years and
reached about 230 Tg y 1 (wet mass) in 20092010. As
many as one billion low-income people live on it in
many developing countries in tropical Africa, Asia, and
Latin America (FAO, 2000, 2008). Global cassava
production uses about 19 million hectares of land,
including unproductive and low precipitation areas.
The biomass of cassava stem can be as much as 50%
of the root mass, but the role of cassava stems in both
starch and energy production has so far been overlooked. Except for ca. 1020% that are used for propagation, cassava stems have a long history of being found
mostly non-useful, even for feed, because of their particularly woody nature. In some countries, a part of
cassava stems is either used as fuel for cooking
1
2 W . Z H U et al.
(Howeler, 2012a,b), though longer process in igniting
and making flame than other biomass, or reincorporated
into the soil to add organic matter and nutrients with
the help of a mechanical chipping. The surplus stems
have to in many places be cleared from the fields in
readiness for the next seasons growth and are abandoned or burned in the wild, causing emissions and
environmental problems.
Studies on maximizing the use of existing waste
biomass in energy production, such as crop residues
(nonfood parts), are therefore of extreme importance
and are a high priority (Perlack et al., 2006; Gao et al.,
2011). In this article we use cassava as a model crop and
suggest a sustainable concept of combined food and
fuel (CFF) products that have the ability to create synergies between the demands of food and energy, rather
than competition between them for land use. The concept is based on our results about the high starch content in cassava stems and the findings that the stem
starch can be easily extracted, and studies on, among
others, starch and biofuel production systems used in
the world based on cassava.
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
4 W . Z H U et al.
Data pertaining to the extensive cassava production and the
economy in different countries of the world were collected
from the FAO statistics database at its website (FAO,
19902011). The database was accessed in 20112012.
Milling
size (mm)
Temperature
C
Time
(minute)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
15.0
15.0
20
30
40
20
30
40
20
30
40
20
30
40
20
30
40
20
30
40
20
20
1
1
1
5
5
5
30
30
30
120
120
120
210
210
210
5
5
5
5
210
Results
Starch distribution in stem
The iodine staining did not show any clear pattern of
starch in stems harvested in September (6 months after
planting) (Fig. 2a top). However, starch stains covered
the whole of the cross-section of the stems that were harvested in December (Fig. 2a middle and bottom), which is
when cassava roots are normally matured and harvested in
Guangxi, China. The massive starch has been found to be
mostly stored in the xylem tissue of the stems (Fig. 2bd).
Starch content in cassava stems ranged between 22
and 39% (Fig. 3a, b), depending on the growing location,
variety, and extent of plant senescence. Within a plant,
the starch content in the stem biomass varied with the
plant stem height (Fig. 3c); the middle parts contained
more starch than, in particular, the top sections.
An indicative analysis showed that about 95% stem
starch is located in xylem tissues, 4% in bark (including
phloem), and 1% in pith of a current year stem.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2 Cross-sections taken at a height of about 0.60.8 m of cassava stems (SC205) collected in Wuming County, Guangxi, south
coast of China: sample photo (2a), transmitted light microscope images of a panoramic (2b) view after Lugol (iodine) staining and
scanning electron microscopical images (2c and 2d). 2a: samples are from the growing season in September (2009, upper), showing no
starch stain, and at the harvest in December (2009 and 2010, middle and down respectively), showing starch stains.
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
6 W . Z H U et al.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3 Starch content (% of dry mass, DM) in cassava stems. 3a, same variety (SC205) at different geographic locations (see also
Fig. 1), average content = 30.2%; 3b, different varieties from two separate locations, average = 27.4%; and 3c, starch content distribution at different height sections of the same stem (the scale indicates the upper level of the section intervals, variety SC205); 3c also,
section -10 refer previous seasons stem cutting (belowground, 0 to 15 cm).
as a factor to make a conservative estimate of stem production in terms of cassava root quantities in different
parts of the world (Table 3). The global production of
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
Location
Cultivar
A/R*
Days of growing
Howeler (2002)
Cali, Colombia
Onwueme (2002)
Bahia, Brazil
Cigana
Cauca, Colombia
Kerala, India
Current study
Guiping, China
Tall - CG 402 - 11
CM 4574 - 7
MBra 110
MMal 48
CM 507 - 37
CM 4729 - 4
SG 536 - 1
Short-MCol 22
MBra 900
CG 1141 - 1
CG 1420 - 1
CM 2766 - 5
MPan 51
CM 3294 - 4
SG 107 - 35
H-1687
H-2304
M-4
SC205
0.39
0.78
0.43
0.48
0.37
0.83
0.67
0.40
0.67
0.42
0.38
0.42
0.40
0.29
0.32
0.19
0.24
0.32
0.56
0.32
0.37
0.51
0.47
0.75
0.46 (0.02)
0.75 (0.06)
0.85 (0.09)
0.67 (0.03)
0.75 (0.03)
0.48 (0.03)
0.49 (0.02)
0.53 (0.03)
0.52 (0.03)
0.50 (0.03)
0.65 (0.03)
0.65 (0.03)
0.58 (0.04)
0.54 (0.03)
0.56 (0.05)
360
360
360
360
150
360
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
365
365
365
260
275
290
305
325
260
275
290
305
325
260
275
290
305
325
Longan, China
Wuming, China
Average
0.51
*Data in brackets each refers to a standard error of 10 observations. Data are not distinguished between wet- or dry-based, as our field
surveys suggest no significant differences in moisture between the root and stem at harvesting times.
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
8 W . Z H U et al.
Solid fuel from stem residues after starch extraction
A mass analysis indicate that the ratio of solid residues
after starch extraction is at least 60% of dry stem mass
Table 3 Estimate production of cassava stems in the world
World
Africa
Asia
Latin
America
Root production
Average
20082010*
Tg (w.b.)
Estimated
fresh stem
production
Tg (w.b.)
Estimated dry
stem mass
available
Tg (d.b.)
232.474
120.865
77.769
33.642
116.237
60.432
38.884
16.821
34.871
18.130
11.665
5.046
World
Africa
Asia
Latin
America
5.230
2.719
1.750
0.757
23.247
12.086
7.777
3.364
(when particle size 0.5 mm), suggesting a large quantity remains available for uses, such as solid biofuel
after being dewatered to less than 50% moisture and/or
dried and densified into pellets or briquettes.
The fuel analysis (Table 5) indicated the stem
residues had very promising properties for direct combustion. Because of the washing process with water
during the extraction, these residues have a lower content of ash, chlorine, silicon, potassium etc., but a relatively higher calcium content (Table 5) (Tao et al., 2011).
These changes in ash composition will increase the ash
melting temperatures and lower the risks of slagging
and corrosion in combustion (Bostr
om et al., 2012).
There would be about 20.9 Tg (dry mass) of stem
residues after starch extraction globally (Table 6). The
energy contained in the dry stem residues equivalents
to 12.3 Tg standard coal (29.3 MJ kg 1), that is, corresponding to the energy consumed by about 4.7 million
people per year, according to global averages. In Africa,
it would retain sufficient energy for use by 6.7 million
people. There is a considerable possibility of replacing
coal by using stem residues as solid fuel (Table 6), for
example, in Asia. Globally, the use of cassava stem
residues to replace coal for combustion can potentially
contribute a reduction of 32.1 Tg of emitted fossil CO2
(given 2.6 Mg of CO2 emission per Mg of standard
coal).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5 Approximate numbers of adults whose annual food energy requirements correspond to that of the replaced cassava roots by
stem starch production in the scenario of 15% stem dry mass being extracted as starch. Global average of dietary energy requirement
for adults (FAO, 2000) is used in the estimation. The lowest acceptable body weight and height (a): 47 kg and 1.59 m height for female
and 54 kg and 1.71 m for male; the highest acceptable body weight and height (b): 63 kg and 1.59 m for women and 73 kg and
1.71 m for men. Energy value of cassava root (70% moisture): 5025 kJ kg 1 (USDA, 2005). Columns refer to moderate physical activity
level, while bars indicate from light (plus) to heavy (minus) activities throughout all 365 days.
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
Item
Method/
standard
Unit
Mean
SE
EN 14918
MJ kg
EN 14918
MJ kg
EN 14775
EN 15289
EN 15289
EN 15104
EN 15104
EN 15104
ASTM-D
5373
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
CEN/TS
15370-1
CEN/TS
15370-1
Hemisphere
CEN/TS
15370-1
Flow
CEN/TS
15370-1
Major ash elements
Silicon (Si)
CEN/TS
15290
Calcium (Ca)
EN 13656
Potassium
EN 13656
(K)
Magnesium
EN 13656
(Mg)
Sodium (Na)
EN 13656
Phosphor (P)
EN 13656
647.5
8.3
1507.5
25.0
1549.2
0.8
1550.0*
0.0
Gross calorific
value
Net calorific
value
Ash
Sulphur (S)
Chlorine (Cl)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)
Oxygen (O)
(calculated)
Ash fusion
Shrinkage
start
Deformation
19.24
0.04
17.93
0.04
1.74
0.049
0.061
48.55
6.05
0.671
42.89
0.07
0.001
0.005
0.17
0.05
0.020
0.07
mg kg
171.15
10.93
mg kg
mg kg
3375.83
1886.50
97.29
166.50
mg kg
337.42
15.96
mg kg
mg kg
65.78
536.25
3.35
41.05
Table 6 Estimation of biomass quantity and energy of stem residues after starch extraction
World
Africa
Asia
Latin America
Stem residues
dry mass
Tg
20.923
10.878
6.999
3.028
Energy potential
1015 J
Standard coal
replaced
Tg
Average use of
energy per
capita*
109 J
CO2 emission if
coal is burnt
Tg
362
188
121
52
12.347
6.419
4.130
1.787
77.0
28.1
67.0
51.9
4.697
6.701
1.805
1.008
32.102
16.690
10.739
4.646
*According to Energimyndigheten, 2010; and IEA, 2009. The average in China is used for Asia, because of lack of data.
Each Mg standard coal corresponds to 2.6 Mg of fossil CO2 released during combustion.
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
10 W . Z H U et al.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6 Simple combined starch and fuel concept: integration of processing cassava stems with existing root starch and fuel production in Wuming, Guangxi, China. Basis for calculation: 70% and 15% of starch are extracted from the root and stem dry mass, and
16% and 60% of solid fibrous residues are left over after root and stem starch extraction, respectively. The starch product contains
12% moisture. The feedstock (root and stem) has a moisture content of 70% at harvest and its mass is based on one hectare.
Discussion
Rarely has a high content of starch been reported in crop
nonfood residues and their various xylem cells. It is usually considered that starch should accumulate in the
phloem (Kozlowski, 1992), although a small amount of
starch has been observed in the sapwood and ray cells,
e.g., of salix (von Fircks & Sennerby-Forsse, 1998).
Despite Lopez Molina & El-Sharkawy (1995) reported a
rather high starch content in planting stakes, the attention to explore an utilization and mechanism about it
have rarely been paid. It is understandable that the accumulation of starch in the stem is important for plant
regeneration using stem cuttings. The mechanism by
which starch is stored in high quantity in xylem (Fig. 2)
rather than phloem tissues remains to be studied.
The fact that cassava stems have a high content of
starch and that the stem starch is rather easily extracted
indicates the possibility of using the stems as a new
resource: to replace the roots that are used as feedstock
for producing starch, biofuel and biochemicals, and save
the roots for increasing demands of food for humans.
These findings apparently are very important for those
one billion people who are dependent on cassava cropping and industries, in terms of food, fuel, the environment, and social development. As matter of the fact, the
saved cassava roots have a potential to increase the dietary energy requirements for additional 30 million
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
C A S S A V A S T E M S F O R I N C R E A S I N G F O O D A N D F U E L 11
people today, based on our preliminary calculation
according to cassava root energy content (USDA, 2005)
and FAO norms (FAO, 2000) about adults daily dietary
energy requirement.
There is also a great possibility that cassava root as
well as stem production will continuously increase over
the next two decades. This assumption is based on the
fact that global cassava root production increased by
30% over the last decade (2001-2010) (FAO, 19902011).
The increase in yield per hectare had the largest contribution: it increased from about 8.6 to 10.2 Mg in Africa
and from 14.5 to 19.3 Mg in Asia, but only from 12.3 to
12.4 Mg in Latin America. The research and development in breeding (e.g., disease resistance and drought
tolerance) have played and will continue to play an
important role (Howeler, 2012a,b; Jarvis et al., 2012). Fertilization, especially potassium (K), helps also to increase
both root and stem yields (Lopez Molina & El-Sharkawy,
1995). Today Africa has about 12 9 106 ha, 64.5% of global cassava cultivation area, but only 52.8% of global production. If the yield per hectare in Africa alone increases
from 10.2 to 16.0 Mg (which was the level in Asia 2002
2003), the world cassava production may increase
another 30% from todays level, without expansion of the
cultivation areas. Actually, the average of cassava yield
in Ghana reached 15.4 Mg ha 1 in 2010 (FAO, 1990
2011), which is not very far from the level of 16 Mg ha 1.
Based on our preliminary analysis, it is optimistically to
say that in about 2030 years to come, with social and
technological developments, the substituted roots by
starch extraction from stems have a potential to provide
food for additional up to 100 million people globally.
This study shows that up to 15% of stem dry mass
can be currently extracted as starch by means of simple
processes milling, washing, sedimentation similar to
those for producing starch from cassava roots or potatoes. This suggests there would be no need for a large
investment to integrate stem starch production into the
existing cassava starch industry, although some small
adjustments, for example, the design of the feeding
devices, may be needed. A higher rate of starch extraction from the stem than 15% of dry mass could probably be achieved if the particle size was further reduced
and improved techniques are used, as suggested by
Guo (2004), who shows that the extraction of root starch
increases from 71% to 84% of dry mass using a similar
extraction method if the milled particle size is reduced
by finer and double milling.
This study also provides a good example of how food
and fuel can be produced in a harmonized way rather
than being the subject of a competition for land use; the
CFF concept is of great importance for the worlds
growing population, as it may increase both food and
fuel resources and even reduce poverty. In this study,
Acknowledgments
Guangcan Tao, China Agricultural University (CAU), helped
with the field and laboratory work. Mr Kjell Olofsson, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, and Per H
orstedt, Umea
2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, GCB Bioenergy, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12112
12 W . Z H U et al.
University, helped with transmitted light microscope images
and scanning electron microscope images respectively. The
authors are grateful to Professor Xu Cheng at CAU, Professor
Keith Richard, University of Cambridge, Francine Hughes,
Anglia Ruskin University, UK, and Stellan Marklund, Umea
University, Sweden, for valuable comments during the course
of the study and on the manuscript. Financial support was
received from EU-China Energy and Environment Program
(EEP-PMU/CN/126077/RE006), the Swedish Energy Agency
(32805-1), the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture 948-project
(948-2011-S7), the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering
Science, the China Academy of Engineering and Bio4Energy, a
governmental strategic research environment in Sweden.
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