Photovoltaics for Buildings

Market, Technology, Architecture, Energy Concepts

Karsten Voss, Hermann Laukamp, Martin Ufheil
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE
Oltmannsstr. 5, D-79100 Freiburg, Germany
Tel. +49 (0)761 4588-135, Fax: +49 (0)761 4588-132
email: karsten.voss@ise.fhg.de
internet: http://www.ise.fhg.de
Abstract
Grid-connected photovoltaics for buildings is a market. This is demonstrated by the number
of applications, which has increased steadily over the last three years. Technical
independence from the other energy supply systems in a building (heating, cooling, hot
water) leads to comparatively simple systems technology for photovoltaics and clear
interfaces to the technical infrastructure of a building. Photovoltaic modules, as building
components, fulfil various functions in the building envelope. If applied correctly, they make
a positive contribution both to the energy supply and the architecture of a building.
The following text provides an introduction to the fundamental technology of grid-connected
photovoltaics in buildings, illustrated with examples, and presents costs and energy yields
in relation to other technologies for saving energy and using solar energy in buildings.
The Market for Photovoltaics
Solar generation of electricity with Photovoltaics (PV) has a broad application field. When
the global market is considered, the emphasis is clearly on applications where no other
source of electricity is readily available. Photovoltaic systems in the form of so-called Solar
Home Systems (a set consisting of a solar module, battery, charge controller and small
appliances) supply electricity to houses without grid connections in rural areas of Asia and
South America. Beyond this, industrial applications for PV are opening up increasingly in
telecommunications and signal technology. An example for this sector is the solar-powered
vending machine for parking vouchers, which in Germany have now a market share of more
than 70 %. Small electric appliances such as clocks and watches represent another
application area with increasing demand.
All of these grid-independent applications totalled about 80 % of the market for PV
modules in 1994 (fig. 1). The remaining 20 % consists of PV systems which operate in
combination with the grid, feeding the generated electricity via a grid inverter into the public
electricity grid. If the demand exceeds supply (e.g. at night), electricity from the grid
replaces or adds to the supply from the PV modules. Already in 1994, this market
corresponded to around 13 MWp installed power and thus a module area of 130,000 m2.

page 1

c ons umer produc t

1 9%
remot e rura
3 5%

grid-c onne ct ed
2 0%

indust rial applic ation

26 %
Fig. 1: The global market for photovoltaics and its distribution in market segments (Source:
EPIA European Photovoltaic Industry Association, 1995).
The market for grid-connected photovoltaic systems has developed very favourably in the
recent past. In Germany and the year 1997 alone, systems were installed with a power of
11 MWp, corresponding to an investment volume of 100 million ECU /1/. Numerous
subsidy programmes were a major factor in supporting this boom. At the forefront is the
so-called 1000 Roofs Programme, initiated by the German Federal Ministry for Research,
which resulted in the installation of 2000 photovoltaic systems, ranging from 1 to 5 kWp,
between 1990 and 1995 /2/. Investment subsidies of up to 70 % made the programme
particularly attractive. The knowledge gained in the accompanying scientific research
programmes is a significant resource for planning new systems today /3/.
New initiatives have now replaced the 1000 Roofs Programme. Important ones include:

investment support by government programmes or electric utilities

public loans at reduced interest rates
tax benefits
cost-covering payment for photovoltaically generated electricity
green electricity rates as a means to introduce ecological quality into the market for
electricity.
share-holder models.

With a view to electricity production costs of 0.7 to 1 ECU per kWh, such initiatives remain
necessary. In connection with a future liberalisation of the European electricity market,
particularly the green electricity rates are significant if electricity is to be marketed with
ecological arguments and not simply on the basis of the cheapest price. It has become
evident that customers can be won, especially from private households, who are prepared
to pay more for electricity with this quality.

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MWp/ a
12

11

10
7,9
8
6
4
2

1 ,6

2 ,9

1 99 2

19 93

2,1

3 ,1

1,3

0
till 19 90 19 91

1 99 4 1 99 5

19 96

1 99 7

Fig. 2: The market development for grid-connected photovoltaic systems in Germany since
1990 /2/.

Fig. 3: Example of a building with a grid-connected photovoltaic system from the 1000
Roofs Programme.

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Photovoltaics on Buildings - Arguments

The investment costs for small PV systems came down by some 30 % during the last 5
years. Despite the rather high cost (Fig. 4), the development of photovoltaics is a success
story. Evidently, the financial value of the generated electricity is not the only significant factor.
The palette of arguments for photovoltaics on buildings is wide-ranging.
They include:
Photovoltaics on buildings uses existing infrastructure. No further ground area is needed
to tap the sun as a source of energy. This is particularly significant in the densely
populated areas of Europe with regard to solar energy supply in the future.
Electricity generation directly where it is consumed avoids distribution losses.
Synergy with other parts of the building envelope reduce additional investment costs (
wintergarden, balcony roofs, etc.). Photovoltaic modules are components in the building
envelope.
The annual energy yield from an individual photovoltaic system provides a benchmark
for the electricity consumption of the corresponding household (average 4 person
household = 4000 kWh annual electricity demand = 50 m_ PV !). This often stimulates
electricity-saving measures at home and at work.
Photovoltaic modules are an architectural expression of innovation and high technology.
In particular, they enhance the public image of a company when used as a component in
prestigious facades of the company buildings.
The architectural quality of a PV facade gives an alternative to other well established
cladding materials (PV instead of marble ?)
The more significant these arguments are in a specific case, the more likely it is that the
investment in PV technology will prove to be the right decision.
design,
planning
labour 3%
11%
electrical
installation
8%
inverter
14%

modules
58%

mounting
structure
6%

Fig. 4: The average cost structure of an 2 kWp grid-connected photovoltaic system in

Germany. Total cost are about 16,000 ECU (1996). Total costs and cost structure may
differ significantly from project to project.

page 4

Electrical Technology
Solar cells are large-area semiconductor components which convert sunlight directly to DC
electricity. Almost all of the commercially available cells are made of silicon. The properties
of the various cell technologies are listed in Table 1. In addition to the well-known dark blue
cells, cells in other colours are now on offer. The price for the other colours is a reduction in
the efficiency value of one to three percentage points, depending on the colour.
Table 1: Properties of silicon solar cells
cell type
monocrystalline
polycrystalline
amorphous

efficiency value other properties

in %
homogeneous cell surface, opaque
14 - 18
structured cell surface, opaque
11 - 15
homogeneous appearance, long-term stability limited, flexible
4-8
structures possible, opaque or translucent over entire area

Grid-connected photovoltaic systems consist of so-called solar moduls. A standard module

is a glazed unit of typically 0.5 m2 area comprising of 30 to 40 solar cells connected together
to an electric power of 45 to 60 W. Solar modules are usually installed in buildings in a
similar fashion to glass elements. The front glazing is a low iron, tempered safety glass.
The back protective cover can be made of glass or less expensive laminates of plastic films
and a vapour barrier. The DC current of the module is converted by an inverter to AC
current conforming to grid requirements. If the system is correctly designed, the losses are
low (app. 10 % on average over the year) that it is not worth setting up a domestic grid with
DC appliances. Figure 5 shows a typical block circuit diagram for a grid-connected
photovoltaic system.

Fig. 5: Design of a grid-connected PV system (block circuit diagram).

page 5

Building Technology
Standard modules usually have an additional frame of aluminium or stainless steel for easier
mounting. The demands on module production technology are high, to ensure complete
functionality for more than 25 years (warranty by some major manufacturers: 20 to 25
years!). This is a precondition for rational use of photovoltaics, but at the same time, it means
that 40 - 50 % of the costs for the module are attributable to packaging of the actual active
element, the solar cell /4/. The primary energy consumption to produce a complete
photovoltaic system is usually amortised by the energy yield in operation over five
1
(amorphous cells) to seven years (crystalline cells) /5/.
Without a frame, the modules can be incorporated as panels in the usual transom-mullion
systems. Modules for this application are produced in any sizes according to the project
needs. Thermal insulation is given by the facade or roof construction behind the module.
The modules are thus passively ventilated from behind, which helps to ensure a high
energy yield, by decreasing the temperature increase at irradiation.
A word of caution: Any form of shading should be avoided. This also applies to cover strips
on framing systems and other projecting building components on the wall or the roof
(antennas, ventilation pipes, chimneys, outward-opening windows, etc.).

Fig. 6: Design of a frameless PV module (left: solar cells laminated between two sheets of
glass or a front glass and a plastic cover on the back) and a double glazing unit with PV
(right: solar cells laminated between two sheets of glass as external galzing). Grafic: Vegla

These figures apply for a site in Central Europe. Higher solar radiation intensity in countries
closer to the equator leads to a higher energy yield for the same module area. In such
cases, the energy amortisation period is shortened.
1

page 6

trans mittance in %
5
light
s olar

4
3
2
1
0
0

15

30

45

60

75

90

angle of inclination in d eg re

Fig. 7: Measured transmittance of a double glazing PV unit constructed according to fig. 6,

right and applied as solar shading system (measurement: Fraunhofer ISE). The double
glazing incorporates Argon as fill gas and a low-e coating on the inner side of the backside
pane. Both measures reduce the transmittance of solar energy trough the glazing. The
overall transmittance properties vary significantly with the ratio of PV covered to uncovered
areas of the front glazing, namely the distance between the cells.

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Photovoltaics can be incorporated into so-called functional double glazing without any
difficulties (fig. 6, right). In combination with coatings, gas fills and appropriate panes,
properties such as thermal insulation, solar control, noise protection, etc. can be obtained. In
particular, the effectivity of photovoltaic double glazing for solar control, with a total solar
energy transmittance of around 10 to 20 %, predestines it for use in inclined glazing on
conservatories or the southern side of shed roofs. The remaining transparent north side of
the shed roofs is available to illuminate the rooms below with natural lighting (fig. 8).

Fig. 8: PV in double glazing units as the roof glazing of the Centre for Art and Media
Technology (ZKM) in Karlsruhe, Germany (Photo: Fraunhofer ISE).
Another component form is also commercially available, namely roof tiles or shingles. This
module technology leads to a closed roof surface with all the properties of usual roofing
materials.
All the applications share the property that the energy yield is determined decisively by the
orientation of the system with respect to the sun (fig. 9). Optimal results are obtained from
unshaded systems which are inclined and orientated toward the south (northern
hemisphere). Integrating PV modules into facades results in a yield which is around 25 - 30
% lower than from the optimal orientation. As a consequence, this type of installation is of
interest when there is a pronounced interest within a project that the solar generator be
clearly visible (fig. 10). Such applications are also suitable for coloured solar cells (see
above).

page 8

tilt angle

Fig. 9: The relative annual irradiation on inclined surfaces of various orientation towards the
sun (azimut angle) for the location Freiburg, Germany

page 9

Fig. 10: Shading simulation for the ZKW Building, Germany (ref. Fig. 8)

Fig. 11: Photovoltaics on the facade of an administrative building in Heidelberg, Germany

(Photo: Lamy)

page 10

Energy Concepts with PV - Residential Buildings

For the usual standard of residential building and Central European climatic conditions, most
of the energy demand is for space heating (fig. 12). This demand, and that for domestic hot
water, is most commonly met by local conversion of a primary source of energy (gas, oil,
wood) to heat2. As a result, the percentage distribution for a building's energy demand will
be different if the final energy form is considered rather than the primary energy.

elec t ric it y
17%
elec t r icit y
36 %
h ot wat er
10%
spac e heat ing
56 %

sp ace heat ing

7 3%

hot wat er
8%

Fig. 12: Distribution of the final (left) and primary (right) energy demand of a four-person
household in a building corresponding to the typical current standard in Germany. The
primary energy demand is simultaneously an indicator for climatically relevant pollution
(CO2). Typical conversion factors for final energy to primary energy in Germany are: 1.15
for heat supplied by a condensing boiler and 3.2 for grid electricity.
Figure 12 illustrates the fact that, with respect to buildings, concepts for energy saving and
thus pollution reduction have to start with the heating demand. If appropriate measures are
taken - thermal insulation, heat recovery, thermal use of solar energy - the electricity demand
for the household and building services becomes more significant (fig. 13). Thus, once the
standard of a (thermally) low-energy house has been reached, a consistent ecological and
economical approach demands energy concepts which take account of all the energy
services in the building.

At present, electric space heating does not play a significant role in Germany. The situation
is fundamentally different in Scandinavian countries, with their high proportion of hydro
electricity.
2

page 11

160

space heating

domestic hot water

electricity

140

primary energy demand

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
standard

low- und extra lowenergy house

energy
autonomous
house

zero
"Passive"
zero space
heating heating house house
house
zero
energy
house

Fig. 13: Qualitative distribution of the primary energy demand for different building concepts
according to the energy services in a residential building.
Whereas only the thermal energy budget is affected in low and zero heating-energy
houses, concepts such as the passive house (fig. 14), the zero-energy house (fig. 15) and
the self-sufficient solar house (fig. 16) treat all types of energy services, including household
electricity. Further-reaching definitions take account of the energy for constructing, maintaining
and demolishing the building, in the form of life cycle analysis.

Fig. 13: Passive houses in Darmstadt-Kranichstein (Photo: IWU). The combination of

energy saving and passive and active use of thermal solar energy characterises a building
concept with minimal use of external energy. A photovoltaic system is not installed - for
financial reasons.

page 12

Fig. 15: Zero-energy pre-fabricated house in Rheinau-Linx (Photo: Weber Haus). The
package of measures for an almost passive house was extended with a larger thermal
solar system (40 m2 collector area) with a seasonal storage tank (20 m2 capacity) and gridconnected photovoltaics (3 kWp, 28 m2 generator area).

Fig. 16: The Self-Sufficient Solar House in Freiburg (Photo: Fraunhofer ISE). In this rigorous
approach, the connection to the electricity grid was terminated and a stand-alone energy
concept was put into (research) practice. In order to provide sufficient electricity in winter,
solar-produced hydrogen was used for seasonal storage (PV system: 4.2 kWp, 36 m2
generator area).
When the fossil fuel consumption is to be reduced, the costs and benefits of the selected
measures must be compared if the aim is to identify an economically rational order of
investments. Whereas the ratio of cost to benefit (energy yield) can be assumed to be
fixed for a grid-connected photovoltaic system, investments in building measures and
systems technology result in different amounts of saved energy, depending on the initial
energy situation. As an example, the first centimetre of thermal insulating material on a wall
saves much more energy, for the same price, than increasing the insulation thickness from 20
to 21 cm. The same applies for the first square metres of collector area as compared to
extending a 10 m2 system. In the case of PV systems, this situation applies analogously
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only for so-called stand-alone systems, i.e. systems which are not connected to the public
electricity grid. Like the situation for a thermal solar system, the limited storage capacity is
then the decisive aspect.
Table 2 Comparison of the primary energy coefficient of solar thermal systems and gridconnected photovoltaics. Equivalent Primary Energy Cost (PEC) = annual capital costs
relative to the annual savings in primary energy
system

investment
costs

energy yield
final energy

solar domestic
hot water
solar assisted
space heating,
small
solar assisted
space heating,
large
photovoltaics

PEC

SDH

ECU
5.000

kWh/a
1.650

primary
energy
kWhp/a
1.900

SSH1

7.400

2.400

2.800

0,22

SSH2

11.600

2.800

3.200

0,30

7.400

800

2.600

0,24

PV

ECU/kWhp
0,22

Conditions:
low-energy house, annual heating demand 35 kWh/(m_ a), 4-person household, location
Freiburg, Germany, calculated lifetime of solar systems 20 years, real interest rate 4 %,
maintenance costs 1 %
System parameters:
- SDHW - flat-plate collector 5 m2, storage tank 0.3 m3
- SSH1 - flat-plate collector 10 m2, storage tank 0.7 m3
- SSH2 - flat-plate collector 16 m2, storage tank 1.2 m3
- PV - photovoltaic system 1 kWp with inverter to grid
Table 2makes it clear that today it is already more economic, in terms of cost per primary
energy savings, to install a grid-connected photovoltaic system than large thermal solar
systems. The reason, apart from the system aspects already discussed, is the strong
reduction in PV prices over the past few years. Also, the systems technology of a gridconnected photovoltaic system proves to be simpler than that of a large scale solar collector
system for heating support. This, in turn, is because there is no need for in-house storage.
As a result of such considerations, fig. 18 shows a set of measures, ordered according to
energy and economic criteria, for the route from a low-energy house to a zero-energy
house. From a certain point on, photovoltaics should be preferred to further demandreducing measures, e.g. seasonal storage of heat. At present, most building and systems
technology measures to reduce the heat demand (including thermal collector systems) are
less expensive than an investment in photovoltaics. However, this situation could change in
future!
Figure 19 qualitatively illustrates the seasonal compensation between supply (PV yield)
and demand (primary energy demand) for a balanced budget at the end of the year (zeroenergy house). This approach can be extended simply to zero-energy solar settlements
(fig. 19). The solar thermal alternative to this is the transition to solar district heating with large,
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central, thermal reservoirs. Solar district heating systems have significantly better economics,
specially compared to large scale photovoltaics.

30

primary energy demand in MWh/a

investment costs in kECU

60

25

50

20

40

15

30

10

20

10

0
a

b
thermal
insulation

d
electricity
saving

e
solar
thermal
collector

f
ventilation
heat
recovery

photovoltaic

Fig. 17: Investment costs and primary energy demand for measures along the route from a
low-energy to a zero-energy house.

Fig. 18: The cumulative primary energy demand of a zero-energy house compared to the
yield of a photovoltaic system dimensioned to meet the total annual demand (qualitative
representation).

page 15

Fig. 19: New residential complex with roof-integrated photovoltaic systems in Bremen,
Germany (Photo: Osmer).

page 16

Energy Concepts with PV - Non-Residential Buildings

Most projects involving non-residential buildings are characterised by the fact that the
electricity demand gains in significance relative to the heating demand to a greater (e.g. office
building, shopping centre) or lesser (e.g. gymnasium) extent. Additional electricity is
consumed by computing equipment, communications technology, air-conditioning and, not
to be neglected, artificial lighting. Thus, each square metre of roofing area which could be
used for a photovoltaic system is confronted with such a high electricity demand that it is
impossible to achieve a significant solar fraction.
Today the prominent reason to install a PV system in non-residential buildings is nontechnical: to create an image, to demonstrate environmental awareness, to display modern
thinking (refer fig. 10). However, in some cases PV offers also technical advantages:
In regions with a weak grid PV allows to extend operating times for UPS systems,
especially when the grid load peaks around noon.
In regions with a daily peak load, e.g. Mediterranean countries, cities with a large fraction
of air conditioning equipment, tourist centres etc. the grid load shows a peak around noon.
Here PV power production shows a good load matching.
The Californian Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) investigated under which
condition grid connected PV installed at customers sites can be an option as means of
demand side management /5/. They installed PV in an area where the transmission and
distribution capacity of the electric utility network was approaching capacity limits and
where an upgrade was planned. In this case the investment for PV can be balanced with
the avoided cost to upgrade the network hardware. It was estimated that 5 MWp PV
would provide an effective increase in feeder capacity of 2.9 MW or 58 %.
In remote locations a PV hybrid system often is the cheapest power supply. Good
examples are mountain huts, tourism facilities along hiking trails and the like.
In Germany recently share-holder financed PV systems gained importance. They are
usually constructed on large roof areas like schools , factories, stadium etc. The electric
power is completely fed into the public grid, the large area allows efficient construction of
the PV system. An economic advantage are the decreasing specific costs with the
generator size. As larger the PV generator as smaller the costs per installed kWp.

Fig. 20: Advertising with PV - The Trautwein company in Emmendingen, Germany. 500 m_
of PV modules on the roof of the production building are starting point for consequent
energy efficiency in the production process. (Photo: Trautwein)

page 17

Fig. 21: The Solar Fabrik, Freiburg. The building

envelope with integrated PV modules is part of the
renewable energy supply system of the building
designed to be 100% free of CO2
emissions

page 18

Energy Concepts with PV Building Renovation

PV in building renovation is not the prior measure to reduce the high energy demand of the
existing building stock. But, as part of a well balanced renovation concept (thermal insulation,
improved windows, improved ventilation system, solar collectors,..) it marks a further step
towards sustainable housing. As part of a facade renovation it can underline the changes in
the building appearance from old fashioned to high-tech, fig. 22. A more conventional
looking approach is the use of PV roof tiles, fig. 23.

Fig. 22: Photovoltaic as part of the renovation of the so-called Yellow-House in Aalborg,
Denmark.

Fig. 23: Photovoltaic roof tiles as part of a

building renovation in Niederurnen,
Switzerland

page 19

References
/1/ Gabler, H., Heidler, K., V. U. Hoffmann: Market Introduction of Grid-Connected
Photovoltaic Installations in Germany, 14th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy
Conference, Barcelona, 1997
/2/ 1000 Roofs Measurement and Analysis Programme, Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg, 1995
/3/ F. Sick, T. Erge (ed.): Photovoltaics in Buildings, James & James, London, 1996
/4/ Hagedorn, G.: Kumulierter Energieverbrauch und Erntefaktoren von PV-Systemen,
Energiewirtschaftliche Tagesfragen, 1989
/5/ Berdner, J. et al.: Installation and Performance Issues for Commercial Roof-Mounted PVSystems, 1st World Conference WPVSEC, Hawaii, 1994

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