Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197 205

www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Temperature, strain rate, stress state and the failure of

HY-100 steel
V. Jablokov a,1, D.M. Goto b, D.A. Koss a,*, J.B. McKirgan c
a

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsyl6ania State Uni6ersity, Uni6ersity Park, PA 16802 -5006, USA
b
Na6al Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head, MD 20903, USA
c
Na6al Surface Warfare Center, Carderock, MD, USA
Received 27 June 2000; received in revised form 10 October 2000

Abstract
The influence of temperature and strain rate on the deformation and failure behavior of HY-100 steel has been examined as a
function of stress state using notched and un-notched axisymmetric tensile specimens. Behavior over the range of temperatures/
strain rates from 85C and 1 s 1 to 27C and 10 3 s 1 shows an equivalence of decreasing test temperature or increasing
strain rate on deformation behavior in a manner that can be predicted by the thermally activated flow theory. Over the entire
range of temperatures/strain rates, the influence of stress state on failure is such that two void coalescence mechanisms control
failure; at low stress triaxialities, relatively equiaxed voids grow to impingement, while at high triaxialities, a void-sheet process
intervenes linking elongated MnS-initiated voids by a shear instability. The failure strains decrease rapidly with increasing stress
triaxiality ratio in a similar manner for all temperatures and strain rates except for an intermediate stress triaxiality condition
where the void-sheet mode of failure extends to lower stress triaxialities under cryogenic test conditions. 2001 Elsevier Science
B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fracture; Temperature; Strain rate; Stress state; Failure behavior; HY-100 steel

1. Introduction
An accurate description of the deformation and failure response of structural materials over a wide range
of loading conditions is critical to the success of computational models that predict material failure under inservice conditions. To that end, several constitutive
models have been developed to describe the deformation
behavior of materials as a function of temperature and
strain rate. Prominent examples of such models include
the mechanical threshold model (MTS) [1 4], the Johnson Cook model [5], and the Zerilli Armstrong model
[6]. Utilizing a number of constants, these models are
able to link the flow stress to temperature, strain rate,
and strain by fitting the constants to stress strain data
over a range of temperatures and strain rates. In addi* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-814-8655447; fax: + 1-8148652917.
E-mail address: koss@ems.psu.edu (D.A. Koss).
1
Present address: Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp., Orlando,
FL 32826, USA.

tion to the issue of the deformation response, predicting

the performance of a structural component must also
address the failure conditions, taking into account not
only the imposed strain rate and temperature but also
the stress state. Thus, for example, the combination of
an appropriate constitutive law combined with a local
fracture criterion may be used in a computational analysis to predict the performance of a large structure.
This study examines both the deformation and tensile
failure response of HY-100 steel over a range of temperatures, strain rates, and multiaxial stress states. One
goal is to test the ability of a constitutive model, the
MTS model in this case, to predict the equivalence of
decreasing test temperatures with increasing strain
rates. A second objective is to examine the failure
response of this steel under low temperature/high
strain-rate conditions in which ductile, microvoid fracture still controls failure. Specifically, we address the
issue of whether decreasing test temperature or increasing strain rate has any effect on a failure process that
remains a ductile, microvoid fracture event. As such,

0921-5093/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 5 0 9 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 1 8 3 2 - 3

V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

198

Table 1
Composition of HY-100 steel base plate used in the study
Element

Mn

Si

Ni

Cr

Mo

Cu

Wt.%

0.16

0.26

0.008

0.009

0.22

2.62

1.32

0.25

0.14

this study may be viewed as an extension of previous

research examining the failure of HY-100 steel over a
range of stress states but confined to quasi-static deformation rates at room temperature [7,8]. That study
identified two ductile failure mechanisms: a void coalescence process in which relatively equiaxed voids grew to
impingement at low stress triaxialities and a void-sheet
mechanism that links large voids initiated at elongated
inclusions at high stress triaxialities. The effect of temperature and strain-rate on these failure mechanisms is
explored in this study.
2. Experimental and computational procedure
The material used in this study was HY-100 steel
base plate supplied by the Carderock Division of the
Naval Surface Warfare Center with composition shown
in Table 1. The heat treatment of the base plate material involved an austenitization at 900C for 1 h
followed by a quench and temper at  630C for 1.5 h,
resulting in a mixture of tempered martensite and
bainite as shown in Fig. 1. Chemical banding is also
present in the microstructure due to segregation of
substitutional elements such as Ni and Cr [9]. The small
volume fraction ( 0.015%) of MnS inclusions present
tended to concentrate within the Ni- and Cr-rich bands,
which are elongated in the rolling direction [9]. The
MnS inclusions were either in the form of  1 2 mm
diameter equiaxed particles or, as shown in Fig. 1,
elongated stringers ( 30 100 mm long and 23 mm
thick aligned parallel to the rolling direction).
All of specimens used in this study were machined
such that the loading direction corresponded to the
long transverse direction of the plate. To determine the
influence of stress states on the failure initiation behavior, circumferentially notched tensile specimens were
tested using four different notch acuities, each having a
different radius of curvature, z, but the same initial
minimum notch diameter constant (2R = 7.62 mm).
The outer diameter of the notched specimens was equal
to 15.24 mm while the smooth bar specimens had a
diameter of 7.62 mm and a gage length of 25 mm. The
notch geometry, as characterized by an R/z ratio, had
the following range of values: R/z = 2.0 (D-notch
specimen), 1.0 A-notch specimen), 0.5 (B notch specimen), and 0.25 (E notch specimen). The specimens
tested at dynamic strain-rates had the same geometries
but were scaled down so that the minimum notch
diameter (2R) was equal to 4.47 mm.

Tensile testing at cryogenic temperatures was performed at 85 and 40C and at strain rates of
either 10 3 or 1 s 1. To calculate the cross-head speed
required to produce the desired initial strain-rate, the
effective gauge length of the notched specimen was
assumed to be roughly equal to the radius of curvature,
z. This assumption is based on finite element analysis
that showed that the axial strain in the notch decreases
rapidly at distances of approximately 9 0.5z from the
minimum diameter section for all specimen geometries
[10].
Material failure in this study is defined as that condition in which the material damage is sufficiently severe
such that the stress-carrying capacity is measurably
degraded. Thus, using the procedure described elsewhere [7,8], failure initiation was determined experimentally as that point at which the load-diametric
contraction curve showed an abrupt drop during the
tensile test. This test procedure had the sensitivity to
detect roughly a 2% load loss due to damage accumulation, which is consistent with a 3% area fraction of
microvoids present on the fracture surfaces of specimens that were strained to failure and subsequently
fractured by cleavage at liquid nitrogen temperatures
[8]. In addition to the determination of failure strains,
fracture strains, mf, were also calculated using initial, do,
and final diameter, df, measurements taken from the
broken tensile specimens and using the expression: mf =
2 ln(do/df).

Fig. 1. Elongated MnS inclusion present within the tempered martensite microstructure of the HY-100 steel.

V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

Compression testing was also performed to obtain

the stress strain behavior using cylindrical specimens
with a height and diameter equal to 6.35 mm. Prior to
placing the specimens on the platens, molybdenum
disulfide lubricant was applied on the specimen endfaces to decrease frictional effects. In order to obtain a
total strain value of 0.5, the test was performed in
two increments to decrease frictional effects. Following
the first strain increment to a strain value of 0.25, the
test was interrupted, the samples were re-lubricated,
and the second increment started until a total strain
value of  0.5 was achieved on the specimens.
Having measured the specimen diameter contraction
at failure initiation and knowing the stress strain response of the material, we subsequently used finite
element analysis to determine the local stress strain
conditions at the center of the minimum cross-sectional
area of the notch where failure initiated. Axisymmetric
finite element analyses were performed for each specimen geometry to determine the stress and strain states
at failure initiation at the center of the minimum crosssectional area of the notch. The finite element analysis
code ABAQUS was used to determine the mean stress,
|m, equivalent stress, |eq, and equivalent plastic strain,
meq, to identify the failure initiation condition in terms
of the stress triaxiality ratio, |m/|eq and the equivalent
plastic failure strain, mf,eq at the failure initiation site.
Fractography was performed after tensile testing using
scanning electron microscopy.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Stress strain response

The low temperature deformation behavior of a material may be analyzed in the context of thermally
activated motion of dislocations such that material
strain rate, stress, and temperature are coupled. Given
such an analysis, the resulting deformation kinetics can
be predicted by an appropriate constitutive relationship
such as the Mechanical Threshold Stress, MTS, model
[1 4]. In particular, the MTS model may be used to
predict the equivalence in the stress strain response
between a quasi-static test at cryogenic temperatures
and a high strain-rate, dynamic test at elevated temperatures. Such an analysis suggests that deformation response at cryogenic temperatures and low strain-rates is
equivalent to that under dynamic strain-rate test conditions at a higher temperature. Thus, one purpose of this
study is to test that hypothesis. Appendix A describes
the application of the MTS model to HY-100 steel
utilizing only room temperature test data in order to
obtain the appropriate constants. The discussion below
addresses the ability of the MTS model formulated in
this manner to predict specific cryogenic temperatures

199

Fig. 2. Stress strain behavior of HY-100 steel under five test conditions. Data at 25C and 4700 s 1 is from Ref. [4].

and strain-rates in which the stress strain responses of

HY-100 steel should be equivalent.
A comparison of stress strain behavior of the HY100 steel as determined experimentally at several temperature and strain-rate conditions is shown in Fig. 2.
Addressing the issue raised above and as described in
Appendix A, the MTS model predicts that the stress
strain behavior at 40C and 1 s 1 and 85C and
10 3 s 1 should be equivalent. Fig. 2 supports this
prediction by showing that the stress strain behavior at
85C and 10 3 s 1 coincides extremely well to the
stress strain behavior determined at 40C and 1
s 1. The MTS model also predicts that the deformation
response at 85C and 1 s 1 should be equivalent to
that at 25C at 7290 s 1 (see Appendix A). Therefore,
the stress strain behavior at 85C and 1 s 1 should
be almost equivalent to that at 25C and 4700 s 1, a
condition for which experimental data are available [4].
As shown in Fig. 2, the experimental stress strain
response of HY-100 at 25C and 4700 s 1 [4] agrees
reasonably well with that at 85C and 1 s 1. A
significant difference between these two deformation
conditions is an increased rate of strain hardening of
the material when tested at 25C and 4700 s 1. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the data in Fig. 2 support the
MTS model in its ability to predict an equivalence
between temperature and strain rate in controlling the
stress strain response of HY-100 steel.

3.2. Failure response

The effect of temperature and strain-rate on failure at
different stress triaxialities was determined through tensile testing of the circumferentially notched specimens.
The computed local values of the failure strains at
failure initiation (at the center of the notch as determined by finite element analysis) are shown as a function of stress triaxiality ratio and test temperature in
Fig. 3a. The data show no effect of temperature on
failure strain except for the intermediate stress triaxiality B-notched specimens (R/z= 0.5 and |m/|eq $0.85
0.90) in which case there appears to be a small decrease

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V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

in failure strains with decreasing temperature. In addition, at a given temperature, the results in Fig. 3a show
no effect of strain rate on failure; the failure strains at
10 3 s 1 strain rate are the same as those at 1 s 1 for
a given specimen geometry.
The fracture strains, as determined from the initial
and final diameters of the specimens, are shown in Fig.
3b for quasi-static strain rates over a range of temperatures as well as for dynamic strain-rate tests of notched
specimens at 25C. As in the case of the failure strains,
the fracture data in Fig. 3b reveal that at intermediate
(A-notch) to high (D-notch) stress triaxialities the fracture strains are not sensitive to temperature or strainrate, even at high strain rates of :103 s 1. At low
stress triaxialities (B-notch), however, there is a slight
decrease of the fracture strains with decreasing temperature, as was observed in the case of the failure strain
data.
In summary, these ductility data show that, except
for the intermediate stress triaxiality (B-Notch) specimens, both the failure and the fracture strains show no
sensitivity to temperature or strain rate for a given
notch geometry over the range of conditions from 10 3
s 1 and 25C to 1 s 1 and 85C. In the case of the

Fig. 4. A failure limit diagram showing the equivalent plastic strainto-failure and average stress triaxiality ratio combinations at failure
initiation for HY-100 steel.

B-notch specimens, there appears to be a small increase

in ductility with increasing temperature.
An alternate method of viewing the failure strain
results is in the form of a failure limit diagram, which
depicts the equivalent plastic strain at failure initiation
and average stress triaxiality ratio for a given specimen
geometry. As shown in Fig. 4, the failure limit diagram
for the HY-100 steel tested in the long transverse
direction may be interpreted in terms of the presence of
two distinct failure regions [7,8]. At low stress triaxialities (|m/|eq B 0.85) corresponding to the Region I failure locus, the failure strain has a strong sensitivity to
the stress triaxiality. Previous research indicates that
failure in this region is dictated by the coalescence of
equiaxed voids [7,8]. At higher stress triaxialities (|m/
|eq \ 0.85) corresponding to the Region II failure locus,
a weak sensitivity of failure strain on stress triaxiality is
observed. At least at quasi-static strain rates, previous
fractographic results link this region to void coalescence
by a void-sheet mechanism. In this region, elongated
inclusion-initiated voids induce a deformation localization between them, resulting in rapid void linking and a
zig-zag fracture surface.
As depicted in Fig. 4, the cryogenic and high strainrate tests indicate that while the failure strains are very
dependent on the stress triaxiality ratio, they are relatively independent of the strain-rate and temperature.
The principal difference between the failure behavior at
ambient and cryogenic conditions is at the intermediate
stress triaxiality condition (B-Notch: |m/|eq :0.85
0.90) where the Region II mode of failure appears to be
extended to the lower stress triaxiality condition.

3.3. Fractography

Fig. 3. The dependence of (a) the fracture strain and (b) the failure
strain on test temperature and strain-rate. See text for definitions of
fracture and failure strains.

Based on failure at room temperature under quasistatic strain rates [7,8], previous research has identified
void coalescence by the void-sheet mechanism as the
process controlling the Region II failure in Fig. 4. In
the present study, fractography performed for a wide
range of temperatures/strain rate conditions (Fig. 5),

V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

indicates that the fracture process for Region II continues to involve the void-sheet linking of elongated voids
nucleated at large MnS ( 15 75 mm long) stringers.
For example, fractographs taken in the failure initiation
regions of the high stress triaxiality (D-Notch) specimens tested over a wide range of conditions, such as at
the 85C and 1 s 1 and 25C and 10 3 s 1 cases
shown in Fig. 6(a,b), indicate failure due to void linking
by a void-sheet mechanism. Fig. 6 as well as profile
views of the fracture surface depict shear planes connecting the large, elongated MnS-stringer-nucleated
voids and forming a ridge trough profile [7,8].
As analyzed by Bandstra et al., void-sheet failure is a
result of a localized shear instability that develops
between the two neighboring, elongated primary voids
[12,13]. The void-sheet deformation localization process
also results in the eventual nucleation of secondary
microvoids within the deformation localization band
joining the primary voids. Thus, Fig. 5 also shows the
presence of (a) secondary microvoids of a few microns
in size nucleated at equiaxed MnS particles near the
primary voids and (b) even smaller microvoids ( 1 mm
in diameter) nucleated at smaller, equiaxed (presumably) carbide particles.

Fig. 5. A fractograph showing the fracture surface associated with the

void-sheet mode of failure. The large, elongated MnS stringer responsible for nucleating the primary void is evident as are secondary
microvoids associated with small equiaxed MnS particles.

201

Compared to Region II failure, the Region I failure

locus in Fig. 4 displays a stronger sensitivity of failure
strain on the stress triaxiality for the lower stress triaxiality (|m/|eq B 0.85) specimens. In Region I, failure
initiation at room temperature and quasi-static strain
rates occurs by damage accumulation consisting of the
nucleation of relatively equiaxed voids, their growth,
and coalescence [7,8]. After specimen fracture, large,
deep equiaxed primary voids, indicating extensive void
growth, are present in the failure initiation region of the
fracture surface. Fig. 6(c) shows a typical example of
this mode of fracture, specifically in this case for the
low stress triaxiality B-notch condition at room
temperature.
In contrast to the fracture surface shown in Fig. 6(c)
for the B-notch specimen failed at 25C and 10 3 s 1,
B-notch specimens tested at 85C and 1 s 1 show
evidence of extensive void-sheeting as indicated in Fig.
6(d); no large equiaxed primary voids are present.
Void-sheeting was also the predominant mode of void
linking for low stress triaxiality (B-Notch) specimens
tested at 40C and 1 s 1, 85C and 10 3 s 1, and
25C and 1000 s 1. Thus, as summarized in Table 2,
fractography indicates that under cryogenic conditions
and at high strain-rates, the void-sheet mode of failure
replaces the equiaxed void coalescence process at the
intermediate stress triaxiality. This evidence supports
the hypothesis that the loss of ductility evident in the
failure limit diagram (Fig. 4) for B-Notch intermediate
stress triaxiality specimens is caused by the extension of
the void-sheet mode of failure at these test conditions.
We can only speculate as to why decreasing temperature/increasing strain rate promotes the void-sheet
mode of void coalescence. It is well known that the flow
stress of bcc alloys becomes increasingly sensitive to
temperature as test temperature decreases. Thus, it is
tempting to suggest that small amounts of deformationinduced heating occur on a local scale as flow begins to
localize; this process promotes further deformation localization, especially at cryogenic temperatures where
small increases in temperature result in large decreases
in flow stress. Since void linking by the void-sheet
process is known to depend on the development of
deformation localization between the primary voids
[11 14], a localized adiabatic deformation process,
such as is speculated here, could explain an extension of
the void-sheet process to cryogenic temperatures and
high strain rates.
Finally, Table 2 also indicates that fractography performed on the samples tested at cryogenic temperatures
of 85C reveals the presence of small amounts of
transgranular cleavage in certain areas of the fracture
surface. For the high triaxiality (D-Notch) specimens
tested at 85C, 10 3 s 1 and 1 s 1, and intermediate (A-Notch) stress triaxiality specimens tested at
85C and 10 3 s 1, transgranular cleavage was

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V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

Fig. 6. Fractographs from the failure initiation region revealing extensive void-sheeting in the failure initiation region of a high stress triaxiality
specimen (D-notch) tested at (a) 25C and 10 3 s 1, (b) 85C and 1 s 1. In contrast (c) shows coalescence of equiaxed voids in a low
triaxiality specimen (B-notch) tested at 25C and 10 3 s 1, but (d) extensive void-sheeting between elongated voids in the same B-Notch specimen
configuration when tested at 85C and 1 s 1.

confined to the crack propagation region near the base

of the shear lip on the fractured specimen. Only occasionally were cleavage facets found within isolated
grains (10 20 mm diameter) that were surrounded by
ductile fracture in the failure initiation region.

3.4. The influence of stress state on failure and a

6oid-growth relationship
As recognized by previous researchers [14,15] and
under conditions where voids nucleate at small strains,

the strong sensitivity of the failure on stress state

suggests ductility limited by void growth. It is well
known that the rate of void growth is predicted to be
quite sensitive to the degree of stress triaxiality [16,17].
In our case, the MnS inclusions nucleate voids at very
small strains [18], indicating that failure is governed by
void growth and coalescence. If void growth controls
failure, a relationship of the following form should fit
the Region I and Region II failure data [14]:
mf = K exp(D|m/|eq)

(1)

Table 2
A summary of the fractography for all of the test conditions
Room temperature
(103 s1 and 103 s1)

40C
(1 s1)

85C
(103 s1 and 1 s1)

Extensive void-sheeting; no
cleavage

Same as room temperature

|m
(A-Notch); mf
|
unaffected

Mixture of void-sheets and

equiaxed primary voids; no
cleavage

Same as room temperature

|m
(B-Notch); mf decreased at
|
low m; and temperature

Large equiaxed primary voids,

Same as room temperature but
extensive void growth, and
void-sheeting present
suppressed void-sheeting at 103
s1; void-sheeting present at 102
s1

Same as room temperature in

failure initiation region; some
cleavage (4%) in propagation
area
Same as room temperature but
some 1020 mm grains cleaved
in the failure initiation region
at 1 s1; at 103 s1, cleavage
observed in propagation area
At 1 s1, extensive
void-sheeting and no cleavage;
at 103 s1, mixture of
void-sheets and equiaxed
primary voids: some cleavage
(40 mm) in initiation region
also present

High (D-Notch), mf unaffected

Medium

Low

V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

Eq. (1) has the form similar to the void growth model
of Rice and Tracey [16] and has been used previously in
similar forms to correlate the tensile ductile fracture
data for many different materials [5,8,14,19,20]. It will
be recalled that the Rice Tracey void growth analysis
assumes an isolated spherical void and neglects void
interactions, and that the analysis predicts a value of
the exponent D of 1.5 [16].
Fig. 7 shows that the stress-state dependence of the
failure of HY-100 steel can indeed be predicted for a
wide range of temperature/strain rates by a relationship
of the form given by Eq. (1), pro6ided that the data are
separated into Regions I and II. However, as is observed for this steel at room temperature [8], the D-values obtained when fitting Eq. (1) to the experimental
data are significantly higher than that predicted by the
Rice Tracey analysis (experimentally, D = 2.7 for Region I and D =2.3 for Region II, which compares to
the D = 1.5 predicted [16]).
There are several possible causes for the difference in
D-values between the Rice Tracey prediction of 1.5
and the observed values of 2.3 2.7. It is possible that,
despite the small volume fraction of voids (51 2%)
just prior to failure [18], significant void void interactions occur and accelerate void growth, increasing the
D-value. However, given the small inclusion content of
this steel (volume fraction:0.00015) the inclusion-nucleated voids would have to interact at distances in
excess of 10 void diameters. Recent computational
modeling of void-sheet mode of failure indicates strong
void interactions can in fact occur between cylindrical
voids 2.5 mm in diameter but spaced 70 mm apart
(approximately 28 void diameters) [11,12]. In addition,
recent experimental measurements of damage accumulation during ductile fracture of HY-100 steel show the
presence of a rapid void growth stage initiating at 5 1
vol.% voids, which also suggests stronger than predicted interactions between widely separated voids [18].
Thus, we conclude that the use of a relationship such as
Eq. (1) is a reasonable approach to predicting the
stress-state dependence of failure of steels such at HY100 even though significant void interaction effects
appear to be present.

203

The tensile failure behavior (i.e. the mechanical conditions at failure at different stress states as well as the
underlying void coalescence mechanisms) of HY-100
steel is, for the most part, insensitive to strain-rates
over six orders of magnitude in strain rate and to
temperatures ranging from 25 to 85C. The only
significant effect on ductility occurs at an intermediate
stress triaxiality ratio in which there is a small decrease
in failure strains at high strain rates/low temperatures.
That ductility decrease is associated with void coalescence as a result of a void-sheet process in which the
high strain-rate/cryogenic temperature condition favors
a deformation localization between elongated inclusioninitiated voids.
When the failure data are taken as a whole, the
dependence of the failure strains on stress state can be
adequately predicted by a relationship of the form
previously developed by Rice and Tracey for void
growth [16]. Such a relationship is consistent with void
nucleation occurring at sulfide particles at small strains
in this steel, and, although the form of the relationship
suggests the presence of void interaction effects, its use
implies a critical void volume fraction or critical void
growth rate as a failure criterion.

Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to Carl Cady, Rusty
Gray, Rich Thissel, Shuh-Rong Chen, Mike Lopez, and
Manny Lovato at the Los Alamos National Laboratory
for their generous assistance in performing the mechanical tests at cryogenic temperatures. We also wish to
acknowledge many discussions with Dongchul Chae.
This research was supported by the Office of Naval
Research.

4. Summary
Relying on constants developed based on room temperature deformation behavior, the MTS model predicts the cryogenic stress strain response of HY-100
steel with reasonable accuracy. Specifically the model
predicts that the stress strain behavior at 40C and
1 s 1 and 85C and 10 3 s 1 should be equivalent
as should that at 85C and 1 s 1 and 25C and 7290
s 1; our experimental observation agree fairly well with
these predictions.

Fig. 7. The dependence of failure on stress triaxiality as measured

experimentally and predicted from Eq. (1) for HY-100 steel.

V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

204

Table 3
HY-100 steel MTS model parameters used for determining the appropriate cryogenic temperature to emulate a dynamic test at 100 s1

given strain rate or temperature and the flow stress at 0

K) are expressed below in general form as:

Parameter

Value

Units

Sj (m; , T)=

|a
vo
k/b 3
m; oi
goi
qi
pi
| i
m; om
gom
qm
pm
qo
a
goms
| mso
m; oms

50
7.146104
0.9047
1109
0.698423
3/2
1/2
1338
1107
1.6
1
2/3
20 000
6
1.6
1000
1107

MPa
MPa
MPa K1
s1

For HY-100 steel, two effective barrier types are

considered: short-range barriers due to solute and interstitial atoms (Si and | i ), and long-range barriers considering other dislocations and carbide particles (Sm and
| m ). A minor contribution due to athermal strengthening, e.g. grain boundary, is given by |a.
Plastic strain is implicitly represented in the MTS
model framework. The MTS framework considers
stress as essentially characterizing the material microstructure (stress is an internal state variable) and
strain as describing how the microstructure evolves with
increasing deformation. As such, plastic strain m is given
in terms of stress and can be expressed as:

MPa
s1

MPa

MPa
s1

m=

Appendix A





| |a
| i
|
= + Si (m; , T)
+Sm (m; , T) m
v v
vo
vo

(A.1)

where |a is the athermal stress component, and the

temperature-dependent shear modulus, v, is given by:

2910 MPa
(A.2)
204 K
exp
1
T
where vo is the shear modulus at 0 K. The correction
factors that account for the thermal effects, Si and Sm
(essentially the ratios between the component of flow
stress attributable to a particular obstacle type at any
v [MPa] = vo

 n "

tanh(h)
| m tanh(h)
qo(tanh2(h) 1)
+

The Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) model has

been previously employed to determine flow stress behaviors at different temperature strain rate conditions
[1,21]. This strength model is based on thermally-activated dislocation motion and references a mechanical
threshold stress, or the stress necessary to move a
dislocation in the absence of thermal energy, i.e. at 0 K.
Thermal effects on dislocation motion are incorporated
through an Arrhenius-based expression which relates
flow stress to strain-rate and temperature, thus giving
rise to rate-sensitive constitutive behavior.
The current study has applied the MTS strength
model in order to determine the appropriate cryogenic
temperature at which the flow stress at room temperature and a dynamic strain rate (10 + 3 s 1) can be
emulated via a quasi-static (10 3 s 1) mechanical test.
The form of the strength model and model parameter
descriptions used for HY-100 is presented in detail
elsewhere [22]. The MTS model for HY-100 steel is
summarized below (see also Table 3) and is given as:

! 

|j /v
kT
m; oj
= 1
ln
3
| j /vo
gojvb
m;

 

1/qj

| ms = | mso exp

 

kT
m;
ln
3
vb goms
m; oms

(A.3)

 n)

h| m
h| m
| ms
ln tanh(h) cosh
sinh
h
| ms
| ms

where

1/pj

|
m
|
m

(A.4)

(A.5)

The stress interval, | mi B | m B | mf, is assumed to correspond to a constant deformation path, i.e. constant
strain-rate, temperature, stress-state, etc.
Determination of the stress strain behavior requires
that the appropriate model parameters are inserted into
Eqs. (A.1), (A.2) and (A.3) to calculate the initial flow
stress at zero-plastic strain. In the present study, these
parameters as listed in Table 3 have been determined
based on the room temperature response of HY-100
steel. Plastic strain is then determined by applying the
model parameters, given in Table 3 to Eqs. (A.3), (A.4)
and (A.5), and incrementally increasing | m.
Predicting corresponding temperature/strain-rate
conditions using the MTS model relies primarily on
evaluating the thermally-activated component associated with short-range obstacles, Si and | i. The rate-sensitivity of long-range obstacles, in the current HY-100
MTS model description, is secondary in comparison to
short-range obstacles. In other words, yielding behavior
is markedly more sensitive to temperature and strainrate than is strain-hardening. In short, an Arrheniuslike diagram is constructed to illustrate the dependence
of

|y |a
v

on

Pi

 n

kT
m; oj
ln
3
m;
vb

V. Jabloko6 et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A302 (2001) 197205

1/qj

This plot provides a relatively straightforward method

of determining temperature and strain-rate combinations which yield identical values of

|y |a
v

Pi

and was used in the current study to identify that the

temperature/strain-rate combinations of 40C and 1
s 1 produced essentially the identical flow stress behavior as 85C and 10 3 s 1. In addition, the deformation response at 85C and 1 s 1 should be
equivalent to that at 25C and 7290 s 1. The text
describes our experiments to verify the equivalence of
these temperature/strain-rate conditions.

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