A+ Notes

Version 3
Updated 01/01/2015
CompTIA A+ Certification
220-801 Exam Notes
Features all exam -relevan t informa tio n fro m the Profes so r Mess er videos , th e M ike M eyer s C omp TIA A +
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Contents
HARDWARE..................................................................................................................................... 3
BIOS............................................................................................................................................. 3
Motherboards............................................................................................................................... 4
Form Factors............................................................................................................................. 4
Power Supplies.......................................................................................................................... 5
Expansion Slots......................................................................................................................... 6
Busses & Chipsets.................................................................................................................... 8
CPU.............................................................................................................................................. 9
Types and Sockets.................................................................................................................... 9
CPU Operation........................................................................................................................ 12
RAM............................................................................................................................................ 13
Storage Devices......................................................................................................................... 16
Hard Disk Drive Operation...................................................................................................... 16
PATA Drives............................................................................................................................. 17
SATA Drives............................................................................................................................. 18
SCSI Drives............................................................................................................................. 19
Implementing RAID................................................................................................................. 20
Optical Formats....................................................................................................................... 21
Flash Memory......................................................................................................................... 22
External Connection Types......................................................................................................... 23
Designing Custom Computer Systems....................................................................................... 25
Display Devices and Connections.............................................................................................. 25
Display Devices...................................................................................................................... 25
Display Connectors................................................................................................................. 28
Computer Peripherals................................................................................................................ 29
NETWORKING................................................................................................................................ 31
Network Connectors & Cabling.................................................................................................. 31
TCP/IP......................................................................................................................................... 34
IP............................................................................................................................................. 35
TCP............................................................................................................................................. 38
Wireless Networking.................................................................................................................. 40
Wireless Standards................................................................................................................. 40
SOHO Configurations.............................................................................................................. 42
Internet Connection Types......................................................................................................... 43
Network Types and Topologies................................................................................................... 45
Network Devices........................................................................................................................ 46
Networking Tools........................................................................................................................ 48
LAPTOPS....................................................................................................................................... 49
Laptop Expansion Options......................................................................................................... 49
Laptop Features......................................................................................................................... 50
Laptop Displays......................................................................................................................... 51
PRINTERS...................................................................................................................................... 52
Laser Printers............................................................................................................................. 52
Inkjet Printers............................................................................................................................. 54
Thermal Printers........................................................................................................................ 54
Impact Printers........................................................................................................................... 55
Installing and Configuring Printers............................................................................................. 56
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES......................................................................................................... 57
Computer Safety Procedures..................................................................................................... 57
Environmental Controls.............................................................................................................. 57
Communication and Professionalism......................................................................................... 58
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HARDWARE
BIOS
BIOS (Basic Input/Output Services)

o Lets the CPU understand the codebook for an attached device in order to
communicate with it
o Usually 2MB in size
Option ROM = BIOS information stored on outside devices that are not
part of the system BIOS. Usually it is a chip on a piece of hardware.
Device drivers have largely replaced the Option ROM, with the exception
of video cards
o Virtual machines are controlled by the BIOS
o The RTC (Real Time Clock) is a chip that stores BIOS clock information
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor)
o Chip that stores system settings
o Battery is known as the clock battery
o Now built into the Southbridge
o Resetting is useful for hardware compatibility issues
Additionally, using a jumper or choosing the default configuration option in
the setup utility will reset the BIOS
o To overclock a CPU in CMOS setup utility, go to the CPUID value under
Performance
Alternatively, some BIOS software offers M.I.T (MB Intelligent Tweaker)
that is used to overclock on some systems
o Disable writing to boot sector to prevent certain viruses from writing to it
POST (Power On Self-test)
o In POST:
1. BIOS is initialized and checked
2. CPU registers are verified
3. Size of RAM, and its integrity are checked
4. System devices are checked and initialized
5. Boot device with highest priority is selected and MBR is executed
o POST card is needed if BIOS POST doesnt work
TPM (Trusted Platform Module)
o Used for cryptographic acceleration (i.e. BitLocker Drive Encryption)
DRM (Digital Rights Management) for network access and control
ACPI Power States
o Full On = no power management
o ACPI Enabled = only the unused devices are shut down
o ACPI Standby = CPU is stopped
o ACPI Suspend = Hibernation mode
o GO (SO) = working state
o G1 (Sleeping state mode)
S1: computer is on, monitor is blank
S2: computer is on, processor is off
S3: computer is off, RAM is on (sleep mode)
S4: RAM contents are copied to hard drive, then computer is turned off
o G2 (Soft power mode)
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G3 (Mechanical off mode)
Motherboards
Form Factors
AT
o 12 x 13
o Original motherboard, used throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s
o Only had a keyboard connector
o P8/P4 split power socket
o Includes Baby AT (BAT)
LPX (Low Profile Extended)
NLX
o Goes into a riser card
o Low end systems
o 8 x 10 to 9 x 13.6
o Largely replaced by microATX
ATX (Advanced Technology Extended)
o Improved cooling by placing the CPU and memory in-line with the PSU fan
o Standard ATX
12 x 9.6
20 or 24 pin power connector (24 pin for more graphics/high end
processing)
Maximum of seven expansion slots
o microATX
6.75 x 6.75 to 9.6 x 9.6
Limited expansion slots
4 DIMM slots
Backwards compatible
Can possibly be used for an HTPC, but Mini-ITX is better due to low
power requirements
o Mini-ATX = 5.9 x 5.9
o FlexATX
For customized systems
9 x 7.5
Has its own power supply, even though ATX ones work
SFX12V Standard power supply
ITX
o Mini-ITX: 6.7 x 6.7 (used in HTPCs)
2 DIMM slots
o Nano-ITX: 4.7 x 4.7
o Pico-ITX: 3.9 x 2.8
o Mobile-ITX: 2.4 x 2.4
o Low power, less fan noise
o For small form factor
o Less expandable
o Fits with ATX cases
BTX
o Made in 2004
o Cant fit in ATX case, but can use ATX power supply
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Designed to optimize airflow by placing the CPU at the front of the

motherboard to receive more cool air coming in from the front of the
computer case
In nonintegrated motherboards, each component is in an expansion slot
Old motherboards used jumpers to determine the bus speed
Case fans
o Motherboard layout must be efficient
o Fan sizes include 80mm, 120mm, and 200mm
Standouts are metal connectors that attack the motherboard to the case
NIC is integrated on the motherboard
o Contains a link light that indicates network status
Solid green = connectivity
Flashing green = intermittent connectivity
No green = no connectivity
Flashing amber = collisions on network
o
Power Supplies
A power supply converts AC (Alternating Current) from the wall to DC (Direct

Current) that the PC can use
o Provides three rails: 3.3V, 5V, and 12V
o Onboard electronics use 3.3V and 5V rails
o Hard drives and optical drives (or anything with a motor) use 12V rails
o AC = direction of current constantly reverses and distributes electricity
efficiently over long distances
Represented by squiggly line
A multimeter or circuit tester can be used to test AC output
Red = hot, black = ground
o DC = current moves in one direction with a constant voltage
Represented by solid black line over a dotted black line
Has polarity
o USA/Canada: 110 to 120 volts @ 60 Hz (~115V)
o Europe: 220 to 240 volts @ 50 Hz (~230V)
o Sag = when the voltage drops bellow 115/230
o Spike/Surge = when the voltage jumps above 115/230
o Some power supplies have cables built in, others just have the option to
connect, but no cables
o Power supplies may have a 115V and 230V switch (switching power supply)
Electricity = the flow of negatively charged particles through matter
Ampere (A) = the rate of electron flow/current (1A = 6.242x10 18 electrons per
second)
Voltage (V) = electrical pressure pushing electrons (like a garden hose)
Watt (W) = measurement of real power usage
o Volts x Amps = Watts
o Also known as Work
Resistance = friction that resists the flow of electrons
Inverter = DC to AC
Rectifier = AC to DC
Transformer = ratio of voltage to current
Circuit Breaker = detects heat and is rated at a certain amperage. It stops flow of
electricity if it gets too hot
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Power Conditioner = protects from RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) and EMI
(Electromagnetic Interference)
Surge Suppressor = protects from spikes/surges
o Spikes are diverted to ground
o Will also filter out line noise (high dB is better)
o Energy measured in Joules (200, 400 are good, but look for 600 as that is
best)
o Higher amp ratings are better
o Complies with the UL 1449 standards
o Ratings at 500, 400, and 330 volts (lower is better)
UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply) = contains a battery and uses AVR
(Automatic Voltage Regulation) to protect against brownouts and blackouts
o Come in three different types:
Online: always powered by the battery
Standby: battery is only used when power sags below 80-90V
Line-interactive: contains special circuitry to handles sags without the
use of the battery
Features of a UPS include auto shutdown, battery capacity, outlets, and
phone line suppression
Any outlet must be grounded in order to be suitable for PC use
The golden rule is to use 33% more power than required for a computer system
o Power supplies never run at 100% efficiency, but rather 80%
Power Supply Dimensions = 150mm x 140mm x 86mm
Power supplies usually come with the motherboard case
Power supplies are a FRU (Field Replaceable Unit)
o FRUs are what every technician should have that is immediately accessible
o Hard drives and RAM are also FRUs
Active PFC = Built into some PSUs, it is a method of including extra circuits to
eliminate harmonics and smooth overall electricity flow
o Harmonics = back pressure from electrical current that creates a humming
noise
o Active PFC provides environmentally friendly power
Motherboard Power Supply
o Has a 20-pin or 24-pin P1 power connector
o Power supplies supply the motherboard 5V at all times
o AMD CPUs used Aux power connections while Intel used P4
o Uses Molex connectors
Molex makes the standard 4-pin power connector used to power
peripherals
Red wires are 5V and yellow wires are 12V
Does not provide 3.3V
o ATX12V Standard
Included the P4 power connector to provide dedicated power to a highend CPU
Included a 6-pin Aux connector to supply additional 3.3V to 5V to the
motherboard
o ATX12V 2.0 Standard
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Included a 24-pin power connector, but extra 4-pins detached for

backwards compatibility in v2.1 (v2.2 did not have the detachable
feature)
Extra 4-pins gives an extra 12V
Included SATA power connectors
EPS12V Standard
Used for servers
Provided a 24-pin power connection
Included an Aux, P4, and an 8-pin connector for the CPU
TFX12V Standard was used for low profile ATX systems
SFX12V Standard was used for Flex-ATX systems
The 6/8-pin Aux PCIe power connector increases the power consumption limit
for devices
6-pin increases to 75W
8-pin increases to 150W
The 4/8-pin Aux power connecter is used to supply dedicated power for a
high-end CPU
o
o
o
Expansion Slots
PCI
o
o
o
o
o
Capable of running in sync with system clock

Uses parallel communication
Had a burst mode feature that allowed more efficient data transfers
2 IDE controllers on a standard motherboard
PCI Speeds:
133 MB/s (32-bit at 33 MHz): 5v
266 MB/s (32-bit at 66 MHz or 64-bit at 33 MHz)
533 MB/s (64-bit at 66 MHz): 3.3v
o 64-bit expansion slots are bigger but more rare than 32-bit ones
o If a PCI card has a 32-bit data transfer, there will equivalently be 32 wires to
make the connection
Mini-PCI = for laptops, not multipurpose like regular PCI
PCI-X (PCI eXtended)
o Designed for servers
o 4x clock speed of regular PCI (1064 MB/s)
o Mainly 64-bit slots, but 32-bit also exists
o PCI-X 2.0:
PCI-X 66 (66 MHz)
PCI-X 133 (133 MHz)
PCI-X 266 (266 MHz)
PCI-X 533 (533 MHz)
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
o Graphics slot before PCIe
o Can be thought of as a PCI slot with a direct connection to the Northbridge
o Parallel communication
o Uses strobing
Increases signals 2, 4 and 8 times per clock cycle
o Uses Pipelining commands (just like the CPU)
o Uses sidebanding
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A 2nd data bus that sends commands directly to the Northbridge while
receiving other commands at the same time
o Uses system memory access
If onboard VRAM is full, it is allowed to steal chunks from the system
RAM
o Dark brown and shorter than PCI
o AGP Types:
AGP 1x (266 MB/s)
AGP 2x (522 MB/s)
AGP 1.0, 3.3v
AGP 4x (1.07 GB/s)
AGP 2.0, 1.5v
AGP 8x (2.1 GB/s)
AGP 3.0, 0.8v
PCI Express (PCIe)
o Has individual/unidirectional serial lanes so it doesn't slow down the system
o Point-to-point serial communication (instead of PCIs shared parallel)
Direct connection to the Northbridge
o Uses a 6-pin (75 watts) or 8-pin (150 watts) power connector
o Comes in different forms: x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, x32
x1 is for general purpose
x16 is the most common and used for video cards
o Duplex lanes (two per "x[]")
One wire to send, one wire to receive
o Supports AGPs and system memory access
o Up to 16 GB/s
o Per lane throughput:
v1.x = 250 MB/s (2.5 Gbps)
v2.x = 500 MB/s (5 Gbps)
v3.0 = 1 GB/s (8 Gbps)
v4.0 = 2 GB/s 16 (Gbps)
o Yellow colored, vary in size depending on number of lanes
o PCIe Mini exists for mobile devices
Has a 52-pin card edge
ISA = legacy, black, 2 sections, up to 8 MB/s
AMR/CNR
o No longer in use (legacy)
o AMR was for AMD motherboards exclusively
o CNR was for Intel motherboards exclusively
o For modems, soundcards, and network cards
o Small yellow expansion slot
Riser cards are also known as daughterboards
o Usually dark brown
o 1/3 the size of a PCI slot
The expansion bus is not in sync with the system clock, but instead has a different
speed that is set by the expansion bus crystal
o Runs slower than the front side bus, so the chipset compensates for this with
wait states and buffering areas
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Missing expansion slot covers can cause a PC to overhead because it disrupts the
airflow inside the case
Steps for installing an expansion card:
1. Knowledge
Does it work with the PC and the operating system?
2. Physical Installation
Grab card at edges and do not touch the contacts
Wear an anti-static wrist strap
Cleaning is a bad idea
3. Device Drivers
Install the card first
Better idea to install the drives that came with the disk, rather than
going through the Add Hardware Wizard
64-bit drives must be approved by Microsoft in Vista and Windows 7
4. Verify
To ensure that the card is working, send it through a test run
Busses & Chipsets
Front Side Bus (FSB) connects CPU and Northbridge

o Composed of the address bus and the external data bus
o Controlled by system clock, 66-333 MHz
o Connection between CPU and memory controller
o 1333 MHz or 1.33 GHz max speed
Double pumping = sending instruction on rise and fall of clock signal,
multiplying data transfer rate by 2
Quad pumping = sending instruction on the rise, fall, and midway
points, multiplying data transfer rate by 2
CPU and MCC send 64-bits of data 2-4 times per clock cycle @ 400
MHz
Back Side Bus (BSB) connects CPU to CPU cache (usually L2)
o Same clock rate as the CPU
Bus Architecture
o Bus Width = 8 64 bits
o Address Bus sends commands to all motherboard-connected components
(analogy: envelope)
o External Data Bus sends data to all the motherboard-connected components
(analogy: contents)
o High-Speed Graphics Bus connects Northbridge to Graphics Adaptor Slot
o Memory Bus connects Northbridge to Memory Banks
o Internal Bus connects Northbridge to Southbridge
o PCI Bus connects Southbridge to Onboard Graphics Controller & also the PCI
Expansion Slots
o Low Pin Count (LPC) Bus connects Southbridge to Flash BIOS ROM and Super
I/O
Intel and NVIDA are the two biggest chipset manufactures
Northbridge = Memory Controller Chip (MMC)
o Needs heat sink, possibly fan
o Modern CPUs do the function of the Northbridge, so they are no longer found
Southbridge = I/O Controller Hub (ICH) for Intel or Fusion Controller Hub (FCH) for
AMD
o Connects lower speed devices such as USB, FireWire, SATA, NIC, etc
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o Onboard graphics controller has a Southbridge connection

Super I/O (Serial & Parallel Port Control, Floppy Drive Control, Keyboard & Mouse
o Separate chip from Southbridge
Jumpers
o Both pins covered = shorted
o Un-jumpered is both not covered
o Alt-jumped = more than two-pins and moving the cap to a different set of
pins
o Cable Select (CS) = determines master and slave positions of drives
Common with ATA 66/100/133 cables
Needs a special cable with a pinhole through one wire
Clock Speed = how much data is passing per second
o Computer clock speed refers to the CPUs operating speed
o Clock/bus speed doesn't equal data transfer rates
o Local bus: in sync with system clock
The system crystal sets the data speed for the entire motherboard
Thus every chip that connects to the motherboard will have a CLK wire
CPU
Types and Sockets
CPU Types (not specifically listed in 220-801 exam objectives, but useful to know
for socket questions)
History of Intel CPUs
Pentium
60 233 MHz
64-bit data bus, 32-bit address bus
Pentium Pro
36-bit
150-200 MHz
Pentium II
Used SECC instead of PGA
Slot 1
Celeron
266 MHz
Pentium III
PGA
370-pin
Up to 1.4 GHz
Pentium IV
Fast FSB
PGA
423-pin or 478-pin
Up to 3.8 GHz
Pentium M
For laptops
Socket 479
History of AMD CPUs

K5
Competitive with Pentium

75-133MHz
246-pin PGA
K6
Competitive with Pentium II

166-550MHz
296-PGA
Introduced 3D NOW
K7 (Athlon)
560 MHz to 1.4 GHz
Athlon XP (competitive with Pentium 4)
1.3-2.16 GHz
Duron (Celeron)
600 MHz to 1.8 GHz
K8 (Athlon 64)
Sempron (1.8 to 2.6 GHz w/ L2 cache of 250
KB)
Turion (1.8 to 2.4 GHz)
K10 (Athlon X2)

1.9-2.9 GHz
2MB L3 cache
Athlon II X2 (3 GHz)
Phenom (1.8-3.3 GHz 3-core)
Pentium D
Featured two cores

2.8 3.2 GHz per core
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Pentium EE
Only worked with Intel 955x or
NVidaForce4
Intel Core
De-emphasized clock speed and focused
on speed of FSB, L2 Cache, and IPC
Featured Core and Core 2 (Duo, Quad, and
Extended)
Nehalem
256-bit L2 cache, 12 MB L3 cache

2, 4, or 6 cores (i3, i5, i7)
Sandy Bridge
i3 3MB L3 cache, turbo boost disabled

i5 6MB L3 cache
i7 15MB L3 cache, 3.3-3.9 GHz
Operated on LGA 1153
CPU Sockets
Intel
LGA 775
Also called Socket T
Used in Pentium 4, Intel Core 2 Duo,
Xeon, and Celeron processor
Supports DDR2/DDR3 memory
AMD
Socket 940
PGA, ZIF package
Used in Opteron and Athlon 64 FX
Designed for 64-bit servers
Support for DDR memory
LGA 1366 Socket AM2

Also called Socket B
Replacement to LGA 775
Used in Intel Core i7 (Nehalem)
Supports DDR3 (triple-channel) memory
LGA 1156
Also called Socket H1 or simply

Socket H
Also replaces LGA 775
Used in Core i3/i5/i7 (Nehalem)
First CPU types to integrate Northbridge on
the CPU
Supports DDR3 (dual-channel) memory
LGA 1155
Also called Socket H2

Used in Intel Sandy Bridge and Ivy
Bridge microprocessors (Core i3/i5/i7)
Not compatible with LGA 1156
Supports DDR3 (dual channel) memory
940 pins
PGA, ZIF package
No backward compatibility with Socket 940
Used in Athlon 64 (FX, X2) and Phenom
Xx
Supports DDR2 memory
Athlon 64 X2 will have limited capabilities if
used with Socket 940
Socket F
1,207 pins
LGA package
Designed for servers
Used in Athlon 64 FX
Supports DDR2 memory
Faster throughput to FSB
Socket AM2+
940 pins
PGA, ZIF package
Backwards compatible with Socket AM2
(may need BIOS upgrade)
Faster communication than Socket AM2 and
better power management
Socket AM3
940 pins
PGA, ZIF package
Backwards compatible (with BIOS upgrade)
Used with Athlon II/Phenom II
Support for DDR2/DDR3 (dual channel)
memory
Socket AM3+
942 pins
PGA, ZIF package
AM3 processor can fit in socket, but not the
other way around
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Used with Athlon II/Phenom II

Support for DDR2/DDR3 (dual channel)
memory
Socket FM1
905 pins
PGA, ZIF package
Used with A-Series processors/ Athlon II
Supports DDR3 (dual-channel) memory
Socket form factors

o DIP = Dual In-line Package
Intel 8088
Old, difficult to install
o SECC (Single Edge Contact Cartridge)
Intel Pentium II
Slot 1
Looks like an expansion card, easier to install
Took up a lot of room due to heat sinks
o PGA (Pin Grid Array) - pins on CPU
Intel Pentium III
Socket 370
o ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) socket
o LGA (Land Grid Array)
Reverse PGA (pins on motherboard, so easier to damage the
motherboard)
Intel Pentium 4, AMD Opteron, Intel Sandy Bridge (i3, i5, i7), Ivy Bridge
CPU Operation
How a CPU works:
There is an External Data Bus (EDB) that sends data all around the computer. The EDB meets the CPU
at its pins and goes into the CPU. Voltage is applied to certain pins to indicate if that pin is on (1) or off
(0). This data of on/off wires from the EDB is stored in the internal CPU Registers (Ax, Bx, Cx, Dx) where
charges from EDB are stored. Once data is in CPU registers, it is processed thanks to a thing called the
Instruction Set, where these 8-bit (or more) lines of code consisting of 1s and 0s are made into
language that the CPU can understand. A Clock Wire (CLK Wire) has voltage applied to which tells the
CPU to process the next set of instructions. Voltage applied per second is determined by the Clock Chip,
which gives the CLK Wire voltage. The system crystal (quartz oscillator) is responsible for sending out
pluses of electricity in the first place. Thus the Clock Speed is the number of processes the CPU makes
per second, all determined by the amount of pulses sent by the Clock Chip. Then it can be understood
that Overclocking is simply manually setting the Clock Chip to send pulses faster than the designated
CPU speed. Old processors like the Intel 8088 required careful calculations to make sure the
motherboard provides the correct Clock Speed it needs, but todays CPU tells the motherboard the
Clock Speed it needs, and the Clock Chip automatically adjusts.
Reference signal, otherwise known as the bus speed or system speed, is the
signal entering the CPU
o CPU speed is thus how many times faster it is than the reference signal
MMX and SSE are new CPU registers for streaming
Pipelining (CPU processing stages)
1. Fetch = CPU pulls data from the EDB
2. Decode = CPU finds a command to execute
3. Execute = CPU performs the calculation
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4. Write = CPU sends the result of the calculation back to the EDM
o Sub processors to do different types of calculations
ALU (integer unit) handles basic math calculations and comparisons
FPU (floating point unit) handles complex numbers
Parallel Execution = executing multiple commands in parallel
o Useful when running many programs at once
o Dual core processors use third-level parallelism (TLP)
o The CPU will run multiple pipelines simultaneously
Cache memory
o Small amount of SRAM built into the CPU
System RAM is too slow, CPU needs RAM that is more accessible
Having CPU cache memory greatly reduces pipeline stalls
o Very fast
o Holds data, instructions, or results
o Cache Levels:
Level 1 = smallest and fastest
Data is stored as it waits to be processed, on the CPU
Level 2 = larger and slower
Located off the CPU
Level 3 = largest, slowest
Located off the CPU, between the L2 cache and system memory
Hyperthreadding (HTT)
o Takes one CPU and makes it look like two CPUs
o Doesn't work as fast as two, but performance increase is 15% to 30%
o Rule is two virtual cores for every physical core
o OS must be written for HTT (Windows XP or later)
o Form of simultaneous multithreading (SMT)
Throttling = running CPU at a lower voltage to reduce heat and energy
o Demonstrated by Intels SpeedStep
CPU runs at low power until higher power is needed
Used in mobile processors often
Overclocking = running at a higher voltage and speed to improve performance
Virtualization = running more than one OS on a machine
o Introduced in Pentium 4s, used VT-X (Intels virtualization)
o AMDs Virtualization is AMD-V
o Page table virtualization with RVI
o Hypervisor is a software program designed to manage multiple operating
systems on a single computer
Math co-processor = used to perform additional complicated processes
Graphics processing Unit (GPU)
o Latest CPUs have the GPUs integrated on the chip
o Also called APU
o GPGPU = helps process algorithms in parallel with CPU
Only for non-graphics applications
Multicore processors requires less space and generate less heat than multiprocessor systems
o Cache memory and RAM are shared
IRQ Codes = Lets a device interrupt the CPU from what it is currently processing to
instead process what that particular device is requesting
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PIO (Programmable Input/Output)

o Programmed instructions guide data across the correct data path
o CPU talks to peripherals via BIOS to send/receive
o CPU must interpret these instructions, so it slows the system down
considerably
DMA (Direct Memory Access) = Moves data directly to and from the RAM without
any CPU intervention by use of a controller.
o Third-party DMA = requires a controller (the third party) that is shared by
multiple peripherals and integrated into the chipset to move data between a
device (first party) and the RAM (third party).
Slowest mode of DMA
o First-party DMA (Bus Mastering) = improves speed by using only half the bus
cycles of PIO or third-party DMA. The DMA controller will take over the system
bus and notify the CPU when the data transfer is complete.
CPUs can now house processor cores, memory controller, and graphics processing
unit (GPU)
CPU Cooling:
o Heat sink
Thermal grease is designed to keep a good connection between CPU
and heat sink
o Liquid cooling
For high end systems, gaming PCS, and overclocked PCS
o Phase-change cooling
o Liquid immersion
o Heat Pipe
Hollow pipe where liquid coolant is in the pipe
No moving parts, but ineffective above certain temperatures
RAM
When a file is opened, it gets taken from the hard drive and copied to RAM, and
then once it is finished, the same data, now updated, gets copied back to the hard
drive.
o RAM acts as a buffer for data between hard drives and CPU
RAM stores bytes in rows (8 bits per row) in which the MCC grabs and puts it on the
EDB for the CPU to process.
32-bit systems = 4GB max
64-bit systems = 17 billion GB max (128GB limit that Windows puts on machines)
Volatile = not permanent, requires electrical current
Better to use a larger stick than multiple smaller ones
Bandwidth = "width" of memory bus
o Bytes transferred per clock cycle
o Memory bandwidth = 8, 16, 32, 64 bits
Width of memory module
Virtual Memory = allows the use of hard drive space as memory
o A page file is stored on a block of cylinders on the hard drive to make this
work
Page file size is always 1.5 times the amount of installed RAM
File is called PAGEFILE.SYS located in root directory C: and hidden
2 slots = 1 bank
RAM Types
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Read Only Memory (ROM)

PROM (Programmable ROM)
Write once
EPROM (Erasable PROM)
Write/Erase/Write Again
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM)
Flash memory
SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module)
30 & 72 Pin
Not all follow the standard/not swappable
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)
64 bit data width = more info per clock cycle
Include SDRAM, DDR, DDR2, and DDR3
RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module)
16 bit (184 pins) and 32-bit (232 pins)
Holds RDRAM
Generates a lot of heat and is expensive
Every slot must be filled, even if you need to put blank modules such
as:
32-bit: Continuity and Termination RIMMs (CT-RIMM)
16 bit: Continuity RIMMs (C-RIMM)
SRAM (Static RAM)
Very fast, very expensive
Used in processor caches (L1, L2, L3)
Don't refresh, but still volatile
DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
Dynamic = needs constant refreshing
Uses additional electricity which slows speed
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
168-pins
Clock Speeds: 66, 100, or 133 MHz
Data Transfer Rates: 528 MB/s 1.1 GB/s
Synchronous with system clock
Labeled with same speed of memory clock bus: ( ie: 133 MHz = PC133)
3.3V
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM)
189-pins
Clock Speeds: 300 800 MHz
Data Transfer Rates: 1.2 GB/s 6.4 GB/s
Introduced with the 400 MHz FSB Pentium 4
Expensive, third party, uncommon
DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM)
184-pins
Clock Speeds: 100 250 MHz (double pumps)
Data Transfer Rates: 1.6 4 GB/s
NOT synchronous with system clock
2.5V
DDR2 SDRAM
240-pins
15 | P a g e

Data Transfer Rates: 3.2 8.3 GB/s
Buffers (4-bits) were added to increase I/O circuits on chips, effectively
clock doubling them
Latency was thus increased
1.8V
o DDR3 SDRAM
240-pins but wont fit into DDR2 slot (different notch locations)
Data Transfer Rates: 6.4 12.8 GB/s
Twice the buffer size of DDR2 (8-bit)
Introduced a feature called XMP (Extreme Memory Profile) which
allowed for overclocking of RAM
Also is capable of triple-channel memory
Only supported by Intel LGA 1366
1.5V
CAS (Column Address Strobe/Select)
o CL (CAS Latency) = time it takes for electricity to charge wires/pins
Delay between when Northbridge requests data to when it is actually
available on the pins
Lower the CL number, faster the data transfer
Error checking:
o Parity memory
Additional parity bit, won't always detect, can't correct itself
Parity Checking = adds an extra bit to every bite
Odd parity = 1 if sum of bits in byte is even, 0 if odd
Even parity = 0 if sum of bits in byte is even, 1 if odd
o ECC (Error Correcting Code)
Detects errors and corrects them immediately, but operates slower
because of this
72-bit RAM is 64-bit RAM with 8-bits for ECC
Only found in specialized systems, making it very rare
o RAM has a SPD (Serial Presence Detect) chip that tells the OS information
about it
If the chip is bad the OS will not boot
Single-sided vs. Double-sided memory
o Ranks = groups of memory on a module that can be independently accessed
o RAM has 8, 16 or 32 chips per module
o Single-sided memory = all memory can be accessed at once
o Double-sided memory = only one bank at a time
Dual-channel
o Started with RDRAM and DDR RAM
o Filling up both RAM sockets of the same color with 64-bit RAM will achieve this
if the motherboard/OS supports dual-channel memory
o May improve performance, but doesnt make a huge difference over singlechannel memory
Mixing RAM speeds is doable, but will certainly lead to system instability
o Not even possible if double pumping
16 | P a g e
Storage Devices
Hard Disk Drive Operation
Microscopic magnetized regions on the platter act as 1s and 0s in a sense. Because

these regions are polar, they sometimes switch magnetic fields in what is called a
flux reversal. The read/write head is able to identify locations of these flux reversals
by identifying the electrical current they give off and thus read data. This process,
throughout history, has been done in two ways:
o RLL (Run Length Limited)
Any combination of 0s and 1s can be preset into 15 different runs in
which the read/write heads read as a group.
Max run length = 7
o PRML (Partial Response Maximum Likelihood)
Uses circuitry to make a best guess in determining locations of flux
reversals
Max run length = 16-20
Perpendicular recording = a method of storing flux reversals vertically in order
to increase storage capacity.
Hard drive capacity is determined by the following equation:
o (# of cylinders) x (# of heads) x (sectors/track) x (bytes/sector)
Inside a hard disk drive:
o Platters several of them, each with their own ID and can be recorded on
both sides
Middle of platter is called the spindle
Two read/write head per platter (plus a one or two for the drives own
use)
o Tracks groups of circles on a platter
o Sector 512 bytes, slice-size groups on a platter
o Cluster multiple sectors
Smallest file sizes exist here (512 bytes of one sector is too small for a
file)
o Cylinder tracks of the same diameter on both sides of all platters
One empty cylinder used to be dedicated to a landing zone in which
the read/write head would rest on when the drive is not in operation.
o Thus, cylinder on a track, cluster on a track, sector on a cluster
o Actuator controls the arm, the arm has the read/write head which reads the
data off of the platter
Read/write head doesnt actually rest on the platter, just a hairs
thickness above it
A stepper motor originally moved the actuator, but proved to misalign
over time, causing data transfer errors.
The voice coil currently moves the actuator in hard drives
Voice coils uses magnetic fields to move actuator
Seek time the time it takes for read/write head to move from one track to the
other
HDDs have a cache size of 2-64MB
Spindle speed = 5400 RPM 15,000 RPM
o Bay fans fix overheating problems with high RPM drives.
Sector translation identifies locations of each block on HDD
17 | P a g e
Provided a work around to the BIOS hard drive size limit of 1024/16/63 by
having the hard drive tell CMOS its physical geometry when it is really telling
CMOS its the logical geometry
o LBA (Logical Block Addressing) for WesternDigital
o ECHS (Extended CHS) for Seagate
Master Boot Record (MBR)
o On the first sector of the hard drive (512 bytes)
o Contains table of primary partitions, disk signature, and directions for starting
OS
DriveLock (ATA Security Mode Feature Set)
o Located in BIOS, it protects the hard drive from unwanted access
Microdrive (MD)
o A miniature 1-inch HDD designed to fit into a CF (Compact Flash) Type II slot
Also called a CF Card
Now obsolete
o
PATA Drives
PATA
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
(Parallel AT Attachment)
Dates back to PC/AT
Built-in controller
Initially intended for hard drives
Blue connectors on the drive are used to set master/slave
18-inch length limit
4-pin Molex power connecter
IDE controllers have the IRQ code of 9
Originally called IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)
2nd generation EIDE (Enhanced IDE)
o IDE, EIDE, and PATA are all interchangeable (they mean the same thing)
o Speeds range from 16 MB/s to 133 MB/s
Cable types:
o 40-wire
Device 0 = Master (closest to motherboard)
Device 1 = Slave
o 80-wire
Device 1 = Slave (closest to motherboard)
Device 0 = Master
Additional 40 wires on 80-wire cable are grounding wires, eliminating
cross-talk
ATA Standards
o ATA-1: Introduced BIOS compatibility, offered no more that two devices per
computer, and used PIO and Single-word DMA speed methods
PIO:
Mode 0 = 3.3 MB/s
Mode 1 = 5.2 MB/s
Mode 2 = 8.3 MB/s
Single-word DMA:
Mode 0 = 2.1 MB/s
Mode 1 = 4.8 MB/s
Mode 2 = 8.3 MB/s
18 | P a g e
o
o
ATA-2: Called EIDE, allowed non-hard drive devices using a primary and
secondary controller (thus introducing ATAPI), introduced sector translation
(LBA) to obtain higher storage capacities (up to 4 GB), allowed 4 devices per
controller, and introduced new PIO modes and Multi-word DMA.
ATAPI (ATA Packet Interface)
A standard which allows non-hard drive devices to be connected
via PATA
Required OS to load drivers rather than communicate with the
BIOS
PIO:
Mode 3 = 11.1 MB/s
Mode 4 = 16.6 MB/s
Multi-word DMA:
Mode 0 = 7.2 MB/s
Mode 1 = 13.3 MB/s
Mode 2 = 16.6 MB/s
ATA-3: Introduced S.M.A.R.T which prevents drive failure (was not widely
implemented)
ATA-4: Uses Ultra DMA modes by using DMA bus mastering
Ultra DMA modes:
Mode 0 = 16.7 MB/s
Mode 1 = 25.0 MB/s
Mode 2 = 33.3 MB/s
o ATAPI-4: Ultra ATA/33
Features include 80 conductor cables and Cyclic
Redundancy Checking
ATA-5: Introduced two more UDMA modes and offered INT13 to replace LBA,
bringing hard drive storage capacity up to 137 GB.
Ultra DMA modes:
Mode 3 = 44.4 MB/s
Mode 4 = 66.6 MB/s (ATAPI-5)
o ATAPI-5: Ultra ATA/66
ATA-6: Introduced Big Drive to replace INT13 and allowed for maximum
storage capacity.
Ultra DMA mode 5 = 100 MB/s
ATAPI-6: Ultra ATA/100
o Features include 48-bit LBA expansion and disk noise
reduction
ATA-7: Introduced SATA and UDMA mode 6
Ultra DMA mode 6 = 133 MB/s
ATAPI-7: UDMA 6 (Ultra ATA/133)
o Features include multimedia streaming
SATA Drives
SATA (Serial AT Attachment)

o Point-to-point communication between devices and the HBA (Host Bus
Adapter), or SATA controller
o ATA-7 defines the SATA standard
o SATA gives you 20% encoding, and 80% pure bandwidth
SATA Revisions (all revisions have distance limitation of 1 meter):
19 | P a g e
SATA I (Revision 1.x)

1.5 Gbps / 150 MB/s
o SATA II (Revision 2.x)
3 Gbps / 300 MB/s
o SATA III (Revision 3.x)
6 Gbps / 600 MB/s
Hard drive may or may not have 4-pin Molex power connector to backwards power
compatibility
SATA data cable is 7-pin while power is 15-pin
AHCI (Advanced Host Controller Interface) is needed for Windows to automatically
detect SATA drivers
NCQ (Native Command Queuing) is an extension of the SATA protocol that allows
faster read/write speeds for hard drives
o
SCSI Drives
SCSI
o
o
o
o
(Small Computer Systems Interface)

Designed to string many peripherals together
Hot swappable
Has an IRQ of 9
Up to 15 devices in a SCSI chain using a wide bus (subtracting controller)
If it is a narrow bus, you are limited to 7 devices (subtracting
controller)
o Last device must have terminator at the end of the chain
SCSI ID
o Every SCSI device on a single bus is assigned a separate ID number
o Jumpers on a SCSI device can be used to determine ID number
o LUN (Logical Unit Number) identifies each SCSI ID
o SCSI ID priority:
7 0 on an 8-bit
15 8 on a 16-bit
7 is the highest SCSI ID, 8 is the lowest
SAS (Serial Attached SCSI) have no jumpers, terminators, or settings
o Currently the newest SCSI standard
HVD (High Voltage Differential) reduces noise on SCSI bus circuits, but doesnt
work with SE (single-link) based SCSI
LVD (Low Voltage Differential) works with SE based SCSI for 12 meters of cable
o Any SCSI cable capable of SE and having LVD can have 12 meters of cable
SCSI Types:
o SCSI - 1
25-pins (used mainly for Apple computers)
6 meters max (thus longest cable length of all SCSI standards)
5 MB/s
Narrow bus (8-bit/7 devices)
o Fast SCSI (SCSI 2)
50-pins
3 meters max
10 MB/s
o Ultra SCSI (SCSI 3)
50-pins
20 | P a g e
1.5 meters max

20 MB/s
o Ultra 2 SCSI (SCSI 4)
50-pins
12 meters with LVD
40 MB/s
o Ultra 320 SCSI
68-pin
12 meters with LVD
320 MB/s (fastest of all SCSI standards)
Wide bus (16-bit/15 devices)
Formats of SCSI are all backwards compatible
SCSI drives use various types of connectors (25-pin, 50-pin, 68-pin)
Pin 1 on cable must go into pin 1 on the HBA
Implementing RAID
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

o But not all RAID levels are redundant
Disk Duplexing = Each hard drive has its own controller
RAID Types
o RAID 0 (Striping)
File blocks are split between physical drives
High data performance
No redundancy, no way to recover data
2 drives minimum
o RAID 1 (Mirroring)
File blocks are duplicated between physical drives
High disk utilization (twice as much disk space required)
High redundancy, drive failure does not affect data availability
2 drives minimum
o RAID 2 (Striping with multiple parity drives)
Never implemented
o RAID 3 (bit level striping with dedicated parity)
o RAID 4 (block level striping with dedicated parity)
o RAID 5 (Striping with Parity)
File blocks are striped, along with a parity block
One block dedicated to parity will be applied to every drive
Efficient use of disk space
High redundancy, but parity calculation may affect performance
Minimum of 3 drives
o RAID 6 (striping with extra parity)
Requires 5 drives
o RAID 10 (RAID 1+0) (Stripe of Mirrors)
The speed of striping, the redundancy of mirroring
Needs at least 4 drives
Software vs. Hardware RAID
o Software RAID has lower performance than hardware based RAID
21 | P a g e
Hardware based RAID allows for hot swapping

Windows 2000 and above support software configuration for RAID 1 and RAID
5
o Windows XP and Vista only support software configuration for RAID 0
o Windows 7 software can configure RAID 0 and RAID 1
Striping
o Bit-Level = splitting data into bits then distributing them to drives
o Block-Level = splitting data into blocks, then distributing across drives
RAID can be implemented using eSATA drives as well
SATA can now be used to connect RAID arrays
o SCSI used to be used, but it was very expensive
o
o
Optical Formats
CD (Compact Disk)
o Uses the file format ISO-9660 (CDFS)
o Data is stored just beneath the top layer in the form of lands and pits, which
a laser reads and translates to binary
o One laser is designed just to read the disk, but a second laser that writes the
disk is 10x as powerful
o Goes at speeds that are multiples of 150 KB/s (x2 = 300 KB/s, x4 = 600 KB/s)
o CD-ROM = cant write, only read
o CD-R = write once
o CD-RW = write multiple times (10,000 maximum)
Three speeds = Write, Rewrite, and Read
DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)
o Uses UDF (Universal Disk Format) that replaces ISO-9660
o Uses a 650nm red laser to read
o Common DVD Formats:
Single-side/Single layer (DVD-5) = 4.7 GB
Single-side/Dual layer (DVD-9) = 7.95 GB
Double-side/Single layer (DVD-10) = 8.74 GB
Double-side/Dual layer (DVD-18) = 15.9 GB
o DVD-RAM = special rewritable disk contained within a proprietary cartridge
Need a special disk drive to read
o DVDRW = Universally compatible rewritable DVD
DVD+RW is Sony/Phillips proprietary
DVD-RW is used by other manufactures
o DVD region codes:
Region 0 = Anywhere
Region 1 = United States and Canada
Region 2 = Europe, Middle East, South Africa, Japan and Greenland
Region 3 = Southeast Asia, South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong
Region 4 = South America, Central America, Mexico, New Zealand and
Australia
Region 5 = India, Nepal, Afghanistan, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan,
Pakistan and Africa
Region 6 = China
Region 7 = Reserved for future use
Region 8 = For cruise ships and aircraft
o Video codecs:
22 | P a g e
MPEG-1 = 352 x 240 @ 30fps

MPEG-2 = 720 x 480 or 1280 x 720 @ 60fps
MPEG-4 = Good for multimedia and Blu Ray
Contained IPMP (Intellectual Property Management and
Protection)
MPEG-7 = Multimedia content searching tool
MPEG-21 = Protects from illegal file sharing
Contained REL (Rights Expression Language) and Rights Data
Dictionary
Blu-ray
o Uses a 405nm blue laser to read
o 25 GB single-layer / 50 GB dual-layer
o Mini Blu-ray = 7.8 GB single-layer / 15.6 GB dual-layer
Only optical format that is 8cm instead of 12cm
o BD-RE = Rewritable Blu-ray
o Highest quality optical format
o Beat HD DVD as the optimal optical format
o Specifications for burning Blu-ray disk
1 GB of RAM (Windows XP) or 2 GB of RAM (Windows Vista and
Windows 7)
Processor must be Pentium 4 or newer
OS must be HDCP compliant
o All disks are 12cm besides where noted
o When we burn them, photosensitive dye creates the usual bumps you would
find
o If you insert a disk and AutoRun does not start, launch it in the disks root
folder as autorun.inf
o If a CD or DVD burn fails, it is likely that buffer underrun is the problem
Flash Memory
SSD drives
o Flash memory
o No moving parts, but cost more than HDDs
o Use NAND to retain data
o Never defragment an SSD
o Can be either 1.8, 2.5, or 3.5
o Can be either:
MLC (Multi-Level Cell)
Cheaper, low write rates,
poor performance
SLC (Single-Level Cell)
More expensive, but
extremely reliable
Flash Drives
o ReadyBoost in Windows allows flash
drives to act as virtual memory
Compact Flash (CF)
o PCMCIA bus
o CF1 = 3.3mm
Other types of storage

devices:
Floppy Drives
o Use 34-pin cable to
connect to motherboard
o A twist in the wires is
used to identify drives
on the cable
o Connect with drive
letters A or B
o Uses the 4-pin Mini
power connector
o Drives use a stepper
motor
o 3.5 inch (1.44 MB
storage)
o 5.25 inch (360 KB to 1.2
MB)
23 | P a g
o 8-inch
Tape Drives
o 20 GB to 1.3 TB
o Cost effective
o Formats are DDS-1,
o CF2 = 5mm (not backwards compatible with CF1)

Smart Media
o For cameras
SD (Secure Digital)
o Have a physical write protection switch
o Evolved from MMC (Multimedia Card)
o Mini SD
o Micro SD
o Standard SD (4 MB to 4 GB)
o SDHC (32 GB)
o SDXC (32 GB to 2 TB)
Memory Stick
o A proprietary format for Sony
o Standard
o Pro
o Duo
o Pro Duo
o Micro
xD (Extreme Digital)
o Proprietary picture cards that were mainly used in Olympus and Fujifilm
cameras
o Standard (Type M)
o Hi Speed (Type H)
External Connection Types
USB
o
o
o
o
o
(Universal Serial Bus)

127 devices per controller
USB A and B ports have 4-pins, the rest have 5-pins
Always install drives before you plug the USB device in
USB ports lead to the root hub (bus) to the host controller
USB 1.1
Low speed:
1.5 Mbit/s
3 meters max
Full speed:
12 Mbit/s
5 meters max
Most common USB 1.1 mode (1.5 MB/s)
Uses the Standard Open HCD Host Controller
o USB 2.0 (full speed)
480 Mbit/s
5 meters max
Usually 60 MB/s
Uses the Standard Enhanced Host Controller
o USB 3.0 (SuperSpeed)
4.8 Gbit/s
3 meters max
Usually 625 MB/s
24 | P a g e
Sometimes connection is colored blue

An 11-pin version that supplies extra power exists
Backwards compatability with USB 2.0
Uses the Extendable Host Controller (xHCI)
USB Form Factors
Type A (regular type)
Type B (square type at the device end)
Micro-B (mobile devices)
Mini-B (larger than micro)
Cameras use Alternate Mini-B
FireWire (IEEE 1394)

o Also called i.LINK or Lynx
o Uses more power than USB
o Supports bus mastering
o Can daisy-chain, tree, or peer-to-peer up to 63 different devices
o 4.5 meter distance limitation period for all FireWire standards
o FireWire 400 (Alpha mode) / IEEE1394a
100, 200, or 400 Mbit/s (half-duplex)
6-pin or 4-pin
4.5 meter distance limitation, 72 meters max (for the entire
configuration)
o FireWire 800 (Beta mode) / IEEE1394b
800 Mbit/s (full-duplex)
4, 6, or 9-pins
Grey input
Optical connections can support 100 meters max
o FireWire pin characteristics
4-pin is non-powered and is used for cameras
6-pin is powered and used on desktop PCs
9-pin is powered, high speed, but uncommon
eSATA
o Provides throughput of 3 Gbit/s
o 2 meters distance limitation
o Hot-swappable
o eSATAp = a port allows connection with an internal-style drive without an
enclosure
Fits both eSATA and USB connections
Ethernet (RJ-45)
IrDA
o 4 Mbit/s per second speed
o Half-duplex
Can be configured for full-duplex emulation, but will never actually be
full-duplex
o Line-of-sight only
o Operates in ad hoc mode
o 1 meter distance limitation
Bluetooth
o 3Mb/s max
o Uses ad hoc mode for device-to-device communication
25 | P a g e
Uses infrastructure mode when connection to a WAP (Wireless Access Point)

Uses 79 different frequencies via the FHSS broadcast method
Defined by 802.15 (WPAN standard)
Version 1.1 and 1.2
1 Mb/s
o Version 2.0
Added EDR (Enhanced Data Range)
3 Mbit/s per second
10 meters max for Class 2 devices
1 meter max for Class 3 devices
o Class A = 100m / 100mW
o Class B = 10m / 2.5mW
o Class C = 1m / 1mW
PC 99 Standard
o Defined colors for audio inputs
o These were 1/8 jacks usually found on soundcards
o Pink = microphone
o Green = front left/right speaker or headphone
o Blue = line level audio input
o Orange = subwoofer
o Black = surround sound
o Grey = mid left/right + surround
o Gold = S-Video
Hot Swappable = add and remove while system is running
Serial ports data only goes in one direction
o One wire to send, one wire to receive
o Windows calls the COM ports
o Contained a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) chip that
coverts between parallel and serial devices
o 9-pins
o Defined by the RS-232 standard
Two serial devices must talk to each other in 8-bit chunks of data
Flexible in speed and error checking
RS-232 itself is manually configured
Parallel ports data goes in both directions at the same time
o
o
o
o
Designing Custom Computer Systems
Graphics Technologies = OpenGL, Pixel Shader, DirectX, and Direct3D

CAD/CAM Systems need a powerful processor, maximum amount of RAM, and a
high-end video card
Audio/Video Editing Workstations need high-end audio/video cards, large, fast
SSD hard drives, and possibly dual-monitors
Virtualization Workstations need maximum RAM, and maximum CPU cores
Gaming PCs need a powerful processor, high-end video card, better sound card,
and high-end cooling methods
o 500-700W PSU needed
o SLI (Scalable Link Interface) = Improves graphics performance on a computer
Links two or move video cards together into a single output
26 | P a g e
Home Theater PCs need surround sound audio, HDMI output, HTPC compact form
factor and a TV tuner
Thick Clients need to support desktop applications and recommended
requirements for running Windows
Thin Clients need to only support basic application usage
Applications are actually run on a remote server (VDI)
Home Server PCs have media streaming, file sharing, print sharing, and needs
gigabit NIC for high speed transfers and RAID arrays for redundant storage
Display Devices and Connections

Display Devices
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

o 4:3 aspect ratio
o Uses analog signals
o Electron guns shoot through a yoke which touches electrons on a screen with
phosphor coating
These phosphors are RBG dots
o Shadow mask = sits behind the phosphors and only allows the designated
Red, Green, or Blue electron guns to light up the corresponding phosphor
o Horizontal Refresh Rate = the rate at which the electron guns move across
the screen
o Vertical Refresh Rate = the time it takes for the electron guns to fill the entire
screen and return to the upper left corner
If this is set too low, flickering will occur
If this is set too high distortion can occur (will potentially destroy the
screen)
o Raster lines = the horizontal sweeps across the screen (left to right) made my
the electron guns
o One pixel must contain one red, one blue, and one green phosphor
CRT pixel size changes with resolution
o Sizes include 15", 19", and 21"
All displays are measured diagonally
o Resolution modes include:
VGA (640 x 480)
SVGA (800 x 600)
XGA (1024 x 768)
SXGA (1280 x 1024)
UXGA (1600 x 1200)
o Has a refresh rate rated in Hz
o Convergence = horizontal and vertical alignment of colors on a screen
o Dot pitch = predefined measurement in mm between pixels
Typical is 0.27mm
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
o Uses electronic signals to light up rectangular pixels
o Pixels are fixed and wont change with resolution
o Use a CCFL (Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp) backlight
Backlight is always on, and background transistor polarizes the light,
that is why the backlight is never pitch black
27 | P a g e
Most LCD monitors have two backlights

Needs AC power, so an inverter is needed to convert the DC power
used by all the other electronics built into the screen
A transformer is used to convert this AC power back to DC
o Viewing angle is less
o No electron beam
o Refreshes screen at a 60 Hz frame rate
o Fixed native resolution
o Opaque crystals produce black
o Passive matrix
Vertical and horizontal circuits pass through every row and column of
subpixels to create matrices
These circuits intersect one another and single LCD element enables
light to pass through
Poor image quality: blurry due to pixel overlap
Dual-scan passive matrix fixed this, but was not a permanent
solution
o Active matrix
Uses TFT (Thin Film Display)
The most common TFTs use twisted nematic (TN) panels
The best TFTs use IPS (In-Plane Switching) which provide wider
viewing angles and better color than TN panels
Transistors behind each pixel stimulate electrodes that rearrange liquid
crystals
Sharper image quality and higher refresh rates
o 17 screens are 1280 x 1024 (SXGA) or higher
o 20 screens are 1920 x 1080 (HD 1080) or higher
o LCDs that run lower than the native resolution must use an anti-aliasing filer
to blur the edges of pixels
o The refresh rate for an LCD monitor is the time it takes for subpixels to go
from pure black to pure white and back again
Measured in milliseconds, lower is better
o Have a contrast ratio of 250:1 to 1000:1
o Brightness ranges from 100 to 1000 nits
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
o LEDs are simply LCD monitors with LED backlights instead of CCFL
LEDs may be around the edge of the screen or behind the screen
This makes for thinner screens and lower power consumption
Also no AC power is used, so an inverter is not necessary
o Backlight provides better image at any viewing angle
OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode)
o Organic compound emits light when receiving electrical current
o High cost, power efficient, wider viewing angles, and fast response time
Plasma
o A display of tiny cells filled with noble gas and mercury
o Mercury sheds energy as UV light
o UV light strikes colored phosphor
o Deep blacks, fast response time
o High power, shimmering, doesnt work in high altitudes, lots of radio
interference
28 | P a g e
Wider viewing angles than any other display

Not optimal for computer usage due to burn-in problems where the image
gets burnt onto the screen
o Overscan is another problem with plasma displays
Image is cropped at the edge of the screen
LCD screens have this problem as well
Projectors
o Can be DLP (which uses DMD/thousands of mirrors) or LCoS (combination of
LCD and DLP)
o Not always an LCD projector, CRT projectors provide the best image quality,
but are really bulky and expensive
o Throw = the distance needed from the screen to create the best image
o Lamps = the most important part of a projector
Very bright and hot light, so fans are built in to cool it down
Very expensive to replace when broken
Refresh Rates = measured in Hz
o Large displays need to be set at 72 Hz or higher to prevent flickering
o 60 Hz is the standard refresh rate for all screens
o A 120 Hz refresh rate requires a video card capable of supporting dual-link
DVI
Resolution = number of pixels on a display
o Width x Height (Row x Column) or Horizontal Pixels x Vertical Pixels
o Video settings must match a display's native resolution
Brightness
o Usually measured in nits (cd/m2) or luminance
o Lumens (ANSI test, 3000 for dim room, 6000 for sunlit)
Used for projectors
Contrast Ratio = ratio between black and white
o A wider range is better
o Dynamic contrast ratios are much larger than regular ones, but not that
important
Analog Video = transmitted as continuous signal
Digital Video = transmitted as discrete values
Display Filters
o Privacy filter
o Fade the screen to black or gold when viewed at an angle
o Placed on the front of a display
o Anti-glare filter
Video Cards
o Have a RAMDAC chip that takes digital signals from video and convert it to
analog when needed
o Any monitor, such as an LCD, with a VGA input will use the RAMDAC chip in
the video card to convert the LCDs natively digital signal to analog for VGA
use
o Types of video card RAM include:
VRAM, WRAM, SGRAM, DDR SDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM, GDDR3 SDRAM,
GDDR4 SDRAM, and GDDR5 SDRAM
o Video card color depth:
2 colors = 1 bit
4 colors = 2 bits
o
o
29 | P a g e
16 colors = 4 bits
256 colors = 8 bits
64,000 colors = 16 bits
16.7 million colors = 24 bits
Monitors that meet the VESA standard for DPMS (Digital Power Management
Signaling) can reduce power consumption to up to 75%
Table of Common Resolution Modes:
Mode
Resolution
Aspect Ratio
Common
Uses
VGA
640 x 480
4:3
SVGA
800 x 600
4:3
Small
monitors
HDTV
1280 x 720
16:9
720p
XGA
1024 x 768
4:3
SXGA
1280 x 1024
5:4
Native
resolution for
LCD monitors
WXGA
1366 x 768
4:3
Widescreen
laptops
WSXGA
1440 x 900
16:10
Widescreen
laptops
SXGA+
1400 x 1050
4:3
Large CRT
projectors
UXGA
1600 x 1200
4:3
Large CRT
projectors
HDTV
1920 x 1080
16:9
1080p
WUXGA
1920 x 1200
16:10
24
Widescreen
QWXGA
2048 x 1152
16:9
WQXGA
2560 x 1600
16:10
27:
Widescreen
WQUXGA
3840 x 2400
16:10
Newer
monitors
Display Connectors
DVI (Digital Visual Interface)

o Single-link (3.7 Gbit/s, HDTV at 60 fps)
Resolutions of 1920 x 1080 and 1280 x 1028
o Dual-link (7.4 Gbit/s, HDTV at 85 fps)
Resolutions of 2048 x 1536
o DVI-A: analog
o DVI-D: digital
o DVI-I: integrated (digital and analog in same connector)
o DVI-D and DVI-I come in both single-link and dual-link varieties
DisplayPort
o Video and audio in one cable
o Follows the VESA standard
o Royalty-free
30 | P a g e
o 20 pins
o 17.28 Gb/s
o Data is sent in packets (like Ethernet and PCIe)
o Compatible with HDMI and DVI with a passive adaptor
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)
o Video and audio in one cable
o 19 pin (Type A) connector
o miniHDMI (Type C) for smaller form factors
o microHDMI (Type D)
VGA (Video Graphics Array)
o Goes by the names DE-15, DB-15 or HD-15
o 15-pins
o PC System Design Guide makes it so it's always blue
o Analog signal
RCA connectors (Composite Cables)
o Known as a phono connector, Cinch connector, and A/V jack
o Combines luminance and chrominance into one signal
o Red/White = left/right audio
o Yellow = analog (SD) video
PbPrPy (Component Cables)
o 3 RCA connectors
o Create separate signal for luminance
BNC connectors (Bayonet Neill-Concelman)
o Used with higher-end video
o Connector has a twisting lock
o Has both:
RGBGV (red, green, blue, horizontal, sync, vertical sync)
Component video (VPbPr)
miniDIN
o S-Video (Separate Video)
S-Video can have either 4, 7, or 9 pins
o Analog signals
o 2 channels (intensity and color)
Thunderbolt
o up to 20 GB/s and 7 daisy chained
RS-232
o 50ft (15.25m)
o Old 9-pin serial cable
Computer Peripherals
Input Devices
o Mouse
o Connects from USB, PS/2, or serial ports
Green colored PS/2 port
Most mice are using optics now
Glass may cause a problem
o Keyboard
Connects from USB or PS/2
31 | P a g e
Purple colored PS/2 port

May require drivers for extra features
Configuration may include repeat rate, repeat delay, or cursor blink
rate
o PS/2 devices are not hot swappable
o Touch Screen
Needs connection to video adapter and USB ports to function properly
o Scanner
The 5 important scanner values:
1. Resolution
2. Color Depth
3. Grayscale Depth
4. Connection
5. Speed
Scanners have color depth of 24-bits, 36-bits, or 48-bits (most
common)
The grayscale depth can be 8-bits, 12-bits, or 16-bits (most
common)
TWAIN is the default scanner driver
Some come with OCR (Optical Character Recognition) to turn image
into text
Types:
All-in-one (prints, scans, copies)
Flatbed (only scans)
o Barcode Reader
Connects from USB, PS/2, or serial ports
If it doesn't work, just replace it
o KVM (Keyboard, Video, and Mouse)
Allows you to use many computers with a single keyboard, video
display, and mouse
Uses peripheral emulation to communicate with all system connections
o Microphone
Integrated into most new laptops and multimedia devices
External microphones connect from analog (TRS) or digital (USB)
o Biometric Devices
Use biological features such as your retina, fingerprint, or keystroke
dynamics
o Gaming Input
Like the joystick
o Digitizer
Output Devices
o Printers
o Speakers
o Monitors
Multimedia Devices
o Digital Cameras
May need drivers
o Microphone
o Webcam
Connects with USB but may be 802.11 wireless
32 | P a g e
Camcorder
Stores data in built in hard drive or flash memory (CF, SD)
Connects with FireWire, HDMI, or USB
MIDI
Can connect with RJ-45, USB or DIN connectors
NETWORKING
Network Connectors & Cabling
Structured Cabling
o A cabling standard with the flexibility to allow a network to grow according to
its needs and then to upgrade when needed.
o Built on the basis that a work area will need to connect to a main server
room, or telecommunications room via horizontal cabling to achieve a
network connection.
o Telecommunications Room
Acts as the server room where all cables in a network connect
Has large equipment racks
19 inches wide
Height is measured in Us (1U = 1.75in)
o Horizontal Cabling
Defines the runs of cabling that go to the computers
Requires CAT 5e or better
Must be solid core cables
o Work Area
Where all the PCs reside
PCs connect via sockets in the wall
Use stranded cabling
o Crosstalk (XT) = concept of structured cabling which refers to the
interference between signals over adjacent wires
POTS (Plain Old Telephone System)
o Uses an RJ-11 connection
o 6P2C connection
o Standard telephone connection
Twisted Pair
o Uses an RJ-45 connection
8P8C connection
Modular cable
o Contains two wires with equal and opposite signals
o Twisting eliminates interference across wires
o Each cable is twisted differently
o UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
Most common
No additional shielding
Come in solid core and stranded core varieties
Solid Core
o Wires are in one pair
o Better conductor, but stiff and fragile
33 | P a g e
Stranded Core
o Wires are made up of smaller wires
o Easier to work with than solid core
o STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Additional shielding against EMI (Electromagnetic Interference)
Requires an electrical ground
o Plenum = Cables that will not emit toxic chemicals when burned
Required for cables that run between floors in a building
Low Smoke PVC or FEP may exist in plenum cables
Note that PVC alone without the Low Smoke prefix emits toxic
fumes when burned
May not be as flexible
o Ethernet types that use twisted pair:
10BASET = 10 Mb/s, 100m
100BASETX = 100 Mb/s, 100m
1000BASET = 1 Gb/s, 100m
o EIA/TIA-568 Cabling Standards:
CAT 3 = 10 Mb/s
Configurable up to 100 Mb/s if four pairs of wires are used
CAT 5 = 100 Mb/s
CAT 5e = 1 Gb/s (Gigabit Ethernet)
CAT 6 = 10 Gb/s (fire resistant)
CAT 6e = many Gb/s, greater lengths supported
CAT 7 = LAN Cabling
Uses a GG45 connector
o T568A and T568B Termination
Part of the EIA/TIA-568-B standards
For 8 conductor, 100-ohm balanced twisted-pair cabling
T568A and T568B have different pin assignments
T568B is the most common
Pin 1 = white/green (T568A) or white/orange (T568B)
Pin 2 = green (T568A) or orange (T568B)
Pin 3 = Reverse of Pin 1
Pin 4 = blue (T568A/B)
Pin 5 = white/blue (T568A/B)
Pin 6 = Reverse of Pin 2
Pin 7 = white/brown
Pin 8 = brown
Crossover Cable = Linking two
computers (NICs) with one end being T568A and the other being
T568B
Fiber Optic
ST Connector (Straight Tip Connector)

Bayonet connector
34 | P a g e
Push and turn to lock

Less susceptible to damage
Half-duplex, two cables are needed
o SC Connector (Square/Standard/Subscriber Connector)
Square shape
Have locking mechanism
Push/Pull connector
Commonly used in networks
Half-duplex, two cables are needed
o LC Connector (Lucent/Local/Little Connector)
Smallest form factor
Used for high end applications
Have caps on the end
Have locking mechanism
Used for high density networks
Will fit into the smallest form factor
Looks like SC, but larger and not as wide
o MJ-45 is another fiber connector
High end
o No RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) because data is transmitted by light
o Light degrades slower than electrical signal on a copper connection
o Fiber transmits the longest distances
o Two types of communications in fiber:
Single-mode fiber = high bandwidths and used for long distances (not
for small networks)
Up to 100 Gb/s and 20 miles
Use laser light
Multi-mode fiber = most common implementation (used for smaller
networks)
Up to 10 Gb/s and 600m
Use LED light
o WDM (Wavelength-Division Multiplexing) = fiber cable that carries more than
two signals at a time
o DWDM (Dense WDM) = 200 or more signals at a time
o SONET (Synchronous Optical Networking) = fiber standard for North
American
o SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) = fiber standard for the rest of the world
o Types of overhead in fiber networks:
Section = for links between repeaters
Line = for connecting devices
Path = for disassembling frames (like routers and switches)
o Attenuation = signal loss in fiber over long distances
o Microbending = signal loss if cable is bent slightly
o Macrobending = signal loss if cable is bent too much
o Fiber based Ethernet networks include:
1000BASESX
10GBASESR
Coaxial
o Used for high bandwidth and broadband Internet
35 | P a g e
Usually these cables do not exceed 50 Mb/s

Two or more forms sharing a common axis
Used in older Ethernet networks in a bus topology
10BASE2 (Thinnet) uses RG-58 (185m, 10Mb/s)
10BASE5 (Thicknet) uses RG-8 (500m, 10Mb/s)
o RG-59
75-ohm impedance
Thinner than RG-6
Not used for long distances
Often packed with VCRs and other electronic equipment due to its
short distance limitation
o RG-6
75 ohm impedance
Used for satellite dish into home
Connects with an F-Connector or a BNC (Bayonet Neil-Concelman)
connector
F-Connectors
o Used for cable television (CATV) and security camera
applications
o Screws in
o Has a pin in the middle
BNC
o Used for 10Base2 Ethernet connections along with various
radio and video applications
o 50-75 ohms
o Rigid and bulky
o Pin in the middle, but not as emphasized as the FConnector
AutoMDIX = automatically detects and configures cable connection types
o
o
o
TCP/IP
o
The entire basis surrounding the TCP/IP protocol is that it is really two different
protocols: the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the IP (Internet Protocol) that
are used in order to allow two given computers in a network to identify each other
and then send data to each other. IP is used so two computers can establish a
connection with each other across a large and vast network and TCP is used to
ensure that the data they send over this network will not be lost.
The OSI Model (Not explicitly listed in the exam objectives, but very useful to
know)
o Describes network operations using different layers in order to explain the
fundamentals of how a network works.
o Layer 7: Application = User driven applications such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
o Layer 6: Presentation = Files that are the basis of the transfer like JPG, MPEG,
OGG, DOCX, etc.
o Layer 5: Session = Coordinates a connection and logical ports between
different groups of data and manages the direction of data flow
o Layer 4: Transport = Ensures reliability of data transfer (TCP)
36 | P a g e
Layer 3: Network = Routes data across a network of different nodes (Router

and IP)
o Layer 2: Data Link = Transfers data between network nodes (Switch and
Bridge)
o Layer 1: Physical = Sends data across the physical medium and translates it
(Hub and Repeater)
The DOD Model (Also not in exam objectives, but is worth mentioning due to the
similarity with OSI)
o Process: OSI Model Layer 7, Layer 6, and Layer 5
o Host-to-Host: OSI Model Layer 4
o Internet: OSI Model Layer 3
o Network: OSI Model Layer 2 and Layer 1
o
IP
NetBIOS/NetBEUI
o Came before TCP/IP when there were less computers
o Assigned each computer a unique name that could be any combination of
letters or numbers
o Each computer broadcasted frames to every other computer in the entire
network
o This worked for LANs, but when the world network expanded into WANs, each
computer broadcasting frames to every computer would not be practice.
IP (Internet Protocol) = consists of a 32-bit address which allows different
computers to communicate with each other, then uses a router (having its own IP
address) to communicate outside the network when needed.
Every device needs a unique IP address and subnet mask
IP Address Classes
o Class A: 0.0.0.0 126.255.255.255
16,777,216 addresses allowed
Allocated to huge companies and enterprises
Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0
127.x.x.x is classless and reserved for network testing and loopback
operation
Called the local host address
o Class B: 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
65,536 addresses allowed
Allocated to medium size businesses
o Class C: 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
254 addresses allowed
Allocated to LANs
o Class D (multicast): 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
o Class E (reserved): 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
Reserved for research purposes
Private Addresses:
o RFC 1918 makes the standard allowing private addresses
o When designing private addresses:
Class A: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
37 | P a g e
Single Class A
Largest CIDR block = 10.0.0/8
Host ID is 24 bits
Class B: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
16 contiguous Class Bs
Largest CIDR block = 172.16.0.0/12,
Host ID is 20 bits
Class C: 192.168.0.0 - 196.168.255.255
256 contiguous Class Cs
Largest CIDR block = 192.168.0.0/16
Host ID is 16 bits
Number of addresses allowed in a network is defined by the formula: 2 n-2; where n
= hosts per network
You can never have an IP address that ends in a 0 or a 255 because the one that
ends with the 0 is the network address and the one that ends in 255 is the
broadcast address
Subnet Mask = a secondary 32-bit address that goes along with the IP address to
identify the network ID and the host ID in the IP address
o The amount of octets occupied by a 255 corresponds to the amount of octets
in the IP address that consist of the network ID. The amounts of 0s in the
subnet mask, thus, correspond with the host ID within the IP address.
o For example, an IP address of 192.168.1.4 with a subnet mask of
255.255.255.0 has a network ID of 192.168.1 and a host ID of 4.
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
o Useful for further dividing subnets beyond their preconfigured Class A, B, or C
standards to make more efficient use of allocated subnets and to perhaps
have more control over the exact amount of hosts you need in a network
without wasting a ton of IP addresses in the process.
o For example:
192.168.1.1/24 is the CIDR notation for really saying that your IP
address is 192.168.1.1 and your subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
because the three octets of 255 equal 24-bits (8x3=24), so thus you
can just say 192.168.1.1 to mean the same thing.
So to further divide beyond the preconfigured subnets of Class A, you
will use the IP address of 10.1.0.1/26. This really means you have an IP
address of 10.1.0.1 with a corresponding subnet mask of
255.255.255.192. The 26 means that, starting from the left, there are
26 bits that make up the network ID and the remaining 6 bits make up
the host ID. This means that the first three octets of 255 were used
along (8x3=24) along with two additional bits from the last octet are
part of the network ID. The octet of 192 in the subnet mask comes
from the fact that the two additional bits taken from the last octet of
the IP address have the binary definitions of 128 and 64 respectively.
128 + 64 = 192, thus forming the last octet.
The number of octets that are common for all computers on a broadcast domain is
the network ID
Static IP = an IP address that remains the same
38 | P a g e
Typing in an address manually on a device is giving that device a static IP

address
o For servers and network devices such as printers
Dynamic IP = an IP address that changes
o Used for clients in a network
o Usually leased by DHCP for a finite amount of time
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) distributes public IP addresses
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)
o Made all IP configuration automatic in 1993 before DHCP
o Didn't have a built in mechanism to see what IP addresses have lost their
lease
o Some manual configuration required
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
o Configures IP Addresses, subnet masts, default gateways, DNS servers, NTP
servers, etc.
o Network administrator will preconfigure the DHCP server to only give out IP
addresses within the networks range.
o Four stages:
1. Discover = NIC uses UDP to located DHCP server
2. Offer = DHCP offers IP, gateway, and lease
3. Request = accepts first one it receives
4. Acknowledgement = resends with info that client requested
o Use IPCONFIG /RELEASE to view info about what DHCP gave to the PC
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing) = used to automatically assign an IP
address to a machine when DHCP is not available.
o Link-local addresses
Can't communicate to other routers, but you can locally
o IETF reserved 169.254.1.0 through 169.254.254.255
Last 256 addresses are reserved
IPv6 reserves fe80::/10 (assigned as fe80::/64)
o These addresses are automatically assigned by the OS
Uses ARP to confirm the addresses aren't taken
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
o OSI Layer 3 address
o Consists of four 8 bit octets for a total of 32 bits
o 256 is the highest each byte or octet can get (192.168.1.131, each cluster
being a byte or octet with 8 individual bits)
o Needs a server IP address, server application port number, client IP address,
and client port number
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
o Improvements over IPv4:
Address size increase from 32 to 128 bits
Some header fields have been dropped
Less rigid length limits and ability to introduce more options
Packets will indicate traffic type
Data integrity and confidentiality
Header is 40 fixed bytes and has 8 fields of information
o NOT in a decimal format: it uses a hexadecimal format
o One letter equals four bits
o Windows makes the last 64-bits of each address random
o
39 | P a g e
DNS becomes very important with IPv6

Example IPv6 address:
fe80:0000:0000:0000:5d18:0652:cffd:8f52
Notice it has 2 bytes per group, making a 128-bit address
o Shortcuts include removing leading zeros and abbreviate two or more groups
of zeros with double colons (::) once per address:
1. fe80:0000:0000:0000:cabc:c800:00a7:08d5
2. fe80:0:0:0:cabc:c800:a7:8d5
3. fe80::cabc:c800:a7:8d5
Notice that in step two, the leading zeros were removed in each group,
including groups of only zeros leaving just one zero.
The three groups of zeros after fe80 were replaced with a double colon
o Does not broadcast, only multicasts
o IPv6s link-local IP address is the same as APIPA for IPv4, but IPv6 will always
have a link-local address
o The NIC will have three IPv6 addresses: one link-local and two global
addresses (one temporary and one static)
o Computers using IPv6 need a global address given to them by their
router/default gateway to access the internet
o Steps in getting a global address:
1. The computer boots up and sends a router solicitation message
(FF02::2)
2. The router sends an RA (Router Advertisement) with prefix and DNS
3. The computer adds the random 64-bits (EUI-64) to the end of the prefix
forming a global address
4. A global address will always start with a 2
o IPv6 loopback address = ::1
Unicast = communication from one node to the other
Multicast = communication from one node to a select group of nodes
Anycast = communication from one node to the nearest node
Default Gateway used by the router to allow you to communicate outside your
local subnet
o The router is usually referred to as the default gateway
o Must be an IP Address on a local subnet
o Email, Internet, LAN, Voice and Data, and Firewall are all types of gateways
Half-duplex analogy = Two people having a conversation via walkie-talkies. When
one person is speaking, the other must wait till that person is finished speaking
before talking back.
Full-duplex analogy = Two people having a conversation via a telephone. Both
people can speak at the same time and their voice will get to the other end
o Modern NICs use full-duplex, but have an auto-sensing feature to
accommodate old, half-duplex NICs
Wake-On-LAN = turns on a sleeping PC that is not physically close by sending
magic packets which repeat the destination MAC address many times
o Found in Power Management
o
o
TCP
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o Connection oriented
Both parties need to synchronize with each other
40 | P a g e
Reliable delivery (will always know if something went wrong)

Keeps track of out of order or duplicate messages sent
Analogy: loads and unloads moving truck and checks for missing cargo
Good in unicast communications
(User Datagram Protocol)
Opposite of TCP, but performs much better
Acts as an interface between IP and upper layer protocols
Connectionless
Good for multicast and broadcast communication
Analogy: loads and unloads moving truck, but doesn't check for missing cargo
Very unreliable
No confirmation that information was received
No way to manage retransmissions
UDP has no idea how many packets went through the network
Non-ephemeral ports = permanent port numbers
o Found on servers
Ephemeral ports = temporary port numbers
o Determined in real-time by client workstation
TCP and UDP ports can be any number between 0 and 65,535
Port numbers are only used for communications, not security
Service port numbers need to be well known
o For example: port 80 for connecting to the Internet
TCP Ports and Protocols:
o Port 20/21 = FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
o Port 22 = SSH (Secure Shell)
Encrypted communication link
Uses tunneling
Looks and acts the same as Telnet, but is used for the entire Internet,
not just LANs
Used to encrypt data when working at the command line of a computer
Also used to connect securely to another computer
SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol)
FTP using SSH so its more secure
Data is encrypted
Provides file system functionality (remote file removal, resuming
interrupted transfers, directory listings, etc.)
o Port 23 = Telnet
Used to connect remotely to servers
Should only be used in LANs
o Port 25 = SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
Used to send mail only
o Port 53 = DNS (Domain Name Services) [zone transfers]
FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Names) are resolved into IP addresses
that the computer can understand
Very important to get anywhere on a network
ICANN maintains DNS names by mapping host names to IP addresses
The HOSTS file in Windows stores static DNS mappings
o Port 80 = HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
o Port 110 = POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
o
o
o
o
UDP
o
o
o
o
o
o
41 | P a g e
o
o
o
o
UDP
Handles incoming mail

More popular than IMAP4, but IMAP4 is the better choice
Port 137/139 = SMB (Server Message Block)
Used for file and printer sharing
Allows reading and writing files on a server
For windows only
However, SAMBA is used to emulate SMB when it is not available
Also called CIFS (Common Internet File System)
Originally sent using NetBIOS over TCP/IP
Couldn't communicate outside of subnet
Can go directly over TCP Port 445
Referred to as Direct Host SMB
Port 143 = IMAP4 (Internet Transfer Protocol Secure version 4)
Handles incoming mail
Better than POP3
Port 161/162 = SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Monitors health and availability of networks
Monitors/queries network devices
v1 = structured tables, unencrypted
v2 = data type enhancements, bulk transfers, unencrypted
v3 = message integrity, authentication, encrypted
Very detailed, so access should be very limited
Every SNMP device uses MIB (Management Information Base) to
monitor activity based on predefined standards
Port 389 = LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol)
Protocol for reading and writing directories over an IP network
Allows clients to access information form a server
Similar to a phone directory
Part of the ITU-T X.500 standard created by the ITU (International
Telecommunications Union)
Originated from DAP which ran on OSI protocol stack and was not
lightweight
LDAP now runs on the TCP/IP protocol stack
Found on enterprise sized networks
Used in Windows Active Directory, Apple OpenDirectory, and Novell
eDirectory
Windows Active Directory uses Kerberos Authentication Protocol
Objects are listed in a hierarchical structure
Most specific attribute (value pair) is listed first
Container objects (country, organization, organizational units)
Leaf objects (printers, computers, files, users)
Port 443 = HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
Port 1723 = PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
Foundation of VPN (Virtual Private Network)
Port 3389 = RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol)
Accessed via mstsc.exe
Port 5060 = SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
Commonly known as VoIP
Ports and Protocols:
42 | P a g e
o Port 53 = DNS [queries]

o Port 67 & 68 = DHCP
o Port 137/138 = SMB
o Port 389 LDAP
Proxy Server = software that enables multiple Internet connections to go through
one protected PC
Internet Appliance = old term used to describe various TCP/IP controlled
appliances that were popular in the 1990s
Wireless Networking
Wireless Standards
Wireless devices use the CSMA/CA networking scheme

Wireless nodes may use RTS/CTS where a transmitting node sends an RTS frame
and the receiving node responds with a CTS frame saying its okay to transmit. Then
the transmitting node waits for an ACK until sending another packet
802.11 Wireless Networking Standard
o 802.11a
5 GHz range
54 Mbit/s
Indoor distance: 35 meters/115 feet
Outdoor distance: 120 meters/390 feet
Special licensing permits use at 3.7 GHz at 5000m at higher power
8 available channels
o 802.11b
2.4 GHz range
11 Mbit/s
More frequency conflict
Found in 10BASET wireless setups
o 802.11g
2.4 GHz range
54 Mbit/s
Backwards compatibility with 802.11b
Same frequency conflict problems as 802.11b
o 802.11n
Operates at 5 GHz and/or 2.4 GHz
600 Mbit/s
Uses MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) to increase range and
speed
4 allowable streams
43 | P a g e
4 antennas provide transmit beamforming which are used to

eliminate dead spots
o In the 2.4 GHz range, channels 1, 6, or 11 are good in the US
o In other parts of the world, channels 1, 5, 9, or 13 are good
Ad hoc mode = peer-to-peer
o Forms an IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set) in a decentralized free-for-all
o Good for temporary networks
Infrastructure mode
o Uses one or more WAPs (Wireless Access Points) to connect wireless network
nodes to a wired network segment in BSS or EBSS (for more than one WAP)
Wireless Security Protocols
o WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
Uses the RC4 cipher
Different levels of encryption (64-bit or 128-bit)
You actually get 40-bit or 104-bit encryption
Does not provide end-to-end encryption
Deemed unsecure as of 2001
Usage should be avoided
o WPA (WiFi Protected Access)
Uses TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) encryption types
TKIP provides a 128-bit encryption key
Uses EAP to offer improved security
Unique encryption keys
Temporary until WPA2
o WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access 2)
Called the 802.11i standard
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) encryption
Provides 128-bit, 192-bit or 256-bit encryption keys
Can use TKIP if less processing power is requested
CCMP (Counter Mode with Cypher Block Chaining Message
Authentication Code Protocol) replaced TKIP
o WPA2-Enterprise
Adds 802.11x (users will be required to authenticate before gaining
access to the network)
RADIUS server authentication
No preshared key like the others
SOHO Configurations
SOHO (Small Office Home Office)

MAC Address Filtering
o MAC address = 48-bit address that serves the purpose of identifying a
particular device
o Built into the NIC by the manufacturer
o Limits access to a network by only allowing access by a designated list of
MAC addresses
o Easy to find MAC addresses through a wireless LAN analysis
o IPCONFIG /ALL is a way to view a computers MAC address
Configure the highest possible encryption (WPA2-AES)
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NAT (Network Address Translation)

o All computers on a LAN have a single public IP address provided by the ISP,
and any request made outside the LAN is under the IP address of the
corresponding router. When the information requested by the computer
returns to the router, NAT is built into the router to allow the router to return
that information back to the computer that requested it.
In other words, all internal devices are translated into a single external
address
Changes the internal IP addresses of network devices to external IP
addresses to protect, share, and provide more security for external IP
addresses
o SOHO devices will configure this automatically
o Also, rarely, called PAT
Port filtering
o Controls when ports are open and closed
Port forwarding
o External IP/port number maps to internal IP/port number
o Makes IP address accessible outside of network
o Provides 24/7 access to a service hosted internally
o For a web server or gaming server, for example
o Also called Destination NAT or Static NAT
Port triggering
o One port is automatically opened when communication occurs on another
port
o Provides dynamic access to a service, triggering when a service is made
o A reverse port forward is automatically created
o Basically, port triggering is a way to automate port forwarding
o Internal client communicates externally on a particular port
o Only one person can use a trigger at a time
o Ensures ports are not open at unnecessary times
o Reduces chance of security threats from a port
Port filtering, forwarding, and triggering require a static IP address
SSID (Service Set Identification)
o Uniquely identifies a wireless network
o Makes a recognizable name
o BSSID is the MAC address of the access point
Not normally seen by the end user
o SSID is usually configured to broadcast
Can be disabled so it doesn't show up on other people's computers as
a security measure
o WPS (WiFi Protected Setup)
Makes it easy to add setup and add new devices to a network
Automatically generates an SSID for network
Avoids the complexity of encryption technologies
Security issue: brute force PIN
Can be fixed by disabling the use of that PIN or WPS entirely
o QoS (Quality of Service)
Sets different priorities of traffic on a network
For example: VoIP would be high and Sim City would be low
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Prioritizes applications, ports, and MAC addresses

Optimizes allocation of resources
(Demilitarized Zone)
Zone between internal and external network that can be publically
accessed without allowing access to the internal network
Resides between server and firewall
DMZ
Internet Connection Types
Cable Modem
o Data on the cable network
o Built on existing TV cables
o Operates according to the DOCSIS standard
o High speed networking (4 Mbps to 100 Mbps)
o Multiple services like data and voice
o Uses the RG-6 or the RG-59
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
o ADSL (Asymmetric DSL)
Most common
Offers different download and upload speeds
Uses telephone line
18,000 foot limitation from central office
24 Mbps downstream / 3.5 Mbps upstream
o ADSL 2 = 12 Mbps downstream / 2 Mbps upstream
o ADSL 2+ = 24 Mbps downstream / 2 Mbps upstream
o SDSL (Symmetric DSL)
Never standardized
o VSDL (Very High Bitrate DSL)
4 Mbps to 100 Mbps
Dialup
o Network with voice telephone lines
o Analog lines with limited frequency response
o Runs at 56 Kbps but can get compressed to work at 320 Kbps
o Slow throughput of any internet connection type
o PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is the standard for dialup modems for PCs
Fiber
o High speed networking
o Configurations include FTTN (Fiber-to-the-node) or FTTP (Fiber-to-thepremises)
o All services are made possible
o Cloud storage allowed
o Up to 150 Mbps
Satellite
o For remote sites where other Internet connection options are not available
o High cost
o 5 Mbps downstream / 1 Mbps upstream
o High latency
250ms upstream, 250 ms downstream
o Real-time functions can't be done
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2Ghz range
Line of sight required
RJ-45 connection
(Integrated Service Digital Network)
Provides telephone transmission over fully digital cables
Must be within 18,000 feet from central office
BRI (Basic Rate Interface) or (2B + D)
Two 64 Kbps bearer (B) channels (for data and voice)
One 16 Kbps signaling (D) channel (for setup and configuration
information)
128 Kbps max
o PRI (Primary Rate Interface)
Delivered over a T1 or E1 line
T1 = 23B + D
E1 = 30B + D + alarm channel
o Commonly used
o 1.5 Mbps max
Cellular Networks
o For mobile phones
o Antennas all over the country side create "cells" of signal around the country
o CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
o GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
Poor data support
o LTE (Long Term Evolution)
Based on GSM/EDGE
Download rate of 300 Mbit/s, upload 75 Mbit/s
o HSPA+ (Evolved High Speed Packet Access)
Based on CDMA
Download rates of 84 Mbit/s, upload of 22 Mbit/s
o 3GPP/LTE = 50 Mbps @ 20 MHz
o LTE advanced uses multiplexing
o WiMax
30 mile radius, 3000 square miles for towers
Fixed WiMax (Line of Sight)
66 GHz
IEEE 802.16 Standard
37 Mbps downstream / 17 Mbps upstream
Runs on a T3 line
Mobile WiMax
IEEE 802.16e-2005 Standard
Theoretical throughput of 1 Gbps for fixed stations
Mobile station throughput of 100 Mbps
o
o
o
ISDN
o
o
o
Network Types and Topologies
Network Types
o LAN (Local Area Network)
Usually high speed connectivity
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Ethernet and 802.11 wireless connection types found

Referred to as a broadcast domain = a group of computers connected
to a switch
o WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)
Same as LAN, just wireless
o WAN (Wide Area Network)
Spanning the globe or neighborhood
Slower than a LAN
Point-to-point, MPLS, terrestrial, and non-terrestrial connections found
o PAN (Personal Area Network)
Created when a personal device connects to the internet via Bluetooth
or WiFi
Integrated with phones
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Larger than a LAN, smaller than a WAN
Everyone's moving to Metro Ethernet
Government owned
Network Topologies
o Network topologies are used in planning a network
o Mesh
Multiple links to the same place
Redundancy and fault-tolerance built in
Load balancing available
Found in WANs
o Ring
Used in many popular topologies
Computers are connected to each other in a chain
Still used in MAN and WANs
Built in fault tolerance
o Bus
Central cable connects entire network
Early LANs
Cheapest and easiest
Coaxial cable was the bus
Simple, but prone to errors
One break in link will disable entire network
o Star
Used in most large and small networks
All devices are connected to a central device
Common to see in switched Ethernet networks
o Hybrid
Combination of two or more physical topologies
Allows a lot of flexibility
Network Devices
Hub
o
o
o
Multi-port repeater
Traffic going in one port is repeated to every other port
Operate at OSI layer 1
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Early centralized network, but not very efficient

10 - 100 Mbit/s connection
All devices share a collision domain and total bandwidth
Operate in half-duplex mode
Types of hubs:
Passive = receives signal and simply broadcasts it
Intelligent = processes data and transmits that info
Standalone = can be passive or intelligent
Stackable = can connect multiple hubs to it
Switch
o Multi-port bridge
o Application specific
o Operate at OSI layer 2
o Can use MAC addresses to send personalized signals
o Forward traffic based on data link address in point-to-point mode
o Many ports
o High bandwidth (many simultaneous packets)
o Operates in full-duplex mode
o Two modes of operation:
Cut-through mode = only reads the first 14 bytes of a frame before
sending, based on MAC addresses
Store-and-forward mode = stores the entire packet and checks it
Router
o Connects LANs together using TCP/IP, or two separate networks
o Each port is a separate broadcast domain, meaning each port is for a
different network
The ports get the first IP address of the corresponding network and is
thus that networks default gateway
o Must be at least two different connections
o Routes traffic between IP subnets
o Connects diverse network types
o Types of routers:
Dynamic = failures and problems are solved for ports
Static = manual configuration for each
Modular = many inputs
SOHO = simple for home
Interior = autonomous LAN forwards packets between subnets
Exterior = directs data between nodes outside of an autonomous LAN
Wireless Access Point (WAP)
o Not a wireless router in a SOHO configuration
o Many switches and routers act as WAPs
o PoE (Power Over Ethernet) is commonly used in these
o Bridges a wired network to a wireless network
o OSI layer 2 device
o Operate in infrastructure mode
Bridge
o Connects different networks together at OSI layer 2
o Usually only two ports
o
o
o
o
o
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Will have different types of connections/ports for different kinds of network

connections
o Can connect different topologies
o Distributes traffic based on MAC addresses
o Most bridges are wireless today
Modem
o Converts analog sounds to digital signals
o The internal modem is responsible for converting these digital/serial
communications to parallel communication that the CPU can understand with
the UART chip
o A network needs a modem on both sides of the connection
o Used in standard phone lines
o Types of modems:
POTS = connects through existing telephone lines (2400 baud max)
DSL = connects telephone circuits configured with DSL services
Cable = through existing TV infrastructure
Network Attached Storage (NAS)
o One internal server, special disk capacity, and OS
o Optimized for file transfer and plug-and-play features
o Storage connected to the network
o No monitor, mouse, or keyboard is needed
o Requires only a network name and a network type (domain or a workgroup)
o Preconfigured and non-upgradable
o Self-configuring
o High speed connectivity
o Large scalability and designed to grow
o Redundancy built-in
Firewalls
o Filters traffic by port number
Some can filter through OSI layer 7
o Can encrypt traffic into/out of the network
o Can proxy traffic
o Can operate as a router
o Software firewalls are useful for individual clients while hardware firewalls are
for an entire network
o Packet filtering = packets that do not meet firewalls criteria get rejected
o State table = monitors communication between dynamic state list hosts and
wont allow packets if communication is no longer current
VoIP Phones
o Normal phone, but has data integration, built in browser, multimedia, etc.
o All of these things can be built into a single device
o
Networking Tools
Crimpers
o Pinch the connector onto a wire
Millimeters
o Consists of two probes and an analog or digital meter
50 | P a g e
Measures voltage, current, resistance, and continuity (electron flow from one
end to the other)
o Also called a VOM (Volt-Ohm Meter) and a digital multimeter (DMM)
Toner Probe
o Generates a tone and sends it through the wire
o Tracks where a wire is going
o Includes two things: a tone generator and a tone probe
Tone Generator = sends an electrical signal down a cable
Tone Probe = emits a sound when placed near the cable
o Called Fox and Hound
Cable Testers
o Detects Near End Crosstalk (NEXT)
Interference measured at the transmitting end
o Detects Far End Crosstalk (FEXT)
Interference measured at away from the transmitter
o Detects Alien Crosstalk (AXT)
Interference from other cables
o Detects Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio (ACR)
Difference between insertion loss and NEXT
o Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
o Time-domain reflectometer (TDA) measures impedance in network cabling
Loopback Plugs
o Tests physical ports
o Good for testing a NICs circuitry
o Validates a link or connection
o Good for performing hardware diagnostics of a network interface
o Works with serial / RS-232
o Good for diagnosing network connections
o Not crossover cables
o Don't need it unless there is a nasty problem
o Need the right kind of plug depending on the type of Internet connection you
are using
Punch-Down Tool
o Punches wires into a wire block
o Forces wires into grooves
o Trims wires during the process
o Good for working with 110 blocks (patch panel connector)
o
LAPTOPS
Laptop Expansion Options
PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association)

o Type I = 3.3mm, used for flash memory (not common)
Can hold one Type I card
o Type II = 5mm, used for modems, SCSI controllers and I/O various ports
Can hold one Type II card or two Type I cards
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Type III = 10.5mm = adding storage/hard drives

Can hold one Type III card or a Type I and Type II card
o Now called PC Card
o All have 68-pins and are 85.6mm x 54.0mm
o Both 5V and 3.3V cards exist
o 3.3V cards have a key that prevents them from going into a 5V slot
o 16-bits at 8 MHz
o Each card could perform up to two different functions
o Analogous to ISA slots in desktops
o All PCMCIA standards are hot-swappable
Card Bus
o Extension of the PCMCIA standard
o Higher throughput (32-bits at 33 MHz)
o Each card could perform up to 8 functions
o 1066 Mbps shared bandwidth
o Older PCMCIA could not accept Card Bus interfaces
o Must eject with Safely Remove Hardware button
o Analogous to PCI slots in desktops
o Both CardBus and PC Card require the PCMCIA Host Controller
ExpressCard
o 2.5 times faster than PCMCIA
o Less expensive
o Replaces PC Card and Card Bus, and thus eliminating the need for the
PCMCIA Host Controller
o Two form factors:
o ExpressCard/34 = 26-pin
34mm x 75mm x 5mm
o ExpressCard/54 = 26-pin
L-shape
54mm x 75mm x 5mm
o 480 Mbps in USB 2.0 mode
o 1056 Mbps in PCI mode
o 2.5 Gbps in PCI Express x1 mode
o Provides a direct connection to the system bus, greatly increasing speeds
Docking Stations
o Can expand the features of a laptop
o Cold dock = laptop is shut down completely before being removed
o Hot dock = laptop remains on
o Standby dock = laptop must be in sleep mode
Port Replicators are docking stations with no expansion slots or peripherals
Both docking stations and port replicators use a proprietary connection to laptop
Wireless Cards
o Usually will have cover on them
o Connected through Mini PCI or Mini PCIe
Laptop security options include a cable lock and installing LoJack
o LoJack will not prevent from physical theft, but allows laptop to be tracked
and deletes any sensitive information from hard drive
o Also features remote device lock, which prevent unauthorized users from
logging in
o
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Laptops may have LoJack installed in the BIOS
Laptop Features
Laptops are more susceptible to ESD than desktops are

Laptop Keyboard
o Smaller than a desktop keyboard
o Doubles up the capability of several buttons
o Sometimes includes a trackpoint which is that blue rubber thing which allows
you to move the mouse
Power supplies are usually 110 or 220 volts
o Amp = amount of current sent to laptop
o Volt = force of electricity sent to laptop
Universal power adapters range from 100 to 240 volts
Batteries:
o Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd)
Handles deep discharges
Looses charge really fast
Expensive
Rarely used today
o Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
Problems when over-discharged
o Lithium Ion (Li-ion)
Most common
Have built in circuitry to prevent overheating
Longest charge
LiPD batteries are found in mobile devices
o Batteries store DC
o To keep batteries in optimal condition, never let them run bellow 70-80%
Speakers
o Will usually be stereo (L/R) but many have subwoofer
No standardized motherboard for all laptops (proprietary)
Laptop CPUs
o Generate less heat
o Have integrated features such as a memory controller or a video controller
o Not very upgradable, but can be replaceable
o Modern laptop CPUs have SMM (System Management Mode) which enables
CPUs to slow down or stop their clock without loosing register information
ACPI was intended to be compatible with this
Laptop Memory
o SO-DIMM
68mm x 32mm
72-pin, 100-pin, 144-pin, 200-pin and 204-pin versions found
72-pin, 100-pin, and 144-pin are SDRAM
200-pin and 204-pin are usually DDR, DDR2 or DDR3 SDRAM
100-pin = 2 notches
144-pin = single notch near middle
200-pin = notch near left or right
204-pin = single notch closer to the middle than 144-pin
o ReadyBoost
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Adding up to 256 GB of additional memory via flash drive

Works with Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8
Laptop Displays
Most laptop displays are LCD

o 10 to 20 are the typical laptop screen sizes
o Low power, lightweight, inexpensive
o Black levels are difficult, requires a separate backlight
Plasma would take too much power to use on a laptop
Screens house antennas for WiFi and Bluetooth
o Matte = wide viewing angle, rich colors, not visible in bright light
o High Gloss = better than matte, but more glare
o High end laptops use IPS panels for better viewing angle and color quality
Backlights can be LED, ELP, CCFL, or HCFL
Resolutions include:
o XGA = 1024 x 768
o HD 720p = 1200 x 720
o WXGA = 1366 x 768 (16:9) or 1280 x 800 (16:10)
Found in 14 to 15 models
o SXGA = 1280 x 1024
o SXGA+ = 1400 x 1050
o HD 900p = 1600 x 900
o WSXGA+ = 1680 x 1050
o UXGA = 1600 x 1200
o HD 1080p = 1920 x 1080
Found in 17.3 models
o WUXGA = 1920 x 1200
Dual View = a feature on laptops where two ports are built into the video card
PRINTERS
Printing speed is measured in PPM (Pages Per Minute)

Printing resolution (density of ink that affects print quality) is measured in DPI (Dots
Per Inch)
Laser Printers
Uses electro-photographic imaging, which relies on photoconductive compounds

Raster images are sent to the printer to be produced
o RIP (Raster Image Processor) is used to translate the raster image into
commands that the printer can understand
Combines a laser, high voltage wires, charged ions, powdered ink, heat, and paper
to create an image
o Some low quality laser printers may use LED light instead of a laser
High quality output
Ideal for spot color, which is things like headings and lines
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RET (Resolution Enhancement Technology) is used to smooth out jagged

edges
Fast printing speeds
Very complex, many moving parts, and requires on-printer memory
Toner
o Made up of carbon particles and polyester resin
o Toner gets charged by the toner cylinder with -200V to -500V
o Color laser printers will have four separate toner cartridges (C, M, Y, and K)
Photosensitive Drum (Imagining Drum)
o Has that blue bar on it
o Laser in the laser imaging unit hits the blue bar, which allows pickup of toner
to place on paper
Primary Corona/Charge Roller
o Gives the photosensitive drum a uniform -600V to -1000V charge, but the
particles on the drum end up with a -100V charge for writing
Transfer Corona/Roller
o Applies a positive charge to the paper
A static charge eliminator prevents the paper from sticking to the roller
Fuser Assembly
o The top element provides heat and the bottom element provides pressure to
the paper in order to permanently fuse the toner to the paper
Transfer Belt
o For color printers
o Responsible for taking all the different colors and putting them onto the belt,
then onto the paper
Pickup Rollers
o Picks up the paper and pulls it into the printer
Registration Roller
o Used to feed the paper underneath the photosensitive drum where toner will
be applied to the paper
Separation Pad
o Exists inside of paper tray and makes it so the printer only picks up one piece
of paper at a time
Duplexing Assembly
o Makes it possible to print on both sides of paper
o Turns the paper over inside of the printer
Page Description Languages
o PS (Adobe Postscript)
o PCL (HP Printer Command Language)
o XPS (XML Pages Specification)
Windows XP used GDI
o ASCII provided plain text characters
Laser Printing Process:
1. Cleaning (Some sources list this as the last step, so expect to see Cleaning as
Step 1 or Step 7)
Cleans photosensitive drum of excess toner
Sweeper blade removes any residual toner and a the erase lamp uses
a fluorescent light to remove any electrical charge on the
photosensitive drum, giving it a uniform neutral charge.
o
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Processing
Processes the entire page into memory with its internal memory
. Charging/Conditioning
Primary corona/charge roller charges photosensitive drum with
negative electrostatic charge
. Exposing/Writing
Laser writes image onto photosensitive drum, making a positive charge
on parts on which toner will be applied
. Developing
Photosensitive drum contacts the toner now that it is positively
charged and the toner is thus transferred to the photosensitive drum
. Transferring
Toner is applied to paper
The controller blade controls amount of toner transferred
. Fusing
Permanently melts toner onto the page with heat and pressure
Steps 7, 2, 3, and 4 are done in the image drum cartridge
Laser Printer Maintenance
o Replacing the toner cartridge
Toner contains the OPC drum (sensitive to light)
Power down the printer
Perform calibration after changing to ensure everything is properly
configured
o Laser printer maintenance kit
Includes replacement feed rollers and new fuser units
o Cleaning
Use water or isopropyl alcohol
Use cold water outside of the printer
Use an antistatic vacuum cleaner when cleaning inside
Take the toner cartridge out first
Printers
Inexpensive technology
Vertical and horizontal plates in between ink fountains have positive and negative
charges that serve to control direction of inkjet spray
Most use heat to move the ink
Lower quality than laser, but still pretty good
Prints up to 4800 x 3600 dpi
Quiet
High-resolution
Ink is expensive
Ink will fade on paper over time
Clogs easily
Black, cyan, magenta, and yellow inks
Print Head
o Connected to the cartridge that contains the ink
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o Contains nozzles that spray ink

o This is to eliminate problems with print heads clogging
o The stabilizer bar is used to make sure the print head is at its precise location
Feed Roller
o Feeds paper into the paper
o Powered by the stepper motor
Duplexing Assembly
o Could be an external add in
Carriage and Belt
o Ink cartridges go in it and it moves them back and forth
o Calibration is important
o Found on external applications
Bubble Jet = a type of inkjet printer that uses tubes of ink with resistors
o Ink boils and sprays on paper
o 64 128 nozzles are used to accomplish this
Solid Ink Printers = complete a print job in a single pass and use ink sticks to
produce really vibrant colors, more vibrant than any printer can provide
o Also, operates really fast
Thermal Printers
Two methods of thermal printing:

o Direct Thermal Printing = contains a heating element which burns dots into
the paper
o Thermal Wax Transfer = operates like dye-sublimation, but film is coated with
colored wax
o Uses color dithering
White paper turns black when heated
Very quiet
Used for receipt printing
Image is sensitive to light and heat
Consists of:
o Controller board
o Platen
o Feed assembly
Takes the thermal paper off the roll, through the printer, to the outside
o Spring
Applies pressure to thermal head
o Thermal head
Heating element
Heats only particular areas of paper
Uses a special type of thermal paper
o Treated with chemicals so when exposed to heat, it changes color
Thermal Printer Maintenance
o Paper is inexpensive
o When cleaning the heating element, use isopropyl alcohol or cleaning
pen/cleaning card
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Dye-Sublimation Printers = turns solid ink into a vapor, then turns it back into a
solid
o Ink is vaporized on glossy paper
o Needed for prints that require fine detail
o Requires one page-pass per color (CMYK)
Impact Printers
Dot-Matrix Printers = uses a tractor feed and is good for printing multi-part forms
o Also called Line Printers
o 9-pin printers = draft quality prints
o 24-pin printers = letter quality / near-letter quality (NLQ)
Daisy-Wheel = strikes an inked ribbon with embossed character
The pins are actually called solenoids
Good for multi-part forms
Low cost per page
Noisy
Poor graphics
Print Head
o Rounded, tiny pins in the middle create the information output
o Heat can damage it
Printer Ribbon
o Saturated with ink
o Rotates through the printer multiple times
Tractor Feed
o Paper will have holes in the side to take advantage of this feature
Impact Printer Maintenance
o Replacing the ribbon is good when ink starts getting lighter. Easy to replace
o Replacing the print head is also easy
o To replace paper, line holes up properly
o Continuous feed, make sure nothing is in the way
Installing and Configuring Printers
Old printers connected with parallel ports, which abide by the IEEE 1284 standard
o The IEEE 1284 standard has five modes of operation:
1. Compatibility mode
2. Nibble mode
3. Byte mode
4. EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port)
For non-printer peripherals
5. ECP (Enhanced Capability Port)
For printers and scanners
The first three modes are for mono-directional printing while EPP and
ECP are for bidirectional printing
EPP and ECP must have DMA and operating system support to
take full advantage of their capabilities
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Parallel printer cables will have DB-25 connector at the PC end, and a 36-pin
Centronics connector at the printer end
o A legacy parallel printer port is often referred to as an LPT
o Will transfer at 150 KB/s at distances less than 6 feet
Cables that are IEEE 1284 compliant can stretch out to 32 feet max
Some printers connected via serial port, but this is less common
Most of today's printers connect via USB
Wireless printers use:
o Infrared (IrDa)
o Bluetooth (Operate at 1-3 Mbps)
o 802.11x wireless
Printers can be calibrated through ICC or CITE color profiles
A local printer is usually attached via a parallel cable
All printers connected to a homegroup are shared automatically
Need specific printer drivers
o Drivers determine all of the information the printer will receive
o Some printers use printer emulation in which a different print driver is used
for a particular printer that is different from its native driver
Printers can use serial or parallel ports if they need to plug in
Printer calibration refers to the alignment of internal components in the printer to
print on the correct part of the page, not the colors on the screen verses the colors
on the paper
To share on Windows XP: Control Panel -> Printers and Faxes -> Right-click
(Properties) -> Sharing Tab
To share on Windows 7: Control Panel -> Devices and Printers -> Right-click (Printer
Properties) -> Sharing Tab
To add a printer on Windows XP: Navigate to Printers and Faxes
To add a printer on Windows Vista: Navigate to Printers
To add a printer on Windows 7: Navigate to Devices and Printers
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
Computer Safety Procedures
Managing Electrostatic Discharge

o Static electricity itself isn't harmful to computers, but its discharge is
o ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) is very damaging to computer components
o All you need is 100 volts or less to damage computer components
o To control ESD:
Humidity should be kept at 60%
Touch the metal chassis before touching a component
Never touch components directly
o Use anti-static pads as they have resistors inside them
o Use anti-static bags for transferring components
o A ground mat is also a tool for preventing ESD
o When repairing a computer, remove jewelry
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Computer Safety Procedures

o Replace the entire power supply than try to repair the individual components
o Power supplies, displays, and laser printers all have high voltages
o Equipment grounding:
o Most computers connect to ground and being grounded divert electrical faults
away from people
o Equipment racks are also grounded
o Lift with your legs, keep your back straight
Fires
o Don't use water or foam
o Use CO2, FM-200, and other dry chemicals
o Remove the power source of fire
o Use a Class A fire extinguisher for fires dealing with solid combustibles
o Use a Class B fire extinguisher for fires dealing with ordinary flammable
liquids
o Use a Class C fire extinguisher for electrical fires
Cable Management
o Use cable ties or Velcro
o Be aware of government regulations, building codes, and environmental
regulation
Environmental Controls
Managing Your Computing Environment

o Read a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for disposal procedures
o Sometimes abbreviated as Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
o Keep track of temperature, humidity (50%), and proper ventilation in rooms
where computers are
o Keep the computer as cool as possible by having a good airflow going
through
o Cleaning tools include detergents. Do not use ammonia-based cleaning
liquids or isopropyl alcohol
Communication and Professionalism
Communication
o Avoid jargon
o Avoid interrupting
o Clarify customer statements
o Set expectations and options for your customer
o If a password is needed to complete the work, as the user to type it in
themselves
If the password is needed several times, ask the users permission to
change the password after the work is completed.
Professionalism
o Maintain positive attitude
o Avoid being judgmental
o Be on time and avoid distractions
60 | P a g e
o
o
o
Learn how to deal with difficult situations

Don't minimize problems
Maintain confidentiality
61 | P a g e

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Version 3

BIOS (Basic Input/Output Services)

G3 (Mechanical off mode)

Designed to optimize airflow by placing the CPU at the front of the

A power supply converts AC (Alternating Current) from the wall to DC (Direct

Included a 24-pin power connector, but extra 4-pins detached for

Capable of running in sync with system clock

Busses & Chipsets

Front Side Bus (FSB) connects CPU and Northbridge

o Onboard graphics controller has a Southbridge connection

History of AMD CPUs

Competitive with Pentium

Competitive with Pentium II

K10 (Athlon X2)

Featured two cores

256-bit L2 cache, 12 MB L3 cache

i3 3MB L3 cache, turbo boost disabled

LGA 1366 Socket AM2

Also called Socket H1 or simply

Also called Socket H2

Used with Athlon II/Phenom II

Socket form factors

PIO (Programmable Input/Output)

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Clock Speeds: 200 500 MHz

Microscopic magnetized regions on the platter act as 1s and 0s in a sense. Because

SATA (Serial AT Attachment)

SATA I (Revision 1.x)

(Small Computer Systems Interface)

1.5 meters max

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

Hardware based RAID allows for hot swapping

MPEG-1 = 352 x 240 @ 30fps

Other types of storage

o CF2 = 5mm (not backwards compatible with CF1)

External Connection Types

(Universal Serial Bus)

Sometimes connection is colored blue

FireWire (IEEE 1394)

Uses infrastructure mode when connection to a WAP (Wireless Access Point)

Designing Custom Computer Systems

Graphics Technologies = OpenGL, Pixel Shader, DirectX, and Direct3D

Display Devices and Connections

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Most LCD monitors have two backlights

Wider viewing angles than any other display

DVI (Digital Visual Interface)

Purple colored PS/2 port

ST Connector (Straight Tip Connector)

Push and turn to lock

Usually these cables do not exceed 50 Mb/s

Layer 3: Network = Routes data across a network of different nodes (Router

Typing in an address manually on a device is giving that device a static IP

DNS becomes very important with IPv6

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Reliable delivery (will always know if something went wrong)

Handles incoming mail

o Port 53 = DNS [queries]

Wireless devices use the CSMA/CA networking scheme

4 antennas provide transmit beamforming which are used to

SOHO (Small Office Home Office)

NAT (Network Address Translation)

Prioritizes applications, ports, and MAC addresses