Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
electromagnetism as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such as
Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this principle.
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating
current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around
the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and
collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor.
Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name
from eddies that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles
when conditions are right.
View movie clip of an eddy current inspection. (430Kb)
One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and
measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

Crack detection

Material thickness measurements

Coating thickness measurements

Conductivity measurements for:

o Material identification
o Heat damage detection
o Case depth determination
o Heat treatment monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

Detects surface and near surface defects

Inspection gives immediate results

Equipment is very portable

Method can be used for much more than flaw detection

Minimum part preparation is required

Test probe does not need to contact the part

Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:

Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe

Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques

Surface finish and and roughness may interfere

Reference standards needed for setup

Depth of penetration is limited

Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan
direction are undetectable

History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing has its origins with Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831. Faraday was a chemist in England during the early 1800's and is
credited with the discovery of electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic rotations, the
magneto-optical effect, diamagnetism, and other phenomena. In 1879, another scientist
named Hughes recorded changes in the properties of a coil when placed in contact with
metals of different conductivity and permeability. However, it was not until the Second
World War that these effects were put to practical use for testing materials. Much work
was done in the 1950's and 60's, particularly in the aircraft and nuclear industries. Eddy
current testing is now a widely used and well-understood inspection technique.

Present State of Eddy Current

Inspection

Eddy current inspection is used in a variety of industries to

find defects and make measurements. One of the primary
uses of eddy current testing is for defect detection when the
nature of the defect is well understood. In general, the
technique is used to inspect a relatively small area and the
probe design and test parameters must be established with a good understanding of the
flaw that is to be detected. Since eddy currents tend to concentrate at the surface of a
material, they can only be used to detect surface and near surface defects.

In thin materials such as tubing and sheet stock, eddy currents can be used to measure the
thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for detecting corrosion
damage and other damage that causes a thinning of the material. The technique is used to
make corrosion thinning measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in
assemblies such as heat exchangers. Eddy current testing is also used to measure the
thickness of paints and other coatings.

Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability
of materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be used to sort materials and to
tell if a material has seen high temperatures or been heat treated, which changes the
conductivity of some materials.

Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of configurations.
Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very small and battery operated
units for easy portability. Computer based systems are also available that provide easy
data manipulation features for the laboratory. Signal processing software has also been
developed for trend removal, background subtraction, and noise reduction. Impedance
analyzers are also sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-current
measurements. Some laboratories have multidimensional scanning capabilities that are
used to produce images of the scan regions. A few portable scanning systems also exist
for special applications, such as scanning regions of aircraft fuselages.

Research to Improve Eddy current measurements

A great deal of research continues to be done to improve eddy current measurement

techniques. A few of the these activities, which are being conducted at Iowa State
University, are described below.

Photoinductive Imaging (PI)

A technique known as photoinductive imaging (PI) was pioneered at CNDE and provides
a powerful, high-resolution scanning and imaging tool. Microscopic resolution is
available using standard-sized eddy-current sensors. Development of probes and
instrumentation for photoinductive (PI) imaging is based on the use of a medium-power
(5 W nominal power) argon ion laser. This probe provides high resolution images and has
been used to study cracks, welds, and diffusion bonds in metallic specimens. The PI
technique is being studied as a way to image local stress variations in steel.

Pulsed Eddy Current

Research is currently being conducted on the use of a technique called pulsed eddy
current (PEC) testing. This technique can be used for the detection and quantification of
corrosion and cracking in multi-layer aluminum aircraft structures. Pulsed eddy-current
signals consist of a spectrum of frequencies meaning that, because of the skin effect, each
pulse signal contains information from a range of depths within a given test specimen. In
addition, the pulse signals are very low-frequency rich which provides excellent depth
penetration. Unlike multi-frequency approaches, the pulse-signals lend themselves to
convenient analysis. .

Measurements have been carried out both in the laboratory and in the field. Corrosion
trials have demonstrated how material loss can be detected and quantified in multi-layer
aluminum structures. More recently, studies carried out on three and four layer structures
show the ability to locate cracks emerging from fasteners. Pulsed eddy-current
measurements have also been applied to ferromagnetic materials. Recent work has been
involved with measuring the case depth in hardened steel samples.

Properties of Electricity

Since eddy current inspection makes use of electromagnetic induction, it is important to

know about the scientific principles of electricity and magnetism. For a review of these
principles, the Science of NDT materials on this Internet site may be helpful. A review of
the key parameters will be provided here.

Electricity

It is well known that one of the subatomic particles of an atom is the electron. Atoms can
and usually do have a number of electrons circling its nucleus. The electrons carry a
negative electrostatic charge and under certain conditions can move from atom to atom.
The direction of movement between atoms is random unless a force causes the electrons
to move in one direction. This directional movement of electrons due to some imbalance
of force is what is known as electricity.

Amperage

The flow of electrons is measured in units called

amperes or amps for short. An amp is the amount of
electrical current that exists when a number of
electrons, having one coulomb of charge, move past a
given point in one second. A coulomb is the charge
carried by 6.25 x 1018 electrons or
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

Electromotive Force

The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is called the
electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of EMF as electrical
pressure. In other words, it is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction
within a conductor. There are many sources of EMF, the most common being batteries
and electrical generators.

The Volt

The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the
electrostatic difference between two points when one joule of energy is
used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other. A joule is the amount of
energy that is being consumed when one watt of power works for one second. This is also
known as a watt-second. For our purposes, just accept the fact that one joule of energy is
a very, very small amount of energy. For example, a typical 60-watt light bulb consumes
about 60 joules of energy each second it is on.

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical current

through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms of
energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low
resistance are good conductors of electricity. Materials with high resistance are good
insulators.

Current Flow and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law is the most important, basic law of electricity. It defines the relationship
between the three fundamental electrical quantities: current, voltage, and resistance.
When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistive elements (i.e. no coils),
current flows according to Ohm's Law, which is shown below.

I=V/R

Where:
I = Electrical Current (Amperes)
V = Voltage (Voltage)
R = Resistance (Ohms)

Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is proportional to the
voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). Therefore, if the voltage is
increased, the current will increase provided the resistance of the circuit does not change.
Similarly, increasing the resistance of the circuit will lower the current flow if the voltage
is not changed. The formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily be seen
for all of the three variables.
The Java applet below allows the user to vary each of these three parameters in Ohm's
Law and see the effect on the other two parameters. Values may be input into the dialog
boxes, or the resistance and voltage may also be varied by moving the arrows in the
applet. Current and voltage are shown as they would be displayed on an oscilloscope with
the X-axis being time and the Y-axis being the amplitude of the current or voltage. Ohm's
Law is valid for both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Note that in AC
circuits consisting of purely resistive elements, the current and voltage are always in
phase with each other.
Exercise: Use the interactive applet below to investigate the relationship of the variables
in Ohm's law. Vary the voltage in the circuit by clicking and dragging the head of the
arrow, which is marked with the V. The resistance in the circuit can be increased by
dragging the arrow head under the variable resister, which is marked R. Please note that
the vertical scale of the oscilloscope screen automatically adjusts to reflect the value of
the current.
See what happens to the voltage and current as the resistance in the circuit is increased.
What happens if there is not enough resistance in a circuit? If the resistance is increased,
what must happen in order to maintain the same level of current flow?

Induction and Inductance

Induction

In 1824, Oersted discovered that current passing though a coil created a magnetic field
capable of shifting a compass needle. Seven years later, Faraday and Henry discovered
just the opposite. They noticed that a moving magnetic field would induce current in an

electrical conductor. This process of generating electrical current in a conductor by

placing the conductor in a changing magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction
or just induction. It is called induction because the current is said to be induced in the
conductor by the magnetic field.

Faraday also noticed that the rate at which the magnetic field changed also had an effect
on the amount of current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for an uncoiled
conductor states that the amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change
of flux lines cutting the conductor. Faraday's Law for a straight wire is shown below.

Where:

VL = the induced voltage in volts

d/dt = the rate of change of magnetic flux in webers/second

Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H) which reflects this dependence on the rate
of change of the magnetic field. One henry is the amount of inductance that is required to
generate one volt of induced voltage when the current is changing at the rate of one
ampere per second. Note that current is used in the definition rather than magnetic field.
This is because current can be used to generate the magnetic field and is easier to
measure and control than magnetic flux.

Inductance

When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is
called inductance, L. Self-inductance, or simply inductance, is the property of a circuit
whereby a change in current causes a change in voltage in the same circuit. When one
circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutualinductance. The image to the right shows an example of mutual-inductance. When an
AC current is flowing through a piece of wire in a circuit, an electromagnetic field is
produced that is constantly growing and shrinking and changing direction due to the
constantly changing current in the wire. This changing magnetic field will induce
electrical current in another wire or circuit that is brought close to the wire in the primary
circuit. The current in the second wire will also be AC and in fact will look very similar
to the current flowing in the first wire. An electrical transformer uses inductance to

change the voltage of electricity into a more useful level. In nondestructive testing,
inductance is used to generate eddy currents in the test piece.

It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible for
inductance, it is only present in AC circuits. High frequency AC will result in greater
inductive reactance since the magnetic field is changing more rapidly.

Self-inductance and mutual-inductance will be discussed in more detail in the following

pages.

Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance

The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction. Self

inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the
current in the wire itself is changing. In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field
created by a changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit.
Therefore, the voltage is self-induced.

The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of
inductance and a coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a coil or
wire is usually used to indicate an inductive component. Taking a closer look at a coil
will help understand the reason that a voltage is induced in a wire carrying a changing
current. The alternating current running through the coil creates a magnetic field in and
around the coil that is increasing and decreasing as the current changes. The magnetic
field forms concentric loops that surround the wire and join to form larger loops that
surround the coil as shown in the image below. When the current increases in one loop
the expanding magnetic field will cut across some or all of the neighboring loops of wire,
inducing a voltage in these loops. This causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when the
current is changing.

By studying this image of a coil, it can be seen that the number of turns in the coil will
have an effect on the amount of voltage that is induced into the circuit. Increasing the
number of turns or the rate of change of magnetic flux increases the amount of induced
voltage. Therefore, Faraday's Law must be modified for a coil of wire and becomes the
following.

Where:

VL = induced voltage in volts

N = number of turns in the coil
d/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux in
webers/second

The equation simply states that the amount of induced voltage (VL) is proportional to the
number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the magnetic flux (d/dt). In other
words, when the frequency of the flux is increased or the number of turns in the coil is
increased, the amount of induced voltage will also increase.

In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure magnetic flux, so the
following equation can be used to determine the induced voltage if the inductance and

frequency of the current are known. This equation can also be reorganized to allow the
inductance to be calculated when the amount of inducted voltage can be determined and
the current frequency is known.

Where:

VL = the induced voltage in volts

L = the value of inductance in henries
di/dt = the rate of change of current in amperes per second

Lenz's Law

Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz developed a rule for
determining the direction of the induced current in a loop. Basically, Lenz's law states
that an induced current has a direction such that its magnetic field opposes the
change in magnetic field that induced the current. This means that the current induced
in a conductor will oppose the change in current that is causing the flux to change. Lenz's
law is important in understanding the property of inductive reactance, which is one of the
properties measured in eddy current testing.

Inductive Reactance

The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive reactance.
By taking a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it can be seen how
inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. In the image below, the direction of
the primary current is shown in red, and the magnetic field generated by the current is
shown in blue. The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by taking your right
hand and pointing your thumb in the direction of the current. Your fingers will then point
in the direction of the magnetic field. It can be seen that the magnetic field from one loop
of the wire will cut across the other loops in the coil and this will induce current flow
(shown in green) in the circuit. According to Lenz's law, the induced current must flow in
the opposite direction of the primary current. The induced current working against the
primary current results in a reduction of current flow in the circuit.

It should be noted that the inductive reactance will increase if the number of winds in the
coil is increased since the magnetic field from one coil will have more coils to interact
with.

Similarly to resistance, inductive reactance reduces the flow of current in a circuit.

However, it is possible to distinguish between resistance and inductive reactance in a
circuit by looking at the timing between the sine waves of the voltage and current of the
alternating current. In an AC circuit that contains only resistive components, the voltage
and the current will be in-phase, meaning that the peaks and valleys of their sine waves
will occur at the same time. When there is inductive reactance present in the circuit, the
phase of the current will be shifted so that its peaks and valleys do not occur at the same
time as those of the voltage. This will be discussed in more detail in the section on
circuits.

Mutual Inductance

(The Basis for Eddy Current Inspection)

The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit and the
currents in other nearby circuits, assuming that there are no nearby permanent magnets.
Consider the following two circuits.

The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and create
current flow. The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own magnetic field which
will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some point P, the magnetic field
consists of a part due to i and a part due to i . These fields are proportional to the currents
producing them.
1

The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the self inductance
of each of the coils. The values of L1 and L2 depend on the geometrical arrangement of
the circuit (i.e. number of turns in the coil) and the conductivity of the material. The
constant M, called the mutual inductance of the two circuits, is dependent on the
geometrical arrangement of both circuits. In particular, if the circuits are far apart, the
magnetic flux through circuit 2 due to the current i will be small and the mutual
inductance will be small. L and M are constants.
1

We can write the flux,

through circuit 2 as the sum of two parts.

B2

B1

= Li + iM
1 1

Though it is certainly not obvious, it can be shown that the mutual inductance is the same
for both circuits. Therefore, it can be written as follows:

2 2

An equation similar to the one above can be written for the flux through circuit 1.

= Li + iM

M =M
1,2

2,1

How is mutual induction used in eddy current inspection?

In eddy current inspection, the eddy currents are

generated in the test material due to mutual induction. The
test probe is basically a coil of wire through which
alternating current is passed. Therefore, when the probe is
connected to an eddyscope instrument, it is basically
represented by circuit 1 above. The second circuit can be
any piece of conductive material.

When alternating current is passed through the coil, a

magnetic field is generated in and around the coil. When
the probe is brought in close proximity to a conductive
material, such as aluminum, the probe's changing
magnetic field generates current flow in the material. The
induced current flows in closed loops in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They are named eddy currents because they are
thought to resemble the eddy currents that can be seen swirling in streams.

The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that interact with the primary
magnetic field of the coil. By measuring changes in the resistance and inductive reactance
of the coil, information can be gathered about the test material. This information includes
the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the material, the amount of
material cutting through the coils magnetic field, and the condition of the material (i.e.
whether it contains cracks or other defects.) The distance that the coil is from the
conductive material is called liftoff, and this distance affects the mutual-inductance of the
circuits. Liftoff can be used to make measurements of the thickness of nonconductive
coatings, such as paint, that hold the probe a certain distance from the surface of the
conductive material.

It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic, the

magnetic flux is concentrated and strengthened despite
opposing eddy current effects. The increase inductive
reactance due to the magnetic permeability of
ferromagnetic materials makes it easy to distinguish these
materials from nonferromagnetic materials.

In the applet below, the probe and the sample are shown in cross-section. The boxes
represent the cross-sectional area of a group of turns in the coil. The liftoff distance and
the drive current of the probe can be varied to see the effects of the shared magnetic field.

The liftoff value can be set to 0.1 or less and the current value can be varied from 0.01 to
1.0. The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the darkness of the lines.

In the circuit below, the resistive component has been replaced with an
inductor. When inductance is introduced into a circuit, the voltage and
the current will be "out-of-phase," meaning that the voltage and
current do not cross zero, or reach their peaks and valleys at the same
time. When a circuit has an inductive component, the current (i ) will
lag the voltage by one quarter of a cycle. One cycle is often referred to
as 360o, so it can be said that the current lags the voltage by 90o.
L

This phase shift occurs because the inductive reactance changes with
changing current. Recall that it is the changing magnetic field caused
by a changing current that produces inductive reactance. When the
change in current is greatest, inductive reactance will be the greatest,
and the voltage across the inductor will be the highest. When the
change in current is zero, the inductive reactance will be zero and the
voltage across the inductor will be zero. Be careful not to confuse the

amount of current with the amount of change in the current. Consider

the points where the current reaches it peak amplitude and changes
direction in the graph below (0o, 180o, and 360o). As the current is
changing directions, there is a split second when the change in
current is zero. Since the change in current is zero, no magnetic field
is generated to produce the inductive reactance. When the inductive
reactance is zero, the voltage across the inductor is zero.

The resistive and inductive components are of primary interest in eddy

current testing since the test probe is basically a coil of wire, which
will have both resistance and inductive reactance. However, there is a
small amount of capacitance in the circuits so a mention is appropriate.
This simple circuit below consists of an alternating current voltage
source and a capacitor. Capacitance in a circuit caused the current (i )
to lead the voltage by one quarter of a cycle (90o current lead).
c

Impedance
Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to alternating
current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may include resistance (R), inductive
reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC). However, the total impedance is not

simply the algebraic sum of the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance.
Since the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are 90o out of phase with the
resistance and, therefore, their maximum values occur at different times, vector addition
must be used to calculate impedance.
In the image below, a circuit diagram is shown that represents an eddy current inspection
system. The eddy current probe is a coil of wire so it contains resistance and inductive
reactance when driven by alternating current. The capacitive reactance can be dropped as
most eddy current probes have little capacitive reactance. The solid line in the graph
below shows the circuit's total current, which is affected by the total impedance of the
circuit. The two dashed lines represent the portion of the current that is affected by the
resistance and the inductive reactance components individually. It can be seen that the
resistance and the inductive reactance lines are 90o out of phase, so when combined to
produce the impedance line, the phase shift is somewhere between zero and 90o. The
phase shift is always relative to the resistance line since the resistance line is always inphase with the voltage. If more resistance than inductive reactance is present in the
circuit, the impedance line will move toward the resistance line and the phase shift will
decrease. If more inductive reactance is present in the circuit, the impedance line will
shift toward the inductive reactance line and the phase shift will increase.

The relationship between impedance and its individual components (resistance and
inductive reactance) can be represented using a vector as shown below. The amplitude of
the resistance component is shown by a vector along the x-axis and the amplitude of the
inductive reactance is shown by a vector along the y-axis. The amplitude of the the
impedance is shown by a vector that stretches from zero to a point that represents both
the resistance value in the x-direction and the inductive reactance in the y-direction. Eddy
current instruments with impedance plane displays present information in this format.

The impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance can be calculated
using the following equation. If capacitive reactance was present in the circuit, its value
would be added to the inductance term before squaring.

The phase angle of the circuit can also be calculated using some trigonometry. The phase
angle is equal to the ratio between the inductance and the resistance in the circuit. With
the probes and circuits used in nondestructive testing, capacitance can usually be ignored
so only inductive reactance needs to be accounted for in the calculation. The phase angle
can be calculated using the equation below. If capacitive reactance was present in the
circuit, its value would simply be subtracted from the inductive reactance term.

or

The applet below can be used to see how the variables in the above equation are related
on the the vector diagram (or the impedance plane display). Values can be entered into
the dialog boxes or the arrow head on the vector diagram can be dragged to a point
representing the desired values. Note that the capacitive reactance term has been included
in the applet but as mentioned before, in eddy current testing this value is small and can
be ignored.

Impedance and Ohm's Law

In previous pages, Ohm's Law was discussed for a purely resistive circuit. When there is
inductive reactance or capacitive reactance also present in the circuit, Ohm's Law must be
written to include the total impedance in the circuit. Therefore, Ohm's law becomes:
I=V/Z
Ohm's law now simply states that the current (I), in amperes, is proportional to the
voltage (V), in volts, divided by the impedance (Z), in ohms.
The applet below can be used to see how the current and voltage of a circuit are affected
by impedance. The applet allows the user to vary the inductance (L), resistance (R),
voltage (V) and current (I). Voltage and current are shown as they would be displayed on
an oscilloscope. Note that the resistance and/or the inductive reactance values must be
changed to change the impedance in the circuit.

Also note that when there is inductance in the circuit, the voltage and current are out of
phase. This is because the voltage across the inductor will be a maximum when the rate
of change of the current is greatest. For a sinusoidal wave form like AC, this is at the
point where the actual current is zero. Thus the voltage applied to an inductor reaches its
maximum value a quarter-cycle before the current does, and the voltage is said to lead the
current by 90o.
Depth of Penetration & Current Density
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to
the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited
to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate near the surface
adjacent to an excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from the coil as
shown in the image. Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This
phenomenon is known as the skin effect.
The skin effect arises when the eddy currents
flowing in the test object at any depth produce
magnetic fields which oppose the primary field,
thus reducing the net magnetic flux and causing a
decrease in current flow as the depth increases.
Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be
viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic field,
thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater
depths and reducing induced currents.
The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a
material is affected by the frequency of the excitation current and the electrical
conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen. The depth of penetration
decreases with increasing frequency and increasing conductivity and magnetic
permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37%
of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration (). The word 'standard'
denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample (conditions
which are rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one
standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of
penetration (2), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the
surface density. At three depths (3), the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the
surface density.

Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current density at
the defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy currents at this
location. When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the
expected flaw depth within one standard depth of penetration. This helps to assure that
the strength of the eddy currents will be sufficient to produce a flaw indication.
Alternately, when using eddy currents to measure the electrical conductivity of a material,
the frequency is often set so that it produces three standard depths of penetration within
the material. This helps to assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side
of the material that changes in the material thickness will not affect the eddy current
measurements.
The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semi-infinite
conductor. The applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of penetration. The
equation for this calculation is:

Where:
= Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
= 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
= Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
= Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)

(Note: The applet has an input box for relative permeability since this is often the more
readily available value. The applet multiplies the relative permeability of the material by
the permeability of free space to get to H/mm units.)

The applet also indicates graphically the phase lag at one and two standard depths of
penetration.
Phase Lag
Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain
information about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the shift in time
between the eddy current response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at
some distance below the surface. The generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a
time dependent process, meaning that the eddy currents below the surface take a little
longer to form than those at the surface. Disruptions in the eddy currents away from the
surface will produce more phase lag than disruptions near the surface. Both the signal
voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth, which is different from
the phase angle discussed earlier. (With the phase angle, the current shifted with respect
to the voltage.)
Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it possible to
estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper reference specimens, determine the rough
size of a defect. The signal produced by a flaw depends on both the amplitude and phase
of the eddy currents being disrupted. A small surface defect and large internal defect can
have a similar effect on the magnitude of impedance in a test coil. However, because of
the increasing phase lag with depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the test
coil impedance vector.
Phase lag can be calculated with the following equation. The phase lag angle calculated
with this equation is useful for estimating the subsurface depth of a discontinuity that is
concentrated at a specific depth. Discontinuities, such as a crack that spans many depths,
must be divided into sections along its length and a weighted average determined for
phase and amplitude at each position below the surface.
In
Radians

In
Degrees

Where:
=Phase Lag (Rad or Degrees)
x=Distance Below Surface (in or mm)
=Standard Depth of Penetration (in or mm)

At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is one radian or 57o. This means that
the eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration () below the surface, lag
the surface currents by 57o. At two standard depths of penetration (2), they lag the
surface currents by 114o. Therefore, by measuring the phase lag of a signal the depth of a
defect can be estimated.
On the impedance plane, the liftoff signal serves as the reference phase direction. The
angle between the liftoff and defect signals is about twice the phase lag calculated with
the above equation. As mentioned above, discontinuities that have a significant
dimension normal to the surface, will produce an angle that is based on the weighted
average of the disruption to the eddy currents at the various depths along its length.
In the applet below, the relationship between the depth and dimensions of a discontinuity
and the rotation produced on the impedance plane is explored. The red lines represent the
relative strength of the magnetic field from the coil and the dashed lines indicate the
phase lag of the eddy currents induced at a particular depth.

Resonant Circuits

Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range of frequencies that they are
designed to operated. When the probe is operated outside of this range, problems with
the data can occur. When a probe is operated at too high of a frequency, resonance can
occurs in the circuit. In a parallel circuit with resistance (R), inductance (XL) and
capacitance (XC), as the frequency increases XL decreases and XC increase. Resonance
occurs when XL and XC are equal but opposite in strength. At the resonant frequency, the

total impedance of the circuit appears to come only from resistance since XL and XC
cancel out. Every circuit containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant
frequency that is inversely proportional to the square root of the product of the
capacitance and inductance.

In eddy current probes and cables, it is commonly stated that capacitance is negligible.
However, even circuits not containing discreet components for resistance, capacitance,
and inductance can still exhibit their effects. When two conductors are placed side by
side, there is always some capacitance between them. Thus, when many turns of wire are
placed close together in a coil, a certain amount of stray capacitance is produced.
Additionally, the cable used to interconnect pieces of electronic equipment or equipment
to probes, often has some capacitance, as well as, inductance. This stray capacitance is
usually very small and in most cases has no significant effect. However, they are not
negligible in sensitive circuits and at high frequencies they become quite important.

The applet below represents an eddy current probe with a default resonant frequency of
about 1.0 kHz. An ideal probe might contain just the inductance, but a realistic probe has
some resistance and some capacitance. The applet initially shows a single cycle of the 1.0
kHz current passing through the inductor.

Exercise 1: Using your mouse, adjust the resistance by sliding the slide bar. Does the
frequency change?

Exercise 2: Note that changing the inductance and/or the capacitance changes the
resonant frequency of this resonant circuit. Can you find several combinations of
capacitance and inductance that resonate at 1.0 kHz?

Display - Analog Meter

Analog instruments are the simplest of the instruments available for eddy current
inspections. They are used for crack detection, corrosion inspection, or conductivity
testing. These types of instruments contain a simple bridge circuit, which compares a
balancing load to that measured on the test specimen. If any changes in the test specimen
occur which deviate from normal you
will see a movement on the
instruments meter.

Analog meters such as the

D'Arsonval design pictured in the
applet below, must "rectify" the AC
into DC. This is most easily
accomplished through the use of
devices called diodes. Without going
into elaborate detail over how and
why diodes work as they do,
remember that they each act like a one-way valve for electrons to flow. They act as a
conductor for one polarity and an insulator for another. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes
will serve to steer AC through the meter movement in a constant direction.

An analog meter can easily measure just a few microamperes of current and is well suited
for use in balancing bridges.

Exercise: Using the equations within the applet, calculate appropriate values for C and
R2 for a set of probe values. Then balance the bridge using your calculated values. The
analog meter should swing close to the left end if its scale indicates little or no current
across the bridge. Across the bridge should be minimized (straight line).

Probes - Mode of Operation

Eddy current probes are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes. In fact, one of the
major advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom designed for a
wide variety of applications. Eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and
mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to the
way the coil or coils are packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. An example
of different configurations of probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted into a
piece of pipe to inspect from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in which the coil or
coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the outside in. The mode of operation refers to the
way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the test equipment. The mode of
operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories: absolute, differential,
reflection and hybrid. Each of these
classifications will be discussed in more
detail below.

Absolute Probes

Absolute probes generally have a single

test coil that is used to generate the eddy
currents and sense changes in the eddy
current field. As discussed in the physics
section, AC is passed through the coil and this sets up an expanding and collapsing
magnetic field in and around the coil. When the probe is positioned next to a conductive
material, the changing magnetic field generates eddy currents within the material. The
generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this appears as an increase
in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy currents generate their own magnetic
field that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance
of the coil. By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much
information can be gained about the test material.

Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection,

conductivity measurements, liftoff measurements
and thickness measurements. They are widely
used due to their versatility. Since absolute probes
are sensitive to things such as conductivity,
permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be
taken to minimize these variables when they are
not important to the inspection being performed. It
is very common for commercially available

absolute probes to have a fixed "air loaded" reference coil that compensates for ambient
temperature variations.

Differential Probes

Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, although they
could be wound in addition with similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free
area of test sample, there is no differential signal developed between the coils since they
are both inspecting identical material. However, when one coil is over a defect and the
other is over good material, a differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of
being very sensitive to defects yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such
as gradual dimensional or temperature variations. Probe wobble signals are also reduced
with this probe type. There are also disadvantages to using differential probes. Most
notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret. For example, if a flaw is longer than the
spacing between the two coils, only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to
signal cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally.

Reflection Probes

Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is used to
excite the eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in the test material. Probes
of this arrangement are often referred to as driver/pickup probes. The advantage of
reflection probes is that the driver and pickup coils can be separately optimized for their
intended purpose. The driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and uniform flux
field in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while the pickup coil can be made very small so
that it will be sensitive to very small defects.

Some absolute and differential "transformer" type eddy current probes.

The through-transmission method is sometimes used when complete penetration of plates

and tube walls is required.

Hybrid Probes

An example of a hybrid probe is the split D, differential probe shown to the right. This
probe has a driver coil that surrounds two D shaped sensing coils. It operates in the
reflection mode but additionally, its sensing coils operate in the differential mode. This
type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks. Another example of a hybrid probe is
one that uses a conventional coil to generate eddy currents in the material but then uses a
different type of sensor to detect changes on the surface and within the test material. An
example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a Hall effect sensor to detect changes in the

magnetic flux leaking from the test surface. Hybrid probes are usually specially designed
for a specific inspection application.

Reference Standards
In eddy current testing, the use of reference standards in setting
up the equipment is particularly important since signals are
affected by many different variables and slight changes in
equipment setup can drastically alter the appearance of a signal.
As with most other NDT methods, the most useful information
is obtained when comparing the results from an unknown object
to results from a similar object with well characterized features and defects. In almost all cases,
eddy current inspection procedures require the equipment to be configured using reference
standards.
For crack detection, corrosion thinning and other material damage, reference standards are used
to setup the equipment to produce a recognizable signal or set of signals from a defect or set of
defects. In many cases, the appearance of a test signal can be related to the appearance of a signal
from a known defect on the reference standard to estimate the size of a defect in the test
component. Signals that vary significantly from the responses produced by the reference
standard must be further investigated to the determine the source of the signal.

The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If this is not possible or
practical, it should be of material that has the same electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability. Component features (material thickness, geometry, etc.) should be the same in the
reference standard as those in the test region of interest. If the reference standard is the type with
intentional defects, these defects should be as representative of actual defects in the test
component as possible. The closer the reference standard is to the actual test component, the

better. However, since cracks and corrosion damage are often difficult and costly to produce,
artificial defects are commonly used. Narrow notches produced with electron discharge
machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to represent cracks, and drilled holes are
often used to simulate corrosion pitting.
Common eddy current reference standards include:

Conductivity standards.

Flat plate discontinuity standards.

Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).

Tube discontinuity standards.

Tube metal thinning standards.

Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards.

Signal Filtering

Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted frequencies
from the receiver signal. While the correct filter settings can significantly improve the
visibility of a defect signal, incorrect settings can distort the signal presentation and even
eliminate the defect signal completely. Therefore, it is important to understand the
concept of signal filtering.

Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, is not directly related to the
probe drive frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a time versus signal
amplitude display. With this display mode, it is easy to see that the signal shape is
dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil is sensing something. For example,
if a surface probe is placed on the surface of conductor and rocked back and forth, it will
produce a wave like signal. When the probe is rocked fast, the signal will have a higher
frequency than when the probe is rocked slowly back and forth. The signal does not need
a wavelike appearance to have frequency content and most eddy current signals will be
composed of a large number of frequencies. Consider a probe that senses a notch for
1/60th of a second. In a period of one second the probe could (in theory) go over the
notch 60 times, resulting in the notch signal having a frequency of 60 Hz. But, imposed
on this same signal, could be the signal resulting from probe wobble, electronic noise, a
conductivity shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.

Filters Effects

The two standard filters found in most impedance

plane display instruments are the High Pass
Filter (HPF) and Low Pass Filter (LPF). Some
instruments also have aBand Pass Filter (BPF),
which is a combination high and low pass filter.
Filters are adjusted in Hertz (Hz).

The HPF allows high frequencies to pass and

filters out the low frequencies. The HPF is
basically filtering out changes in the signal that
occur over a significant period of time.

The LPF allows low frequency to pass and filters

out the high frequency. In other words, all
portions of the signal that change rapidly (have a
high slope) are filtered, such as electronic noise.

In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered out with a
HPF and then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a LPF to leave a clearly
visible flaw indication. It should also be noted that since flaw indication signals are
comprised of multiple frequencies, both filters have a tendency to reduce the indication
signal strength. Additionally, scan speed must be controlled when using filters. Scan over
a flaw too slow and the HPF might filter out the flaw indication. Scan over the flaw too
fast and the LPF might eliminate the flaw indication.

Filter Settings

If the spectrum of the signal frequency

and the signal amplitude or attenuation
are plotted, the filter responses can be
illustrated in graphical form. The image
to the right shows the response of a LPF
of 20Hz and a HPF of 40Hz. The LPF
allows only the frequencies in yellow to
pass and the HPF only allow those
frequencies in the blue area to pass.
Therefore, it can be seen that with these
settings there are no frequencies that pass (i.e. the frequencies passed by the LPF are
filtered out by the HPF and visa versa).

To create a window of acceptance for the signals, the filters need to overlap. In the image
to the right, the LPF has been adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to 10Hz. The area shown in
gray is where the two frequencies overlap and the signal is passed. A signal of 30Hz will
get through at full amplitude, while a signal of 15Hz will be attenuated by approximately
50%. All frequencies above or below the gray area (the pass band) will be rejected by one
of the two filters.

Use of Filters

The main function of the LPF is to

remove high frequency interference
noise. This noise can come from a variety
of sources including the instrumentation
and/or the probe itself. The noise appears
as an unstable dot that produces jagged
lines on the display as seen in the signal
from a surface notch shown in the left
image below. Lowering the LPF
frequency will remove more of the higher frequencies from the signal and produce a
cleaner signal as shown in the center image below. When using a LPF, it should be set to
the highest frequency that produces a usable signal. To reduce noise in large surface or
ring probes, it may be necessary to use a very low LPF setting (down to 10Hz). The
lower the LPF setting, the slower the scanning speed must be and the more closely it
must be controlled. The image on the right below shows a signal that has been clipped
due to using a scan speed too fast for the selected HPF setting.

The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow changes, such
as conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an edge while scanning
parallel to it, or out-of-round holes in fastener hole inspection. The HPF is useful when
performing automated or semiautomatic scans to keep the signal from wandering too far
from the null (balance) point. The most common application for the HPF is the inspection

of fastener holes using a rotating scanner. As the scanner rotates at a constant RPM, the
HPF can be adjusted to achieve the desired effect.

Use of the HPF when scanning manually is not recommended, as keeping a constant
scanning speed is difficult, and the signal deforms and amplitude decreases. The size of a
signal decreases as the scan speed decreases and a flaw indication can be eliminated
completely if the scan is not done with sufficient speed. In the images below, it can be
seen that a typical response from a surface notch in aluminum without HPF (left image)
looks considerably different when the HPF is activated (right image). With the HPF,
looping signals with a positive and similar negative deflection are produced on the
impedance plane.

The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manually scanning,
provided the operator can largely control the scan speed and becomes familiar with the
indication signal changes as scan speed is varied slightly. An good example of such an
application would be the manual scan of the radius of a wheel that is rotated by hand, but
the speed of rotation can be kept relatively constant.

Surface Breaking Cracks

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of applications such as the detection of cracks
(discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness, detection of metal thinning due to corrosion
and erosion, determination of coating thickness, and the measurement of electrical conductivity
and magnetic permeability. Eddy current inspection is an excellent method for detecting surface
and near surface defects when the probable defect location and orientation is well known.

Defects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt the path
of eddy currents and weaken their strength. The images to the
right show an eddy current surface probe on the surface of a
conductive component. The strength of the eddy currents under
the coil of the probe ins indicated by color. In the lower image,
there is a flaw under the right side of the coil and it can be see
that the eddy currents are weaker in this area.
Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface finish
and condition of the material, the design of the probe, and many
other factors can affect the sensitivity of the inspection.
Successful detection of surface breaking and near surface cracks
requires:
1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and
orientation.
2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the part and the coil
must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the frequency should
be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high sensitivity. For subsurface flaws,
lower frequencies are necessary to get the required depth of penetration and this results in
less sensitivity. Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even
lower frequency may be required.
4. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance that will occur as the probe moves
over a discontinuity.
The applet below depicts a simple eddy current probe near the surface of a calibration specimen.
Move the probe over the surface of the specimen and compare the signal responses from a
surface breaking crack with the signals from the calibration notches. The inspection can be made
at a couple of different frequencies to get a feel for the effect that frequency has on sensitivity in
this application.

Surface Crack Detection Using Sliding Probes

Many commercial aircraft applications involve the use of multiple fasteners to connect the multilayer skins. Because of the fatigue stress that is caused by the typical application of any
commercial aircraft, fatigue cracks can be induced in the vicinity of the fastener holes. In order
to inspect the fastener holes in an adequate amount of time, sliding probes are an efficient
method of inspection.
Sliding probes have been named so because they move over fasteners in a sliding motion. There
are two types of sliding probes, fixed and adjustable, which are usually operated in the reflection

mode. This means that the eddy currents are induced by the driver coil and detected by a separate
receiving coil.
Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of fastener holes. They are
capable of detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities, but they can only detect defects in
one direction. The probes are marked with a detection line to indicate the direction of inspection.
In order to make a complete inspection there must be two scans that are orthogonal (90 degrees)
to each other.
Probe Types
Fixed Sliding Probes
These probes are generally used for thinner material compared to the adjustable probes.
Maximum penetration is about 1/8 inch. Fixed sliding probes are particularly well suited for
finding longitudinal surface or subsurface cracks such as those found in lap joints. Typical
frequency range is from 100 Hz to 100 kHz.
Adjustable Sliding Probes
These probes are well suited for finding subsurface cracks in thick multi-layer structures, like
wing skins. Maximum penetration is about 3/4 inch. The frequency range for adjustable sliding
probes is from 100 Hz to 40 kHz.
Adjustable probes, as the name implies, are adjustable with the use of
spacers, which will change the penetration capabilities. The spacer
thickness between the coils is normally adjusted for the best detection.
For tangential scans or 90 degree scanning with an offset from the
center, a thinner spacer is often used.
The spacer thickness range can vary from 0 (no spacer) for inspections close to the surface and
small fastener heads to a maximum of about 0.3 inch for deep penetration with large heads in the
bigger probe types. A wider spacer will give more tolerance to probe deviation as the sensitive
area becomes wider but the instrument will require more gain. Sliding probes usually penetrate
thicker materials compared to the donut probes.
Reference Standards
Reference/calibration standards for setup of sliding probes
typically consist of three or four aluminum plates that are
fastened together within a lap joint type configuration. EDM
notches or naturally/artificially- induced cracks are located in
the second or third layer of the standard.

Reference standards used should be manufactured from the same material type, alloy, material
thickness, and chemical composition that will be found on the aircraft component to be
inspected. Sizes and tolerances of flaws introduced in the standards are usually regulated by
inspection specifications.
Inspection Variables
Liftoff Signal Adjustment
Liftoff is normally adjusted to be relatively horizontal. The term "relatively horizontal" is used
here because the liftoff signal often appears a curved line rather than a straight line. Sometimes
liftoff can be a sharp curve and may need to be adjusted to run slightly upwards before moving
downwards. See Figures 1 and 2.
Scan Patterns
A typical scan is centralized over the fastener head and moves along the axis of the fastener
holes. This scan is generally used to detect cracks positioned along the axis of the fastener holes.
For detecting cracks located transverse or 90 degrees from the axis of the fastener holes, a scan
that is 90 degrees from the axis of the fastener holes is recommended.
Signal Interpretation
When the probe moves over a fastener hole with a crack, the indication changes and typically
will create a larger vertical movement. The vertical amplitude of the loop depends on the crack
length, with longer cracks giving higher indications.
If the crack is in the far side of the fastener, as the probe moves over it, the dot will follow the
fastener line first but will move upwards (clockwise) as it goes over the crack. If the crack is in
the near side, it will be found first and the dot will move along the crack level before coming
down to the fastener level.

If two cracks on opposite sides of the fastener hole are present, the dot will move upwards to the
height by the first crack length and then come back to the fastener line and balance point. If the
second crack is longer than the first one, the dot will move even higher and complete the loop
(clockwise) before going down to the balance point. See Figures 3 and 4.
Probe Scan Deviation
Most probes are designed to give a narrow indication for a good fastener hole so that the loops
from the cracks are more noticeable. Some probes and structures can give wider indications and
a similar result can be obtained if the probe is not straight when it approaches the fastener. It is
important to keep the probe centralized over the fastener heads. Doing this will give you a
maximum indication for the fastener and a crack.
If the probe deviates from the center line, the crack indication will move along the loop that we
saw in Figure 5 and is now present in Figure 6. The crack indication is at "a" when the probe is
centralized and moves toward "b" as it deviates in one direction, or "c" as it deviates in the
opposite direction. Point "b" gives an important indication even if it loses a small amount of
amplitude it has gained in phase, giving a better separation angle. This is because we deviated to
the side where the crack is located.
Crack Angle Deviation
A reduction in the crack indication occurs when the crack is at an angle to the probe scan
direction. This happens if the crack is not completely at 90 degrees to the normal probe scan or
changes direction as it grows. Both the fixed and adjustable sliding probes are capable of
detecting cracks up to about 30 degrees off angle. See Figures 7 and 8.
Electrical Contact
When inspecting fasteners that have just been installed or reference standards that have intimate
contact with the aluminum skin plate, it is not unusual to obtain a smaller than normal indication.
In some extreme cases, the fastener indication may disappear almost completely. This is due to
the good electrical contact between the fastener and the skin. This condition allows the eddy
currents to circulate without encountering a boundary, and therefore, no obstacle or barrier.
Because of this effect, it is recommended to paint the holes before fastener installation.

Tube Inspection
Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion, cracking and other changes in
tubing. Heat exchangers and steam generators, which are used in power plants, have thousands
of tubes that must be prevented from leaking. This is especially important in nuclear power
plants where reused, contaminated water must be prevented from mixing with fresh water that
will be returned to the environment. The contaminated water flows on one side of the tube
(inside or outside) and the fresh water flows on the other side. The heat is transferred from the
contaminated water to the fresh water and the fresh water is then returned back to is source,
which is usually a lake or river. It is very important to keep the two water sources from mixing,
so power plants are periodically shutdown so the tubes and other equipment can be inspected and
repaired. The eddy current test method and the related remote field testing method provide highspeed inspection techniques for these applications.
A technique that is often used involves feeding a differential bobbin
probe into the individual tube of the heat exchanger. With the
differential probe, no signal will be seen on the eddy current instrument
as long as no metal thinning is present. When metal thinning is present,
a loop will be seen on the impedance plane as one coil of the differential
probe passes over the flawed area and a second loop will be produced
when the second coil passes over the damage. When the corrosion is on
the outside surface of the tube, the depth of corrosion is indicated by a
shift in the phase lag. The size of the indication provides an indication
of the total extent of the
corrosion damage.
A tube inspection using
a bobbin probe is
simulated below. Click
the "null" button and
then drag either the
absolute or the
differential probe
through the tube. Note
the different signal
responses provided by
the two probes. Also
note that the absolute
probe is much more sensitive to dings and the build up of magnetite on the outside of the tube
than the differential probe is.

Conductivity Measurements
One of the uses of eddy current instruments is for the measurement of electrical conductivity.
The value of the electrical conductivity of a metal depends on several factors, such as its
chemical composition and the stress state of its crystalline structure. Therefore, electrical
conductivity information can be used for sorting metals, checking for proper heat treatment, and
inspecting for heat damage.
The technique usually involves nulling an absolute
probe in air and placing the probe in contact with the
sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the change
in impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to
the conductivity of the material. The technique can be
used to easily sort magnetic materials from
nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the
conductivity effects from the magnetic permeability
effects, so conductivity measurements are limited to nonmagnetic materials. It is important to

control factors that can affect the results such as the inspection temperature and the part
geometry. Conductivity changes with temperature so measurements should be made at a constant
temperature and adjustments made for temperature variations when necessary. The thickness of
the specimen should generally be greater than three standard depths of penetration. This is so the
eddy currents at the back surface of the sample are sufficiently weaker than the variations in the
specimen thickness that are not seen in the measurements.
Generally large pancake type, surface probes are used to get a value for a relatively large sample
area. The instrument is usually setup such that a ferromagnetic material produces a response that
is nearly vertical. Then, all conductive but nonmagnetic materials will produce a trace that moves
down and to the right as the probe is moved toward the surface. Think back to the discussion on
the impedance plane and these type of responses make sense. Remember that inductive reactance
changes are plotted along the y-axis and resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis. Since
ferromagnetic materials will concentrate the magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive
reactance of the coil will increase. The effects on the signal from the magnetic permeability
overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much stronger.
When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the coil's inductive
reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy currents opposes the magnetic field
of the coil. The resistance in the coil increases since it takes some of the coil's energy to generate
the eddy currents and this appears as additional resistance in the circuit. As the conductivity of
the materials being tested increases, the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance
changes will be greater. Therefore, the signals will be come more vertical as the conductivity
increases, as shown in the image above.
To sort materials using an impedance plane device, the signal from the unknown sample must be
compared to a signal from a variety of reference standards. However, there are devices available
that can be calibrated to produce a value for electrical conductivity which can then be compared
to published values of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent IACS (International Annealed
Copper Standard). Please be aware that the conductivity of a particular material can vary
significantly with slight variations in the chemical composition and, thus, a conductivity range is
generally provided for a material. The conductivity range for one material may overlap with the
range of a second material of interest, so conductivity alone can not always be used to sort
materials. The electrical conductivity values for a variety of materials can be found in the
material properties reference tables.
The following applet is based on codes for nonferrous materials written by Back Blitz from his
book, "Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing", 2nd ed., Chapman & Hill
(1997). The applet demonstrates how an impedance plane eddy current instrument can be used
for the sorting of materials.

Conductivity Measurements
for the Verification of Heat Treatment
With some materials, such as solution heat treatable aluminum alloys, conductivity
measurements are often made verifying that parts and materials have received the proper heat
treatment. High purity aluminum is soft and ductile, and gains strength and hardness with the
addition of alloying elements. A few such aluminum alloys are the 2000 series (2014, 2024, etc.),
6000 series (6061, 6063, etc.), and 7000 series (7050, 7075, etc.). The 2xxx series aluminum
alloys have copper, the 6xxx series have magnesium, and the 7xxx have zinc as their major
alloying elements.
Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is accomplished in
two phases - solution heat treatment and then aging. In the
solution heat treatment step, the alloys are heated to an
elevated temperature to dissolve the alloying elements
into solution. The metal is then rapidly cooled or
quenched to freeze the atoms of the alloying elements
in the lattice structure of the aluminum. This distorts and
stresses the structure, making electron movement more
difficult, thereby decreasing the electrical conductivity. In
this condition, the alloys are still relatively soft but start to gain strength as the alloying elements
begin to precipitate out of solution to form extremely small particles that impede the movement
of dislocations within the material. The formation of the precipitates can be controlled for many
alloys by heating and holding the material at an elevated temperature for a period of time
(artificial aging). As the alloying elements precipitate out of solid solution, the conductivity of
the material gradually increases. By controlling the amount of precipitated particles within the
aluminum, the properties can be controlled to produce peak strength or some combinations of
strength and corrosion resistance. Sometimes, the material must be annealed or put into the
softest, most ductile condition possible in order to perform forming operations. Annealing allows
all of the alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to form a coarse, widely spaced
precipitate. The electrical conductivity is greatest when the material is in the annealed condition.
Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components can be made using less
material. A lighter or more compact design is often of great importance to the designer and well
worth the cost of the heat treating process. However, think of the consequences that could arise if

a component that was supposed to be solution heat-treated and aged somehow left the
manufacturing facility and was put into service unheat-treated or annealed. This is a real
possibility since heat-treated aluminum parts look exactly like unheat-treated parts. Consider
2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile properties and its electrical conductivity for various
heat treatment conditions are given in the following table.
Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum
Heat Treatment Condition

Ultimate Strength Yield Strength

Electrical Conductivity

Annealed (O)

26 ksi (180 MPa)

11 ksi (75 MPa)

50 % IACS

Solution Heat Treated and

Naturally Aged (T42)

64 ksi (440 MPa)

42 ksi (290 MPa)

30 % IACS

Solution Heat Treated,

Coldworked and Artificially 70 ksi (485 MPa)
Aged (T861)

66 ksi (455 MPa)

38 % IACS

It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilopounds/square inch (ksi) (290
MPa) in the solution heat-treated and naturally aged condition (T42 condition). The yield
strength can be increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa) when coldworked and artificially aged (T861
condition). But in the annealed condition, the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi (75 MPa). If an
annealed part were accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it would
likely fail prematurely. However, a quick check of the conductivity using an eddy current
instrument of all parts prior to shipping would prevent this from occurring.

Thickness Measurements of Thin Material

Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a number of dimensional measurements. The
ability to make rapid measurements without the need for couplant or, in some cases even surface
contact, makes eddy current techniques very useful. The type of measurements that can be made
include:

thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of

metallic coatings on metallic and nonmetallic
substrate

cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes

and rods

thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic

substrates

Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins

One application where the eddy current technique is commonly used to measure material
thickness is in the detection and characterization of corrosion damage on the skins of aircraft.
Eddy current techniques can be used to do spot checks or scanners can be used to inspect small
areas. Eddy current inspection has an advantage over ultrasound in this application because no
mechanical coupling is required to get the energy into the structure. Therefore, in multi-layered
areas of the structure like lap splices, eddy current can often determine if corrosion thinning is
present in buried layers.
Eddy current inspection has an advantage over radiography for
this application because only single sided access is required to
perform the inspection. To get a piece of film on the back side
of the aircraft skin might require removing interior furnishings,
panels, and insulation which could be very costly. Advanced
eddy current techniques are being developed that can determine
thickness changes down to about three percent of the skin
thickness.
Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Sheet, Strip
and Foil
Eddy current techniques are used to measure the thickness of
hot sheet, strip and foil in rolling mills, and to measure the
amount of metal thinning that has occurred over time due to
corrosion on fuselage skins of aircraft. On the impedance
plane, thickness variations exhibit the same type of eddy
current signal response as a subsurface defect, except that the signal represents a void of infinite

size and depth. The phase rotation pattern is the same, but the signal amplitude is greater. In the
applet, the lift-off curves for different areas of the taper wedge can be produced by nulling the
probe in air and touching it to the surface at various locations of the tapered wedge. If a line is
drawn between the end points of the lift-off curves, a comma shaped curve is produced. As
illustrated in the second applet, this comma shaped curve is the path that is traced on the screen
when the probe is scanned down the length of the tapered wedge so that the entire range of
thickness values are measured.

When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth of penetration of
the eddy currents must cover the entire range of thicknesses being measured. Typically, a
frequency is selected that produces about one standard depth of penetration at the maximum
thickness. Unfortunately, at lower frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary
penetration, the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity. Thus,
the effects of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is important to verify that any
variations of conductivity over the region of interest are at a sufficiently low level.
Measurement of Cross-sectional Dimensions of Cylindrical Tubes and Rods
Dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods can be measured with either OD coils or internal axial
coils, whichever is appropriate. The relationship between change in impedance and change in
diameter is fairly constant, except at very low frequencies. However, the advantages of operating
at a higher normalized frequency are twofold. First, the contribution of any conductivity change
to the impedance of the coil becomes less important and it can easily be phased out. Second,
there is an increase in measurement sensitivity resulting from the higher value of the inductive
component of the impedance. Because of the large phase difference between the impedance
vectors corresponding to changes in fill-factor and conductivity (and defect size), simultaneous
testing for dimensions, conductivity, and defects can be carried out.

Typical applications include measuring eccentricities of the diameters of tubes and rods and the
thickness of tube walls. Long tubes are often tested by passing them at a constant speed through
encircling coils (generally differential) and providing a close fit to achieve as high a fill-factor as
possible.
An important application of tube-wall thickness measurement is the detection and assessment of
corrosion, both external and internal. Internal probes must be used when the external surface is
not accessible, such as when testing pipes that are buried or supported by brackets. Success has
been achieved in measuring thickness variations in ferromagnetic metal pipes with the remote
field technique.
Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Layers
It is also possible to measure the thickness of a thin layer of metal on a metallic substrate,
provided the two metals have widely differing electrical conductivities (i.e. silver on lead where
= 67 and 10 MS/m, respectively). A frequency must be selected such that there is complete
eddy current penetration of the layer, but not of the substrate itself. The method has also been
used successfully for measuring thickness of very thin protective coatings of ferromagnetic
metals (i.e. chromium and nickel) on non-ferromagnetic metal bases.
Depending on the required degree of penetration, measurements can be made using a single-coil
probe or a transformer probe, preferably reflection type. Small-diameter probe coils are usually
preferred since they can provide very high sensitivity and minimize effects related to property or
thickness variations in the underlying base metal when used in combination with suitably high
test frequencies. The goal is to confine the magnetizing field, and the resulting eddy current
distribution, to just beyond the thin coating layer and to minimize the field within the base metals

Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on

Conductive Materials
The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from the
effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use for measuring thickness of paint
and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the conductive
surface. As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy
current field strength decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with the
base metal. Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 m can be measured to an accuracy between 10%
for lower values and 4% for higher values. Contributions to impedance changes due to
conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is known that conductivity variations are
negligible, as normally found at higher frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw detector and a
calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction of the lift-off signal is
established. The location of the signal is marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the
calibration specimen in areas of decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the
test surface, the position of the signal will move from the air null position to a point that can be
correlated to the calibration markings.

Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and are often pocket-sized
with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are usually operated by a small battery and
provide a digital read-out in the appropriate units. Calibration adjustments, some of which are
laid down by standards such as BS EN 2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376, may be
assisted by the use of an inbuilt microprocessor.

Scanning
Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to improve the quality of
the measurements and to construct images of scanned areas. The most common type of scanning
is line scanning where an automated system is used to push the probe at a fixed speed. Line scan
systems are often used when performing tube inspections or aircraft engine blade slot
inspections, where scanning in one dimension is needed. The data is usually presented as a strip
chart recording. The advantage of using a linear scanning system is that the probe is moved at a
constant speed, so indications on the strip chart can be correlated to a position on the part being
scanned. As with all automated scanning systems, operator variables, such as wobble of the
probe, are reduced.

Two-dimensional scanning systems are used to scan a two-dimensional area. This could be a
scanning system that scans over a relatively flat area in a X-Y raster mode, or it could be a bolt
hole inspection system that rotates the probe as it is moved into the hole. The data is typically
displayed as a false-color plot of signal strength or phase angle shift as a function of position,
just like an ultrasonic C-scan presentation. Shown below is a portable scanning system that is
designed to work on the skins of aircraft fuselage and wing sections.
Listed below are some automated scanning advantages:

minimizes changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting

from probe wobble, uneven surfaces, and
eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture
or damage

accurate indexing

repeatability

high resolution mapping

Multiple Frequency Techniques

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at several different
frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data in some way.
Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information
The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:

variations in operating frequency

variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a object or

structure, caused by structural changes such as grain structure, work hardening, heat
treatment, etc.

changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces, and
eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or damage

the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects such as voids and
nonmetallic inclusions

dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion, deposition of
metal deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting

the presence of supports, walls, and brackets

the presence of discontinuities such as edges

Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case where interest is
confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in geometry, a differential probe can be
used to eliminate unwanted factors, providing they vary in a gradual manner. For example,
variations in electrical conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a differential probe
simultaneously. However, if unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are affecting the
measurements, they can sometimes be negated by mixing signals collected at several
frequencies.
An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in heat exchanger tube
inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a collection of tubing that have support
brackets on the outside. When attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the
signal from the mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collecting a signal at the frequency
necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a second signal collected at a
lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to the bracket but less sensitive to features in the
tubing), the effects of the bracket can be reduced.
There are a number of commercially available multi-frequency eddy current instruments. Most
operate at only two frequencies at a time but some units can collect data at up to four frequencies
simultaneously. Multi-frequency measurements can also be made using an impedance analyzer
but this equipment is generally not suitable for field measurements. A typical impedance analyzer
system is shown below. The interest in pulsed eddy current instruments is largely due to their
ability to, in essence, perform multi-frequency measurements very quickly and easily.

Swept Frequency
Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data at a wide range of
frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialized piece of equipment such as an
impedance analyzer, which can be configured to automatically make measurements over a range
of frequencies. The swept-frequency technique can be implemented with commercial equipment
but it is a difficult and time-consuming measurement. The advantage of a swept frequency

measurement is that depth information can be obtained since eddy current depth of penetration
varies as a function of frequency.
Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring the thickness of
conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating between flaws in surface coatings
and flaws in the base metal and differentiating between flaws in various layers of built-up
structure. An example application would be the lap splice of a commercial aircraft. Swept
frequency measurements would make it possible to tell if cracking was occurring on the outer
skin, the inner skin or a double layer. Below is an example of the type of data that can be
obtained from swept-frequency measurements.

Data from swept-frequency measurements on two heats of material.

It can be seen that in the etched condition, the material labeled "good" exhibits a much different
signal response than the material labeled "bad." It can also be seen that a frequency of around 2.2
MHz provides the largest separation in the curves. Therefore, this frequency should be used if a
single frequency is used to sort the parts made from the two metals.

Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection

Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating electrical current of a
particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy current technique uses a step function
voltage to excite the probe. The advantage of using a step function voltage is that it contains a
continuum of frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to several different
frequencies can be measured with just a single step. Since the depth of penetration is dependent
on the frequency of excitation, information from a range of depths can be obtained all at once. If
measurements are made in the time domain (that is by looking at signal strength as a function of
time), indications produced by flaws or other features near the inspection coil will be seen first
and more distant features will be seen later in time.
To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is usually
collected, to which all other signals are compared (just like nulling the probe in conventional
eddy current inspection). Flaws, conductivity, and dimensional changes produce a change in the
signal and a difference between the reference signal and the measurement signal that is
displayed. The distance of the flaw and other features relative to the probe will cause the signal
to shift in time. Therefore, time gating techniques (like in ultrasonic inspection) can be used to
gain information about the depth of a feature of interest.

Additional Background Information on Pulsed Eddy Current Techniques

Remote Field Sensing

Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes where external access is not possible (e.g.
buried pipelines), is conducted using internal probes. When testing thick-walled ferromagnetic
metal pipes with conventional internal probes, very low frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel pipe
10 mm thick) are necessary to achieve the through-penetration of the eddy currents. This
situation produces a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can, in

principle, be increased by the application of a saturation magnetic field. However, because of the
large volume of metal present, a large saturation unit carrying a heavy direct current may be
required to produce an adequate saturating field.
The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be greatly
alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current method. This method provides
measurable through penetration of the walls at three times the maximum frequency possible with
the conventional direct field method. This technique was introduced by Schmidt in 1958.
Although it has been used by the petroleum industry for detecting corrosion in their installations
since the early 1960s, it has only recently evoked general interest. This interest is largely because
the method is highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness, but relatively insensitive to fillfactor changes. The method has the added advantage of allowing equal sensitivities of detection
at both the inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. It cannot, however, differentiate
between signals from these respective surfaces.

For more information on Remote Field Testing can be found in the Specialized NDT Methods
section of this site.

EC Standards and Methods

STANDARDS
British Standards (BS) and American Standards (ASTM) relating to magnetic flux leakage and
eddy current methods of testing are given below. National standards are currently being
harmonized across the whole of Europe, and British Standards are no exception. Harmonized
standards will eventually be identified by the initials BS EN; for example, BS 5411 has been
revised and is now known as BS EN 2360. Harmonization is unlikely to be completed before
2001. The year of updating a British Standard is given in brackets. ASTM standards are
published annually and updated when necessary.
FLUX LEAKAGE METHODS (INCLUDING MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION)
British Standards (BS)

BS 6072:1981 (1986) Magnetic particle flaw detection

BS 4489:1984 Black light measurement
BS 5044:1973 (1987) Contrast aid paints
BS 5138:1974 (1988) Forged and stamped crankshafts
BS 3683 (part 2):1985 Glossary
BS 4069:1982 Inks and powders
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM E 709 Magnetic particle inspection practice
ASTM E 125 Indications in ferrous castings
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms
ASTM E 570 Flux leakage examination of ferromagnetic steel tubular products
EDDY CURRENT METHODS
British Standards (BS)
BS 3683 (part 5):1965 (1989) Eddy current flaw detection glossary
BS 3889 (part 2A): 1986 (1991) Automatic eddy current testing of wrought steel tubes
BS 3889 (part 213): 1966 (1987) Eddy current testing of nonferrous tubes
BS 5411 (part 3):1984 Eddy current methods for measurement of coating thickness of
nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base material. Withdrawn: now known as BS EN 2360
(1995).
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM A 450/A450M General requirements for carbon, ferritic alloys and austenitic alloy steel
tubes
ASTM B 244 Method for measurement of thickness of anodic coatings of aluminum and other
nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base materials with eddy current instruments
ASTM B 659 Recommended practice for measurement of thickness of metallic coatings on
nonmetallic substrates
ASTM E 215 Standardizing equipment for electromagnetic testing of seamless aluminum alloy
tube
ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless copper and copper alloy tubes
ASTM E 309 Eddy current examination of steel tubular products using magnetic saturation
ASTM E 376 Measuring coating thickness by magnetic field or eddy current (electromagnetic)
test methods
ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless and welded tubular products
austenitic stainless steel and similar alloys

ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of ferrous metals

ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nickel and nickel alloy tubular
products
ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nonmagnetic heat-exchanger
tubes
ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of nonferrous metals
ASTM E 1004 Electromagnetic (eddy current) measurements of electrical conductivity
ASTM E 1033 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of type F continuously welded (CW)
ferromagnetic pipe and tubing above the Curie temperature
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms relating to electromagnetic testing
ASTM G 46 Recommended practice for examination and evaluation of pitting corrosion