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ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
BY
EDWIN
W. FOSTER
COPYRIGHT,
1903
BY EDWIN W. FOSTER
ALL BIGHTS RESERVED
54.6
y. he Sltbenartim
(JINX & COMPANY -CAM-
BRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS
PREFACE
This text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing the pupil with the essential facts about tools
and their
uses.
However
efficient
the instruction
may
impossible for
him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration the names of tools and technical terms, most of
it is
working.
The function
of the text
is
to
It is
lesson.
tests are
very
effective.
PREFACE
vi
No
is
to follow the
same
series of models.
Local conditions
new and
added.
No
ence
its
is
grain,
which to
than when
working with wood, learning by experihardness, color, and value in the arts.
Commission of
New York
EDWIN W. FOSTER.
CONTENTS
PART
I.
TOOLS
PAGE
I.
Chapter
Introduction
Plan of
III.
Cutting Tools
Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers;
method of holding. Backsaw use of bench hook. The turning saw.
11
II.
Chapter
Chapter
The plane
names
Use
of lever
Chapter IV.
The hammer
Work
...
parts
Screws
31
CONTENTS
viii
PART
WOOD
II.
PAGE
Chapter V.
The
forest
51
felling trees
up
mills.
formation of grain.
and shrinkage.
Broad-Leaved Trees
Chapter VI.
White oak.
oak.
Red
Post oak.
oak.
Scarlet
the
Oaks
65
Broad-Leaved Trees
Chapter VII.
the Maples
76
Chapter VIII.
85
ternut.
Chapter IX.
Tulip.
The
Elm.
birches.
Basswood.
Chapter X.
White
Cypress.
Chapter XI.
...
The Evergreens
pine.
Ill
Georgia pine.
Balsam
94
fir.
The
Yellow pine.
Hemlock.
Spruce.
cedars.
of California
123
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
PART
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
In order to obtain good results in the using of tools
know
their construction,
how
it is
necessary to
erly
of handling them.
It is also essential to
to prop-
know how
to
must be kept
made
clean
to
They
with a knife.
Do
mark
it
or deface
When
using
bench
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
is
in general
"
First.
Second.
Cutting to the
Third.
When
the article
fourth step
may
is
composed
lines.
of
two or more
pieces a
the parts.
The
follows
First.
tools used
may
Laying-out
tools.
mark-
and knife.
spokeshave, bit,
Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet, screwdriver, brace (or bitstock), and others not so common.
Third.
CHAPTER
II
1.
is
woodwork.
known
it is
as a foot rule,
and
if
and
some cases
in
six-
FIG.
1.
The Rule
brass joints,
to fold once or
twice.
The
rule
is
if
laid flat
The proper
position
when
is
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
shown
ments should be
laid off
A
STOCK
RULE
Kill,
Consecutive measure-
to protect
FIG.
blade
is
4.
it
Methods
of steel
and
to
iron
or
wood with a
take the wear. The
is
of
and
is
entirely of
Try-squares are
most convenient
made
its position.
For
nice, accurate
it
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
the try-square must be used against the
edge only.
joint
work
face
and
steel in
one
shown
stick,
P the
in
Figs. 6
and
is
the gauge
FIG.
6.
graduated like a rule into inches and fractions, beginning at the steel marking point;
but as the latter is not always
exactly in the
is
right
reliable.
7.
side
up
in left
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
10
good plan
is
an eighth, and
finally a sixteenth.
differs
in
FIG.
This tool
may
9.
The Bevel
CHAPTER
III
CUTTING TOOLS
Saws.
5.
as a succession
stand the action of the saw by making cuts with a narrow chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as shown
in Fig. 10 at a.
FIG. 10.
The
little
little
pieces of
and instead
of one
is
called a ripsaw.
11
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
12
That
may
easily be
chisel
and attempting
The wood
will act as
shown
in Fig. 10 at 6, splitting
FIG. 11.
close together, as at
between these
narrow
we
chisel.
lines
c.
The Saw
It will
may now
This fact
is
Every tooth
left,
Fig. 12
of
was done
sharpthe next on
sharp points
our experi-
in
teeth enlarged.
Observe that not only are
alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but
crosscut
the
knife.
lines
side,
is
CUTTING TOOLS
each tooth
13
is
This bending
is
designed to make
wider than the thickness of the
called
set,
and
is
it
wood
easily.
LA
End view
Side view
FIG. 12.
The
End
Side view
view
Teeth of Ripsaw
FIG. 13.
flat like
a chisel
teeth,
We
and
13.
saw
as a very com-
monplace
article,
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
14
This
is
to
give
pushed forward.
FIG. 14.
Body
of
Most
delicate
increases
How
from
to
ized
when we know
from
to
is
and from C to
and
five
one-thou-
sandths at end B.
Method
of holding the
Saw
j
eft
hand
^^ ^
CUTTING TOOLS
15
when we work
easily
FIG. 16.
and
deliberately.
The Backsaw
saws are designed for special purposes, including those which cut stone and metal.
Many
6.
varieties of
Backsaw.
The backsaw
crosscut
small
is
saw with
teeth,
and
backpiece,
Fig.
17, to prevent
bending. In this
respect
it
differs
FIG. 17.
which bend
readily.
straight
The purpose
of the
backsaw
is
to
make
fine,
The
steel
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
16
back
is
line C.
will
cut
in
any
direction with
reference
to
the
saw.
7.
FIG. 18.
The Turning
J n ordinary
FIG. 19.
work where
it
is
line,
but
desirable
necessary.
g aw<
CUTTING TOOLS
17
to planed,
thin,
wide
or dressed, stock.
chisel called the
is
plane
iron.
Fig. 20
to be
moving
in
We
in
FIG. 20.
in
Action
This
is
accomplished
as
shown at b.
on
the
a
iron
iron,
plane
by placing
cap
The cap bends and breaks
the
shaving
before
the
Screw
The cap
wood
shavings.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
18
the throat of the plane by a clamp (Fig. 22). The opening on the bottom of the plane through which the cutting edge protrudes
"
Toe
FIG. 22.
9.
is
Adjustment
called the
mouth
of the plane.
-Mouth
Sectional
of Plane.
Views
of Iron Plane
by means of the
set screw
s,
CUTTING TOOLS
19
Screw
may
is
liable to project
more on one
side
iron projects,
move the lever until
it is.
If the
if
not,
cut-
thrown back.
left
hand be
The
the
wood from
10.
on
start to finish.
The ordinary
edge, as shown
FIG 23
Irong
of
the
wood
in hollows, leaving
ridges between,
and
it
20
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
FIG. 24.
Relative Sizes of
The lower
figure
a jack plane
The
CUTTING TOOLS
21
cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a sixteenth to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting
edge of the plane
iron.
For straightening very rough and uneven stock a long plane is necessary (Fig. 25). In the
12. Jointers.
uneven board.
short
it,
shown
Long
Planes
as
leveled
at d,
off
ened.
was
straight-
stock
the
conditions
To
are quite
just described
iron
in
side up.
the
block
plane
being reversed
with
bevel
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
22
is
To avoid
must be
Method
FIG. 27.
of using
Block Plane
arrow
&.
In this
off.
way
lifted
is
smoothed, with-
planes just described are now in common use, the oldfashioned wooden plane is still the favorite of many
woodworkers.
FIG. 28.
This
tool,
number
of parts.
CUTTING TOOLS
The
23
One
its liability
to
so
No
culty
encountered in the
iron-bodied plane.
The
15.
is
The
Chisel.
chisel
The
of cutting tools.
size of
shown
at
diffi-
\/^
incorrect
{
#**-"
.^
^^*^*a
Correct
FlG 29
.
formed, as
such
is
to
an
sometimes
b.
is
if ,the
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
24
Two
common
use
the fram-
buildings
FIG. 30.
FIG. 31.
The framing
chisel.
The Framing
The Firmer
chisel
Chisel
Chisel
strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of withstanding the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is
is
we wish
to do
good and
sharp tool
FIG. 32.
in the sketch,
and placing
cannot be pushed
student's feet.
off
is liable
to be a
CUTTING TOOLS
Fig. 32
25
on
hori-
For
this
how heavy
wood
Good
The
when we work
tained
easily.
Better
ally be
FIG. 33.
chisel
ing
straight
downward, we
incline
it
it
work can
usu-
if,
somewhat
so as to
FIG. 34.
When
its
edge has
26
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
may
it.
FIG. 35.
Common Forms
of the Brace
After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side
firmly on the stone, and draw toward you. This is to
straighten the wire edge which has been turned over
by the nibbing. The wire edge may then be removed
CUTTING TOOLS
27
lets
The
FIG. 36.
The
brace,
which
is
The Center
Bit
shown
in the cuts
being common.
Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the
FIG. 37.
brace.
is
to be turned
name
by the
The old-fashioned
center bit
shown
in the cut
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
28
in the
modern auger
manufacture
comparing
this
bit.
C,
can touch
The point
allows us
chisel edges, or
the wood.
to
FIG. 38.
Details of
accurately
wood as it
spur, or worm.
the
place
screw back of
revolves.
On
lifis,
we wish
it,
draws the
This part
this class of
the center
is
bits
of
and the
tool into
known
as the
no pressure
is
necessary.
fits
into
the brace.
Any
tool
bits,
This
is
is
16.
{-inch
we
bit.
one-inch bit,
number
number is
find this
If
the
etc.,
to be 4,
16,
it is
a y^, or a
or a
}-f,
we have a
CUTTING TOOLS
29
at
it
far
by stepping
from
vertical.
When
it
and looking
found
to one side
will frequently be
starting a hole
it
is
well to
is
work-
FIG. 39.
FIG. 40.
The gimlet
make
bit is
for screws.
when
flat-headed
ter
and
its
on screws.
17.
The Spokeshave.
The spokeshave
is
practically a
means
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
30
The
used principally to smooth curved surfaces.
of
of
hammer
handle
is
a
illustration
a
good
forming
is
FIG. 41.
the kind of
or
work
it
will do.
It
tool.
may
is
be worked toward
an exceedingly handy
CHAPTER
IV
Hammer. The
cipally to drive or
carpenter's
withdraw
hammer
thus
we have
FIG. 42.
ers in
The head a
is
specially for
holsterers', stonecutters',
sketch
used prin-
nails.
is
WORK
the one
hammer shown
in the
wood.
(Fig. 43)
is
may
The proper
shown
position
is
that
Position
is
31
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
32
nail
may
little care.
Having
Withdrawing
a Nail
Correct Position,
FIG. 43.
Using the
Hammer
wood
may
FIG. 44.
Common Forms
of Nail
"
Punch, or Set"
33
when
the surface
is
The Mallet.
less
FIG. 45.
hammer.
It is
The Mallet
The use
hammer
would.
well illustrated by the making of a mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet
being used to cut the opening known as the mortise, as
shown
of the mallet
is
in Fig. 46.
ally a
Screw-Driver.
is
seen.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
34
FIG. 46.
21.
Sandpaper.
poor workman."
many
teachers to
more
effective.
Cutting a Mortise
"
many thousands
of students,
and
is
many cases
where sandpaper,
if
35
FIG. 47.
is
allowable.
The Screw-Driver
and the
finer the
faces cannot
perfectly
smooth, satiny
face produced
sur-
by a sharp plane.
11
it is
/ ;
^^
\===I2!i
An Exercise involving
the Use O f Sandpaper
FIG. 48.
as far as
paper after the tool work has been carried
practicable.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
36
Fig. 48
propriety.
is
is
the
wood
fastened
closely.
Curved
articles,
such as the
hammer
smooth,
First.
Second.
every point.
Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge
block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face.
Fourth. Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn,
Third.
37
Sixth.
Joint Edge
!l
|>^
F
Knife Lines
Joint
Edge
"\\0*
G
FIG. 49.
Seventh.
in squaring
up Stock
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
38
Ninth.
is
^a
11
No.l
it
be
shown
is
at A, Fig. 50.
Seventh.
Eighth.
is
39
ends.
cal joint,
Securing Parts.
24.
articles
Many
wood
made
of
consist of several
When two
fitted
pieces are
joint.
There are
many
extra
and SCreWS
FIG. 51.
monly used
Glue
is
of
in small
still
The
first
work.
two kinds,
fish
and animal.
40
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
The dry glue
in
in the
Liquid
FIG. 52.
Method
of using the
to.
Fig. 52
shows
Hand Screw
41
It is
customary
pic-
in this
are of
The
Nails.
two
side
common
at
use
Corner
of Picture
kinds, cat
Two views
tlio
nails in
FIG. 63.
Miter Joint
and wire.
shown
Frame
at
c,
as the
They
are
now
in general use.
are conse-
FIG. 54.
Flat-head
flat
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
42
is
26.
surface.
set,
and
is
This
necessary
when
the sur-
Screws.
Screws are
much
into
done by means
is
two
They
are divided
classes, fiat
steel or brass.
Bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced by treating the bright ones with heat or an acid.
ABC
FIG. 55.
Fig. 55
at
Methods
of using Screws
6.
common work
where
it is
where
this
desirable to
and
is
woods
it is
with a countersink
may
it
receive the
Two methods
head.
are
shown
Sketch
43
in Fig. 55.
head
is visible.
hidden.
different
quite
from a
pictorial
The
artist's
jects
them
track the
meet
zon
in the distance.
We know
called perspective.
that this
is
not the
rails
The
as they are.
FlG>56
meeting at the
hori-
Mechanical, or constructive,
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
44
In Fig. 56
is
name
make
FIG. 57.
ical
Median-
Drawingof
a Cylinder
anc
^ ne
it
image
it
vertically,
,
would
it
horizontally.
Top
S"-
Front
Side
FIG. 68.
shows the
front, top,
and
side views of
Fig. 58 a
an end lap
joint.
FIG. 59.
METHODS OF WORK
T Square
and Triangles
45
in Position
joint,
with
all
edges straight.
H.5.&CO
FIG. GO.
The T Square
and oblique
lines,
is
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
46
needed for
circles
and arcs
of circles.
on the
left
being
known
two remaining
because
The
it
vertical lines
is
position of
and should
in
Mechan-
ing lines.
is
Its
purpose
measuring.
step is to determine
the spacing.
The size of the paper may be measured,
the number of views are known, and also the size of
each.
first
It is a good plan
a free-hand sketch, putting on dimensions and figuring the spaces before beginning actual
to
make
first
Fig. 62 at a
shows
47
FIG. 62.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
48
drawing which
represented
is
known
is
made
such cases to
A scale
and the
thus
make what
\ inch
may
Other scales
drawing
fact is
is
may
be used.
In
is
used,
how-
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
PABT
49
II
CHAPTER V
WOOD
28.
FIG. 63.
The
of a living tree
for
It is well to
Forest,
Norway
which had
it
Spruce, Bavaria.
Germany
remember,
and
flowers,
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
52
grew
taller
a tree,
The lumberman
trunks.
They
was
it
large
selects trees
saw.
cut
is
to cut
down
often
made
The branches
Felling a Tree
down
of
They
the river to a
on sleds
for
FIG. 64.
first
enough
is
WOOD
The cutting
of the trees
is
53
usually done in winter,
it is
called,
river
Logs will often get caught side wise and the whole
from shore to shore become jammed so tightly
FIG. 65.
a log jam.
To break up this
call
much labor
drivers, who wear
requires
54
FIG. 67.
Piles at
FIG. 08.
Interior of
Modern Sawmill
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
56
spiked shoes and are armed with long poles having sharp
When such a jam breaks up, the crashing
steel points.
of the logs
Having
and rush
of
river, inclosed in
men
are
FIG. 69.
Modern Sawmill
The sawmill
machinery, and
cattle.
of
to-day
is
mass
of
it is
automatic
not touched
57
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
58
by human hands
sizes
until
it
cars.
and
joists.
beams
FIG. 71.
A Large Band
Saw
and
is
free
all sides.
It
may
be
is
called dear.
WOOD
59
By examining
deal of the
life
of irregular rings
and
of lines
lines
is
compressed
known
and
dry and
is
is
called
sapwood.
In some woods the
dif-
very marked.
In
heartwood
Fin. 73.
Log cut
lengthwise, showing
is
formed
coal black
log, the
is
lines,
annual rings
called medul-
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING-
60
Showing Weather
Checks and " Shake "
FIG. 74.
tics of
wood known
as icarping
and shrinkage.
down
lie
for
first
some
and as there
is
more
sap toward the outside, the shrinkage is greatest there and becomes
less
heartwood
is
comparatively dry.
FIG. 75
an important fact to
know, because if we had cut the log, while it was
still
green, into planks, as shown in Fig. 75, the
This
is
WOOD
61
shrinkage,
quarter of
and
in
This
an inch to the
is
to a
foot,
after
will,
few
When we
wood we
construct anything in
must always consider how
FIG. 76.
of
Showing
Warping
Effect
Let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing board to see how warping and shrinkage may be
overcome.
If
we make
it
board
is
necessary.
We
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
62
better
way would
narrow
eral
strips
in opposite directions
but to
make doubly
sure, cleats
over the
the
first
are often in
FIG. 77.
of
Methods
Warping and Shrinkage
Study in Construction.
of overcoming
and shrinkage,
tables, etc.
The wood
etc.,
WOOD
63
know
should
We
wood.
summer
many
of
them produce
delicious fruit
and
ducts.
fact,
The houses we
most
we
sit
on,
in
we
ride in,
of the
CHAFIER VI
BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS
Our American
drop
off
trees
may
trees, in distinction
broad-leaved, or deciduous
Among
spruces, hemlocks,
firs,
and cedars.
White oak
is
is
it
used as a standard
when comparing
and
its
different
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
66
kinds of wood.
If
one half,
and in all timber calculations white oak
pine
is
work which
is
the standard,
In
of length.
and
shipbuilding,
white oak
is
cooperage,
sively.
much
for furniture
is
so
obtained
We
FIG. 79.
White Oak
require
two
main on the
years.
The acorns
of this latter
To the
first
and
TI1K
OAKS
67
The
that
The
oak.
latter has
rounded
it
so great
Notice the
is
The
different
trees in the
have
leaves with rounded lobes, and
most of those in the red-oak
white-oak family
all
members
just as
We
of the
same family,
among human
beings.
glance
can
tell
whether a
man
at
a negro, a
Chinaman, or a white man. If FIG. so. Leaf of the Post Oak
a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American
is
This
tell
is
true of trees.
No two
another.
are alike,
is
and we can
an evergreen or
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
68
it
is
thick, leath-
fall.
is
a rougher and
account of
its
wood.
FIG. 81.
Leaf of Mossy-Cup
It is called the
is
Tin-:
mossy-cup
oak, and
Its
OAKS
69
it is
wood
white
is
is
valuahle for
many
mil road
ties,
and cooperage.
FK;. 82.
the
main
lobes,
or
70
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
divisions, while the black
oak
has
five.
ably,
The
a small, shrubby
black-jack
tree, with branches often twisted
is
Leaf of
Red Oak
Fm.
its
wood
is
making
charcoal.
THE OAKS
71
for ripening, as do
may always
tinguished by
its
be
dis-
very large,
bark
Its
also
is
much
Its
acorn
is
by
large size.
two-year
wood
acorns.
of the red
The
oak
is
and
white,
is
used in
Fin. 85.
This tree
is
Scarlet
Oak
and
is
much more
It
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
72
takes
takes on
33.
two
The pin-oak
leaf
is
and
in proportion to its
size
not so deep.
The pin-oak
tree
has
when
Pm
Oak
js
is
the
It
no\v
which
is
THE OAKS
73
grows the willow oak, famous for its shade and its
A little
leaves, which resemble those of the willow.
farther north
we
oak, because
its
laurel,
find,
although not
so glossy.
This
such an
is
odd shape
for
an oak
one would
leaf that
be likely to pass it
by and not recognize it but for the
fact
that
acorns.
ways
"By
it
This
the
bears
is al-
test,
their fruits ye
know them."
If we meet a new
shall
tree
F IG.
87.
Pin Oak
hi
Winter
which seems
bears acorns,
A very
we may
its
leaves are
be sure
it is
of trees
interesting group
head are the chestnut oaks.
new
to us,
and
an oak.
At
glance one
would take one of these trees to be a chestnut, but it
this
first
74
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
side
by
The sketch
side.
There
is
also
Chestnut Oak
Chestnut
FIG. 88
THE OAKS
75
The wood
is
is
used for
This is a southern
be complete without the live oak.
Its
tree and is remarkable in many ways.
leaf
winter, and
is
The wood
all
foot
when
was much used
steel,
all
ships
FIG. 89.
Leaf of
in shipwere wooden, it
building, and the government bought large tracts of land
where live oak grew abundantly, so that the United
States
grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Virginia, and along the Gulf to Texas.
It
CHAPTER
VII
much
maple family
to
It is
autumn
for
landscapes.
and
scarlets of
we must
sugar maple.
This fine American tree
is
its
wood
is
it is
often called
rock maple,
and besides all these good qualities
nishes us with our maple sirup and sugar.
The
process of
is
it
fur-
THE MAPLES
77
sugar in a season.
farmer must not tap them at the wrong time nor in too
many places. The tree will stand a great deal if properly treated, but harsh treatment will kill
The
boiling process
is
very simple.
comes a
sirup.
The
it.
The sap
is
poured
it
be-
when
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
78
little of
If it
Fig. 90
leaf
shows the
which
is
Norway maple.
closely.
Sugar Maple
is
The sugar
Norway Maple
FIG. 90
is
a low-growing
next in the
list is
the
silver, soft.,
or white maple, as
it is
THE MAPLES
79
The
Silver
and healthy
acme
of perfection in
Its
life.
name
is
Maple
FIG. 91
derived from the fact that the under side of the leaf
is
silvery white.
a beautiful
effect of
the
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
80
however, as
fit,
it
is
and the
work
of destroying its
Yet
beauty.
even
if it
it still lives,
treat-
soft,
able.
red,
ple.
which
the sketch
will be seen
it
silver variety.
The
common
smaller
in-
maples so
is
and three-fingered
in our
towns and
cities
one will
mi; MAPLES
81
edge
is
by
its
in
finely toothed,
which point
it
differs
from
all
planted in preference to
other maples.
38.
all
Growing
in
the
shade
of
North woods
known
is
a small tree
from the
stripes
FIG. 93.
which run
up and down its bark. The New England name for this
little mountain tree is mooseivood, from the fact that
the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which
form
large, but
very thin,
soft,
and
The
delicate.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
82
39.
known
the maples
The
are
as winged.
mon
The
ash-leaved maple
in our parks.
is
By
them."
FIG. 94.
Winged Seeds
is,
of
is
interesting because
it is
maple.
Maple "Keys,"
Common Form
ye
It is therefore a
common
leaflets.
our only
leaf
that
Compound
and the
It is
its
wood
thirty.
Indeed,
it is
THE MAPLES
83
in our p:\rks
have such
can do them
will give
justice.
Fig. 96
some idea
of their
FIG. 95.
The
colors,
84
CHAPTER
VIII
The beginner
At
When
bud then
is the promise of
next year's leaf, and it is
always found at the base of
shown at
then we find no bud
compound
B.
If
FIG. 97.
leaf, as
at #,
down until we
and we know that our specimen
discover
it
Method
of distinguishing
at
85
<7.
we must
look farther
a compound
leaf.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
86
very common, as our horse-chestnuts, buckeyes, hickories, and walnuts all have comThis class of leaf
is
pound leaves.
The horse-chestnut is not a native American
was imported from Europe, where it is a great
The
leaflets
number
five or seven,
FIG. 98.
tree,
but
favorite.
The Horse-Chestnut
ber,
87
The
An
nut
is
large, neat
American
the buckeye.
number
five,
The
leaflets
common
chestnut from a
center.
Buckeye
FIG. 99.
This tree
where
it is
eye State.
Hickory
Familiar Forms of
Compound Leaves
known through
well
is
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
88
leaflets,
hickory leaflets
from one
point.
is
considered by some
is
The pignut
become
bitter after
however, like
all
the hickories,
and tough.
There
toughness.
Oak
is
is
The wood,
is
The Pecan.
We
89
Black Walnut
Butternut
FIG. 100
River,
and
in
Texas
is
fifty feet
high, producing
an enor-
many
as fifteen.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
90
42.
two
Perhaps no
boy or
girl to
Both
leaf
tree
having
if
way
to distinguish them.
The
and sharper
is
the odor.
crushed leaves of
was
this valuable
common.
of
It is still
members
its
locust
is
91
famous for
its
and
white flowers.
its
The
off,
but
tree
its
The wood
considered.
is
yel-
The honey
locust
is
another
The Locust
The
Ilo:iey
Locust
FIG. 101
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
92
little light
brown
The wood
beans.
and durable.
45.
strong
The Ash.
is
a rowboat
This
ash.
two
one of our
qualities.
tallest
The ash
and noblest
It is rather slim in
forest trees.
green foliage.
The members
of
group seem to be
fond of colors, and we
this
and black
ash.
Red Ash
f erences in
dif-
seen an
seed,
seven
leaflets
five to
93
CHAPTER IX
BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES
46.
of
New
England.
is
FIG. 103.
form
is
familiar to
Who
elms
can think of
It
94
may
be said to represent
New England
dignified,
95
refined.
character,
Being
tall,
with foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives
the desired shade, yet does not obstruct the view while
;
Its
difficult to polish.
It is
it
it is
used consider-
The
The
leaf is coarse
and rough
to the touch, in
birch
resembles.
FIG. 104.
Leaf of
American Elm
At Cambridge
is
his-
which George Washington drew his sword and took command of the American Army on July 3, 1775 there are
;
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
96
when
it
was
finally
blown down.
white, elm,
and we
and
is
slippery
edible.
47.
The Birches.
If
the
black
not
known
canoe, birch
is
sure to be.
It
seems
to be disfigured
ing
FIG. 105.
Leaf of Black
Birch
youth who
bark.
The
base
is
its
may
be distin-
is
is
double-
sweet to the
Its
bark
is its
peculiar
97
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
98
It
comes
off in layers
it
water-
it.
Gray Birch.
smaller tree, known
49.
A
as
abandoned farms,
is sometimes
and
etc.,
has a
FIG. 107.
age,
fine, delicate
which
is
foli-
not dupli-
It
Each
breeze gives
99
in the leaf
forms of
FIG. 108.
Remarkable Growth
common
of Beeches in Greater
New York
proof against lightning, and recent experiments prove that beech wood offers considerably greater
resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar, or
the beech
willow
is
is
so our ancestors
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
100
51.
Hornbeam.
little trees
which have
of great hardness,
FIG. 109.
and wood
Leaf of Amer-
ican Beech
The leaves
of
FIG. 110.
somewhat
No
list
of trees
buttonball,
would be complete
101
American
tree
which sheds
its
monarch
apply to that
bark as well as
of tree
life,
its
which
to country boys
The
known
and
girls.
on the under
side
with a
it is
incorrectly called,
FIG. 111.
is
same size
crop of balls, or seed pods, but although the
as the buttonballs, they need never be confused, as the
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
102
The
gum, or
liquid
amber
so
grows to a height
wood
is
of one
hundred and
fifty feet,
and
its
The lumber
commonly
called white-
is less
liable to
harder.
Just
warp
is
someand
gum wood,
ivood,
than
what
why
it
Amber
not clear, as
it is
much
Each
The
it out.
which gives
on a long stem.
it
its
name
is
103
from
its
sections
it is still
called canoe
wood.
55.
Basswood, or Linden.
V~~~>^^
I/O^A
varieties,
These trees
varieties.
may
other, as
if
two leaves
of different sizes
common
feature
shown
among
certain classes
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
104
The
tree
is
summer
FIG. 114.
time.
Its
timber
is
it is
swarm
over
it
Tree
The
sometimes
all
is
it is
much
basswood.
Among
by some
of us for
still
several
some reason.
The willow
always a striking
105
tree,
for the
first
sign of
spring,
ferent
states
r J/^i
w ith
often vie
each other to
discover
the
first
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
106
The wood
FIG. 116.
It
has over
Weeping Willow
fifty varieties,
The Poplars.
In the poplars
The wood
we have a group
107
use except for fuel and paper pulp, but there the likeness ends.
To
The people
of Scotland
superstition that
it
was
have a
of aspen
Aspen
FIG. 117
wood
//(
Aspen Poplar,
or Large-Toothed Aspen
tree shivers in
the
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
108
The Lombardy
is
was
many
its tall,
narrow form
is
members
of this family.
of Gilead are
Cottonwood
two well-known
is
best
known
it
in
often
and
Gilead
of our
and balm
is known as one
common city shade
trees.
of
ofis
an important tree
FIG. 118.
Cottonwood, or Caro-
lina
in that
Poplar
miles in extent.
stands the
trees pine
It
is
away and
57. Sassafras.
of the city
where many
it
other
die.
We
find
many
freaks
in
tried to see
the tree
how odd
109
is
usually quite
It
is
FIG. 119.
twigs,
and
roots,
its leaves,
Sassafras
flavor-
ing medicines.
58.
Mulberry.
shape of
common
Another
red, black,
leaves
and
is
ivhite.
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
110
FIG. 120.
in
Leaf Form
CHAPTER X
THE EVERGREENS
The evergreen
like leaves
trees, so called
FIG. 121.
White Pines
at
Without them
FIG. 122.
Arbor
112
Vitae
Hedges
THE EVERGREENS
balsam
air
113
and needle-covered
floor is
far
White Pine.
among
from
is
soft.
usu-
foliage, the
the value of
it
is
the
its fine,
first
even-grained
wood
rank.
give
Pines have needle-shaped leaves
dles
grow
in groups of five
are
from
long.
The
straight,
tree
grows
tall
and
FIG. 123.
of
free
enough
It takes
for timber,
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
114
60.
pine,
Georgia Pine.
is
It is also
able material for the interiors of buildings.
very durable and is frequently used for exposed places,
and some-
its
timber
is
Hemlock
The common
Yellow Pine.
ji
is
also very
much
The cone
of the
common yellow
two inches
long.
Its
wood
ceiling,
is
and interior
finishing.
is
THE EVERGREENS
There are several
Norway
as the northern
or
less
115
and the
pines,
red,
pine.
Hemlock
fir
are well-known
members
of
FIG. 125.
The
is
Influence of
inch long.
It
is
a northern tree
Snow Scene
among
the
common
tiniest
trees.
brown things
They are no
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
116
The wood
is
when the
The bark
is
trees are
valuable, however, as
63. Spruce.
The
it is
rich in tannin.
commonly used
different that
all
bear a family
resemblance.
it
will be
found
This is not
that the needles completely surround it.
Then the spruce needles are sharp at
true of the fir.
the tip, while the
fir
on mountain
sides.
One may
often
between the
The
THE EVERGREENS
117
has cones about one and a half inches long, and its
wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is used
It
is
is
takes
name from
its
somber color of
its foliage,
the
dark,
which seems
hill-
sides.
size as
on the
soft
ing-boards, pulp,
and
is
light
framing for
FlG 126
-
Black
Spruce
houses.
is
and
softer,
It is a northern tree
is
used
is
its
and
wood
for finish-
an importa-
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
118
grows very
tall,
flourishes as well in
Its
wood
and
The cones
America as in Europe.
Europe as
fifty feet,
is
known
in
deal.
Cypress.
the
roots
called
cypress
lumpy growths
which come up out of the
water as if they were in
knees,
search of
is
air.
The cypress
spirelike tree,
which has the most deli-
FIG. 127.
tall,
Cypress
by
this tree is
many
65.
The Balsam
noted for
its
In
is
fact, sanitaria
THE EVERGREENS
for
119
especially
fill
pillows,
to soothe tired
and worn-
We
the Christmas
No
tree.'
its
place.
It brings visions of
and
will al-
flowers,
and
it
from
all directions,
as in
'
Balsam Fir
is
sharply pointed.
The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters
which contain the balsam, Canada balsam it is usually
called, well known for its healing qualities.
spruce
wood
is
not very
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
120
66.
The Cedars.
No
list
of evergreen trees
would be
complete without the cedars. In this group is the wellknown hedge tree, arbor vitoe, sometimes erroneously
called ivhite cedar.
It is
famous for
its flattened,
bright
knowledge as
to its real
it is
fifty feet
ditions.
The
white cedar has a more
cate leaf and is fond of
67.
White Cedar.
real
deli-
cool
swamps.
shape and is
larger than the arbor vi-
It has a conical
much
tae,
FIG. 129.
Arbor
Vitae
feet.
The wood is very valuis used for shingles,
but
and
able, being
durable,
It has the property of enduring the
posts, and boats.
changes such as posts or other structural members are
soft
soil,
and ranks
It is
remarkable for
its straight,
even grain,
THE EVERGREENS
and the ease with which
it
121
can be worked.
This
on the cedar
berries
is
who
rails
the
feast
and
unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations by dropping the seeds on the ground.
FIG. 130.
to
trees can-
not exist, but like other trees responds to good treatment and reaches its best development in the balmy
is
In the North
it
rarely grows
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
122
in
The wood
is
valuable for
many
War, when
CHAPTER XI
THE BIG TREES
Each
own
peculiar trees,
FIG. 131.
Redwood Meadow,
California
but no
list
of
American
trees
FIG. 132.
124
125
called, of California.
these giants
show them
to
of
to
for centuries
FIG. 133.
down on
generations
" General
Grant," a Big Tree, Mariposa Grove, California
tribes.
first
Indians.
What
wonderful
tales
if
126
127
hoary old treas were twenty-five hunThey should be sacred to every Ameri-
Indies, these
down
for lumber.
in the world.
(coniferous) group,
ters of
The wood
on the Pacific
big
name
reddish, as the
is
The
to the cone-bearing
is
and
softer
used for
is
many
purposes
coast.
trees
now
are
carefully guarded
by the
Many
names.
of the best
One
is
known
called "
fires,
etc.
is
is
We
it
takes five
men
three weeks to
128
THE BK;
TKI;I>
cut one
stump
is
129
felling
one of these
The redwood is
the trees are rarely injured by fire.
the only lumber that can take the place of the white
answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany
and black walnut, displace oak for railroad ties, cypress
pine,
and cedar
durability
for shingles,
when
in
and surpass
all
when
exposed to moisture."
FIG. 136.
INDEX
PAGE
59
Annual rings
Ash
Band saw
58
Basswood
Beech
103
15
Bevel
10
countersink
...
....
of.
hit
....
Butternut
Cap
...
....
18
85
108
lar
11
Cutting tools
123
113
Cypress
See Joint
27
Dovetail.
28
Drawing board
29
Elm, American
29
Evergreens
2<i
Felling trees
27
Fir,
105
....
45, 62
94
Ill
52
balsam
Framing square
89
Buttonwood
Cedar
24
118
....
87
Buckeye
iron
89
common forms
Bract of linden
24
.
27
Black walnut
and
23
98
gimlet
Brace,
25
sharpening
B^nch, care of
24
framing
methods of using
99
Bench hook
o,f
firmer
107
Aspen
Bit,
.92
.......
101
17
Gang saw
55
Glue, use of
Grain of wood
39
Groups
120
Gum,
131
59
4
of tools
sweet, or liquid
amber
101
ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
132
Hammer, claw
31
use of
32
....
Hemlock
40
115
Hickory
87
Handscrew, use of
91
Honey locust
Hornbeam
100
86
Horse-chestnut
76
Maple, sugar
80
sycamore
Maple keys
Marking gauge
Mechanical drawing
of end lap joint
100
...
Joint, definition of
Medullary rays
38
method
41
withdrawing
Joint edge
37
Jointers
21
Log boom
38
103
Log jam
.
41
32
....
69
74
75
live
mossy-cup
....
68
72
55
post
red
70
51
67
71
scarlet
white
.....
Oilstone, use of
66
25
33
Mallet
....
82
Pecan
Japan
84
Norway
78
Maple, ash-leaved
32
41
pin
126
91
53
Logs, redwood
of using cut
chestnut
34
39
miter
Locust
31
109
Mulberry
44
...
....
Mortise, cutting a
end lap
middle lap
44
44
47
43
59
dovetail
...
...
of cylinder
Miscellaneous tools
Ironwood
82
red
80
silver
78
striped
81
89
compared
Pine, Georgia
white
....
43
114
113
INDEX
133
PAGE
114
Pine, yellow
Plan of work
Saws
11
48
17
Scale drawing
Screw-driver
18
Screws,
21
22
methods of using
Sections of red oak
jack
19
smooth
wooden
20
Shake
22
Shrinkage
61
17
Spokeshave
29
Plane
adjustments on
block
block,
...
method of using
...
106
Poplars
River driving
.....
Rule, use of
....
circular
of holding
turning
42
70
17
60
up ....
36
101
Sycamore
square, use of
....
...
45
58
15
uous
57
14
Triangles, use of
Try-square, use of
16
Tulip, or whitewood
65
....
....
.
45
6
102
14
tapers
shape of
tooth action
tooth set
Sawmill
34
108
Saw, back
teeth,
...
116
Spruce
Saw
Saw
Saw
Saw
and
wood
Stock, squaring
53
of,
Sandpaper, use of
Sassafras
method
in
33
varieties
...
....
13
Warping
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Parking Lot 17
Box 951388
OCT
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