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b,1 , M. Nystrom
b,1
B. Van der Bruggen a, , M. Mantt
ari
a
K.U.Leuven, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laboratory for Applied Physical Chemistry and Environmental Technology, W. de Croylaan 46, B 3001 Leuven, Belgium
Lappeenranta University of Technology, Department of Chemical Technology, Laboratory of Membrane Technology and Technical Polymer Chemistry,
P.O. Box 20 FI-53851 Lappeenranta, Finland
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 26 February 2008
Received in revised form 6 May 2008
Accepted 10 May 2008
Keywords:
Membrane ltration
Nanoltration
Fouling
Concentrates
Fractionation
Water treatment
Drinking water
Wastewater
a b s t r a c t
In spite of all promising perspectives for nanoltration, not only in drinking water production but also
in wastewater treatment, the food industry, the chemical and pharmaceutical industry, and many other
industries, there are still some unresolved problems that slow down large-scale applications. This paper
identies six challenges for nanoltration where solutions are still scarce: (1) avoiding membrane fouling,
and possibilities to remediate, (2) improving the separation between solutes that can be achieved, (3) further treatment of concentrates, (4) chemical resistance and limited lifetime of membranes, (5) insufcient
rejection of pollutants in water treatment, and (6) the need for modelling and simulation tools.
The implementation of nanoltration in the industry is a success story because these challenges can be
dealt with for many applications, whereas more research would result in many more possible applications.
It is suggested that these challenges should be among the main priorities on the research agenda for
nanoltration. This paper offers an overview of the state-of-the-art in these areas, without going into
details about specic observations in individual studies, but rather aiming at giving the overall picture
of possible drawbacks. This leads to suggestions which direction the nanoltration research community
should follow, and where research questions can be found. Evidently, the six identied challenges are
to some extent interrelated; mutual inuences are explained as well as possible solutions, or possible
pathways to solutions.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Membrane fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Insufcient separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Treatment of concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Membrane lifetime and chemical resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Insufcient rejection for individual compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modelling and simulation of nanoltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
The introduction of new technologies always involves transition
phenomena, such as unexpected start-up problems, discussions
between believers and non-believers, and research efforts leading
251
252
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259
260
260
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B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
are (1) membrane fouling, its causes and possibilities to remediate, (2) separation between solutes that can be achieved, (3)
further treatment of concentrates, (4) chemical resistance of membranes, (5) insufcient rejection in water treatment, and (6) the
need for modelling and simulation tools. It must be stressed that
many applications are already running regardless of these suggested improvements. Nevertheless, one should be aware that more
can be done if the limitations can be overcome.
2. Membrane fouling
Fouling is one of the main problems in any membrane separation, but for nanoltration it might be even somewhat more
complex because of the interactions leading to fouling take place
at nanoscale, and are therefore difcult to understand [3844]. Its
negative consequences are obvious and include the need for pretreatment, membrane cleaning, limited recoveries and feed water
loss, and short lifetimes of membranes. In that sense, membrane
fouling is closely related to other problems such as concentrate
treatment and membrane stability and lifetime: a total control of
fouling would reduce the need for cleaning and would enhance the
permeate yield.
Foulants playing a role for nanoltration membranes can be
organic solutes, inorganic solutes, colloids, or biological solids
[45]. An extensive description of the consequences of fouling in
nanoltration can be found in the literature [46], including indices
describing the feed water fouling potential and the post factum
analysis by membrane autopsy. Boussu et al. [4749] extended the
study of membrane characteristics to prediction and interpretation of fouling caused by organic solutes, colloids and surfactants.
Fouling of organic solutes is thought to be mainly caused by adsorptive interactions with the membrane material [5052]. Fouling
and adsorption can be related to component properties, which is
reected by the correlation between the octanolwater partition
coefcient (log P) and adsorption; adsorption is also related to the
dipole moment and the water solubility [52]. Concerning the membrane characteristics, the hydrophobicity of the top layer is believed
to cause the most ux decline [53,54]. For charged organic compounds, electrostatic attraction or repulsion forces between the
component and the membrane inuence the degree of fouling. A
necessary condition for this is that the membrane surface charge is
large enough; otherwise hydrophobic forces overcome the electrostatic forces resulting in more fouling of hydrophobic membranes
[55].
Depending on the relative size of colloidal particles and membrane pores, colloidal fouling may occur either due to accumulation
of particles on the membrane surface and build-up of a cake or by
penetration within the membrane pores [5659]. It is assumed that
colloidal fouling is related to membrane roughness [60,61]: colloids
are thought to be preferentially transported into the valleys, which
results in valley clogging. In addition, surface hydrophobicity and
permeability also play a role [6264].
The size, charge and concentration of the colloids also inuence
fouling in nanoltration. An increase in colloid concentration leads
to an increase in fouling [58,63,6567]; a larger colloid size may
have either a negative [63] or a positive effect [56,68] on fouling in
comparison with smaller colloids.
Inorganic fouling is related to scaling, i.e., precipitation of salts
on the membrane surface [46]. Nanoltration membranes retain
ions, causing an increase of the concentration at the membrane
surface, which may exceed the solubility limit at a certain point
in the ltration module. The most common constituents of scale
are calcium carbonate, gypsum, barium/strontium sulphate and silica, although other potential scalants exist [46]. Scaling is a purely
thermodynamic process involving a phase change, which requires
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
253
Fig. 1. Critical ux for paper mill efuent for a at sheet membrane module (temperature: 40 C, cross-ow velocity 2.7 m/s). Open circles: pressure increase; black
circles: pressure decrease; black squares: pressure decrease after the maximum
pressure.
254
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
Fig. 2. Typical sigmoidal rejection curve obtained for rejection of uncharged solutes
with a nanoltration membrane.
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
so that
CF =
Cr,i
Q
= f
Cf,i
Qr
1 (REC
Cp,i
Cf,i
,
255
256
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
the inorganic fraction (salts). After a pretreatment using microltration, the removal of the organic fraction can be done by
nanoltration using a membrane with low salt rejection at a high
temperature, close to the temperature of the dye bath. The permeate fraction contains a large fraction of inorganics; the organic
fraction should be low. The concentrate is mainly organic in nature.
Membrane distillation can be applied to separate the organic fraction from water, taking advantage of the elevated temperature of
the feed. The distillate is recycled to the nishing process; the
remaining organic fraction has an added value by utilizing its
energy content in an incineration process. The energy yield makes
up for the loss of energy by losses in the different treatment steps.
The nanoltration permeate feeds a second nanoltration unit,
where salts are retained using a relatively tight nanoltration
membrane with high salt rejection. The permeate from the second nanoltration unit is pure enough for reuse as process water.
The concentrate is a salt solution, comparable to the brine from
desalination processes, and can be used for salt production in a
membrane crystallizer [138]. The combination of all these membrane processes results in a zero-discharge system with energy
recuperation. A detailed description and calculation of this system
can be found in the literature [135].
If reuse of the concentrate is not feasible, further treatment can
be necessary before discharge. Two options for further treatment
can be distinguished: (a) further concentration, and (b) removal
of specic components by a proper choice of a selective treatment method. The rst option leads to a sludge or solid waste
that has to be reused (if possible), landlled (if necessary after
solidication/stabilisation or a similar pretreatment to avoid leaching of contaminants), or incinerated. The second option leads to
a (treated) wastewater, that has to be reused (if possible) or discharged in surface water (direct or indirect via sewage systems) or
in groundwater.
Concentrates resulting from drinking water production are a
special case. A distinction should be made between groundwater
and surface water. Nanoltration is not often used for production
of drinking water from groundwater, because (a) groundwater is
almost exclusively used when a source of good quality, not requiring extensive further (membrane) treatment, is available, and (b)
the concentrate that is generated is a large waste fraction, expensive and technically challenging to dispose of. For surface water,
nanoltration is a valuable option when the concentrate can easily
be discharged. A study in the Netherlands [139] revealed that disposal of the concentrate is a serious problem, especially in those
cases where no large surface water is present. In general, concentrate disposal as such was feasible, as long as a limited number of
parameters such as sulphate, chloride, phosphate, iron and antiscalant were under control.
Other factors than the volume and composition that have to
be taken into account are legal requirements such as allowances
and conditions; cost of further treatment; local factors such as the
proximity and size of a wastewater treatment plant, the presence of
surface water or open land, soil characteristics and geological structure; exibility of the disposal method in case of an expansion of the
existing plant; and public acceptance. Release of micropollutants to
the concentrate was also mentioned as a risk [140].
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
257
Table 1
Solvent resistant nanoltration membranes and membrane characteristics as specied by the manufacturers
Membrane
N30F
NF-PES-010
MPF-44
MPF-50
Desal-5-DK
Desal-5-DL
SS-030505
SS-169
SS-01
HITK-1T
StarMem-120
StarMem-122
StarMem228
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
Manufacturer
a
Nadir
Nadira
Kochd
Kochd
Osmonicsh
Osmonicsh
SolSepj
SolSepj
SolSepj
HITKo
METp
METp
METp
Material
PES
PES
PDMS
PDMS
PA
PA
k
k
k
TiO2
PI
PI
PI
MWCO (Da)
400
1000
250
700
150300
150300
g
g
g
g
200
220
280
Tmax ( C)
95
95
40
40
90
90
90
150
150
g
60
60
60
L (l/h m2 bar)
b
1.01.8
510b
1.3b
1.0f
5.4b
9.0b
1.0l
10l
10l
5b
1.0q
1.0q
0.26q
R (%)
7090c
3050c
98e
g
98i
96i
>90m
95m
97n
g
g
g
g
258
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
Table 2
Experimental nitrate rejections for typical nanoltration membranes
Membrane
Reference
NF90
HG19
SX10
SV10
SX01
BQ01
MX07
NF70
NF45
UTC-20
UTC-60
MPS44
NF70
Desal
ESNA-1 LF
NF
NF90
OPMN-K
OPMN-P
9498
9
32
28
25
12
8
76
16
32
11
90 50
90 85
60 33
7580
6580
8595
2550
4070
[169]
[168]
[168]
[168]
[168]
[168]
[168]
[167]
[167]
[167]
[167]
[166]
[166]
[166]
[165]
[164]
[164]
[164]
[164]
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
259
P
[(c l ) + f1 ] + f2
V 1
m
n m
Vm
Jc = Ps x
dc
+ (1 )Js c
dx
(1 F)
1 F
1
with F = exp
Ps
Js
260
B. Van der Bruggen et al. / Separation and Purication Technology 63 (2008) 251263
=
0
rc
1
1
exp
Sp 2 r
2
(ln(r) ln(r ))
2Sp2
dr
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