Types of Ore Deposits

by
Gerald G. Carlson, Ph.D., P.Eng.
President, Copper Ridge Explorations Ltd.
INTRODUCTION

The search for mineral deposits is the principal business activity of most of the
junior resource companies listed on the Vancouver Stock Exchange. This business is
greatly assisted by years of study and research by economic geologists, in industry,
in academic institutions and in government geological surveys on the geology and
geochemistry of ore deposits around the world. Through this work, as our
understanding improves, our exploration programs should gradually become more
effective. On the other hand, most near surface, "easy" discoveries have been
made, and we require this greater knowledge base in order to make the more
difficult discoveries
The types of work carried out during a typical exploration program ranges from
early stage, grass roots exploration, such as the program which lead to Diamet's
Point Lake diamond discovery and Diamond Fields Voisey Bay, to re-evaluation of
known occurrences, such as Misty Mountain's program at the Harmony project
(Cinola). The early stage programs are usually not expensive, but they are very
high risk, with minimal chance of success, leading to very high rewards if a
discovery is made. At the other end of the spectrum, advanced property
acquisitions are more expensive and lower risk because of the greater degree of
knowledge about the property (ie. Inco buying Diamond Fields, Barrick Gold buying
Arequipa).
Regardless of the stage of exploration, decisions made by company management as
to whether or not to proceed with further exploration on a prospect are based not
only on the factual data available but also, and very importantly, on predictions
made by the company's geological team. Given the current state of knowledge
about the prospect, what are its chances of becoming a mine? The odds are better
than 1000:1 against, but a skilled geological team can help to reduce the risk
considerably.
No two mineral deposits are exactly the same. However, exhaustive study of ore
deposits around the world has lead to the recognition of a few broad categories
within which most ore deposits can be placed. Most exploration programs are
focused on one or possibly more of these broad classification categories. It is the
geologist's thorough understanding of all aspects of a specific ore deposit type size, shape, rock types, mineralogy, chemistry, alteration patterns, structure - that
will allow him to make predictions as to the potential of any given prospect, often
based on minimal direct observation.

This paper will examine only the most common metals and minerals being sought
by VSE juniors: Gold, copper, zinc, nickel, silver, and diamonds. It will describe the
most typical deposit types these metals occur in: Magmatic, porphyry, vein, skarn,
massive sulphides, stratabound and placer, with particular emphasis on the deposits
most typical of B.C. and the Yukon.
Initially, the parameters for the classification scheme will be explained. Then, each
deposit type will be examined from a variety of perspectives, including their
geological and physical characteristics and, very generally, how they formed.

COMMODITY VS. GEOLOGY - WHY CLASSIFY?

While commodity is most often the important factor in defining an exploration

program, single commodities can occur in many different deposit types. For
example, Figure 1 shows the various types of deposit British Columbia's gold
production comes from. The particular deposit type sought will define not only how
and where to look, but also the size, scale and metal associations of the expected
operation. Most of B.C.'s gold production comes as a by-product from mining
copper from the porphyries, with very low grades. The high grade veins, where gold
is the primary metal (epithermal, mesothermal and transitional on Figure 1),
account for only 25% of the total.
British Columbia's most important metal commodity is copper. Figure 2 shows the
grade tonnage relationships for eight different deposit types with examples from
around the world. The diagonal lines indicate tonnes of contained copper. Here it
can be seen that the giant copper deposits in the world are all porphyry deposits or
sedimentary deposits (most of which occur in Africa and Asia), with one exception,
Olympic Dam in Australia, which so far is in a category all by itself. Nonetheless, a
smaller, high grade copper deposit such as the replacement deposits at Kennecot,
Alaska, or copper skarns as at Whitehorse Copper might be very attractive
exploration targets for a junior company looking for a smaller capital investment
and a faster payback.
The type of deposit sought will determine not only where the exploration program is
carried out but also the most appropriate exploration techniques used.

CLASSIFICATION PARAMETERS

There are many different types of ore deposit, and the criteria used to distinguish
or classify these deposits into different categories is always open to debate. This
paper will present a simplified classification scheme, with emphasis on the main
types of deposit found in western North America. However, our knowledge of these
deposits has been built up from the study of mineral deposits around the world.
The same processes which have formed rocks of the earth's crust, such as
volcanism, intrusion, sedimentation, metamorphism and structural deformation, are

also at work forming mineral deposits. Ore deposits can simply be considered a
unique and rare rock type.
It follows that certain types of ore deposit are associated with specific rock types or
geological environments. In order to most effectively search for gold or copper, or
any other metal, it is important to understand the types of mineral deposits that
the target metal is most likely to occur in. This includes factors such as shape, size,
associated rock types and alteration. In fact, the geologist able to recognize the
subtle features of alteration and structure associated with a specific mineral deposit
type, based on extensive field experience, will have the greatest success in
predicting the ultimate potential for ore.
Since there is considerable debate among geologists as to where mineral deposits
came from and how they formed (genesis), this is not a good classification
criterion. It is best to stick to features we can all agree on, namely, the physical
description of the deposit. We soon see that, even though no two mineral deposits
are exactly alike, most of them fall into one or another of a small number of
categories. We also see that each of these categories coincides with a generally
accepted hypothesis as to how the mineral deposits formed. In other words,
although we started out with a physically descriptive classification, we end up with
a classification which also coincides with what we perceive to be unique genetic
processes.
The classification is based on four important terms, hydrothermal, magmatic,
syngenetic and epigenetic, which are explained below. Other geologic terms which
are used in the paper are defined in the Appendix.
Hydrothermal: Hot water or hydrothermal solutions have actually been observed
forming mineral deposits. The ore constituents, such as Cu, Pb, Au or other metals,
are dissolved in a hot aqueous solution along with other deposit constituents such
as Si, S and Fe. These elements are precipitated to form the ore and gangue
minerals in response to a change in the solution, very often a sharp decrease in
temperature. An example of this process would be if you dissolved as much table
salt as possible in boiling water. If you then cool the solution in the fridge, much of
the salt will precipitate or come out of solution.
Magmatic: Magma is liquid rock, for example, lava. Most magma does not reach
the earth's surface before it crystallizes, however, but instead forms intrusive rocks,
such as granite. Some mineral deposits, particularly those containing Ni, Cr and Pt,
form by the separation of the metal sulphide or oxides in the molten or liquid form,
within an igneous magma before it crystallizes. These are known as magmatic
deposits. They occur within the igneous rock from which they were derived. The ore
metals concentrate as liquid within the magma chamber in much the same manner
as metals are purified in a smelter or blast furnace. The heavier metal-rich liquids
sink and concentrate at the base of the intrusive body, while lighter silicate liquid
and crystals tend to rise, the same as the slag in a blast furnace.
Syngenetic: A syngenetic mineral deposit is a deposit which formed at the same
time as the rocks that enclose it. Magmatic deposits are syngenetic in that the ore

minerals crystallize from the same liquid that produces the silicate minerals which
form the bulk of the intrusive - they crystallize more or less simultaneously as the
magma cools. Deposits which form on the earth's surface in the form of a
sedimentary layer are also syngenetic. The rocks which they lie upon were
deposited just prior to the mineralizing event, while the overlying rocks were
deposited just after - all three layers being deposited at essentially the same time
in terms of the geological time frame.
Epigenetic: If a mineral deposit formed much later than the rocks which enclose it,
it is said to be epigenetic. An example is a vein. The first step in the formation of a
vein is the fracturing or breaking of rock along a fault zone, at a depth ranging from
surface to several kilometers below surface. The rock must be solid (lithified) and
brittle, creating open spaces when it breaks. Hydrothermal solutions pass along the
fault zone and precipitate the ore and gangue minerals within the open spaces.
Thus, the vein is necessarily younger than the rocks that contain it.
Since we are fairly certain which deposits are syngenetic and which are epigenetic
(although there will always be some degree of uncertainty and overlap), it is
convenient to begin the classification with this discrimination. Beyond this, the
various categories are based on their physical description, including size and shape.
A third level of subdivision is usually based on the metals contained. Here, then, is
the classification:

CLASSIFICATION
I EPIGENETIC
I-1. Porphyry: Large, low grade deposits usually associated with a porphyritic
intrusive body.
A. Cu-Mo (Highland Valley)
B. Cu (-Au) (Kemess; Huckleberry; Mt. Polley)
C. Mo (-W) (Endako)
I-2. Skarn: Mineral deposits formed by replacement of limestone by ore and calcsilicate minerals, usually adjacent to a felsic intrusive body.
A. W-Cu (-Zn,-Mo) (Cantung)
B. Zn-Pb-Ag (-Cu,-W) (Santa Rulalia, Mexico)
C. Cu (-Fe,-Au,-Ag,-Mo) (Whitehorse Copper;
Craigmont)
D. F e (-Cu,-Au) (Texada)
E. Sn (-Cu,-W,-Zn)
F. Au (-As,-Cu) (Hedley)
I-3. Vein: Fracture filling deposits which often have great lateral and/or depth
extent but which are usually very narrow. Some epithermal deposits, rather than
focusing in a narrow vein, flood broad areas of permeable sediments or volcanic
stockworks to produce low grade, bulk tonnage precious metal deposits.
A. Hypothermal - Cu (-Au)

B. Mesothermal - Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag-Au
C. Epithermal - Au-Ag (-Hg) (Toodoggone; Snip ?)
D. Epithermal - bulk tonnage (Carlin)
I-4. Mississippi Valley: Named for the region where they were first described,
these deposits formed within porous carbonate rocks (limestone reefs or caves).
They are Pb-Zn deposits with low Ag values. There are no well-defined examples in
the cordillera - the nearest are Pine Point and Polaris. They will not be described
further in this paper.
I-5. Sedimentary Copper: Hydrothermal fluids passing through porous
sedimentary rocks - sandstones and conglomerates - can precipitate Cu minerals,
sometimes with significant Ag values. Although these deposits are relatively thin,
they can cover vast areas with relatively high grades and thus present a significant
source of the world's copper reserves. An example would be International Curator's
Boleo project, Baja, Mexico. Other than the uneconomic Redstone deposit in the
NWT, there are no significant known reserves of this type in western Canada.
II SYNGENETIC
II-1. Volcanic Massive Sulphide (VMS): These deposits formed as massive
(over 80% sulphide) lens-like accumulations on or near the sea floor in association
with volcanic activity.
A. Felsic volcanic hosted - Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag-Au
(Atna/Westmin's Wolverine)
B. Mafic volcanic hosted - Cu (-Zn,-Au)
C. Mixed volcanic/sedimentary - Cu-Zn (-Au)
(Windy Craggy)
II-2. Sedimentary Deposits: These are formed by hydrothermal emanations on
or near the sea floor in association with the deposition of sedimentary rocks. Most
of the world's Fe comes from Iron Formation, layers of iron-rich sediments in
Precambrian rocks in the world's shield areas.
A. Massive Sulphide (SEDEX) Pb-Zn-Ag (Sullivan)
B. Ba (numerous uneconomic deposits - northeast B.C. and eastern Yukon)
C. Fe (Crest)
II-3. Magmatic: During the crystallization of a magma, usually mafic or
ultramafic, heavy, metal-rich liquids settle and accumulate at specific sites, often at
the base, within the intrusion. Diamond pipes and carbonatites are different in that
the intrusive mass itself is ore, with little or no concentration of ore constituents
during or after intrusion.
A. PGM (Bushveld, South Africa)
B. Chromite (Great Dike, Zimbabwe)
C. Ni-Cu (-PGM) (Inco/Diamond Fields' Voisey Bay; Sudbury)
D. Diamond pipes, carbonatites
(Diamet/BHP/Aber and Kennecott at Lac de Gras)

II-4. Placer: Formed within sediments by the concentration of heavy resistant

minerals (Au, diamond, cassiterite) by stream or wave action. Since these deposits
are formed by secondary erosional processes and are of relatively minor
importance in western North America, they will not be considered further in this
paper. It should be remembered, however, that paleo-placer deposits, that is,
placers which formed earlier in the earth's history and have subsequently been
buried and lithified (formed into solid rock), now contain some of the world's most
significant ore deposits. The two main examples are the Witwatersrand gold
deposits in South Africa and the Blind River uranium ores in Ontario.

DESCRIPTION OF DEPOSIT TYPES

The following sections provide a generalized sketch of each of the main deposit
types, focussing on those deposits which are most important in the cordillera. The
descriptions consider basic physical and economic parameters as well as their
geological characteristics: associated rock types, ore, gangue and alteration
minerals, structure and tectonic setting.

I-1. PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

Definitions: - widely dispersed Cu mineralization related to felsic porphyry intrusion
engineering: - large, low grade, bulk mineable (open pit)
Importance: - 60% world's Cu, 99% world's molybdenite
Avg. Grade: - 0.5% Cu (0.2-1.0%); 0-0.5 g/t Au; 0 .03% Mo (0.01-0.05%)
Avg. Size: - 250 million tonnes (50-1000+)
- 0.5-2 km. diameter; cylindrical, cap-like
Value: - $12-20/tonne; $1-10 billion total
(see Figure 3 for a size vs. grade comparison of important B.C. deposits)
Cap. Cost: - $100 million - $1 billion +
Prod. Cost: - $7-15/tonne
Mining Rate: - 10,000 - 100,000 tonnes/day
Classes:
A. Cu-Mo; - granitic rocks
B. Cu-Au; - alkaline, diorite to syenite (intermediate to felsic, no quartz)
C. Mo-W; - granite (quartz saturated)
General Characteristics: (See Figure 4)
- mineralization is spatially and genetically related to intrusion
- mineralization occurs in country rocks and intrusion
- country rocks: may include older, totally unrelated rocks or volcanic and intrusive
rocks of roughly the same age
- mineralized intrusions and country rocks are typically highly fractured
- alteration is widespread, alteration envelope is usually several times larger than
actual deposit (exploration tool); lateral and vertical zonation
- later supergene alteration; leached capping & secondary enrichment

Tectonic Setting: (see Figure 5)

- deposits form in island arcs and continental margin mountain belts (such as
today's Pacific "Ring of Fire")
- plutons (intrusions) are subduction related (there could be a porphyry deposit
forming below Mt. St. Helens today!)
Intrusive: - diorite to granite, mainly porphyritic, intrusive bodies range in size from
large, differentiated batholith (Highland Valley) to small porphyry stock
(Similkameen) or dikes and sills (Island Copper)
- deposits are believed to form 1-2 km depth, max. 4 km; often immediately below
active volcano
- multiple intrusive events over time indicated by pre-, syn- and post-ore dikes and
other intrusive bodies
Country Rocks: - older sediments, volcanics, metamorphics, granitic rocks to comagmatic intrusives or extrusives
Ore:
A. Hypogene (Primary)
- ore minerals occur as disseminations, fracture fillings, or in quartz veins
- pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite
- core of the deposit is weakly mineralized to barren, usually some pyrite>2%
- the surrounding ore shell is enriched 1st in molybdenite, then in chalcopyrite
- immediately outside the ore shell pyrite increases to 10-15%
- base & precious metal veins occur peripheral to pyrite halo, up to several km from
the core of the deposit
- gold can occur in any of several locations: directly associated with the copper
zone, in or adjacent to the peripheral pyrite zone or further out, associated with the
base metal veins
B. Supergene (Secondary)
- chalcocite on pyrite
- acid weathering dissolves Cu from upper levels and precipitates at depth
Structure: - intersections of large scale faults important in localizing magma
- ground preparation - small faults and fractures create permeability for
hydrothermal fluid flow and ore deposition
Alteration:
1. Metamorphism - Hornfels - contact metamorphism or "baking" of intruded rocks
by intrusive - especially mafic volcanics or shaley sediments - creates a very fine
grained, dense, compact, often pyritic rock (baked zone) for up to several hundred
m away from the intrusive contact
2. Hydrothermal Alteration
A. Potassic - core zone, inside ore shell - orthoclase + biotite +/- sericite, chlorite,
anhydrite; magnetite may be present
B. Phyllic - quartz-sericite-pyrite with abundant silicification and quartz veining usually within ore zone - grades to clay outwards - pyrite more abundant outwards
C. Argillic - clay-quartz-pyrite - in ore zone
D. Propylitic - chlorite-pyrite-calcite-epidote - outside ore shell and extending
hundreds of m to km - mafics to chlorite+carbonate, feldspar unaffected, very
widespread, grades to country rock

Genesis:
- intrusion derived from subduction zone processes
- intrusive event spans large time frame, multiple magmatic episodes, often feeding
volcanic activity above
- magma related to ore deposit is rich in volatiles (hydrothermal fluid), which
separates as a separate fluid as magma cools and solidifies
- fracturing of intrusive and country rocks because of contraction while cooling and
boiling and venting of hydrothermal fluid
- hydrothermal fluid carries metals and sulphur which form the ore minerals;
minerals are precipitated in response to decrease in temperature and pressure,
possibly also in chemical change
- hydrothermal fluids are highly reactive, leaching primary silicate minerals in the
centre of the porphyry system and precipitating secondary minerals as they pass
outwards from the ore zone, creating the typical alteration pattern.

I-2. SKARN DEPOSITS

Importance: (in Canada)
- major source - W
- significant - Cu
- important - Fe, Mo, Zn
- minor - Co, Au, Ag, Pb, Bi, Sn, Be, Bo
- also - graphite, magnesite, talc, fluorite; asbestos, wollastonite, phlogopite.
Definition:
- Skarn: metasomatic rock type, usually within thermal (contact) aureole of
intrusion, characterized by Ca-Fe-Mg-Mn silicates. Skarn is formed when
hydrothermal fluids containing Si contact highly reactive carbonate rocks (CaCO3)
to produce Ca silicate minerals and give off CO2.
Skarn Deposits: metal deposit with skarn as gangue
Age: most are Mesozoic or younger; W, Sn form deeper and may be older; Pb, Zn,
PM's form most shallow and are therefore youngest
Tectonic Setting: very similar to porphyry (see Figure 5); skarns and porphyry
deposits often occur side by side
deposits occur peripheral to intrusives within active mountain belts - subduction
related

I-2-A. Skarn Tungsten

Importance: Canada - 5% of world's W (with Cantung)
Cantung - 9 million tonnes, 1.4% WO3, 0.2% Cu
Mactung - 57 million tonnes, 0.95% WO3
Geology: - limestone-shale sequence intruded by Cretaceous granite
- broad thermal metamorphic haloes suggest that they form relatively deep in the
crust
- pure limestone to limey shale' altered to skarn and hornfels
Assoc. Rocks: - intrusive - granitic, coarse. grained, unaltered, porphyritic

- minor quartz stockwork, argillization (clay alteration)

Form: - stratiform; also discordant lenses
Ore: - scheelite, chalcopyrite
Gangue: - pyrrhotite, pyrite, pyroxene, garnet, calcite, dolomite, quartz, biotite

I-2-B. Skarn Pb-Zn-Ag

Importance: - Mexico, Japan
- Santa Eulalia - 29 million tonnes, 11% Zn, 10% Pb, 200 g/t Ag
Geological Setting: - either within thermal aureole of an intrusive or away from
intrusive along structural conduit (fracture system)
- generally shallower, smaller aureoles, finer grained intrusives
Host: 1. lower Paleozoic - outer shelf carbonate/shale
2. oceanic arc volcanics/carbonate
Association: - felsic/intermediate stock/pluton - alteration minor
Form: - usually stratabound; structural traps
Ore: - sphalerite (iron-rich),galena; chalcopyrite, scheelite
- proximal Pb-Zn (Cu, W); distal - increasing Mn, Pb, Ag - Cu-W(low Fe) -> Pb-ZnAg -> Fe-Mn
Gangue: - Fe & Mn- rich calc-silicates; pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite

I-2-C. Skarn Copper

Importance: - 10% Canada's Cu
- 1-20 million tonnes (to 200 million tonnes), 1-2% Cu
- Craigmont, Ingerbelle, Whitehorse Copper
Geological Setting: - magmatic arcs, porphyry Cu association.
- pure/impure limestone, mafic to felsic intrusives
Host Rocks: - limestone, dolomite, Ca-Mg skarns
Associated Rocks: - wide variety
Form: - irregular, peneconcordant; massive to disseminated
Ore: - chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite; other sulphides
Gangue: - pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, calcite, dolomite, quartz, garnet,
pyroxene, epidote, serpentine, talc, biotite, wollastonite, tremolite, actinolite

I-2-D. Skarn Iron

Importance: - Fe (Cu, W, Sn)
- Texada - 30 million tonnes; 40-50% Fe
Geological Setting: - mobile belts (early stages of mountain building)
Host: - limestone to skarn (Ca sil.) +/- metavolcanics, metasediments
- intrusive - gabbro to qtz. monz., syenite - may host some mineralization.
Form: - irregular massive; disseminated; patchy veins;
dike-like.
Ore: - magnetite, hematite; chalcopyrite
Gangue: - pyrite, pyrrhotite, apatite, Ca-silicates, calcite, dolomite

I-3. VEINS
Importance: Au: - 60% of world's gold from Archean (early Precambrian)
- 2/3 from Witwatersrand (paleo-placer deposit - see II-4, page 10)
- 1/3 other lode (veins - Superior Province of the Canadian
- Shield has the greatest production - 170 million oz
- B.C. Cordillera - 38 million oz (1,182 tonnes)
- 60% lode (see Figure 1), 40% placer Ag: - in Cda to 60's - Keno Hill veins major
source
- now Ag bearing polymetallic deposits have taken over Cu: - approx. 3% Cdn
production
Definition: Lindgren classified veins based on depth and temperature of formation:
- A. Epithermal - shallow, low T (temperature) - Au, Ag, Hg
- B. Mesothermal - moderate depth and T - Pb, Zn, Cu, Ag, Au
- C. Hypothermal - deep, high T - Cu, Au
- tabular - open space filling or replacement along shear or fault zone.
Age: - Archean - mainly mesothermal
- Cordilleran - epithermal to mesothermal- Mesooic and younger.
Tectonic Setting: - Archean Lodes: association with major fault, often parallels a
transition from volcanics to sedimentary rocks
Cordilleran:- deep porphyry to surface volcanic (hot spring) environment
- mesothermal veins (Bralorne) have ultramafic rock association
Geology: - any host but generally prefer brittle rock, which can hold open fracture
- generally associated with major fracture, 10's km strike length; deep penetrating
shown by ultramafic association
- ore often forms in splay off main fault or at flexure zone
- heat source - high geothermal gradient, intrusive, volcanics
Form: - main structure - tabular
- ore zone - tabular to sigmoidal to very irregular, usually only occupies a small
fraction (15-25%) of total structure
Ore: - extremely variable, with or without base metals
- exotic - sulphosalts, tellurides, native metals
- often many different pulses of mineralization, each with slightly different
chemistry, leads to complex banding in veins
Gangue: - quartz, calcite, pyrite, arsenopyrite
Alteration: carbonate - can be very widespread
argillic (clay) - closer to and within vein
silicification - often higher in system, e.g. silica cap
metal enrichment - often in wall rocks adjacent to vein

I-3-A. EPITHERMAL VEINS

Tonnes
(000's)
Silbak Premier 4,200
Baker
80
Cinola
34,000
Cheni
1,000
Blackdome
200
Snip
1,200
Deposit

El Indio

Au (g/t)

Ag (g/t)

13.3
15.0
2.1
8
27
25

285
287

50

256

3,200

12.3

250
110

141
+4% Cu

- often high grade "bonanza" veins if hydrothermal fluids are focused through a
narrow structure; but may be large, low grade, bulk tonnage, replacement deposits
if hydrothermal fluids are distributed through a reactive rock type.
General Characteristics: (see Figure 6 - B.C. Epithermal Model)
1. Depth - form between surface and 1000 m; avg. vertical range 350 m; often
bottom in sub-grade base metal mineralization
2. Veins most common - branch and flare outward; also breccia, stockworks,
bedding replacement
3. Extensional tectonic setting - often large scale caldera collapse
4. Typically Tertiary (young) subaerial volcanism; numerous small high level
intrusions; may be evidence of hot spring activity
5. Ore - often associated with open space textures - crustiform, vuggy, coxcomb;
multiple pulses
6. Ore metals - Au, Ag; enhanced Hg, As, Sb; less Tl, Se, Te
- minerals: native, electrum, argentite, Ag As-Sb sulphosalts, tellurides, galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, cinnabar, stibnite, tetrahedrite
7. Gangue - quartz., calcite.; minor barite, pyrite, fluorite
- quartz. - often amethystine, opal, chalcedony
8. Alteration - silicification, clay (acid leach)

II-1. VOLCANIC MASSIVE SULPHIDE DEPOSITS (VMS)

Importance: (in Canada)
30% Cu; 60% Zn; 30% Pb; 40% Ag; 8% Au
Definition: Stratiform, lenticular, often zoned deposits with >80% sulphides;
- intimately associated with volcanic rocks within volcanic or volcanic/sedimentary
stratigraphy; often underlain by stockwork or pipe-like alteration zone.
Age: Archean; Phanerozoic

Varieties: - A. Cyprus Cu-Zn

- B. Besshi Cu-Zn +/- Ag, Au (Windy Craggy, Granduc)
- C. Kuroko Zn-Pb-Cu +/- Au, Ag (Wolverine, Battle Lake, Eskay)
Tectonic Setting: Three main environments, all related to submarine volcanic
activity
A. Cyprus - mid-ocean ridge/spreading centre (modern analog is "black smokers"
on East Pacific Rise in the Pacific Ocean off Vancouver Island); -- deposits are later
preserved on continent as ophiolite
B. Besshi - back-arc basin/spreading centre (e.g. Sea of Japan)
C. Kuroko - island arc/subduction (recent discoveries of erupting submarine
volcanoes with active geothermal, black smoker-type vents depositing metals on
the sea floor have been made in the southwest Pacific)
Genesis: - heat provided by sub-volcanic intrusives
- hydrothermal fluid is mainly sea water flowing through volcanic rocks
- metals are leached from volcanic rocks by hydrothermal fluid
- structure, channelways are fractures, pipes and vents associated with active
volcano
- metals are precipitated from hydrothermal fluid to form ore deposit as fluid
rapidly cools at or near the seafloor (e.g. black smokers on East Pacific Rise)
Comparison of Besshi and Kuroko Sub-types:
II-1-B. Cu-Zn (Besshi) II-1-C. Zn-Pb-Cu (Kuroko)
B.C. Examples: Windy Craggy Buttle Lake (Westmin)
Size:
(see Figure 7) 1-50 million T; max. 250 million T
1-2% Cu; 3-5% Zn; <1% Pb
1-2 opt Ag; <0.1 opt Au 1-20 million T; max. 100 million T
0.5% Cu; 5-7% Zn; 2-5% Pb
2-3 opt Ag; <0.1 opt Au
Host Rocks: - mafic volcanic flows
- often overlain by fine-grained marine sediments (shale) - mafic to felsic volcanic
rocks
- often at end of volcanic cycle - rhyolite dome complex; overlain by pyroclastics
(fragmental volcanics)
Associated Rocks - ferruginous chert at ore horizon; possibly manganiferous - subvolcanic intrusives; volcanic breccia and debris flows; chemical sediments (chert,
barite, gypsum)
II-1-B. Cu-Zn (Besshi) II-1-C. Zn-Pb-Cu (Kuroko)
Form: - lensoid to sheet-like
- Besshi - thin and laterally extensive, often tightly folded - lensoid, thicker and less
laterally extensive
- often cut by post-ore intrusion
Ore Minerals: - chalcopyrite, sphalerite - chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite, galena;

tetrahedrite
Zoning: - typically Cu (core)->Zn->Fe (periphery) - Cu (core)->Zn+Pb->Ba
(periphery)
- precious metals enriched in fringe areas
Gangue: - pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, chert - same + barite, gypsum
Alteration:
Footwall Pipe - vertically extensive, conical shaped; often depleted in Na, Ca, K, Si;
enriched in Mg and ore metals, especially Cu, Fe
- may contain chlorite, talc or sericite; fringe enriched in quartz
Footwall Blanket - sometimes footwall zone is laterally extensive blanket
(geothermal aquifer); Fe, Mg enrichment; Na depletion; quartz + epidote alteration
Hangingwall Blanket - may be subtle blanket of clay +/- carbonate +/- silica

II-2. SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS

II-2-A. Massive Sulphide (SEDEX) Pb-Zn-Ag
Importance: - in Canada - 15% Zn; 45% Pb; 10% Ag
Definition: - stratiform, tabular to lenticular, often zoned deposits with >80%
sulphides;
- conformable within sedimentary strata; massive to banded textures
Size: (see Figure 8)
- 5-500 million tonnes; avg. 60 million tonnes
- 5-10% Zn; 3-5% Pb; <1% Cu; 1-5 opt Ag
- 1's to 10's m thick; 100's m in long dimensions
Tectonic Setting: - marine basin (modern analog - Gulf of Mexico), usually
adjacent to fault bounded basin margin;
- extensional tectonic environment
Host Rocks: - fine grained clastics - shale, siltstone, fine sandstone
- other chemical sediments - chert, barite
- often minor volcanic activity; high level mafic intrusions (sills)
- active faulting indicated by syn-sedimentary breccias, soft sediment deformation
(slumping)
Age: - Proterozoic and Paleozoic
Form: - tabular - fill small basin or depression on sea floor
- often underlain by stockwork feeder zone
- may abut growth fault (fault which is actively moving during sedimentation and
ore formation) on basin margin
Ore: - galena, sphalerite; very minor chalcopyrite, sulphosalts, cassiterite
Gangue: - pyrite, pyrrhotite, barite, quartz; interbedded sediments
Alteration: - effects are usually subtle
- footwall: stockwork - quartz, carbonate, pyrite; silicification, tourmalinite
- hangingwall: may be slight effect - e.g. Na, Ba enrichment
Genesis: - heat provided by geothermal gradient in subsiding sedimentary basin
- hydrothermal fluid is mainly sea water trapped in clayey sediments
- metals are leached from shales by hydrothermal fluid
- channelways are permeable beds; main structure is basin bounding fault
- pressure from accumulating sediment pile forces hydrothermal fluids to migrate

laterally to basin edge and up along basin bounding fault.

- metallic sulphide accumulates where fluids reach sea floor along basin margin
(Black Smoker analogy)

II-3. MAGMATIC DEPOSITS

Magmatic deposits are the most important sources of Ni, Cr, PGMs (platinum group
metals) and diamonds. The metallic deposits occur primarily in the Precambrian
shield areas, likely reflecting thinner crust, higher geothermal gradient and thus
greater mafic magmatic activity early in the earth's history. Thus, most of these
metals are mined from the earth's main shield areas - eastern Canada, Siberia,
central and southern Africa and western Australia. Only relatively minor examples
occur in cordilleran belts, such as Giant Nickel near Hope and minor placer platinum
and chromite deposits in the Tulameen area.

The classic magmatic deposit is Sudbury, where mafic magmas rich in Cu, Ni and
PGM's intruded a large, elliptical and conical shaped fracture system, possibly
caused by a meteor impact. The metals settled into pockets on the footwall
perimeter of the intrusion, producing one of the largest and richest Ni deposits in
the world. Voisey's Bay is an exceptional new discovery which may ultimately
overshadow Sudbury because of it's high grade and the distribution of Ni and Cu in
essentially one large body.

Kimberlite pipes form quite differently, starting life as an accumulation of gas,

mainly carbon dioxide, in the earth's upper mantle, over 200 km below the earth's
surface. When the confining pressure is exceeded, these gasses travel very quickly
upwards, exploding through the crust. In the last kilometer or so of travel, the
intrusion bores an increasingly wider channel to the surface. The resulting
kimberlite rock consists of some original rock and mineral components from the
upper mantle, bits of the various rock types cut all the way to surface as well as
surface material. For example, fragments of vegetation have been found at 200
metre, depths in some of the Lac de Gras kimberlites, suggesting significant fallback into a crater after a violent eruption. Diamonds will occur in a kimberlite if the
intrusion originated within or below the stability field for diamonds, deep in the
mantle, and if the chemistry within the pipe, during and after intrusion, allowed the
preservation of the diamonds.

MINING CAMPS WITH MULTIPLE DEPOSIT TYPES

In many of the world's most famous mining camps, two or more different mineral
deposit types might occur in close proximity. For example, at Timmins, Ontario, the
camp was first made famous for the "Golden Staircase", the original high grade
gold showings which gave birth to the Hollinger and Dome Mines. Then, in the

1960's, just north of the gold mines, the famous Kidd Creek discovery was made,
one of the richest VMS deposits in the world.

Figure 9 shows an example from British Columbia - the Iskut and

Eskay Creek Camp. The cross section is idealized, but shows a
transect which includes a number of different deposit types, all
approximately the same age and formed in response to the same
magmatic/ tectonic or metallogenic episode. In other words, the
intrusion and volcanism that was responsible for building mountains
in this part of British Columbia about 200 million years ago was also
generating hydrothermal fluids rich in base and precious metals which
were subsequently deposited to form some of the richest mineral
deposits in the province.
These include:
Porphyries: Galore Creek high grade, with good gold credits, but not
large enough to justify the capital cost at this time.
Schaft Creek one of the largest in B.C., but very isolated
Veins: Snip despite isolation, a low cost producer thanks to 1 oz/t Au
grade
Johnny Mountain, Sulphurets, Premier and many others
Skarn: McLymont good grade but not enough tonnes
Dolly Varden and many others are siliceous, pyritic replacement
deposits with precious metal values.
VMS: Eskay Creek unique because of its unusual metal assemblage,
including very high gold and silver values.
Tulsequah, Kutcho and Windy Craggy are similar age but farther from
the camp.