@,"o.

UNIT-V

7.

What is meant by productivity?

Productivity is defined as the ratio of output

and input. The output can be water delivered, area
irrigated, yield, or income, and the input can
be water in the root zone, at the farm gate at the outret

or

at upstream points in the system incruding the point

of diversion or storage. rmproved water suppry
influences the adoption of high yielding agricultural
practices by farmers, which justifiT the productivity
criterion of performa nce.
2.. Deline equity.
Equity in canal irrigation systems implies equality, fairness,
and even-handed dealing in matters
of allocation and appropriation of irrigation water. There
can be several ways to decide the equality of
supplies to different farmers. Two of them, practiced

throughout the world, are the methods of prior

appropriation and of proportionate equality.

3.

Wite dhout the conjunctive

use of

water.

conjunctive use means the water lifted from below the ground
is used in conjunction with canal
waters lt results in the coordinated, combined, and.creative exploitation ground
of
water and surface

water so as

to

minimize

the dislocation caused by nature's inconsistent rainfall pattern.

such
coordinated use of surface and ground waters results in
increased amount of available water, smaller
surface distribution system, smaler drainage system, reduced
canar rinings, greater frood contror, and
smaller eva poration losses.

4.

What is meont by short

The short

- term stabitity?

term or interseasonal stability refers to the variations in productivity and

equity
between irrigation seasons, and is a function of crimate, water suppry,
storage and contror, system
management, and other factors such as pests, diseases, and availability
of labour and other inputs. lt can
be measured by comparing performance between seasons.

, .t

5, Deline long

.'t

-tem stobilw.

The long

term stability is defined as "environmental stability" and "durability" and refers to

the prevention or minimizing of adverse physical changes such as waterlogging, leaching of nutrients
form soils, salinity. erosion, silting, the 'mining' of ground water, and infestations with weeds.

6. write dbout the moin components oI soil reclomotion.

The main componentS of soil reclamation works are as follows

>

lsolation of land areas according to their categorization and leveling and bunding of the affected
land as per the category.

>

provision of drainage (surfacd or subsurface or vertical) network to remove leaching water and

to keep the water table to a safer level.

>

Breaking up of impervious subsoil layer in alkali soils by deep ploughing.

}>

Adding suitable chemicals (such as gypsum, sulphur, etc.) dependinB upon the results of
chemical tests

Why o proper plan

ofthe affected soil.

for operation & maintenonce ol irrigotion system is necessary?

A proper plan for operation and maintenance is, therefore, necessary to

>
!
>

Achieve stipulated levels of project services including maintenance at mlnimum achievable cost.
Achieve optimum use ofcanal water.

provide detailed operation and maintenance guidelines during various anticipated scenarios of
water availability, including equitable water distribution upto the tail-end of the system, and

>

Effect efficient coordination of staff, equipment, physical and financial resources and related
disciplines, active involvement of farmers etc.

8. What ore the mdin obiedives ol canol lining?

The following are the main objectives of canal lining:

>
>
>
>
>
>

To
To
To
To
To
To

canal seepage.

prevent water-logging.
increase the capacity of canal.
increase the command area.
protect the canalfrom the damage by flood.
control the growth of weeds.

Whdt ore the foctors to be considered during the

setection ol potticutor type

o! lining?

The selection of particular type of lining depends

on the following factors,

>
)
>

Smoothness.

.D

Economy.

>
-!
.}

lm perviousness.

Dura bility.

Site condition.
Lite of

project.

Availability of construction materials.

70, How con the water losses be controlled?

The following are the measures that are generally taken to
control the water losses from the
reservoir.

Meosure to Reduce Evdporotion Loss

a)
b)

The reservoir should be constructed of less surface area and more

depth.

Tall trees should be grown on the windward side of the reservoir which
act as wind
breakers and hence the rate of evapordtion will be reduced.

c)

'

The reservoir basin shoutd be surrounded by plantation or forest area so that

cooler
environment exists within the reservoir area.

d)

Certain chemical like cetyl atcohol is spread over the reservoir surface. lt forms a thin film
on water surface reducing evaporation.

2.

Measure to Reduce Absorption Loss

a)
b)

3.

The weeds and plants at the periphery

ofthe reservoir should be removed completery.

The weeds from the surface of the reservoir should be removed.

Measure to Reduce percoldtion Loss

a)

Geological investigations should be carried out

to locate the

zones

of pervious formations,

cracks and fissures in the bed a nd periphery of the reservoir basin.

b)

suitable treatments should be adopted to stop the leakage of water through these zones.

c)

soil stabilization methods should be adopted ifthe basin is composed of permeable bed soil.

77. Whdt is meant by wdter logging?

ln agricultural land, when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops get saturated with the
subsoil water, the air circulation within the soil pores gets totally stopped. This phenomenon is termed
as water logging. The water logging makes

the soil alkaline in character and the fertility of the land

is

totally destroyed and the yield of crop is reduced.

72. State the eltects ol water logging?
The following are the effects of water logging:

>
>
)
)
>
>
>

Stabilization of soil
Lack of aeration

temperature
Growth ofweeds and aquatic plants
Diseases of crops
Difficulty ln cultivation
Restriction of root groMh
73. Wite the methods used for controlling woter logging?
Fall of soil

The following measures may be taken to control water logging:

F
>
P
>
>
>
>
>
>

Prevention of percolation from canals

Prevention of percolation from reservoirs
Control of intensity of irrigation
Economical use of water

Fixing of crop pattern

Providin8 drainage system

lmprovement of natural drainage
Pumping of ground water
Construction of sump

well

,.

14. DeJine 0n-farm water management (NOV/DEC 2006)

It can be defined as manipulation of water within the borders ofan individual farm, a
farming plot or field.
Example: in canal inigation system, OFWM starts at the farm gate and ends at the disposal point

ofthe drainage water to a public watercourse, open drain or sink.

15. What do you meant by h'ater user association (WUA)?

It is

a self-managing group

of fanners working together to operate and maintain their

irrigation and drainage network, to ensure fair and equitable water distribution, and to increase

I
.:

crop yield.

16. ll4tat are the problems of irrigation management without pailicipatory management?

.
o
o
o
.
.

Inadequate water availability at the lowest.

Poor condition / maintenance ofthe system.

Lack of measuring devices and control structures.

Inadequate allocation fro operation and maintenance.

Lack of incentives fro saving water.

Poor drainage.

l7).what are the cquses of water loss?

I.
,

seepage from the canal

2. over irrigation of field

3. heavy surface runoff
18) what are ways of water loss in the canal?
I.

seepage loss

2. evaporation loss

19) What are factors on which seepage loss depends?

position of water table

porosity ofsub-soil
porosity ofsoil
extend of absorbing medium

20) What are two different condition ofseppage?

l.pbrculation
2.absorption
21). What are the remedial measures for losses?
I

.efficient surface drainage

2..restriction of inigation
3. change in crop pattern

22) What are the advantages of irrigation water managements?

.achievement of optimum irrigation efficiency

2.economical and efficient operation and maintanence of irrigation system

3.equitable distribution ofsupplies to irrigators especially at the end

23) Discuss some eomponents ofwater management?

I .,'yater

shed management

2.land management

3.rain water management

4.reservoir management

24).What are the imprct of

I

wrter

user associetion?

.conveyance efficiency

2.operation efficiency
3.equity
4.area water unit ratio

25) What are the advantages

ofwater user association?

l.better maintenance of the distributry

2.possibility ofhigh value ofcrop programme
3.availability of water ancl irrigation process
26) What are optimization of water user association?
I .to reduce the seepage loss and conveyance
2.control over the usage ofwater
3.planning
4.to avoid excess suppl.y of water

27).what are the factors which influence evaporation loss?

l.temperature

2.wind velocity
3.relative humidity
28) What is land management?

The intensity ofraising ploductivity per unit area per unit time reeds to be increased whiclr
amounts to increasing iroped area.
29). What are the

irrigation methods for cultivation?

l.border strip-wheat

2.funow method --cotton

3.basin method --orchard

30) What is meant by cad?

Command area developments.the concept
uti I ization.

31). What are the uses of irrigation waters?

l.wastages due to over irrigation
2.wastages due to surface

runoff

3.wastages due to escape ofwater

oftliis developments

is to ensure

efficient water

devetopment?
32), What are the work of on farm

Lirrigation Practice
2.croP Planning

3.irrigation method
4.right amount of irrigation
on farm developments?
33). what are the components of
1

.field drain

2.crossing in field channel

3.crossing of field ihannel

4.formation of field channel

depth?
34). What is called optimum rvater

Thi quantity of water

depth'
is called the optimum water
at which the yield is maximum'

of irrigation?
35). What is called optimum utilisation

yield with any amount of water'

It generally means. getting maximum
efficieny and losses?
36).what is the relation between
to the losses'
efficieny is inversely proportional

l.

Discuss the inadequacies o7

2. Describe the common

yn'ni@igai'-'*'agement

*iteriafor judgw

the

in India'

pedormance of an irrigation system'

3.Describetheevaluationofperformanceofcanalirrigationsystems.
4.I{hatarethemethodsadoptedforimprovingcanalirriSationmanagement?Explainindetail.
of condl lining?
in conols? Whot orc the merits ond demerits
5. Why shbuf d fining be provided
lining' Explain them'
6. lilrite the dffirent types of canal

7.

How con woter

be lostirom o reiervoir?

How con the losses be controlled?

octivities?
necessory for irrigotion monogement
8, Whot kinds of porticipotion ore
2006)'
oI a percototion pond' (NOv/DEc
g. whot is meant bY percototion pond? Drow o neot sketch
10.

(NOV/DEC 2006)'
What is the need fro WUA?

77. Whot

is the needfro optimizotion of woter

use? (NOV/DEC 2006)'

.1. i?latq i""4\ -,b"'4

on

&o. atwue'n"a{ t

oN FARM DEVELOPMENT (OFD) WORKS

The purpose of irrigation is to enable the fanneni to iurprove the agricr,rltural

irigation management airns at lriglr efficiency of water conveyance

and appropriate nrethods of water application, through participator, irigation management
at each stage of irrigation development. The Govt. of lrrdia in irlgation departrnent has
taken appropriate decision to promote and implement the parlicipatory irrigation
management in all the irrigation projects through formation 0f Water Users' Associations
(WUA). The approach to planning. design, construction and maintenance of OFD works
production. The modern

needs to be, therefore. reoriented.

productivity requires both. the

effrcient on fam water management and the optimization of the use or waterand land.
through appropriate methods of water appiication. The items of work pertaining to on farm
The efficient management of i.rigution water for maxirmzmg

water management are termed as "On farm development works".

The on farm development works comprise of following,

r
It.
l.
IV.

Field channels for conveyance ofwater

Control structures
Crossings
Surface drainage syStem

Fann roads
vt.

vlt.

Field channel protection works and

Land forming (Smoothening / grading / leveling).

The general approacr, to design and execution of OFD works

The general approach to dgsign and execution of OFD wolks shall be in accordance

with the Govt. technical circulars, the Govt. Resolution and other directive issued by the
Govt. from time to time for this purpose. The participatory irrigation management and
efficient water delivery system to provide timely as well as

adequate

water supply to each

fann, shall be the main focus points in the design and implementation of OFD works.

'3. Functional utility

'

The purpose of the OFD works is to provide timely and adequate supplies water to each

holding and presewe environrnental balance as well, by avoiding seepages, leakages and stagnations

of water which trigger problems like water logging. causing adverse impact otr environment. To
achieve this functional utility. the planning ano design ofOFD wolks has to be hydraulically better

and socially aoceptable. The OFD works also need to be such that these are economical fbr the
oonstruction and maintenance. In a water delivery system. accuracies are very important. Separate

for different works of on-farm development. rhe quality of

construction govems the cost of maintenance and overall life of OFD works. Thus the functional

tolemnces are. therefore, prescribed

utility of OFD works is governed by following aspects

Ilydraulic design
l) Eoonomy for conStructibn and maintenance
2) Social acceptance i.e. User friendliness to community of farmers who
actually using OFD works and

will

3) Levels ofaccuracies and qualily ofconstruction.

These issues need to have a proper bearing in approach to design and execution

ofOFD

works.

4. Farmer's participation

ofcanal irrigation depends on the response ofthe lbrmer, both as an individual and as
a member of the group beneflted by the outlet. Active partioipation of the farmer at the stage of
design should therefore be encouraged. This will also help in building up of an atmosphere of
Success

common purpose and thereby in the unification

ofthe

beneficiaries into a lromogeneous group.

The Govt. of lndia in Irrigation Dept. has taken a decision to promote and expedite the
formation of WUA's, so that all the created potential under various projects is taken over by Water
Users' Associations.

5. Organizational coordination
The works from the canal head down to the distributory and from the distributory head to the

outlet are cagied out by the Construction Organization of the Irrigation Department. Below outlet,
OFD wor.ks are the community works, Presently the work below tlre outlet is entusted to the Land
Development Divisions. Design and construction proceed on the basis ofthe location ofthe outlet
and its sill level. To ensure a coordinated effort. it is necessary at the stage ofdesign. that the design

ofa minor is reated

as an overlapping function.

Thus the Land Development Division should not consider the design and layout ofa minor as

work unr.elated to the work below the outlet. Instead. at least conceptually. the process ofdesign of
the works below the outlet should continue upto the head ofthe minor. For this purpose the Land
Development Divisions should approach the Construction Organization for the details ofthe designs

and layouts of the distributaries/rninors.

2,

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eP v'o-Lo,v' u}.er4auocrYfi},r
riroV

WATER USERS ASSOCIATION

Prsenf sfafus of Water Users Associafions
Majority of the f'armers showed enthusiasm and willingness to involve themselves

m the community activities like rehabilitation, water disribution, operation and

maintenance

activities. Nearly 80 % ofthe farmers have contributed to the rehabilitation activities by way of either
(a) cash or (b) Iabour or (c) supervision ofworks. Nearly half of the respondents mentioned that they
are involved in water distribution within their land limits. The rest 17 Vo ofthe farmers said that they
are using the services of hired labourers to distribute water even to their own fields. Nearly 20

o/o

of

the farmers in the well functioning WUA sector mentioned that they are not at all involved in the
operation and maintenance activities. The rest ofthe farmers mentioned that they are involved by way
of contributing labour and supervision activities.

Advantages of the WUA formation to solve envitonmenta, issues

The formation of WUAs has brought down some of the environmental problems. For example,

the wat er logging and salinity problems were experienced during prepercent

of the surveyed schemes. These problems werc

canal irrigation schemes. The post

WUA period in 40

morre pronounced

in both tank

and

WUA period showed improved situation due to (a)

controlled and regulated supply of water in the canal due to the application of effective water
distribution system and (b) canal improvement works

Nearly 50 % ofthe schemes have experienced slightly poor quality of groundwater below their
ayacuts (command area). Farmer's perception is that it happened due to (a) application of right

quantity of water at right time. the consequence of proper distribution pattem, (b) reduced
water logging condition, (c) awareness about soil. water and crop mBnagement aspects'

Gender sensitivity in water users associafiorrs

Three fourth of the surveyed farmers said that they are involving their

family women

members for the works like (a) transplanting, (b) weeding and (c) harvesting.

A Water User Association is a co-operative association of individual water users who wish to
urdertake water-related activities for their mutual benefit. The specific nature of the service
that a WUA provides will differ fron-r caie to case: as the name suggests, a water user
association is an institution that serves its members. Because member needs will differ from
one area to another, a WUA is normally established in response to the aspirations of its
members. That is, its design. Conforms to their specifications.

Plr

-ertt

including streanr flow reduction'

A WUA may be established for a range ofactivities
and control the use ofwater for
treatment of effluent and waste and its disposal
recreational and environmentaI purposes'
members of WUAs and to government
There are thus significant advantages to
than an
between the state and society ratller
offrcials in seeing WUAs as an interface
of one of the two parties only'
organization thaf serves the interests

Functions of WUAs
WUAs
some ciariry on the question how
ln doing sol it also intends to provide
resource
in to umbrella structures of water
shosldbe delineated from and link
management.

the differences benveen various

A number ofissues are important in considering
.

tiers of water management, namelY:

I

to perfonn' Four key

established
The function that the institution has been
i'dentified' namely:
functions of water institutions can be
management ofa service;
Operational functions' related to the

.
.

ofa bulk rvater supply

Bulk supply functions' relatsd to the riranagement
system

o
2.
3.

resource;
related to the management of the
Resource management functions'
of stakeholder
functions' relatd to the represevttation

Representation

water management
needs at higher institutions of
and frequency
above each tequire a certain nature

of

The functions mentioned

or sub-aggregate units'
the communication between members
purpose amongst members or sub-aggrsgate
The oommonality ofvision and
units

ft

3/ ,D,) c^44

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47'q

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i:rvila.Fa,') rnenafl,o,r4r;{@9?

v1

''t* f*r;?oto'J

&n^^ -aolA

.]:

PARTIC]PATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM)

It is believbd that many developmental efforts, more so in water resource sector had been
implemented through participatory approach.

Arthoshastu, a treatise on political

ln AD qn Century,

Chanaba the author of

economy urged the rulers to assist the fanners in the

construction of irrigation works and give thera various incentives. During I 3h and l6th Century

in the Vijq,onlgar ernpire (Kamataka). the rulers buih several diversion rveirs and canals with
active voluntary participation f'r'om farrners. Resolution of conflicts and routine maintenance
were achieved tluough community participation. In Tamil Nadu. the Chola King Karikalan

built

an ani cut on the rivel Cauvery (known as the Grand Anicut). certain partl of the irrigation
systenr weie maintained by the Covernment and were knorvn as 'surkari'and the-lower parts
nraintained by thrmers, rvhiclr were known as 'Kudinarammat' (people's maintenance by donated
labour).

Similarly in Minor irrigation systenrs (Tanks) construction, operation and maintenance of

distribution chanrrel s,,-stem below the head sluice is the sole responsibility of the f'armers'. The
farmers provide liee labour periodically to maintain the irrigation works. This should have been

in vogue as a tradition or custom, at least in the southern part ofthe country over a long period,'
perhaps frorn the tinres prior to Mughal rule

Need

for this project

It could be seen that the revival ofpa*icipatory approach is sought out to be the majot solution
in the operation and maintenance ofrvater resource systems. lt is evident

ifthe problems tbced by

ofone organization is made known to

that the goal in enabling farmers to participate can be easily achieved

one agency is known to the other. or the success stories
the other. This saves a lot

oftime, effort, and investment in such participatory projects. The point

ofdeparture ofthis study from the other rvorks is that it will engage in such a comparative
analysis across regions. size and type or organization,

lf

experiences are studied and shared. a lot

of time and money could be saved in evolving fool proof. cost and time effective programs.

Pfoject objectives

at

To consolidate the experiences of the Watel Users Associations'

b.

To compare the sustainability of WUA built on the prenrises of Participatory

Irrigation Management usirrg varied strategies lbr exanrple motivation through
NGOs, through Cornmunity Organizers' working under tlre govemment
departments etc

c.

'

To study the problems faced by associations and identifying the solutions for
the problems

d.

To identify the gender sensitivity in the water user association structule and
functioning and

e.

To present the findings througli publications and disseminate the findings of

the study for better understanding ofthe scenario. interventions to be made for
the present and future Planning.

Any irrigation project cannot be successful unless it is linked to the stakeholders,

that is, the farmers themselves. In fact, people's participation in renovation and
maintenance offield clrannels was the established practice during the pre independence
firnction in the post independence
period and a realization l.ras dawned that without the participation of farmers, the full
potenrial ofan irrigation scheme may not be realized. Though a water resources etrgineer
not directly lnvolved in such a scheme. it is nevertheless wise to appreciate the nlotive

days. However, the bureaucracy encroached on this

designing
behind Participatory lrrigation Management (PIM) and keep that in nrind while

and

irrigation system.

The national viater policy stresses the participatory approach in water resources
help
management. It has been recognized that participation ofthe beneficiaries would
The
grearly for the optimal upkeep of irrigation system and utilization of irrigation rvater.

participation of farmers in the management of irrigation would give responsibility for

operation alld maintenance and collection of watef tates from the areas under the
jurisdiction ofthe water user's association of concemed hydraulic level'

ThesustairrabilityandsuccessofPlMdependsonmutualaccountabilitybetween
the water user's association and the irrigation department of the concemed state. attitudinal
nalure
change in the bureaucracy, autonomy for the water user's associations, multiiltrctional
of the water user,s association and the choice of appropriate rnodel for PIM with appropriate
then
tegal and institutional framework. If the farmers lrave to take over and manage the system,
the system must be fectified by the irrigation department to a minimum standard to can:y the
of the
design discharge before it is harided over to the water user's association. The success
PIM is also linked to the introduction of lotational water supply and water charges with

rationalized establishment costs. Unlined field chanrrels need to be manually constructed in a

'V' shape which is considered stable and efficient for car'rying wator'

7-**fto:
tB

47

F_,

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F-

fri-rn -h*k fl"ti"3 qaA &w-1,r"*n{ .r'fi*9"#ur

PI-ANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF ]RRIGATION PROJECTS

'lie purpose of the planning and implementation process
is to:

Provide rnethodorogy that helps pranners work effectivery with sponsors

to
identify opportunities and needs to solve identified resource probrems or
concerns

2.

Help sponsors recognize and understand natural resource oonsewation

principles. concems and problems. Resource treatment and effects are
considered for eaclr altemative

3.

Develop and evaluate altematives that lead to decisions to implement and

maintain conservation

4.
5.

Treatments and rnanagement for the project

Entible sponsors to achieve their objectives as well as meet social. legal.
and
program. requirements

6.

Help sponsors develop a plan thht meets established project specific quality
criteria including

7.

Environmentalconcems

8.Assess the effectiveness of installed practices in meeting the goals and

. objectives ofthe sponsors while solving problems and impacts
on
environmental values

I. Watershed-based planning
The watershed-based planning approach provides a comprehensive process
that
considers all natural resources in the watershed as well as social, cultural.

and economic

factors. The process tailors workable solutions to ecosystem needs through

the
participation and leadership of sponsors. The watershed approach follows
the established

o|

fu"fu'b,t

\"
plannillg process and empowe$ Iocal people to recognize problems and oppoitunities

and find workable solutions for resolving issttes and attaining goals related to
ecosystems. This approach provides a tbrum for successful planning and con{'lict
resolution, 'fhe result is a watershed plan that is a clear description of resource
concerns, goals to be attained and identified sources for technical assistance. education

assistance, and funding assistance

fronr federal. state, and local entities

For'

implementing solutions.
2.

Outline for irrigation project planning

It can assist planning personuel with irrigation aspects ofplanning a project'

Adherence to the principles ofthe outline

will

help elrsure a uniform approach iu

estimating physical t'easibility, benetlits. effects, and impac s at ttre various stages

of

progressive planning. The outlirre is not intended to indicate a fixed chronological order

or procedure. Many ofthe investigations may be ca|ried on conctlrrently. Perlbrm onll'

those items descr.ibed in the outline that are directly applicable to appraise the capabilitl'

of satisfoing a component need. Intensity of investigations required lbr various outline

components varies with the level ofplanning atrd the scope and significance ofthe
project being planned. cenerally. the lowest interrsity is associated with pre application
i

plarrning level. It increases to

frlll intensity for investigation ofthe

selected plarr. The

procedural outline does not describe program requirements or tbfln:]t for

plan

'

prcparation. It provides an orderly format for plaruling, implementation and evaluation.

It also provides guidance for writing of plans, organizing supporting

documentation,

and facilitating reviews.

3. Degree of ptanning

Irigation planning can be cornplex, involvirrg environmenlal assessmenls

and

impacts, agronomy, soil, animal husbandry, engineering. economics, ecology, and thmr
and ranch lranagement. On the other hand, it can be direct. addressing only one collcel'n
and its effect on the environment. Plan preparation and content should be based on the
irrigation decision maker's needs and identified resoulce concelns. A couseryation

planning process oonsiders the farm, ranch, or community as a whole even if the
decision maker is intercsted in only one field or practice. This can ensure tlrat delivery
to
system components of pipelilles and ditches are an adequate size and elevation
service the entire unit.