Training Report

June 2015
At
Jaipur Zila Dugdh Utpadak Sahakari
Sangh LTD
By
Ipshita Ranjana
(120903248)
Manipal Institute Of
Technology,Manipal

Index

Acknowledgement
Certificate
Introduction
Boiler
Electrical
Plant (Reception, Process, Packaging)
Refrigeration
E.T.P & Gen
Air and Water
A.P.S

Acknowledgement:

This report would not have been possible without the help many people. I
would like to thank everyone who has been directly or indirectly been
involved with my training at Jaipur Dairy for helping me complete this
report.
First of all I would like to thank S.C Gupta sir for his constant guidance and
helpful inputs which helped me make this report.
Secondly, I would like to thank all the department heads of Jaipur Dairy
for explaining me the working of their respective departments.
Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their constant
support.
Thank you.

Certification:
This is to certify that Miss Ipshita Ranjana of Chemical Engineering department (Reg No.
12093248) from Manipal Institute Of Technology,Manipal has completed her one month
training under the guidance of Sh. S.C. Gupta, Manager, (Engg) from 1st June to 30th June at
Jaipur Zila Dugdh Utpadak Sahakari Sangh LTD.

Sign

(Sh. S.C. Gupta, Manager, (Engg) )

Introduction

During the one month training done in Jaipur Zila Dugdh Utpadak Sahakari Sangh LTD,the
following aspects of the plant were studied:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Boiler from 1-06-2015 to 4-06-2015

Electrical from 5-06-2015 to 7-06-2015
Plant (Reception, Process, Packaging and Products) from 8-06-2015 to 13-06-2015
Refrigeration from 14-06-2015 to 17-06-2015
E.T.P & Gen from 18-06-2015 to 21-06-2015
Air and Water from 22-06-2015 to 24-06-2015
A.P.S from 25-06-2015 to 30-06-2015

The various departments will be further discussed in the report under the order specified
above.

Boiler

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized
fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water
heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.

Purpose:
To convert water into steam (having a higher latent energy and therefore more effective in
imparting heat) to heat up milk for further processing purposes.

Details:
Capacity and total number: Two boiler of eight ton each and one boiler of five ton.
Working Pressure of both the boilers: 17.5 kgf/cm2
Fuel used for heating: Furnace Oil
Furnace oil temperature: 1200C

Construction:
Fire Tube Boiler:
There are basically two types of boiler,

Water tube ( water in tubes, fire outside)

Fire tube (fire in tubes, water outside)

Fire tube boiler is used in the plant; it is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass
through one or (many) more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of
the gases is transferred through the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the
water and ultimately creating steam. The general construction is as a tank of water penetrated
by tubes that carry the hot flue gases from the fire. The tank is usually cylindrical for the most
partbeing the strongest practical shape for a pressurized containerand this cylindrical
tank may be either horizontal or vertical.
Advantages of this type of boiler:

The many small tubes offer far greater heating surface area for the same overall
boiler volume.

Horizontal return tubular boiler

Horizontal return tubular boiler (HRT) has a horizontal cylindrical shell, containing several
horizontal flue tubes, with the fire located directly below the boiler's shell, usually within a
brickwork setting.

Material:
Mild Steel is used in boiler construction because it has flexibility according to weather
change.

Boiler fittings and accessories

Safety Valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler.

Water Level Indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, also
known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column.

Bottom Blowdown Valves: They provide a means for removing solid particulates
that condense and lie on the bottom of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is
usually located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to use
the pressure in the boiler to push these particulates out.

Continuous Blowdown Valve: This allows a small quantity of water to escape

continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated with
dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause water droplets to be
carried over with the steam - a condition known as priming. Blowdown is also often
used to monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.

Flash Tank: High-pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash'
safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere while the
ambient pressure blowdown flows to drain.

Automatic Blowdown/Continuous Heat Recovery System: This system allows the

boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is flowing to the boiler, thereby
transferring the maximum amount of heat possible from the blowdown to the makeup
water. No flash tank is generally needed as the blowdown discharged is close to the
temperature of the makeup water.

Hand Holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for
inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.

Steam Drum Internals, A series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).

Low-Water Cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used to

turn off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once the
water goes below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it)
it can cause rupture or catastrophic failure.

Surface Blowdown Line: It provides a means for removing foam or other

lightweight non-condensible substances that tend to float on top of the water inside
the boiler.

Circulating Pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it has
expelled some of its heat.

Feedwater Check Valve : A non-return stop valve in the feed water line. This may
be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water level, or to the top of the boiler.
[10]

Top Feed: In this design for feedwater injection, the water is fed to the top of the
boiler. This can reduce boiler fatigue caused by thermal stress. By spraying the
feedwater over a series of trays the water is quickly heated and this can reduce lime
scale

Desuperheater Tubes or Bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of tubes in the water

drum or the steam drum designed to cool superheated steam, in order to supply
auxiliary equipment that does not need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.

Chemical Injection Line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling

feedwater Ph

Steam accessories

Main steam stop valve

Steam traps

Main steam stop/Check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.

Combustion accessories

Fuel oil system: fuel oil heaters

Gas system

Coal system

Soot blower

Other essential items

Pressure gauges:

Feed pumps:

Fusible plug:

Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:

Name plate:

Registration plate:

Below is a flowchart describing boiler working :

Flow: 45004700kg/hr
Temp:1900C1950C
Feed Temp:
30.80C

Steam

Feed

O2 = 1.5%

Stack

Boiler

Temp.:
2600C-2700C
Efficency: 8285%

Fuel

Monetory

Working:
1. Water is first prepared before being sent to the boiler by ensuring there is no scaling in
the water being used. For this purpose, softeners are added in the water initially.

Further processing is done by sending the water to a softener where using industrial
salt, ion exchange technology is applied to remove any hardening of water.
2. After removing the scaling, water is sent to the boiler and its level inside the boiler is
regulated automatically. The water is sent in the tubes and the firing is done outside
the tubes (in the shell).Furnace oil is used for the heating purpose and is fired up
inside the boiler at regular intervals.
3. Any blockage in the water tubes can be checked by noting the pressure reading of the
incoming water in the tubes. The removal of any blockage is automatically done.
Valves are added at the inlet and the outlet to regulate the incoming flow and the
outgoing steam flow respectively. There is some amount of steam lost during
transportation.
4. The steam obtained after heating up the water is sent through tubes to the required
destination for further heating up milk for various purposes.

Boiler at the plant

Electrical:

Purpose:
To provide energy for the various units.

Details:
Main Supply: 11 KV
Transformer: 1000KVA
Type of Transformer: Step down to 400V

Working:
From the main supply, the electricity goes to the Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB).From there to the
Step down transformer. From the Transformer to the Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) and then to
the various different units which are:
1. APS
2. Ghee
3. Refrigeration.
4. IP Block
5. Power Plant
6. Process
7. Boiler & Air Compression
8. ETP
9. Lightning
10. RMRD
Each unit has a different voltage requirement and therefore the electricity distribution is of
two types:

High Voltage requiring departments (for eg lightning)

Low Voltage requiring departments (for eg Process plant)

Air Circuit Breaker and Oil Circuit Breaker acts as a fuse which shuts down the whole system
in case of any increase in the voltage. This helps in preventing any damage to the system due
to an increase in the voltage.

Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. Commonly, transformers are used to increase or
decrease the voltages of alternating current in electric power applications.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the transformer's secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a

varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding. Making use
of Faraday's Law in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties,
transformers can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to
another within power networks.

Types:
Transformer is basically of two types:
Step Up Transformer:
On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil.
The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across the
primary coil or in other words the voltage has been stepped-up.
Step Down Transformer:
Step Down Transformer is the one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage. It
is designed to reduce the voltage from the primary winding to the secondary winding. This
kind of transformer steps down the voltage applied to it.
As a step-down unit, the transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into lowvoltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is
necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesnt have to conduct
as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.
Oil Circuit Breaker :
A highvoltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to dissipate the heat and extingu
ish the arc; the intense heat of the arcdecomposes the oil, generating a gas whose high pressur
e produces a flow of fresh fluid through the arc that furnishes the necessaryinsulation to preve
nt a restrike of the arc.
In an oil circuit breaker with simple interruption under oil, the duration of arcing is 0.02-0.05
sec. To extinguish the arc more efficiently, arc-quenching chambers are used. In a longitudina
l blast chamber the vapors and gases evolved travel upward along the arc, thus cooling it. Ina
ddition, the arc is in contact with the cold oil that fills the annular slots of the chamber, which
also accelerates cooling of the arc. In atransverse blast chamber a drastic pressure increase wi
thin the gas bubble causes a stream of oil and gases to flow across the arc, thusaccelerating th
e cooling process.
In terms of design, a distinction is made between tank-type oil circuit breakers and oilminimum, or low-oil-capacity, circuit breakers. In thefirst type, the main contacts and the arc-

quenching devices are located in a grounded metal tank; in the second type they are in an insu
latingor ungrounded metal enclosure filled with oil.
Air Circuit Breaker:
This type of circuit breakers is that kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at
atmospheric pressure. After development of oil circuit breaker, the medium voltage air circuit
breaker (ACB) is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in different countries. But in
countries like France and Italy, ACBs are still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV. It is also
good choice to avoid the risk of oil fire, in case of oil circuit breaker.

Working Principle of Air Circuit Breaker

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of
circuit breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment
of arcing after current zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the
system recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For
interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is
defined as the minimum voltage required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases
the arc voltage by mainly three different ways,

1.

It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc
plasma is decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence more
voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc.

2.

It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is
increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc
current more voltage is required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage
is increased.

3.

Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

Electrical department at the plant

Transformer at the plant

Plant
(Reception,
Process,
Packaging)

Reception:
The area where milk is collected from the farm is called the reception area.The milk received
is verified and on basis of some parameters,raw milk is verified and send to the process
section for pasteurization.The parameters checked in this section are:
CLR (should be min 27)
Fat%
SNF%
After the parameters are checked and found fit,the milk is send to process plant by pipes.

Process:
Milk is pasteurized in the first step in the process plant and then distributed to be sold
individually and to make various products like paneer, curd etc later on.

Pasteurization of milk:
It involves heating milk at high temperatures to minimize the microbial activity which leads
to the spoilage of milk. Zit aims to reduce the number of pathogens that are likely to cause
diseases (assuming the pasteurized product is stored as indicated and consumed below its
expiration date). It is different from sterilization as it does not kill all the microbes present in
the milk but rather attempts to minimize the microbial growth. Commercial sterilization is not
common because it adversely affects the taste and quality of the product.Milk can be
pasteurized by various methods which are explained below. The plant uses the HTST
method which is one of the most common methods of milk pasteurization.
Process
Older pasteurization methods used temperatures below boiling, since at very high
temperatures, micelles of the milk protein casein will irreversibly aggregate, or "curdle".
Newer methods use higher temperature, but shorten the time. Among the pasteurization
methods listed below, the two main types of pasteurization used today are high-temperature,
short-time (HTST, also known as "flash") and extended shelf life (ESL):

HTST milk is forced between metal plates or through pipes heated on the outside by
hot water, and the milk is heated to 72 C (161 F) for 15 seconds.

UHT, also known as ultra-heat-treating, processing holds the milk at a temperature of

140 C (284 F) for four seconds. During UHT processing milk is sterilized and not

pasteurized. This process allows milk or juice to be stored several months without
refrigeration. The process is achieved by spraying the milk or juice through a nozzle into
a chamber that is filled with high-temperature steam under pressure. After the
temperature reaches 140 C the fluid is cooled instantly in a vacuum chamber, and
packed in a presterilized airtight container. Milk labeled "ultra-pasteurized" or simply
"UHT" has been treated with the UHT method.

ESL milk has a microbial filtration step and lower temperatures than UHT milk. Since
2007, it is no longer a legal requirement in European countries (for example in Germany)
to declare ESL milk as ultra-heated; consequently, it is now often labeled as "fresh milk"
and just advertised as having an "extended shelf life", making it increasingly difficult to
distinguish ESL milk from traditionally pasteurized fresh milk.

The process followed in the plant:

In pasteurization process, we separate the cream from some percent of raw milk and
remaining milk is sent for pasteurization. This type of pasteurized milk is called skim milk.
The remaining part of milk is directly pasteurized without separation and this type of
pasteurized milk is called mix milk.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

The following directions are followed during the pasteurization process:

The temperature of hot milk sould be not less than 780C for 15 second.
The temperature of cold milk should be less than 90C.
M.B.R.T (Methylene Blue Dye Reduction Test): 4 hours or above.*
The temperature of hot cream should not be less than 900C for 15 second.
The temperature of cold cream should not be less than 150C.
The milk needs to be pasteurized again if M.B.R.T is less than 4 hours.
Milk would be again cooled after changing IBT if pasteurized milk in silo and tank
has temperature greater than 90C.
9. The balance tank of pasteurizer is covered during work.
The separated cream is sent to cream tank and the milk tank from silo for packing where it is
transferred to different tanks according to the type of milk to be packed, i.e double toned milk
in a different tank from toned milk. If the concentration of cream is not sufficient,we mix
powder in milk to increase the concentration of cream in milk.

Product Details:
Types:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Double Toned (light yellow), Fat-1.5%

Toned (blue), Fat-3%
Standard (green), Fat-4.5%
Gold (orange), Fat-6%

Pack Size: 1/2 & 1 liter, 5 liters

Shelf-Life/best before: 2 days from the date of packing when stored below 8C
The incoming milk is pasteurized twice, once before coming to the dairy and the second after
coming to the dairy. It is done in the following way:
NOTE:*
Methylene Blue Dye Reduction Test commonly known as MBRT test is used as a quick
method to assess the microbiological quality of raw and pasteurized milk. This test is based
on the fact that the blue color of the dye solution added to the milk get decolorized when the
oxygen present in the milk get exhausted due to microbial activity. The sooner the
decolourization, more inferior is the bacteriological quality of milk assumed to be. This test is

widely used at the dairy reception dock, processing units and milk chilling centers where it is
followed as acceptance/rejection criteria for the raw and processed milk.
*******
The process applied for the production of paneer, curd, milk, flavored milk, shrikhand are as
follows:

1. Paneer:
Details:
Types: Two, 200gm and 1kg.
Fat: 50% on dry matters
Moisture (max)-60%

Process:
Milk is kept at 40C initially and 4% citric acid is added to separate FAT, SNF and water.The
Paneer is collected and put in square containers which are then compressed using a 6 kg
weight for 45 minutes to give the same a square shape. Then the square shaped paneer is
kept in water having 200C temperature to soften it. Finally the paneer is cut down into the
required square size and sent for packaging.

2. Curd:
Details:
Type: One type,200gm
Fat (min.): 3.0%
SNF (min.): 8.5%
Shelf-Life: 120 days from the date of packing when stored below 8C

Process:
Milk is mixed with 0.27% of culture and stored in tanks. It is sent to the packaging directly
from the tanks after storing it for two to three hours.

3. Flavored Milk:
Details:
Types: Five types, Chocolate, Mango, Strawberry, Pista, Coffee
Fat (min): 1.5%
SNF (min): 9.0%
Shelf Life: Best before four months of packaging.

Process:
The required flavor and food color is added to the milk in glass bottles. The flavored milk is
then sterilized to remove bacteria and increase its longevity by keeping it at 124 0C for some
time. The flavored milk can now be stored for about four months after sterilization.
Lab test:
Turbidity test is done to determine if the product is fit to be packaged. Negative results show
it is fit to be packaged and positive test shows the product needs to be discarded.

4. Shrikhand:
Details:
Types: Two types produced, Normal and Kesar Pista

Process:
Frozen Milk is hung on thin cloth to remove all the water for twenty hours. After draining out
all the water, it is slowly rotated for some time after mixing 70% sugar. Kesar and Pista are
added for Kesar Pista flavor. After rotation, the product is sent for packaging.

Packaging:
The packaging area is divided into the following:
1. Flavored milk packaging area depends on the flavor being added and is done in
different places according to the flavor. For example: strawberry flavored milk is
packed in a separate area.
2. Curd is directly packed from the tank where it is stored. While packing the curd is not
formed and it is only after storing the same for some time after packaging that curd is
formed. The packed curd is inspected before dispatching. There is only one packaging
area for curd.
3. Shrikhand has a separate area for both process and packaging.
4. Paneer is packed into two separate areas. One for 200gm and the other for 1 kg.

Refrigeration

Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another.
The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work, but it can also be
driven by heat, magnetism, electrical, laser or by any other means. Refrigeration has many
applications including but not limited to: household refrigerators, industrial freezers,
cryogenics and air conditioning. Heat pumps may be use the heat output of the refrigeration
process and also may be designed to be reversible but are otherwise similar to refrigeration
units.

Methods of refrigeration:
Methods of refrigeration can be classified as non-cyclic, cyclic, thermoelectric and magnetic.

Non-cyclic refrigeration
In non-cyclic refrigeration, cooling is accomplished by melting ice or by subliming dry
ice (frozen carbon dioxide). These methods are used for small-scale refrigeration such as in
laboratories and workshops, or in portable coolers.
Ice owes its effectiveness as a cooling agent to its melting point of 0 C (32 F) at sea level.
To melt, ice must absorb 333.55 kJ/kg (about 144 Btu/lb) of heat. Foodstuffs maintained near
this temperature have an increased storage life.
Solid carbon dioxide has no liquid phase at normal atmospheric pressure, and sublimes
directly from the solid to vapor phase at a temperature of -78.5 C (-109.3 F), and is
effective for maintaining products at low temperatures during sublimation. Systems such as
this where the refrigerant evaporates and is vented to the atmosphere are known as "total loss
refrigeration".
Cyclic refrigeration
This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature space or
source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external work, and its inverse,
the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature
source to the engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being rejected
to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of thermodynamics.
A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately
absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant
flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.

Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space or storage
volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat
sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy needed to achieve and maintain a lower
temperature in the cooled space. The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was
described mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine.
The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are used in a minority of applications.
Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as:
1. Vapor cycle, and
2. Gas cycle
Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:
1. Vapor-compression refrigeration
2. Vapor-absorption refrigeration
Vapor-compression cycle
The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large
commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of
the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.

Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown in Figure 2. In this
cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a vapor. From point 1
to point 2, the vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at
a higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From point 2 to
point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels through the condenser which cools the vapor until
it starts condensing, and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at
constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes
through the expansion valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly
decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the
liquid.

Figure 2: TemperatureEntropy diagram

That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure as shown at
point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or tubes and is
completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being
blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to
the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, and does
not take into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the system,
slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or nonideal gas behavior, if any.

Vapor absorption cycle

In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia
systems was popular and widely used. After the development of the vapor compression cycle,
the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its importance because of its low coefficient of
performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle). Today, the vapor
absorption cycle is used mainly where fuel for heating is available but electricity is not, such
as in recreational vehicles that carry LP gas. It is also used in industrial environments where
plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency.
The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the method of raising the
pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an
absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the

pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the
high-pressure liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump but, for a given quantity of
refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the compressor in the vapor compression cycle.
In an absorption refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The
most common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with water (absorbent), and water
(refrigerant) with lithium bromide (absorbent).
Gas cycle
When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but doesn't change phase,
the refrigeration cycle is called a gas cycle. Air is most often this working fluid. As there is
no condensation and evaporation intended in a gas cycle, components corresponding to the
condenser and evaporator in a vapor compression cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat
exchangers in gas cycles.
The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because the gas cycle works
on the reverse Brayton cycle instead of the reverse Rankine cycle. As such the working fluid
does not receive and reject heat at constant temperature. In the gas cycle, the refrigeration
effect is equal to the product of the specific heat of the gas and the rise in temperature of the
gas in the low temperature side. Therefore, for the same cooling load, a gas refrigeration
cycle needs a large mass flow rate and is bulky.
Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not often used
nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices. However, the air cycle machine is very common
ongas turbine-powered jet aircraft as cooling and ventilation units, because compressed air is
readily available from the engines' compressor sections. Such units also serve the purpose of
pressurizing the aircraft.

Thermoelectric refrigeration
Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of
two different types of materials. This effect is commonly used in camping and portable
coolers and for cooling electronic components and small instruments.
Magnetic refrigeration

Magnetic refrigeration, or adiabatic demagnetization, is a cooling technology based on the

magneto caloric effect, an intrinsic property of magnetic solids. The refrigerant is often
a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The active magnetic dipoles in this
case are those of the electron shells of the paramagnetic atoms.
A strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to
align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. A
heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal
contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic
field is switched off. This increases the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its
temperature below the temperature of the heat sink.
Because few materials exhibit the needed properties at room temperature, applications have
so far been limited to cryogenics and research.
Other methods
Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in aircraft; the vortex
tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is available; and thermo acoustic
refrigeration using sound waves in a pressurized gas to drive heat transfer and heat
exchange; steam jet cooling popular in the early 1930s for air conditioning large buildings;
thermo elastic cooling using a smart metal alloy stretching and relaxing. Many Stirling
cycle heat engines can be run backwards to act as a refrigerator, and therefore these engines
have a niche use in cryogenics. In addition there are other types of cry coolers such as
Gifford-McMahon coolers, Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube refrigerators and, for
temperatures between 2 mK and 500 mK, dilution refrigerators.

Refrigeration Process in the Plant:

Vapor Compression cycle is employed as the refrigeration process and liquid ammonia is
used as the refrigerant. The process is shown as follows:

RECEIVER

Low
Temp
and
High
Pressu
Condenser

Low Temp
and Low

High
Pressure
and High

I.B.T (water
cooled at 1.50C
to 30C)
Low
Temp
and High
Pressure
Compressor

In ammonia receiver, the ammonia is in the state of low temp. and low pressure and this gas
is sent to the primary heat exchanger and then this gas is pumped to the Ice Bank Tank
(IBT),here the water is cooled at 1.5 to 3C after the NH3 gas is sucked by compressor it
becomes high pressure and high temp gas and this gas is sent through condenser where this
gas is converted into low pressure and low temp gas and this gas is again sent to the ammonia
receiver and this cyclic process is repeated.

DETAILS:
Valves Used:
1. Liquid Control Valve : Solenoid Valve used to control the liquid flow
2. Flat Valve : Attached to the chilled water pump at 10-15 HP
Number and types of Compressor:
1. From Frick India Limited we have five compressor of two piston.
2. From Kirlosker, five compressor of six piston.
Condensor:
Shell and Tube type with water in tubes and fire in shell.

ETP

Need OF ETP (effluent treatment plant):

Water is a basic necessity of life and we need to conserve it.

Recycling and reusing water reduces cost in the long term.

Process:
1. The effluent Treatment Plant utilizes effluent or disposal wastes coming from plants.
2. The impure or dirty water comes in tanks through pipes and this water is coming from
ONG machines. Here after 40% removal of effluent, it is then pumped back into the
equalization tank.
3. This tank is in the aerobic form and is sent to USAB where COD, BOD etc are
decreased during treatment and then sent for floating air drop where water is agitated
by floater and bio culture is mixed here. After this it is sent to tank where filtration
occurs from surface and is stored in a tank.
4. This water though not used in domestic purposes can be used for agricultural process.

Process Used:

Phase separation
Phase separation transfers impurities into a non-aqueous phase. Phase separation may occur
at intermediate points in a treatment sequence to remove solids generated during oxidation or
polishing. Grease and oil may be recovered for fuel or saponification. Solids often
require dewatering of sludge in a wastewater treatment plant. Disposal options for dried
solids vary with the type and concentration of impurities removed from water.
Production of waste brine, however, may discourage wastewater treatment removing
dissolved inorganic solids from water by methods like ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and
distillation.
Sedimentation
Solids and non polar liquids can be removed by gravity when density differences are
sufficient to overcome dispersion by turbulence. Gravity separation of solids is the primary
treatment of sewage, where the unit process is called "primary settling tanks" or "primary
sedimentation tanks". It is also widely used for the treatment of other wastewaters. Solids that
are heavier than water will accumulate at the bottom of quiescent settling basins. More
complex clarifiers also have skimmers to simultaneously remove floating grease like soap
scum and solids like feathers or wood chips. Containers like the API oil-water separator are
specifically designed to separate non-polar liquids.

Filtration
Colloidal suspensions of fine solids may be removed by filtration through fine physical
barriers distinguished from coarser screens or sieves by the ability to remove particles smaller
than the openings through which the water passes.
Oxidation
Oxidation reduces the biochemical oxygen demand of wastewater, and may reduce the
toxicity of some impurities. Secondary treatment converts some impurities to carbon dioxide,
water, and biosolids. Chemical oxidation is widely used for disinfection.

Air and Water

Air Section:
In this section we use a rotary screw compressor as a gas compressor which uses a rotary type
positive displacement mechanism:
A rotary screw compressor is a type of gas compressor which uses a rotary type positive
displacement mechanism. They are commonly used to replace piston compressors where
large volumes of high pressure air are needed, either for large industrial applications or to
operate high-power air tools such as jackhammers.
The gas compression process of a rotary screw is a continuous sweeping motion, so there is
very little pulsation or surging of flow, as occurs with piston compressors.

Operation:
Rotary screw compressors use two meshing helical screws, known as rotors, to compress the
gas. In a dry running rotary screw compressor, timing gears ensure that the male and female
rotors maintain precise alignment. In an oil-flooded rotary screw compressor, lubricating oil
bridges the space between the rotors, both providing a hydraulic seal and transferring
mechanical energy between the driving and driven rotor. Gas enters at the suction side and
moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the
compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws.
The effectiveness of this mechanism is dependent on precisely fitting clearances between the
helical rotors, and between the rotors and the chamber for sealing of the compression cavities.

Some leakage is however inevitable and high rotational speeds must be used to minimize the
ratio of leakage flow rate over effective flow rate.

Size:
Rotary screw compressors tend to be compact and smooth running with limited vibration and
thus do not require spring suspension. Many rotary screw compressors are, however, mounted
using Elastoplasts vibration isolating mounts to absorb high-frequency vibrations, especially
in rotary screw compressors that operate at high rotational speeds. Rotary screw compressors
are produced in sizes that range from 10 cubic feet per minute to several thousand CFM.
Rotary screw compressors are typically used in applications requiring more airflow than is
produced by small reciprocating compressors but less than is produced by centrifugal
compressors.

Applications:
Typically, they are used to supply compressed air for general industrial applications. Trailer
mounted diesel powered units are often seen at construction sites, and are used to power air
operated construction machinery.
Additionally, they are becoming increasingly popular in municipal wastewater treatment
facilities, for their increased efficiency and thus, lower power consumption.
Oil-free
In an oil-free compressor, the air is compressed entirely through the action of the screws,
without the assistance of an oil seal. They usually have lower maximum discharge pressure
capability as a result. However, multi-stage oil-free compressors, where the air is compressed
by several sets of screws, can achieve pressures of over 150 psig, and output volume of over
2000 cubic feet (56.634 cubic meters) per minute (measured at 60 C and atmospheric
pressure).
Oil-free compressors are used in applications where entrained oil carry-over is not
acceptable, such as medical research and semiconductor manufacturing. However, this does
not preclude the need for filtration as hydrocarbons and other contaminants ingested from the
ambient air must also be removed prior to the point-of-use. Subsequently, air treatment
identical to that used for an oil-flooded screw compressor is frequently still required to ensure
a given quality of compressed air.
Oil - Injected:

In an oil-injected rotary screw compressor, oil is injected into the compression cavities to aid
sealing and provide cooling sink for the gas charge. The oil is separated from the discharge
stream, then cooled, filtered and recycled. The oil captures non-polar particulates from the
incoming air, effectively reducing the particle loading of compressed air particulate filtration.
It is usual for some entrained compressor oil to carry over into the compressed gas stream
downstream of the compressor. In many applications, this is rectified by coalescer/filter
vessels. In other applications, this is rectified by the use of receiver tanks that reduce the local
velocity of compressed air, allowing oil to condense and drop out of the air stream to be
removed from the compressed air system via condensate management equipment.
Control Schemes:
Among rotary screw compressors, there are multiple control schemes, each with differing
advantages and disadvantages.
Start/stop
In a start/stop control scheme, compressor controls actuate relays to apply and remove power
to the motor according to compressed air needs.
Load/unload
In a load/unload control scheme, the compressor remains continuously powered. However,
when the demand for compressed air is satisfied or reduced, instead of disconnecting power
to the compressor, a device known as a slide valve is activated. This device uncovers part of
the rotor and proportionately reduces capacity of the machine down to typically 25% of the
compressors capability thereby unloading the compressor. This reduces the number of
start/stop cycles for electric motors over a start/stop control scheme in electrically-driven
compressors, improving equipment service life with a minimal change in operating cost. This
scheme is utilized by nearly all industrial air compressor manufacturers. When a load/unload
control scheme is combined with a timer to stop the compressor after a predetermined period
of continuously unloaded operation, it is known as a dual-control or auto-dual scheme.
Modulation
Instead of starting and stopping the compressor a slide valve as described above modulates
capacity to the demand. While this yields a consistent discharge pressure over a wide range of
demand, overall power consumption may be higher than with a load/unload scheme, resulting
in approximately 70% of full-load power consumption when the compressor is at a zero-load
condition.
Due to the limited adjustment in compressor power consumption relative to compressed air
output capacity, modulation is a generally inefficient method of control when compared to
variable speed drives. However, for applications where it is not readily possible to frequently

cease and resume operation of the compressor (such as when a compressor is driven by an
internal combustion engine and operated without the presence of a compressed air receiver),
modulation is suitable.
Variable displacement
Utilized by compressor companies Quincy Compressor, Kobelco, Gardner Denver,
and Sullair, variable displacement alters the percentage of the screw compressor rotors
working to compress air by allowing air flow to bypass portions of the screws. While this
does reduce power consumption when compared to a modulation control scheme, a load/no
load system can be more effective with large amounts of storage (10 gallons per CFM). If a
large amount of storage is not practical, a variable displacement system can be very effective,
especially at greater than 70% of full load.
One way that variable displacement may be accomplished is via the use of multiple lifting
valves on the suction side of the compressor, each plumbed to a corresponding location on
the discharge. In automotive superchargers, this is analogous to the operation of a bypass
valve.
Variable speed
While an air compressor powered by a variable speed drive can offer the lowest operating
energy cost without any appreciable reduction in service life over a properly maintained
load/unload compressor, the variable frequency power inverter of a variable speed drive
typically adds significant cost to the design of such a compressor, negating its economic
benefits if there are limited variations in demand. However, a variable speed drive provides
for a linear relationship between compressor power consumption and free air delivery. In
harsh environments (hot, humid or dusty), variable speed drives may not be suitable due to
the sensitivity of the equipment.

Water Section:
In this section we do water softening with the use of ion exchange resins. This is the removal
of Mg,Ca and certain other metal cations in hard water. The resulting water is more
comfortable with soap and extends the lifetime of plumbing.
This is usually achieved by using lime softening and ion exchange resins. The presence of
certain metal ions in water causes a variety of problems these ions interfere with soaps. They
also lead to build up of lime scale which can foul plumbing and promote galvanic corrosion.
In Industrial scale, water softening plants, the effluent flow from the regeneration process can
interfere with sewer systems. Water softening methods are:

The most common water means of removing water hardness rely on exchange polymers or
reverse osmosis and other approaches include precipitation methods and sequestration by the
addition chelating agents. Devices which use magnetism or electrolysis as a water softening
techniques claim to inhibit scale buildup without actually removing hardness ions from the
water.Such devices have been marketed to the consumers since the early 20th century.
Water softening method

In this application, ion-exchange resins are used to replace the magnesium and calcium ions
found in hard water with sodium ions. When the resin is fresh, it contains sodium ions at its
active sites. When in contact with a solution containing magnesium and calcium ions (but a
low concentration of sodium ions), the magnesium and calcium ions preferentially migrate
out of solution to the active sites on the resin, being replaced in solution by sodium ions. This
process reaches equilibrium with a much lower concentration of magnesium and calcium ions
in solution than was started with.
The resin can be recharged by washing it with a solution containing a high concentration of
sodium ions (e.g. it has large amounts of common salt (NaCl) dissolved in it). The calcium
and magnesium ions migrate off the resin, being replaced by sodium ions from the solution
until a new equilibrium is reached. The salt is used to recharge an ion-exchange resin which
itself is used to soften the water.

Water Softner at Dairy

A.P.S

In Accepting Packing Station (A.P.S), Tetra Pack milk is produced. It is pasteurized at

1410C that is why it is called as Ultra High Treatment (UHT).At this temperature all the
bacteria have been killed. Its life is about 2-4 months.
Ultra High Treatment (UHT):
UHT, also known as ultra-heat-treating, processing holds the milk at a temperature of 140 C
(284 F) for four seconds. During UHT processing milk is sterilized and not pasteurized. This
process allows milk or juice to be stored several months without refrigeration. The process is
achieved by spraying the milk or juice through a nozzle into a chamber that is filled with
high-temperature steam under pressure. After the temperature reaches 140 C the fluid is
cooled instantly in a vacuum chamber, and packed in a presterilized airtight container. Milk
labeled "ultra-pasteurized" or simply "UHT" has been treated with the UHT method.
There are several types of UHT technologies for ambient dairy production in the market
today. The choice depends on which one or which combination is the best for the specific
products as well as on the operation on the plant.
Tetra Pak excels in all these UHT technologies so that the consumers can be offered a unique
objective advice on a production solution that matches the required parameters.
UHT milk has a typical shelf life of six to nine months until opened
Nutrition Details:
Calories
UHT milk contains the same number of calories as pasteurized milk.
Calcium
UHT and pasteurized milk contains the same amount of calcium.
Folate
UHT milk contains 1 microgram of folate per 100 gm while pasteurized milk contains 9
microgram.
Vitamin B12,Vitamin C
Advantages of UHT process:
1. It is cheaper in price than Pasteurized milk
2. It can last without refrigeration for about six to eight months.

3. It has a smaller chance to get infected by bacteria.

4. It has a lower cost of packaging, storage and transport than the normal pasteurized
milk.
5. Milk profits are more than the pasteurized milks profits.
Disadvantages of UHT Process:
1. The milk mixture must be mixed well because large clumps of milk fats etc poses a
danger of overcooking and ruining the entire batch.
2. To make the right product ,the exact steps ,times and equipments must be used to get
the best outcome.
UHT Process :

*Note: Tetra Spiraflo is a tubular heat exchanger for dairy products.

Critical Control Points Of APS:
SNo.
1.

Process Step
UHT Processing

2.

Packaging

Control Point
Sterilization
Temperature
Hot air temperature

Control Unit
137 to 144 degree
centigrade
Seal, Hot Air >
200OC in filling tube

H2O2 Concentration

32-48%

Bibliography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater_treatment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteurization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler