Comptes rendus de lecture 383

equivalent models is, in Kline's opinion, crucial. Kline

discusses how to generate equivalent models using
formal rules and provides a detailed example. As the
author notes, equivalent models are rarely considered
in empirical articles, even though most models tested
are likely to have a number of equivalent models, each
able to account for the observed pattern of variances
and covariances. Failure to explicitly rule out equivalent models is one of the chief criticism of research
using SEM.
Nonrecursive models (with feedback loops) and
multiple group analysis are discussed in Chapter 6.
Evaluating nonrecursive models is difficult, since it
requires an understanding of necessary and sufficient
conditions. Moreover, nonrecursive models are particularly problematic because they can easily become
underidentified (more parameters specified than
observables). The chapter helps to resolve these and
other difficulties, such as those related to the rank
condition, which is a rarely discussed but important
quality of the SEM. The rank condition is a sufficient
condition that allows the researcher to infer that the
model is identified. This chapter provides numerous
illustrative and empirical examples on how to evaluate
whether this important criterion has been met.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is the subject of
Chapter 7. Like many books on structural equation
modeling, the chapter includes a discussion of reliability and validity, die nature of latent variables, and how
to specify CFA models. The chapter provides a particularly good overview of the requirements for the identification of confirmatory factor models, including approaches to scaling the latent variable. It includes an
overview of typical CFA models, such as single-factor,
multifactor, multiple group, and nested models, as well
as multitrait-multimethod and higher-order factor
models.
Hybrid models, which include both a structural and
a measurement component, are the sole topic of
Chapter 8. The chapter takes the reader through an
example of the analysis of a hybrid model in depth
from start to finish. Finally, the remaining three
chapters deal with advanced topics, such as nonlinear
structural equation models, categorical models and
models in which mean differences are analyzed, as well
as software considerations, and, most importantly,
guidelines to avoid typical pitfalls. It is the chapter
devoted to pitfalls, entitled "How to Fool Yourself with
SEM," dial describes no less than 35 potential mistakes
that can adversely affect the implementation or interpretation of structural equation model. The issues
discussed range from model specification and data
preparation to analytic procedure and model interpretation. In short, this list would serve researchers well if

adopted as a kind of pre study checklist for any anticipated structural equation analysis.
In summary, both books make important contributions, but they will be best used by different individuals.
For the researcher with no experience in structural
equation modeling and no familiarity with structural
equation software, the book by Kelloway is an ideal
starting point. It promises a clear and concise overview
of the structural equation model and the use of LISREL
software. On the other hand, Kline's book is an invaluable resource for individuals wishing to develop skills
in SEM but who already have some understanding of the
technique and structural equation software. This book
is not designed to get researchers doing structural
equation modeling quickly, but to get researchers
doing structural equation modeling well.
E. Kevin Kelloway is Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychology at the University of Guelph. He is author
of The union and its members: A psychological approach (1992)
and of the forthcoming Flexible work arrangements: Managing
the work-family boundary.
Rex Kline is a clinical psychologist and Associate Professor
in the Department of Psychology at Concordia University,
Montreal.
Darcy A. Santor is a clinical psychologist in the graduate
program at Dalhousie University. He teaches the graduate
level multivariate statistics and is a consulting editor for
Psychological Assessment.

JOHN P. MEYER and NATALIEJ. ALLEN

Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research,

and Application
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1999,
x + 150 pp. (ISBN 0-7619-0105-1, US$29.95, Softcover)
Reviewed by LORNE M. SULSKY

John Meyer and Natalie Allen have produced a very

well-written and interesting book on the topic of
organizational commitment. They bring a conceptual
framework to a research area that seems to have been
largely atheoretical. Their own theoretically derived
and systematic research program spans two decades of
research. In this book, Meyer and Allen carefully and
methodically introduce dieir diree-component conceptualization of work commitment and review empirical
work either emanating from or relevant to their model.
The book, however, offers far more than simply a
review of dieir model and an impressive body of
empirical work. Perhaps its greatest contribution is
how Meyer and Allen critically evaluate the construct

384 Book Reviews

of work commitment and demonstrate how multidimensional and complex the construct really is. First,
although the substance of Meyer and Allen's work is on
commitment to the employing organization, they note
that the concept of commitment is also highly relevant
when considering commitment to such entities as work
teams, departments, and unions, just to name a few.
Although the authors raise more questions than they
provide answers concerning the implications of multiple entities for both theory development and research
in the area of commitment, the questions are fundamentally important ones. By identifying some of the
theoretical and, ultimately, empirical complexities
introduced when multiple entities are considered,
Meyer and Allen give the reader a framework for
thinking about future research needs in this area. For
example, as I read their discussion of the inherent
"dependencies" across the various entities, I began to
wonder how, for example, commitment to a work team
may or may not influence the development of commitment to the organization as a whole. On many occasions while reading this book, I found my "research
idea meter" on high alert. Given that I do not specifically work in this area, I think diis underscores just how
thought provoking the book really is. I am certain that
researchers in diis area, as well as anyone interested in
the topic of work commitment, will find that the book
does an exemplary job of raising both conceptual and
methodological issues which inspire future research
ideas.
The authors introduce a second "layer of complexity" insofar as they develop a conceptualization of
commitment consisting of diree components, and each
of these may be manifested at the organizational or
other (e.g., work-unit) levels/entities. They carefully
define each component; however, they also provide a
very succinct way of understanding each component
which I will borrow here, (a) Affective commitment is
the "want to stay" component. If affectively committed,
the employee is emotionally attached and identifies
with the organization, (b) Continuance commitment
is the "have to stay" component. This type of commitment is based upon the employee's analysis of die costs
associated widi leaving the organization. Thus, for
example, the employee may be committed simply
because of the prohibitive costs associated widi leaving,
(c) Normative commitment is the "ought to" component. That is, die employee feels a sense of obligation
or duty to die organization and dius feels that it would
be wrong to leave.
For each of the diree components of commitment,
Meyer and Allen review some of the personal and
organizational consequences of commitment, die
hypodiesized antecedents of commitment, and die

implications of various Human Resource Management

(HRM) practices (e.g., training) for effecting commitment. Almost entirely absent is a discussion of the role
of job satisfaction, either as an antecedent variable or
as a consequence of commitment. This is of no great
concern, however, given that die book includes a
myriad of other relevant variables.
Of particular note is die chapter examining how
HRM practices may serve to enhance or detract from
work commitment. The chapter offers some valuable
insights for the HRM practitioner. Although die book
is written widi sufficient rigour to appease an academic
audience, the less academically inclined practitioner
will find some highly interesting ideas (e.g., promoting
perceptions of fairness) suggesting how die implementation of HRM practices may serve to enhance employee
commitment.
Overall, die research summarized in die book
indicates that much of it has focused specifically on
affective commitment, and this form of commitment
appears to show the strongest positive relations with
valued organizational outcomes such as intent to stay
and performance. Although die affective and continuance components are clearly defined and die measures
appear to tap dieir respective constructs (the authors
provide a copy of their commitment scales in the
Appendix, along widi die results of some psychometric
analyses performed on die scales), I had some difficulty
understanding die construct of normative commitment
as it is formulated.
My difficulty stems from die fact that a sense of
obligation may be derived from a number of factors.
For example, an individual may feel obliged to stay
widi an organization because (a) die organization
"invested" in the employee (e.g., paid for special
training, allowed for a paid leave such as a sabbatical,
etc.), (b) it is a family-run organization and the employee feels a sense of family obligation, or (c) the
employee is affectively committed to the organization
and thus feels a sense of loyalty and a need to "repay"
the organization is some way. The latter possibility is
consistent widi a reciprocity principle where there is a
kind of psychological quid pro quo'm operation: Affective commitment leads to perceptions of normative
commitment.
In sum, it appears to me that normative commitment may include elements of affective commitment as
well, depending upon the antecedent conditions
leading to the normative commitment. Not surprisingly, Meyer and Allen note dial studies reveal "stronger dian expected correlations between the Affective
Commitment Scale and die Normative Commitment
Scale" (p.122). I should add that the scale items the
authors provide to assess normative commitment do

Comptes rendus de lecture 385

not allow the respondent to indicate the reason (s) why
there is a sense of obligation (e.g., "I owe a great deal
to my organization," and "I would feel guilty if I left my
organization now"). Thus, it is conceivable that some
respondents indicate a high level of normative commitment based upon pre-existing levels of affective commitment, while others simply feel the need to remain
out of some sense of obligation without any accompanying psychological attachment or identification with
the organization.
One possibility might be to flesh out the construct
of normative commitment so that it is, in fact, multidimensional. In any event, reading this excellent and
integrative book leaves me feeling very optimistic about
the future conceptual development in this research
area, whether the refinements extend to the threecomponent model, to the existence of multiple entities, or both. Obviously, the right folks are doing this
work. I look forward to meaningful conceptual and
methodological refinements to this area in the future,
and I strongly urge anyone interested in the topic of
work commitment to read this book.

John P. Meyer is Professor and Director of the Industrial

and Organizational Psychology program at the University
of Western Ontario. In addition to his work on commitment, he has conducted research in the areas of work
motivation, organizational justice, conflict management,
personality and job performance, and performance
appraisal.
Natalie J. Allen is Associate Professor in the Department
of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario, where
she is also a former director of the Centre for Administrative and Information Studies. Her research has focused on
commitment in the workplace, cross-cultural issues within
organizational behaviour, and the psychology of work
teams.
Lome M. Sulsky is an Associate Professor of IndustrialOrganizational Psychology at the University of Calgary and
is Past-Chair of the Canadian Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology. He is the author, with Carlla
Smith, of a book on work stress soon to be published by
Wadsworth Publishers.