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The rate of oxide growth using H2O as the oxidant will be about four
times faster than the rate obtained with O2. This is due to the fact
that the H2O molecule is about one-half the size of the O2 molecule,
so that the rate of diffusion of H2O through the SiO2 layer will be
much greater than the O2 diffusion rate.
Oxide Charges
The interlace between silicon and silicon dioxide contains a
transition region. Various charges are associated with the oxidised
silicon, some of which are related to the transition region. A charge
at the interface can induce a charge of the opposite polarity in the
underlying silicon, thereby affecting the ideal characteristics of the
MOS device. This results in both yield and reliability problems. The
figure below shows general types of charges.
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Oxide Charges
Interface-trapped charges
These charges at Si-SiO2 are thought to result from several sources
including structural defects related to the oxidation process, metallic
impurities, or bond breaking processes. The density of these
charges is usually expressed in terms of unit area and energy in the
silicon band gap.
Fixed oxide charge
This charge (usually positive) is located in the oxide within
approximately 30 A of the Si SiO2 interface. Fixed oxide charge
cannot be charged or discharged. From a processing point of view,
fixed oxide charge is determined by both temperature and ambient
conditions.
Mobile ionic charge
This is attributed to alkali ions such as sodium, potassium, and
lithium in the oxides as well as to negative ions and heavy metals.
The alkali ions are mobile even at room temperature when electric
fields are present.
Oxide trapped charge
This charge may be positive or negative, due to holes or electrons
trapped in the bulk of the oxide. This charge, associated with defects
in the Si02, may result from ionizing radiation, avalanche injection.
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and reproducibility. Various growth techniques for thin oxide are dry
oxidation, dry oxidation with HCl, sequential oxidations using
different temperatures and ambients, wet oxidation, reduced
pressure techniques, and high pressure/low temperature oxidation.
High pressure oxidation is discussed later. The oxidation rate will, of
course, be lower at lower temperatures and at reduced pressures.
Ultra-thin oxide (<50 A) have been produced using hot nitric acid,
boiling water, and air at room temperatures. Some recent
developments in thin oxide growth technique are
(i) Rapid thermal oxidation performed in a controlled oxygen
ambient with heating provided by tungsten-halogen lamps and
(ii) Ultraviolet pulsed laser excitation in an oxygen environment.
The properties of thin oxide depend upon the growth technique
employed. For example, oxide density increases as the oxidation
temperature is reduced. Additionally, HCl ambients have typically
been used to passivate ionic sodium, improve the breakdown
voltage, and getter impurities and defects in the silicon. This
passivation effect begins to occur only in the higher temperature
range.
For thin oxides, there is an increase in leakage for a given voltage. In
thin oxides the dielectric breakdown may be field-dependent
(breakdown in a ramping field) or time-dependent (breakdown at a
constant field). This breakdown is a failure mode for MOS ICs.
Thinner oxides are more prone to failure.
High Pressure Oxidation
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Diffusion Masking
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