ARIMPIE 2015 (Vol 1)

ELK Asia Pacific Journals Special Issue
Proc. Of the Int. Conf: ARIMPIE-2015
Message from the Chairman
I am extremely delighted to note that Department of Mechanical Engineering , I.T.S Engineering

College, Greater Noida is set to organize the First International Conference on Advancements
and Recent Innovations in Mechanical, Production and Industrial Engineering (ARIMPIE-2015)
in association with the Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi during April 1011,2015. It is my conviction that this conference will provide quick snapshot of major
developments and innovations in the subject area with special emphasis on technological
breakthrough, competing technologies on the horizon and some key innovations. It will also
expose students to the latest developments in the area of expertise and help them correlate with
the knowledge garnered during class room teaching.
I am sure this conference will provide an opportunity to the academicians, industrialists,
scientists and research scholars to present their view and exchange ideas on the above mentioned
subjects.
Finally, I would like to congratulate all the members of the organizing team for their persistent
efforts and commitments to make this event a grand one.
Dr.R.P.Chaddha
Chairman
I.T.S Education Group
Message from Organizing Chair

It is privilege and pleasure to welcome the conference speakers, presenters, delegates and
participants to the First International Conference on Advancements and Recent Innovations in
Mechanical. Production and Industrial Engineering ARIMPIE-2015. We would like to express
our personal gratitude to the sponsors and well wishers for their continued support as well as to
our students, faculty and staff who have worked with dedication for ensuring the success of the
Conference.
In the present day business environment technological edge and superiority is the major growth
engine for business. Academic institute provide the fertile ground for innovation and
technological breakthrough. Organizing conferences help in diffusion of knowledge and
exchange of ideas with the peer group.
We are fortunate to have received the support of the I.T.S Management, academic fraternity,
industry associates and sponsors. We thank one and all for the support and hope that we will
derive benefit from the deliberations in the conference.
We wish you all success in accomplishing the goals of the Conference.
Dr.Sanjay Yadav
Organizing Chair ARIMPIE2015
Dr.Vikas Dhawan
Organizing Chair ARIMPIE2015
Message from Organizing Secretary
We are indeed privileged and delighted to host ARIMPIE-2015, the First International
Conference on Advancements and Recent Innovations in Mechanical, Production and Industrial
Engineering. This conference is aimed to provide a common platform for the interaction of the
academia and industry including personnel from research and development organizations.
The organizing committee, under the valuable guidance of our Director Dr.Vineet Kansal, has
been very active to ensure the successful organization of the conference. Special gratitude and
appreciation is due to the various track chairs as they are primarily responsible for the content
and conduct of the technical program. The Registrar, Dean Academics and faculty of I.T.S
Engineering College deserves special thanks for providing administrative and technical support
to ARIMPIE-2015. We wish to express a debt of gratitude to all the program committee
members and the outside reviewers. Thanks also to all those who submitted papers to the
Conference.
We heartily welcome all delegates, invitees, guests and participants to this conference.
Dr. Sanjay Mishra

Organizing Secretary
Mr. Manvendra Yadav

Organizing Secretary
Preface
Welcome to the First International Conference on Mechanical, Production and Industrial
Engineering ARIMPIE-2015. In order to improve the quality of living, implication of innovative
solutions and best practices in Mechanical, Industrial and Production Engineering have critical
role. In the near future Mechanical Engineering will be at the forefront in developing new
technologies. The prime goal of the conference is to promote research and developmental
activities in Mechanical, Production and Industrial Engineering. The conference aimed to
provide a common platform for professionals, academicians, researchers and industrialists to
share their knowledge and ideas for achieving focused development and advancements in
emerging field of these areas. It will help the participants to redefine their horizons in recent
innovation in these fields through technical paper presentations and panel discussions leading to
networking of participant organizations for effective collaboration in R & D and recognizing the
areas which require future research. The organizing committee believes that the conference will
assist the participants to connect with the pace of innovation in the Mechanical, Production and
Industrial Engineering.
This Proceeding is a compilation of quality papers accepted for presentation in the conference.
The organizing committee of ARIMPIE-2015 extends their thanks to the authors for accepting to
share their knowledge in these Proceedings. All the experts who peer-reviewed the papers are
most thanked for ensuring that quality material was published. The guidance given by the
members of the International Advisory Committee is greatly acknowledged. The organizations
associated with us are most sincerely thanked for making it possible for the Conference and its
Proceedings to be realized. Our special thanks to the Director of the college Dr. Vineet Kansal,
for providing an environment that was conducive for the smooth accomplishment of the editorial
work.
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chief Patron
International Advisory Committee
Dr. R. P. Chadha
(Chairman, I.T.S- The Education Group)
Prof. Raj Kumar Roy, Cranfield University, UK
Patrons
Dr.Rajesh Piplani, Nanyang

University, Singapore
Prof. Mohammed Arif, University of Salford,

UK
Mr. Sohil Chadha
Technological
Prof. Nikhil Ranjan Dhar, Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology,
Dhaka
(Vice Chairman, I.T.S- The Education Group)

Mr. Arpit Chadha
Dr. Nandita Hettiarachchi, Ruhuna University,

Srilanka
(Vice Chairman, I.T.S -The Education Group)

Mr. B. K. Arora
Prof. R.K. Khandal, Vice Chancellor, Uttar

Pradesh Technical University, India
(Secretary, I.T.S -The Education Group)
Prof. R.L.Sharma, Vice Chancellor, Himachal

Pradesh Technical University, India
Dr Vineet Kansal
(Director, I.T.S Engineering College, Greater
Prof. R.S. Agarwal, Senior Advisor & Expert,

Ozone Cell, India
Noida)
Dr.Sanjay Yadav, CSIR-National

Laboratory, New Delhi, India
Organizing Chairs
Physical
Prof. A.D. Bhatt, MNNIT Allahabad, India

Dr. Sanjay Yadav
Head, MED
Prof. Abid Haleem, Jamia Millia Islamia, New

Delhi, India
Dr. Vikas Dhawan

Professor, MED
Prof. Anuj Jain, MNNIT Allahabad, India

Prof. Ashitava Ghosal, IISc Banalore, India
Organizing Secretaries
Prof. B. Sahay, IIT Patna,India

Dr.Sanjay Mishra
Associate Professor, MED
Prof. H.K.Raval, SVNIT Surat, India

Prof. Mohd. Islam, Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi, India
Mr. Manvendra Yadav

Assistant Professor, MED
Prof. M.D.Singh, MNNIT Allahabad, India

Joint Secretaries
Prof. Mohd. Muzaffarul Hasan, Jamia Millia

Islamia, New Delhi, India
Dr.B.P.Sharma
Associate Professor, MED
Prof. Puneet Tandon, IITDM Jabalpur, India

Prof. R.A.Khan, Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi, India
Mr. Md. Kamal Asif Khan

Assistant Professor, MED
Prof. R.S. Jadoun, G. B. Pant University of

Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar, India
Prof. Ravi Kumar, IIT Roorkee, India
II
Prof. S.K. Garg, Delhi Technological University,

India
Prof. Sanjay, NIT Jamsedhpur, India
Prof. Sanjay Sharma, NITIE Mumbai, India
Prof. Sehijpal
Ludhiana, India
Singh
Khangura,GNDDC
Prof. Sudhir Kumar, NIT Kurukshetra, India

Prof. Uday Shanker Dixit, IIT Guwhati, India
Prof. V.K. Jain, IIT Kanpur, India
Prof. Vinod Yadava, MNNIT Allahabad, India
Dr.Inderdeep Singh,IIT Roorkee, India
Dr.Narayan Agarwal,Delhi Institute of Tool
Engineering, New Delhi, India
Dr. P.M. Pathak, IIT Roorkee, India
Dr. Pulok M.Pandey, IIT Delhi, India
Dr. Vijay Pandey, BIT Mesra, Ranchi, India
Dr. Alok Kumar Das, ISM Dhanbad, India
Dr. Atul Thakur, IIT Patna, India
Dr. Akhilesh Barve, IIT Bhubaneswar, India
Dr. Rakesh Sehgal, NIT Hamirpur, India
Dr. Siddhartha, NIT Hamirpur, India
Dr. Varun, NIT Hamirpur, India
Mr. Arvind Sinha, SAS Motors, India
Mr. Deepak Maini, Cadgroup, Australia
Mr. R. K .Malhotra, SMC Pneumatics (India)
Pvt. Ltd, India
Mr. Raj Kumar Soni, Raj Soni & Co., India
Mr. Shraman Goswami, Honeywell Technology,
India
III
1. Preface
2. Organizing Committee
I
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MECHANICAL
Vol. 1
S. No.
Paper Title and Author(s)
Shape Oscillations of a Particle Coated Bubble During Rise in a Liquid Column

Prithvi R. Y., SabitaSarkar
Tensile Behaviour of 3-Ply Laminate Composite of Sheet Metals
Vijay Gautam, Bijender Prasad
Stress Analysis of Pelton Bucket using Mechanical APDL
Sonendra,NamanAgarwal, T.S.Deshmuk
Ships Steering Autopilot Design by Nomoto Model
Pradeep Mishra, S K Panigrah ,Swarup Das
Material Selection in Bearing Industry Using Multi Criteria based TOPSIS
Methodology
J. S. Karajagikar, R. R. Manekar
Data Acquisition and Monitoring of EMG (Electromyogram) Signals
MrinalJyotiSarma, RichaPandey
Sustainable Application of Compound Parabolic Solar Concentrator
D.K.Patel,P.K. Brahmbhatt
Effect of Radiative Heat Transfer Term in Weak NonLinear Waves in Fluid With
Internal State Variables
Nahid Fatima
Investigation to Compare Heat Augmentation from Plane, Dimpled and Perforated
Dimple Rectangular Fins using ANSYS
Sachin Kumar Gupta, Harishchandra Thakur
Dynamic Response of Selected Fruits using Laser Doppler Vibrometer
JitendraBhaskar, Anand Kumar, Bishakh Bhattacharya
Experimental Study of Comparison of Simple VCRS and VCRS with Phase Change
Material(PCM) as Potassium Chloride (KCL)
TalivHussain, SahilChadha, Gaurav Singh, Jaggi,Sourabh,Gourav Roy
Study of Fatigue Life Calculation of Steel under Various Loading Condition
Anil Kumar , AbhishekPandey
Experimental Investigation of ThermalPerformance of Liquid Flat Plate Collector by
Comparing Single Glass Sheet with the Double Glass Sheet
TalivHussain, Wasiur Rahman, Saddamul Haque, Rocky Singh Labana, Md.Sabbir
Ali
Effect of Phase Change Material (PCM) as Sodium Chloride (Nacl) in VCRS System
as Compare to Simple VCRS System.
TalivHussain, Sourabh, NeerajKatoch, SahilChadha, Rahul Wandra
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
IV
Page
No.
1
7
13
19
25
32
37
45
50
59
63
67
71
76
15
16
17
18
19
Experimental Analysis of A Waste-Heat-Utilization-Strategy using Thermoelectric

Device in C.I. Engine
R. Srivastava, S.K. Dhiman, J.V. Tirkey
Effect of Various Cut-Out on Buckling Analysis of Laminated Composite Plate using
FE Simulation
Rekha Shakya, Tushar Sharma, Rajendra Bahadur
To Evaluate the Performance of VCRS System by Comparing Lesser Superheated
Refrigerant(R-134a) to Higher Superheated Refrigerant (R143a)
Rahul Wandra, TalivHussain, JagannathVerma, Arjun Sharma,Gourav Roy
Kinematic Design Optimization of Planer-Link Mechanism Based Manipulator
Jagdish M Prajapati
In-Plane Free Vibrations of Symmetrically Laminated Rectangular Composite Plates
Kumar Pankaj ,UjjwalBhardwaj,Priyanka Singh
80
85
91
96
101
20
Experimental Investigation of Comparison of Air Cooled and Water Cooled Condenser

Attached with Cooling Tower
Gourav Roy, TalivHussain, Rahul Wandra
117
21
Computational Fluid Flow Analysis of High Speed Cryogenic Turbine using CFX
SushantUpadhyay, ShreyaSrivastava, SiddharthSagar, Surabhi Singh, Hitesh Dimri
Thermal Analysis of Various Perforated Tree Shaped Fin Array using ANSYS
Sachin Kumar Gupta, Rahul Singh, DivyankDubey, Harishchandra Thakur
A Review on the Analytical Analysis and Modeling of Earth Air Tunnel Heat
Exchanger
JagjitKaur, HarminderKaur
Ecoflush - Wastewater Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting Toilet Flush System
Mukesh Roy, AyushGoyal, Vivek Kumar
Experimental Investigation of Enhancing the COP of VCRS System by using Cooling
Tower
Gourav Roy,TalivHussain, Rahul Wandra
Improvement in Thermal Efficiency of a Compression Ignition Engine using A Waste
Heat Recovery Technique
Aashish Sharma, Ajay Chauhan, HimanshuNautiyal,Pushpendra Kumar Sharma,
Varun
Motion Control System of Dc Motor Drive Through PID Control
Pragya Singh, HemantChouhan
Effect of Subcooling in VCRS as Compared to Simple VCRS System
TalivHussain, Arjun Sharma ,Navin, Rahul Wandra, Gaurav Roy
Comparison of Different Failure Theories of Composite Material: A Review
SupriyaKabra, N.D. Mittal
Use of Polymer Matrix Composites for Conventional Steel Drive Shafts: A Study
Yusuf Abdulfatah Abdu
Experimental Investigation of Comparison of VCRS with Phase Change Material as
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) and Simple VCRS System.
Rahul Wandra, Taliv Hussain, Gaurav Singh Jaggi, Sourabh,Gourav Roy
122
Behaviour of Polymer Matrix Composite under Different Environmental Conditions

Pathak, ShubendraNathShukla,VikasChaudhary, Kaushalendra Kr Dubey
Study of Flow Field of River for Hydro Kinetic Turbine Installation
A. Mishra, A.Kumar, M. Singhal,
191
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
129
137
143
147
152
161
167
174
179
187
195
34
35
36
A Review on the Performance of the Nano Fluid Based Solar Collectors - Solar Energy
Kapil Sharma, Satnam Singh, ManvendraYadav, Sanjay Yadav, Naveen Mani Tripathi
Study of Hardness & Microstructure of AISI 1050 Medium Carbon Steel after Heat
Treatment Processes
Sanjeev Kumar Jaiswal, Rajesh M, .T.Sharma, Vineet Kumar
Condition based Predictive Maintenance on board Naval Ships
S Jaison, KarajagikarJayant
PRODUCTION & INDUSTRIAL

Paper Title and Author(s)
37
Soft Computing Technique for Product Design Suggestion in Smart Manufacturing

Industry
Jitesh Kumar Khatri, Jyoti Kumar
Experimental Investigation of Electrical Discharge Face Grinding of Metal Matrix
Composite (Al/Sic)
Ram Singar Yadav, Gyan Singh, Vinod Yadava
Heuristic for Enabling Lean Characteristics in Cellular Manufacturing using
Reconfigurable Machines
Rajeev Kant, L N Pattanaik, Vijay Pandey
Finite Element Analysis of Laser Beam Percussion Drilling of TBC Superalloys
Km Afsana, VinodYadava
Dynamic Modelling and Machining Stability in A New Mill-Spindle Design for Drilling
Machine
JakeerHussain, Srinivas J
An Experimental Investigation of Travelling Wire Electrochemical Spark Machining
(TW-ECSM) of Epoxy Glass Using One-Parameter-At-A-Time (OPAT)
Vevek Kumar, VinodYadava
Experimental Study of Electrical Discharge Machining on Stainless Steel Workpiece
using One Parameter at A Time Approach
Param Singh,VinodYadava, Audhesh Narayan
Dry Sliding Wear Behaviour of Mg/Tip (Mg)-Based Composite Obtained Through P/M
Route
SanketPatro, M.Appoothiadigal, B.K.Raghunath
Effect of Magnetic Field on Electrode Wear Ratio in Electro-Discharge Machining
Govindaraju Anand, Komaraiah, S.Satyanarayana, Manzoor Hussain
A Quantitative Analysis of Modular Manufacturing in Garment Industry by using
Simulation
B.Sudarshan, D. NageswaraRao
Emerging Modelingand Simulation Techniques for Friction Stir Welding- A Review
PrashantPrakash, Shree PrakashLal, Sanjay Kumar Jha
Preparation and Mechanical Properties of Sintered Zrb2-Graphite Composites by Spark
Plasma Sintering (SPS) Method
NiteshKuma, Binay Kumar,Lokesh.C. Pathak
ANN Modelingand Multi Objective Optimization of Electrical Discharge Machining
Process
SanjeevKumarSinghYadav, DeepakAzad
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
213
220
Vol. 2
S. No.
38
201
VI
Page
No.
228
233
240
245
252
258
264
270
276
281
288
296
300
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Optimization of Aluminium Die Casting Process using Artificial Neural Network

SanatanRatna, SwetNisha
A Review on Sisal, Jute and Bamboo Based Natural Fibers
Amrinder Singh Pannu, Sehijpal Singh, VikasDhawan
Multiobjective Optimization for Wire EDM of WC-Co Composite using GRA with
Entropy Measurement
Sachin Dev Barman, Ajay Suryavanshi
Optimization Of Electro Discharge Machining of Superalloys and Composites: A
Review
AmritShiwani, Amit Sharma
A Investigation of Machinability of Inconel 718 In EDM using Different Cryogenic
Treated Tools: A Review
Pradeep Joshi, Shiv DayalDhakad
Present &Future of Automation in Automotive Industries.
HemangSolanki, K.V.Parmar
Friction Stir Welding of AluminumAlloys 6xxx
Naveen Gadde, ShikharGoel, PiyushGulati
Development and Characterization of Green Composites: A Review
Jai InderPratap Singh, VikasDhawan, Sehijpal Singh
Study of Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk Composites
V K Joshi, V. Upreti, A., Chaudhary
An Overview of Turning Process
Monika Saini,Ravindra Nath Yadav, Sunil Kumar
Research and Developments in Laser Beam Machining A Review
Bhaskar Chandra Kandpal, Nilesh Ramdas, Rakesh Chaurasia, Abhishek singh,
Vishal Rawat, Saatvik Singh
Effect of Transverse Weld Feed Rate on Microstructure and Tensile Properties of FSW
Weld of AA6061
Ashwani Kumar, R S Jadoun
Modelling and Simulation of Temperature Distribution in Laser Cutting of Ti-Alloy
Sheet
ShivaniPandey, Arun Kumar Pandey
To Study the Effect of Various Parameters on Finishing of Inner Surfaces of Brass
Tubes using Magnetic Abrasive by RSM
Jai InderPratap Singh, VikasDhawan, Sehijpal Singh
Simulation of Hole-Taper And Material Removal Rate Due to Single Pulse Laser Beam
Drilling
Sanjay Mishra, VinodYadava
Analysis of Process Parameters of CNC Lathe Turner by Response Surface
Methodology
RichaSaxena, AbhishekPandey
Modelling of Electro-Discharge Machining of Difficult-to-Machine Materials: An
Overview
Achal Gupta,AdityaAgrawal, Amit Sharma
VII
310
315
321
331
340
349
356
366
374
377
387
393
399
405
416
422
429
INDUSTRIAL
S.No.
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
Vol. 2
Paper Title and Author(s) Name
Urban flooding and its risk associated with governance and management strategies: a
case study of Anand District, Western India
Pankaj Kumar, Srikantha, Herath, Ram Avtar, Kazuhiko Takeuchi
Ant colony optimization for scheduling of PCBs using single machine
Akshaye Malhotra, Vijay Pandey, S.K. Sahana, Somak Datta
Assessing the Success of Six Sigma: An Empirical Study
S. K. Tiwari, R. K. Singh, S. C. Srivastava
Product Development by Using Modular Design Structure Matrix
Puneet Saini, Ayush Dubey, Vijay Pandey
Design of a simple Vending Machine using Radio Frequency Identification
(RF-id)
Sunil Kumar, Richa Pandey
Imperatives of Green Manufacturing
Abhishek Kumar Singh, Sanjay Kumar Jha, Anand Prakash
Understanding Quality In Home Based Brassware Manufacturing Units in India
Kapil Deo Prasad, Sanjay Kumar Jha, Ritesh Kumar Singh
Application of Lean Manufacturing to Improve the Electronics Industry in Egypt: a
Case Study
Ali Abd El-Aty , Ahmad Farooq , Azza Barakat , Mohamed Etman
Solving Multi-Objective Problem on Supply Chain Performance Measure by multiObjective Evolutionary Algorithm
Susmita Bandyopadhyay, Indraneel Mandal
Multi-objective Goal Programming and its Applications: A review
Jyoti, Himani Mannan
Modeling the Individual/Group Knowledge Sharing Barriers: An Approach of
Similarity Coefficient
B P Sharma, Harsh Gupta
VIII
Page
No.
438
441
448
462
468
472
479
484
490
496
502
1. SHAPE OSCILLATIONS OF A
PARTICLE
COATED
BUBBLE
DURING RISE IN A LIQUID
COLUMN
Prithvi R.Y
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, India
Sabita Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, India
sabita.sarkar@iitm.ac.in
Abstract Particle coated bubble and its
stability plays a major role during particle
recovery in flotation process. A rising bubble
undergoes shape oscillations which are subjected
to change when particles are coated on the
surface of a bubble. Experiments were
performed to understand the effect of particle
coating on a rising bubble in a liquid column.
Hydrophobic Low density polyethylene particles
were used to coat the bubble surface and water
was used as liquid medium. Two images (one
direct and mirror image) were taken for all
position during rise of the bubble. Effect of
different fraction of particle coating on the
bubble surface oscillations was studied. It is
observed that the shape oscillations of bubbles
are arrested as coating fraction increased from
10% to 50% with the latter undergoing almost
no deformation in shape. The bubble in this case
behaves like a rigid body and exhibits pure
rotation as it moves up.
Keywordsshape
oscillations;
particle
coated bubble; single bubble rise ; coating
fraction.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Bubble flotation in presence of particles is a

phenomena which has wide spread application
like waste water treatment, petrochemical plants,
froth flotation process, paper industry and in
refining operations like secondary steel making
process. Understanding the behaviour of bubble
motion and its characteristics in presence of
particles is a key step in evaluating preliminary
variables like air flow rate, bubble size, particle
size etc. with respect to its application in each
field. A significant amount of research has been
carried out in understanding the behaviour of a
single bare bubble rising in a fluid column [2,6].
The theory behind shape oscillations of a single
rising bubble has been given in detail by several
researchers [1,3 & 5]. However motion of
particle coated bubble in liquid medium is not so
evident in literature. In this work, motion of
particle coated single bubble was studied
experimentally. The effect of particle coating on
the bubble surface oscillation and the overall
bubbly motion was main focus of this study.
Strongly hydrophobic polymeric Low Density
Polyethylene (LDPE) particles were chosen with
interest to alumina inclusions present in molten
steel [4]. The shapes of bubbles were chosen in
the ellipsoidal regime which is commonly used
for removal of alumina inclusion in tundish [7].
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
In order to study the shape oscillations of single
bubble during rise with particles coated on the
bubble surface, a bubble column made of plexiglass was fabricated. A schematic representation
of the experimental set-up is shown in Figure 1.
The tank comprised of two compartments
located one below the other. Initially the tank
was filled with distilled water up to a height of
0.55 m in the presence of polymeric LDPE
particles inside the lower compartment. The
particles which have specific gravity of 0.92
were prevented from floating to the upper
compartment by providing a slide door whose
opening was controlled manually. An air bubble
was held at the tip of a nozzle using an infusion
pump and the particle-water mixture was stirred
inside the compartment with the help of an
impeller arrangement powered by a universal
motor. The speed of rotation of the impeller and
II.
duration of rotation controlled the coating

fraction of particles on the bubble surface. In
this study the size of LDPE particles chosen
were from 150-210 microns and the bubble sizes
were 6.8 and 4.2 mm. After allowing sufficient
time for the particle-water mixture to reach a
quiescent state the slide door was opened and the
air pump was operated again. The particle laden
bubble was detached from the nozzle and moved
upwards due to buoyancy.
A test section between the heights 0.019 m to
0.028 m in the upper portion of the tank was
illuminated with white coloured diffuse back
lighting. This was the region where the particle
coated bubble behaviour was studied. A mirror
was placed inside the tank at an angle of 45 to
the camera axis. Light was projected on to the
mirror using a screen as a reflector and this
method provided back lighting for front view
where the bubble appeared white with dark
background and the side (reflected) lighting
illuminated the mirror image. In this way both
the front and side views of the bubble could be
obtained using a single camera placed in front of
the experimental setup.
Figure 1. Schematic of the Experimental Set-up

III.
The bubble rise and shape oscillations was

captured using a CMOS camera (Teledyne
Dalsa) having a frame rate of 300 frames per
second and a resolution of 640 480 pixels. The
images recorded were originally in greyscale
format.
The greyscale images were then converted
to binary format in subsequent steps by the
method of intensity thresholding, using Matlab14 software. At these stage properties like major
axes, minor axes, centroid, and bubble boundary
were measured using Matlab 14 - image
processing toolbox. In order to determine the
particle coating fraction on the bubble, the area
of particle coverage was determined by fitting a
closed spline around the periphery of the region
covered with particles using Image J-image
processing software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Behaviour of Particle coated Bubble
Bubbles with different extent of particle

coating and at different times were observed
during the experiments. In case of the bubble
with 10% particle coating at the surface,
oscillations were altered and reduced drastically
from the case of that of bare bubble. The
oscillations were accompanied by rotation of the
bubble as it moved upwards. The region where
the interface was coated with particles showed
no surface oscillation and behaved like solid
surface. The surface oscillations were prevalent
only at the regions where there were no
particles. This altered the overall oscillating
behaviour of the bubble.
When the extent of coating on the bubble surface
increased to almost half of the bubble surface
area, the oscillations were completely arrested.
The polymer particles completely retarded the
surface deformation and the bubble did not
undergo any shape oscillation during rise.
Instead the bubble exhibited only rotation about
its minor axis. The flow past the bubble at the
boundary experienced no slip at regions where

the surface retardation had occurred. Visual
images of a bubble of 6.8 mm diameter with
different particle coatings and at different times
are compared and shown in Figure 2. The
particle coating on the bubble increases drag
force that it experiences and reduces the rise
velocity.
Experiments were done with a bubble having
diameter of 4.2 mm (Figure 3) and a similar
behaviour was observed. The only difference
was that the amplitude of oscillations undergone
by the 4.2mm bubble was comparatively lesser
than that of the 6.8mm bubble. The rise velocity
in this case is more when compared to that of
6.8mm diameter bubble, as coating fraction is
more and the bubble area is lesser. The force due
to buoyancy for the 4.2mm bubble exceeds the
drag force.
B. Effect
of particle coating on shape

oscillations
The shape oscillations of bubbles are
generally expressed in terms of spherical
harmonics with 2,0 and 2,2 as the dominant
modes [3]. These two modes are the dominant
modes of shape oscillation for an ellipsoidal
bubble. Mode 2,2 shape oscillations of the
bubble are axisymmetric in nature. In this mode,
t=1s
t=1s
the capillary wave is assumed to travel around

the equator of the bubble and is characterized by
the ratio of major axes obtained from the direct
image (dd) to the major axis of that from the
mirror image (dm), R=dd/dm. The interpretation
of this mode of oscillation is that the bubble is
an ellipsoid rotating about its minor axis as it
travels vertically upwards and as it does a 2-D
projection of the 3-D bubble in either the front
or side plane will constitute major axes of
different lengths. Thus the ratio of major axes R
interprets change in the major axes length due to
rotation about its minor axes.
Figure 4 shows mode 2,2 oscillations for
bare bubble and 10% particle coated bubble. The
6.8 mm bubble shows a distinctive difference in
oscillation between the bare bubble and a
particle coated bubble, whose values of R are
varying from 0.5 to 1.5 for a bare bubble and
limited from 0.8 to 1.2 for the particle coated
bubble. This is an indication that the particle
coating has a decreasing effect on the extent of
elongation of the major axes. However for the
4.2 mm bubble size, particle coating seems to
have resulted in increased length of one of the
major axis (one seen from the direct image) as
the value of R remains always greater than unity.
t=1s
t = 1.012 s
t = 1.012 s
t = 1.012 s
t = 1.024 s
t = 1.024 s
t = 1.024 s
t = 1.036 s
t = 1.036 s
t = 1.036 s
Figure 2. Images of a 6.8 mm bubble for a time up to 0.036 s A) bare bubble undergoing shape deformation B)
10% coated bubble undergoing partial deformation C) 50 % coated bubble with no deformation
t=1s
t=1s
t=1s
t = 1.012 s
t = 1.012 s
t = 1.012 s
t = 1.024 s
t = 1.024 s
t = 1.024 s
t = 1.036 s
t = 1.036 s
t = 1.036 s
Figure 3. Images of a 4.2 mm bubble for time up to 0.036 s A) bare bubble undergoing shape deformation B)
10% coated bubble undergoing partial deformation C) 50 % coated bubble with no deformation
Figure 4. Plot of R vs time for bare bubble and 10 % particle coated bubble. A) 4.2 mm bubble B) 6.8 mm bubble
Deq
Deq
Time (s)
Time (s)
Figure 5. Plot of Deq vs time for bare bubble and 10 % particle coated bubble. A) 4.2 mm bubble B) 6. 8 mm bubble
Mode 2,0 shape oscillation is represented by

equivalent major axis defined as deq = (dd
dm). This is an interpretation of the bubble
fluctuating from oblate spheroid to prolate
shape. In reality it does not transform
completely to prolate shape but as it tends to
oscillate in the 2,0 mode with alternating
elongation and contraction of the major axes.
This mode of oscillation is non-axisymmetric
in nature and the capillary waves are assumed
to be moving around the bubble from one end
of the bubble pole to another. Thus it is
elongation in major axis length gets reduced
since the particles inhibit wave action at the
bubble surface and behave as a rigid body.
For the 4.2mm bubble size the arrest in major
characterized by obtaining an equivalent

diameter of a circle whose surface area is the
same as that of the ellipse in the cross-section
plane containing the two major axes (Deq).
It can be seen from Figure 5 that in the case of
a bare bubble as well as partially coated
bubble the amplitude of 2, 0 mode of
oscillation is greater for the size
corresponding to 6.8mm bubble size since it
naturally has greater major axes lengths. For
this bubble size when particles are coated the
axes shrinkage is seen more predominantly as
there is a drastic decrease in amplitude of Deq
of particle coated bubble. The complete
prevention of surface deformation when

almost half of the bubble surface area was
coated can be evidently seen in the images in
Figure 2C and Figure 3C and it is

inappropriate to
use surface harmonics to describe such a body

which does not undergo shape oscillation. As
the bubble surface deformation is completely
arrested the restoring capillary force is
retarded preventing any further shape
oscillation.
Bubbles, Applied Scientific Research,

vol.58, pp.387-408,
1998
IV.
CONCLUSIONS
LDPE particles do not detach from

the bubbles for both sizes of 4.2mm
and 6.8mm due to shape oscillations
during rise in the static liquid column.
When the coating fraction on the
bubbles is as mild as 10 %, the bubble
surface deformation occurs only at
regions, where particles are absent.
Thus overall oscillation in amplitude
is reduced
The reduction in elongation of major
axes is more for a particle coated
smaller ellipsoidal (4.2mm size) than
the larger ellipsoidal bubbles (6.8 mm
size).
Heavily coated bubbles with coating
fraction as high as 50%, shows no
deformation behaviour, instead they
behaves like a rigid body undergoing
pure rotation during rise.
V.
[4] J.P. Rogler, Modeling of inclusion

removal in a tundish
by gas bubbling , M.S. Thesis, Ryerson
University,
2001.
[5] C. Veldhuis, A. Biesheuvel , L. van
Wijngaarden, Shape
oscillations on bubbles rising in clean and
in tap water,
Physics Of Fluids, vol.20, pp. 1-12, 2008.
[6] A.W.G de Vries, A. Biesheuvel, L. van
Wijngaarden,
Notes on the path and wake of a gas
bubble rising in pure
water, International Journal of Multiphase
Flow,
vol.28(11), pp.1823-1835, 2002.
[7] L.Zhang, S.Taniguchi, Fundamentals of
inclusion
removal from liquid steel by bubble
Flotation,
International Materials Reviews, vol.
45(2), pp.59-82,
2000.
REFERENCES
[1] C. Brucker, Structure and Dynamics of

the wake of the
bubbles and its relevance for bubble
interaction,
Physics of fluids, vol. 11(7), pp. 17811796, 1999.
[2] P.C. Duineveld, The rise velocity and
shape of bubbles
in pure water at high Reynolds number,
J.Fluid Mech, vol
292, pp. 325-332, 1995.
[3] K. Lunde, R.J. Perkins, Shape
Oscillations of Rising
2. TENSILE BEHAVIOUR OF 3-PLY

LAMINATE
COMPOSITE
OF
SHEET METALS
Vijay Gautam1, Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi
Technological University, Delhi-110042. Email:
vijay.dce@gmail.com
Bijender Prasad2, Research scholar,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi
Technological University, Delhi-110042. Email:
bijendra121@gmail.com
Abstract- Recently, clad metallic materials,
consisting of two or more layers, have been
preferred in various industrial applications
because of their unique corrosion resistance,
specific strength, and surface properties. The
present study has been carried out on three ply
composite laminate, containing AISI304L
austenitic stainless steel on one side and
AISI430 on the other side with AA1050 in the
core of the blank. Apart from excellent corrosion
and mechanical properties of stainless steel three
ply composite laminate possesses exceptional
thermal and electrical conductivities, which
makes it useful for utensils formed by deep
drawing process. Circular blanks of composite
laminate, produced by cold roll bonding, with a
combined thickness of 2.5mm, were procured in
the annealed condition from a leading
manufacturer. To ensure the bond strength of 3ply AISI304/AA1050/AISI430 sheets, peel tests
on various specimens were performed according
to ASTM-D1876-08 standard. Tensile samples
as per ASTM E8M standard, were laser cut in
three different directions i.e. parallel, inclined at
45 and transverse with respect to rolling
direction. Tensile specimens were tested to study
the deformational behaviour in uniaxial tension,
on a 50kN UTM.
Keywords- Clad metals; Three ply laminate
composite; cold roll bonding; peel test; tensile
behavior.
I.
INTRODUCTION
With the advancement in technology in

forming with sheet metals, new clad materials
have been evolved and designed for various

industrial applications such as automobile,
aerospace and electrical industries. These
laminated sheets consist of different kind of
sheet metals with different mechanical, physical
properties and specifications to suit the various
applications. Various parameters such as
material type, thickness ratio, arrangement and
multiplicity of the metals, surface preparation,
bonding parameters and post heat treatment
results in unique deformational behavior [1-5].
Although, Clad sheets have been produced by
several solid state bonding methods such as
diffusion, explosive and roll bonding but cold
roll bonding (CRB) is the most efficient and cost
effective [6,7]. Many researchers have
contributed significantly on the various issues
related to formability of roll bonded clad sheets.
In the recent development of the clad sheets,
most widely used material combinations are Al
with Cu, Al-Fe, Al with stainless steel, Zn- Al
with stainless steel, Al-Cu with steel, Ti with
steel etc. [8,9]. Akramifard et al 2014 carried out
experimental studies on effect of reduction and
subsequent
annealing
temperatures
on
mechanical properties and bond strength of three
layered AA1050-304L-AA1050 clad sheets,
during roll bonding. An important contribution
of their work was the correlation of tensile and
peel test on the basis of principles of mechanics
of materials. The mechanical properties of some
laminated composite sheets, mainly of stainless
steel/aluminium sandwich sheets, have been the
subject of examination for many years. Choi et
al. 1997 experimentally investigated the
deformation behaviour of Al-STS430 bi-layer
clad sheets under uniaxial tension and concluded
that a difference in planar and normal anisotropy
results in the warping of edges of tensile
specimens. The material property of the
laminated sheet changes in the thickness
direction, their deformation behavior should be
affected by the blank placement position during
forming by deep drawing, i.e. which side of the
sheet would contact punch or die. Because of
such interesting formability issues, the behavior
of laminated sheets is the subject of much
research. However, only a few studies have
discussed the combination of 3-ply clad sheets
of AISI304/AA1050/AISI430. In view of the
above the present study deals with the tensile

behaviour of 3-ply laminate composite.
II.
A.
METHODOLOGY
Selection of material
Selection of material is based on the

increasing popularity of multi ply clad sheets in
deep drawn utensils, owing to the advantages of
excellent formability, good surface finish of
class of 2B, uniform heating and better heat
transfer. Circular blanks of 3-ply clad sheet of
AISI304/AA1050/AISI430 material of effective
thickness of 0.4, 1.5 and 0.6mm respectively,
that are joined by roll bonding and thermal
treatment, due to a metallurgical bond under
high pressure, was procured from a leading
supplier in India. The chemical composition of
individual
sheets
were
obtained
by
spectrometry- analysis and are given in Table 1.
B.
The peeling test
To investigate the bond strength due to CRB,

the peeling test was performed according to
ASTM-D1876-08
standard
(subsized).
Specimens for the peel test were laser cut in the
sub-size of 160X 25 mm due to limited
availability of the material. Since it is difficult to
detach the bonded sheets mechanically, one end
of the each specimen was immersed in the
solution of sodium hydroxide to dissolve
aluminium. The remaining length with intact
bond was used for the peel test as shown in the
Fig. 1. The specimens were prepared in such a
way that each bonded sheet of steel i.e. AISI304
and 430 be peeled from aluminium bond
respectively. The stainless steel sheet to be
peeled was held in the lower fixed jaw and the
rest with the upper movable jaw fixed with the
cross -head on the 50kN UTM. All the tests were
conducted at a cross head speed of 10mm/min.
Fig. 1. Peel test arrangement on 50kN UTM

C. The tensile test
Most common approach to characterize the
behaviour of a material is by conducting uniaxial
tensile tests. In this work, simple tension tests
were carried out on a universal testing machine
of maximum capacity 50 kN as shown in Fig. 2.
The tensile test specimens as per standard
ASTM-E8M, were prepared by laser cutting of
the blank as shown in Fig. 4. The anisotropy of
the 3-ply clad sheet metal was investigated by
performing tensile tests at specimen orientation
of 0, 45 and 90 to the rolling direction (RD)
and are shown in Fig. 5. The tests were carried
out include monotonic loadings in tension. Each
test is performed at least three times to ensure
good reproducibility of the experiments. The
tests were carried out at a cross head speed of
2.5mm/min. Typical engineering stress strain
curve is plotted on the basis of force and
displacement data acquired from the dedicated
software.
D.
Determination of tensile properties
The strain hardening exponent (n) and the

strength co efficient (K) values are calculated
from the stress strain data in uniform elongation
region of the stress strain curve.
Fig. 3. Tensile tested specimens

Fig. 2. 50kN Universal testing machine
TABLE I CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF SHEET MATERIALS USED IN THE LAMINATE

Steel Sheet
material
Si
Al
Ni
Cr
AISI304
0.05
1.450
0.820
0.044
9.620
18.03
0.009
0.023
AISI430
0.12
0.902
0.675
0.038
0.621
17.02
0.023
0.026
AA1050
0.18
0.018
0.156
Rest
0.032
0.012
0.015
0.034
The plot of ln(true stress) versus ln(true strain)

which is a straight line is plotted as discussed below :
The power law of strain hardening is given as :
= K n
(1)
where and are the true stress and the true

strain respectively.
Taking log on both sides
Log ( ) = log (K) + n log ()
(2)
Fig. 5. Tensile specimens at different orientations w.r.t. RD
This is an equation of straight line and the

slope of which gives the value of 'n' and 'K' can
be calculated taking the inverse natural log of
the y intercept of the line as shown in Fig. 8.
III.
Fig. 4. Laser cutting of tensile specimens
To determine the bond strength of AA1050

with AISI304 and 430 respectively, the peel test
specimens were prepared and tested on 50kN

UTM of Tenius Olsen make. The peeling force
and distance data were recorded using a
dedicated software Horizon and the plot between
them is shown in Fig. 6.
The average peel strength was determined as
the ratio of peeling force to the peeling width.
The range of the peeling strength of AISI 304
from AA 1050 was between 30 to 51N/mm,
whereas peeling strength of AISI430 from
AA1050 was found to be between 20 to
26N/mm. The experimental investigation
showed that the peeling strength of AISI304 is
higher than AISI430 by a factor of 1.5
approximately. In both the peeling tests, the
peeling strength remained stable for an
appreciable length of 80mm with a slight dip in
between at 40mm of peeling distance.
Fig. 6. Curve between Peeling force and

Peeling distance
The peeling strength of aluminium from AISI

304 was 40N/mm on an average basis, whereas
the peeling strength of AISI430 was 25N/mm.
Peeling strength became maximum as the
peeling distance reaches near the end of the
specimens. Same trend was observed in all the
tests conducted.
To investigate the deformational behaviour,
tensile tests were performed on the specimens
cut at three different orientations i.e. parallel to,
inclined at 45 and perpendicular to the RD. The
various tensile properties are given in Table 2. In
all the tensile tested specimens, nucleation of
crack was observed to initiate from 0.6mm thick
AISI430 which may be contributed to the lower
ductility of this steel grade. Some waviness or
warping were seen at the edges of the tested
specimens due to the difference in anisotropy of
individual sheets. A typical true stress-strain
curve is shown in Fig. 7. Tensile specimens
oriented at 45 to the RD showed maximum
ductility on an average of 57% whereas least
ductility was found with the specimens oriented
at 0 to the RD. Highest tensile strength of order
of 260MPa was observed in the specimens
oriented at 90 to the RD and least strength was
seen in specimens oriented at 0 to the RD. The
strain hardening exponent (n) as shown in Fig.
8, which is an indicator of workability at room
temperature was found to be of order of 0.25 on
an average basis. High ductility coupled with
excellent strain hardening exponent and strength
is required in deep drawing of the utensils.
TABLE II
TENSILE PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE LAMINATE AT DIFFERENT
ORIENTATIONS wrt RD
Orientation
Yield
w.r.t.
Rolling
(MPa)
Direction (RD)
Stress
Ultimate
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Percentage
elongation
(%)
Strain
Hardening
Coefficient
(n)
Strength
Coefficient,
(K)
(MPa)
171
242
44.7
0.234
420
45
177
254
56.0
0.256
456
90
178
262
47.2
0.255
470
10
Fig. 7. True stress vs True strain plot for composite laminate oriented at different directions
Fig. 8. ln(True stress) vs ln(True strain) plot for composite laminate

IV.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the experimental

investigations conducted to study the
deformational behaviour in uniaxial tension test
of
3-ply
laminate
composite
of
AISI304/AA1050/AISI430,
following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The peeling strength of the bond of AISI
304 with AA1050 is of order of 40N/mm
which is approximately 1.5 times higher
than that of AISI 430 with AA1050.
2. The peeling strength increases towards the
end of the peeling distance.
3. Tensile specimens oriented at 45 to the

RD showed maximum ductility on an
average of 57% whereas least ductility
was found with the specimens oriented at
0 to the RD.
4. In all the tensile tested specimens,
nucleation of crack was observed to
initiate from 0.6mm thick AISI430 which
may be contributed due to the lower
ductility of this steel.
References
[1]
J.Y. Jin and S.I. Hong , Effect of heat

treatment on tensile deformation
characteristics and properties of
11
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Al3003/STS439
clad
composite.
Mater.Sci.Eng., A 2014; 596:18.
L. Chen , Z. Yang , B. Jha , G. Xia and
J.W. Stevenson
Clad metals, roll
bonding and their applications for SOFC
interconnects, J Power Sources
2005;152:405.
E.Y. Kim ,J.H. Cho ,H.W. Kim and S.H.
Choi . Evolution of deformation texture
in Al/Al Mg/Al composite sheets
during
cold-roll
cladding,
Mater.Sci.Eng, A 2011;530:24452.
I.K. Kim and S.I. Hong . Effect of
component layer thickness on the
bending behaviors of roll-bonded trilayered Mg/Al/STS clad composites.
Mater.Des. 2013;49:93544.
H.G.Kang , J.K. Kim, M.Y. Huh and O.
Engler . A combined texture and FEM
study of strain states during rollcladding
of
five-ply
stainless
steel/aluminum
composites.
Mater.Sci.Eng, A 2007;452453:347
58.
I.K.
Kim
and
S.I.Hong.
Mater.Des.49(2013)935944.
H.R.Akramifard , H. Mirzadeh and
M.H.
Parsa,Estimating
interface
bonding strength in clad sheets based on
tensile test results , 2014, Mater.Des.
H.R.Akramifard , H.Mirzadeh and
M.H.Parsa Cladding of aluminum on
AISI 304L stainless steel by cold roll
bonding: Mechanism, microstructure,
and
mechanical
properties
Mater.Sci.Eng. A613 (2014)232239.
S.H. Choi ,K.H. Kim, K.H. Oh and D.N.
Lee .Tensile deformation behavior of
stainless steel clad aluminium bilayer
sheet, Mater.Sci.Eng. A222 (1997)
158-165.
12
3. STRESS ANALYSIS OF PELTON

BUCKET USING MECHANICAL
APDL
Sonendra*1,N. Agarwal*2,
T.S.Deshmuk#3
*
Mechanical Department, ITS
Engineering College, Gr. Noida,Uttar Pradesh
(India)
#
Civil Department. MANIT Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh (India)
1
sonendra.me@its.edu.in
namanaryan.agarwal@gmail.com
3
manit_tsd@yahoo.com
Abstract----In the present work an attempt has

been made to analyse the stress developed on the
surface of Pelton bucket using Mechanical
APDL. The geometric modeling of this bucket
has been done using CATIA software for a 50 m
head and stress analysis has been done in
Mechanical APDL. The stress analysis has been
done considering bucket as a cantilever element
fixed to the disc at one end with the force of jet
applied at the splitter. The stress analysis has
been done for flow rates ranging from 100 lit/sec
to 150 lit/sec and speed ranging from 700 rpm to
900 rpm. It is observed that 1st principle stress is
higher than 2nd principle stress and 3rd principle
stress. Von Mises stress as well as all three
principle stresses decreases as rotational speed
of pelton wheel increases.
motion.Pelton turbine is tangential flow impulse

turbine.APelton turbine consists of a series of
buckets mounted around the periphery of a
circular disc.
II.GEOMETRIC MODELLING
The geometric modelling of the given pelton
bucket has been done using CATIA software. In
the present work, the runner of a Pelton turbine
model for 50 m head has been used for stress
analysis. The modelling of the runner blade
surface was done with the help of profile
coordinates at various sections.
The coordinates were available for 6 sections(AA, B-B, C-C, D-D, E-E, F-F) along the length of
the blade and 5 sections (U-U, W-W, S-S, K-K,
R-R) along the width of the blade. In addition to
this, the coordinates of the plan view as well as
lip surface were also available. Initially the
curves for all the 11 sections were plotted (in
different planes) with the distances between the
adjacent sections being determined on the basis
of plan view. Distance between splitter and E-E
curve, E-E curve and A-A curve, A-A curve and
F-F curve, F-F curve and B-B curve is 4.15 mm.
Distance between splitter and C-C curve is
28.07mm.
I.INTRODUCTION
The Pelton turbine is a hydraulic prime
mover which generates power by first converting
the pressure energy of water into kinetic energy
with the help of jet nozzle assembly and then
mechanical power is developed from this kinetic
energy with the use of runner. Runner of Pelton
turbine is made of buckets which are mounted
on the periphery of a disc.The bucket of Pelton
turbine has very complex geometry. The kinetic
energy of a jet of water is converted into angular
rotation of the bucket as the jet strikes. The highvelocity jet of water emerging from a nozzle
impinges on the bucket and sets the wheel into
Fig.1 Profile of Pelton Bucket
13
Distance between splitter and DD curve is 37.49

mm.Section U-U passes through origin. Distance
between U-U curve and W-W curve is
20.87mm. Distance between UU curve and SS
curve is 23 mm. Distance between W-W and KK curve 11.45 mm. Distance between R-R and
S-S curve is 11.45 mm. The width of the bucket
is 104.5 mm. Using the given co-ordinates,
curves were created using point and spline
commands. The final assembly of all the bucket
curves for 11 sections is shown below
III.NUMERICAL SIMULATION
numerical simulation of this problem is done
using Mechanical APDL. This software is based
on the principle of Finite Element Analysis. The
basic steps involved in numerical analysis are as
follows:
Fig.2 Sections of bucket profile
B. Processing or Solution phase- In this phase,

all the details for solution are specified. The
analysis type used for stress calculations is static
structure analysis.Load and constraints are
considered as boundary conditions.
After this using inner curve of all sections (A-A,

B-B, C-C, D-D, E-E, F-F, U-U,W-W, S-S, K-K,
R-R ),a surface is generated. This surface forms
the inner surface of bucket. Similarily using the
outer curve of all sections the outer surface of
bucket is created. Both surfaces are converted
into a solid bath tub type shape. After this the lip
area is created. In this way we obtained the
profile of half-bucket. Mirror command is used
to obtain remaining half profile of bucket. The
complete solid model of the bucket is shown
below
A. Pre- Processing- In the pre-processor the

material definition and meshing of the imported
solid model was done. The element used in this
study is SOLID187. After selecting the element
type the material properties(Modulus of
Elasticity, Poissons Ratio, Tensile Strength,
Ultimate)are defined. Meshing is very important
part of pre-processing in any FEA software.
Mechanical APDL offers two options - area,
volume. Area is for 2D geometry and volume is
for 3D geometry. In the present work volume
was chosen. Free volume meshing is used for
this analysis. Meshing done by this method is
based on default setting.The obtained meshing
of peltonbucket,had 38982 number of nodes.
gr
Fig.4 Velocity diagram of Pelton Bucket

In this present work, a force according to
each operating condition (discharge and speed)
is applied on the splitter and the constraint is in
the form of fixed face of support of the bucket
Fig.3. Solid Model of Pelton
Bucket
14
The results of the simulation have been

presented in the form of contour plots obtained
through the APDL software for the three
principle as well as Von Mises stress.
Fig.5 Boundary Conditions

A Total number of 9 operating conditions
have been considered for the analysis.
TABLE.I
Forces on Pelton Bucket
rates
Speed
700
820
rpm
rpm
discharge
100 lit/sec 2947
2491
N
N
123 lit/sec 3624
3064
N
N
150 lit/sec 4420
3736
N
N
Fig.6 Ist Principal Stress distribution for

discharge Q = 123 lit/secand speed N= 820 rpm
at different flow
900 rpm
2185 N
2687 N
3277 N
Force on bucket is given by- F = Q ( Vu1-Vu2)

C.Post- Processing- results have been plotted in
the form of contour plots of following:
1st Principal Stress
2nd Principal Stress
3rd Principal Stress
Von Mises Equivalent Stress.
Fig.7 IInd Principal Stress distribution for

discharge Q = 123 lit/sec and speed N= 820 rpm
IV.RESULT
15
Fig.8 3rd Principal Stress distribution for

A study of contour plots for principle stress with
respect to blade surface (Fig 5.1) shows that the
value of 1stprinciple stress is more or less
constant throughout the blade surface except for
a triangular region near the joint of the blade
surface and the support. Thereafter from the
joint to the fixed edge of the support the stress
increases steadily reaching a maximum value at
the edge. This is probably because the jet of
fluid returns back after reaching the end of blade
surface hence creating large stresses at the joint
of the jet and support.
2nd Principle stress (Fig 5.2) is constant
throughout the blade surface as well as the
support except at the fixed edge of the support
where it shows higher stress. As the jet
bifurcates at the splitter in two opposite direction
hence the axial thrust gets nullified.
3rd Principle stress also shows (Fig 5.3) uniform
stress all along the blade surface as well as the
support except at the location where the jet
strikes and at the fixed edge of the support.
Fig 9 Von MisesStress distribution

for
. A study of contour plots of Von Mises stress
show that in general the Von mises stresses are
very low in the region between the lip section
and the point of application of jet. The stress
increases in a narrow zone from the point of
application of jet. This zone of high stress
widens gradually as we move towards the fixed
end of blade and simultaneously the magnitude
of stress also increases towards the fixed end.
This zone of high stress inside the bucket is
observed to follow the same pattern as that of
the jet flow. Initially it is a narrow band which
spreads out near the junction where the jet
returns from the blade surface. Within this wide
zone also the maximum stress is present in the
centre which happens to be the location of the
connection of the support. This increase in the
stress is probably due to the turning of the jet
which creates load on the blade surface.
When we consider the stress in the support then
it is seen that the stress increases continuously
from the connection with blade to the fixed end.
This is obvious due to the cantilever action.
Similarly if we consider the stress variation
across the depth of the support then maximum
stress are observed at the both bottom and top
surfaces with minimum stress at the center
region. This is also due to cantilever action.
It is observed that for a given discharge as the
rotational speed is increase there is
16
corresponding decrease in the magnitudes of all

three principle stresses. The reduction of all
three principle stresses and Von-mises stress
with speed is shown in table below
Table II. Variation of Stress with speed
Speed
900
rpm
820
rpm
700
rpm
Discharge
Stress
(N/m2)
Von
mises
Stress
1st
Principle
Stress
2nd
Principle
Stress
3rd
Principle
Stress
Von
mises
Stress
1st
Principle
Stress
2nd
Principle
Stress
3rd
Principle
Stress
Von
mises
Stress
1st
Principle
Stress
2nd
Principle
Stress
3rd
Principle
Stress
The reason behind this is already discussed

while explaining the contour plots. It is observed
that at higher speed (900 rpm), maximum stress
is nearly same for all discharges. The value of
this stress is- about 13000 N/m2 for 1st principle
stress, 6000 N/m2 for 2nd principle stress and
4500 N/m2 for 3rd principle stress. At lower
speed (700rpm), there is very less variation in
stress for 100 lit/sec and 123 lit/sec. This
variation is about 14000N/m2 to 16000 N/m2for
1st principle stress, 8500N/m2 to 10000N/m2 for
2nd principle stress and 6500N/m2 to 7500
N/m2for 3rd principle stress. The stress increases
abruptly for 150 lit/sec. However in all cases the
maximum principle stress is well below the yield
limit of the material (650 MPa).
100
lit/sec
8685
123
lit/sec
9628
150
lit/sec
11339
11022
12445
14408
5137
5798
6713
3928
4415
5118
10578
13522
17091
13501
17323
21857
6289
8072
10187
4784
6162
7793
Fig 10. Variation of von mises stress with speed

it is also observed that for a given discharge as
the rotational speed is increased, there is a
corresponding decrease in the magnitude of the
stress.
14259
16746
22823
18361
21359
29137
8556
9955
13580
6527
7617
10386
The principle stress vs speed graphs (fig 5.14 to

5.16) show that 1stprinciple stress is higher than
2nd and 3rd principle stresses.
V.CONCLUSION
The reason for this decrease in stress with
increase in rotational speed is probably due to
the fact that as the speed increases the contact
time of the jet on the blade decreases thus
reducing the stress.
REFERENCES
[1] Argyris J.H. (1954). Recent Advances in
Matrix Methods of
Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press,
Elmsgford, NY.
17
[2] Binaya K.C., BholaThapa, 2009, Pressure

Distribution at Inner
Surface of Selected Pelton Bucket For
Micro Hydro,
[9] R. Angehrn, Safety Engineering for the 423

MW-PeltonRunners at Bieudron, August 6 9, 2000
VATech ESCHER
WYSS, Zurich, Switzerland
[3] Clough R.W., September 8-9 1960, The

Finite Element
Method in Plane stresses Analysis
,Proceeding of 2nd ASCE
Conference on Electronic computation,
Pittsburg, P.A,.
[4] Hirt C.W., 1981, Nichols B.D, Volume of
fluid method for
dynamics of free boundaries, journal of
computational physics
[5]
I.U. Atthanayake, Department of
Mechanical Engineering,
October 2010, The Open University of Sri
Lanka Nawala, Sri
Lanka.Analytical Study On Flow Through
a Pelton Turbine
Bucket Using Boundary Layer Theory,
International Journal
of Engineering & Technology IJET-IJENS
Vol:09 No:09
[6]
Mr. Patel Dhaval, Mr.GajeraChintan,
Mr.ValaKuldip,
2010,Stress & Experimental Analysis Of
Simple And
Advanced Pelton Wheel.
[7] Nakanishi Y., Kubota and Shin T.,2002,
Numerical simulation
of flows on pelton bucket by partial method:
flow on a
stationary rotating flat plate, proceeding of
21th IAHR
symposium, Lausanne, Sept. 9-12
[8] Roache, P.J. (1972). Computational Fluid

Mechanics, Hermosa
Publishers Albquerque, NM
18
4. SHIPS STEERING AUTOPILOT

DESIGN BY NOMOTO MODEL
Pradeep Mishra
M.Tech student
Mechanical Engg Dept
DIAT (DU),Pune
Dr. S K Panigrahi
Professor and HOD
Mechanical Engg Dept
DIAT (DU),Pune
Lt Cdr Swarup Das
Faculty & Project Guide
MILIT
ABSTRACT
Ships manoeuvring can be automated by using
the autopilot system. The marine autopilot
system design is based on the mathematical
model of steering dynamics. Here in the present
paper a study on Nomoto model has been
undertaken for its selection for the ships steering
dynamics. Choice of selection of the model with
respect to fundamental properties of first and
second order models has been considered.
Effectiveness of the models has been assessed
on the basis of main properties of Nomoto model
i.e. controllability, observability, identifiability.
Further, reasonability of selecting state space
model and the transfer function model for the
study of different properties has been explained.
It is proven that the first order model is
controllable and observable whereas the second
order model is conditionally controllable. Zero
appearing in the transfer function model is found
responsible for the overshot behaviour which
indicates that the selection of second order
model is suitable if the overshoot behaviour has
to be studied. First and second order model are
identifiable with the ill conditioning problem
associated with the latter. hence the first order
model is suitable for autopilot applications.
Model reductions from fourth order to second
and then first order model has been undertaken
describing sway-yaw-roll dynamics and bode
plots for these models are drawn to show the
changes in frequency response due to model
simplification.
1. INTRODUCTON
This paper is concerned with fundamental
properties like controllability, observability,
identifiability of Nomoto first and second order
model. State space model for Nomoto first and
second order model has been derived and solved
to find controllability, obeservability because
state space model represent non controllable as
well as non observable modes along with the
observable and controllable modes whereas the
transfer function model represents only
controllable and observable modes, non
controllable and non observable modes are
cancelled in transfer function model.
Subsequently the system overshoot with respect
to Nomoto second order model is explained.
Overshoot is caused due to sway coupling effect
on yaw rate which is represented by zero and a
high frequency pole in Nomoto second order
model i.e.(1+T3S) and (1+T2S).However the ill
conditioning problem due to near cancellation of
zero and poles T3T2 makes second order
model less preferable for autopilot design.
In this paper an alternative approach is
suggested for adaptive autopilot system which
comprises of keeping the zero of second order
model which is important for the study of
overshoot phenomenon at the same time keeping
T3 fixed and varying K, T1,T2 to avoid the ill
conditioning problem .further with the help of
Bode plots for forth ,second, first order model it
is proven that why simplification of fourth order
model to second order model is not significant
because the plots are almost similar except
humps in the fourth order plot. That means
coupling effect of roll mode on yaw motion is
negligible but effect of sway couple on yaw
motion which is represented by second order
bode plot cannot be neglected. Step input
response to Nomoto models is also studied.
2. SHIP STEERING DYNAMICS MODEL

SIMPLIFICATION
Ship response in waves is considered as 6 degree
of freedom motion in space. For manoeuvring
study 3 dof motion namely surge ,sway, yaw is
considered but for heavy vessels effect of roll
19
cannot be neglected hence our study will revolve

around 4 dof motion description namely surge,
sway, yaw and roll.
Here fourth order transfer function relating yaw
rate to rudder angle is derived. Further
simplification to second order and first order
model is also described
a1V = a2+ a3r + a4
(4)
b1= b2V + b3r + b4
(5)
c1r = c2V + c3+ c4
(6)
where
a1 = (m YV)S YV
a2 = YPS + YPS + Y
(7)
a3 = YS + Yr + mu0
a4 = Y
Figure 1
coordinate system.
Sway-yaw-roll
(8)
(9)
(10)
b 1 = (IX KP)S KPS + mgGM
(11)
b 2 = KVS + KV
(12)
b 3 = KS + Kr
(13)
b4 = K
(14)
c1 = (IZ N)S Nr
(15)
c2 = NVS + NV
(16)
c3 = NPS + NPS + N
(17)
c4 = N
(18)
motion
m( + u0r) = Y+ YVV + Y+ Y + Y PP + Yrr +

Y + Y
(1)
IX = KPP + K mgGM+ KVV+ K + Krr + K
+ K(2)
IZ = Nrr + N + N + NPP+ N + NVV + N
+ N
(3)
where YV, Y , , indicate the hydrodynamic

coefficients; for instance, YV indicates the
derivative of the sway force Y to the sway speed
V evaluated at the reference condition; m is the
mass of the ship; IX is the moment of inertia
about the x-axis; IZ is the moment of inertia
about the z-axis; V is the sway speed; u is the
surge speed; r is the yaw rate; is the heading
angle defined by = r ; p is the roll rate; is the
roll angle defined by = p and GM is the
metacentric height, which indicates the restoring
capability of a ship in rolling motion.
Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (1)-(3) and
rearranging, we have
After eliminating the sway speed V and roll

angle from Eqs. (4)-(6), the following transfer
function relating the yaw rate r to the rudder
angle can be obtained:
r = a1(b1C4 + b4C3) + a2(b4C2 b2C4) + a4(b1C2 + b2C3)
a1(b1C1 b3C3) a2(b2C1 + b3C2) a3(b1C2 + b2C3)
(19)
It can be easily verified that the numerator of
Eq.19 is third order in S, while the denominator
is fourth order in S. Hence, Eq. (19) can be
expressed in the following form
r = K(1 + T3S)(S + 2S +
(1 + T1S)(1 + T2S)(S + 2nS +n
(20)
where the quadratic factors are due to the

coupling effect from the roll mode on the yaw
20
rate. The zero (1+ T3S) and the pole (1 + T2S)

are due to the coupling effect from the sway
mode on the yaw dynamics. If the roll mode is
neglected, Eq. (20) can be further reduced to the
following form
r = K(1 + T3S)
(1 + T1S)(1 + T2S)
(21)
Eq. (6) is known as the second order Nomoto
model, where K is the static yaw rate gain, and
T1, T2 and T3 are time constants. In practice,
because the pole term (1 + T2S) and the zero
term (1 + T3S) in Eq. (21) nearly cancel each
other, a further simplification of Eq. (21) can be
done to give the first order Nomoto model
r = ___K____
(1 + TS)
(22)
Where
T = T1 + T2 - T3
First order Nomoto model is widely employed in
autopilot design and yaw dynamics which is
characterised by parameters K and T can be
determined by manoeuvring tests. Through first
order Nomoto model a transfer function relating
ships heading() to rudder angle() can be
easily calculated by adding 1/S to transfer
function model.
3. CONTROLLABILITY &
OBSERVABILITY OF NOMOTO MODELS
Fundamental properties of Nomoto first order
model has been assessed here wrt state space
model because it represents uncontrollable as
well as unobservable modes whereas
identifiability property is assessed wrt transfer
function model.
Eq (22) can be expressed in time domain asTr + r = K
(23)
With the notation
= r
(24)
T
K
(25)
Eq 24 and 25 can be arranged in the standard
state space form
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
(26)
(27)
where
x = [ ; r]^T
u=
y=
(28)
(29)
(30)
and
A=
B= [0 ; K/T]^T
C= [1 0]
According to linear system theory, the system
defined by Eqs. (12) is controllable if the
following matrix U is of full rank
U = [B AB]
=
and the system is observable if the following
matrix V is of full rank
V = [C CA]^T
=
Following can be observed from above
1. First order model is controllable and
observable. Here controllability means that
ships heading and rate of turn can be
controlled via application of rudder.
2. Observability indicates that system states
ships heading and rate of turn can be
obtained by measured data.
3. Identifiability represents that the parameters
K and T can be determined from i/p (rudder
angle) and o/p (yaw rate) which is equivalent
to fitting first order model to rudder angle
and yaw rate to find K and T. Hence online
estimation of model parameters K and based
on rudder angle and yaw rate is possible and
adaptive
control
strategy
can
be
implemented.
Similar to the discussion about first order
model, for the second order model sway to
rudder transfer function can be achieved by
21
neglecting the roll mode then subsequently

eliminating the yaw rate r from eq (1) and (3)
V = Kv(1 + TvS)
(1 + T1S)(1 + T2S)
Step Response
(31)
16
14
where
Kv =static sway gain coefficinet

Tv = sway time coefficient
12
4.
5.
6.
If the system is controllable then state

variables ,r,V should be able to move
independently via application of rudder .It is
thus inferred that for the system to be
controllable Tv T.
It can be easily verified that the system is
observable that means that all the states (, r,
v) can be reconstructed from the measured
heading angle .
For identifiability K , T1,T2,T3 should be
able to determined via and r.However if
T2=T3 zero and pole will cancel each other
and ill conditioning problem will occur.
Hence for identifiability T2 T3.
Amplitude
10
50
100 Time (sec)
150
200
250
Figure 2 Unit step response T3=500

Second order Nomoto model is employed where
overshoot phenomenon due to large rudder angle
turning manoeuvre is to be studied. however it
creates an ill conditioning problem due to near
cancellation of zero and a high frequency pole.
Step Response
12
10
SYSTEM
Effect of zero term (1+T3S) on second

order Nomoto model by varying values of T3
and keeping T1,T2,K fixed and applying unit
step response has been studied here. Overshoot
is observed when T3 value is higher, for low
values of T3 overshoot are not visible. In order
to study overshoot behaviour the second order
Nomoto model is employed.
In second order model, the overshoot is
visible when the zero is on right side of poles
and near the imaginary axis. From the equations
above and unit steep response curves it is
evident that the overshoot is due to sway
coupling effect on yaw rate. It can be said that
the first order model is relatively simple, doesnt
have ill conditioning problem and applied for
small rudder angle yaw dynamics, it requires
identification of only two parameters hence it is
the first choice for autopilot design.
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (sec)

Step Response
10
6
Amplitude
OF
Amplitude
4.
BEHAVIOUR
OVERSHOOT
20
40
60
Time (sec)
80
100
120
22
r = 0.0033S-0.0004S-0.0002S-0.000079____
S 4 + 0.1913S + 0.0705S+ 0.0069S +0.0001

(32)
S+ 0.1213S +0.00304
(33)
bode dig of second order

-20
-30
Magnitude (dB)
Here an alternative approach is suggested

for an adaptive autopilot implementation basing
upon the second order Nomoto model. Since the
zero of the transfer function helps better
describing the yaw dynamic overshoot
behaviour, its structure is retained and the
parameter is fixed at a value determined off-line
from input-output experiment data. A fourth
order linear state space model representing the
sway-yaw-roll modes of motion will be used as
the nominal model in constructing the
corresponding yaw to rudder transfer function.
Further simplification to the second order
Nomoto model and the first order Nomoto
model will also be presented. Using MATLAB,
the transfer function of the referred state space
model , from i/p rudder to the output yaw rate r
is obtained as
-40
-50
-60
-70
180
Phase (deg)
5. MODEL REDUCTION AND BODE

PLOTS
135
90
-3
10
-2
-1
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 6 Second order model

further by neglecting the sway coupling effect
on yaw rate ,resulting transfer function is
reduced to first order model
r = 0.049__
1+ 17.78S
(34)
Bode Diagram
-20
Bode Diagram
-25
-30
-40
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
-30
-50
-60
-35
-40
-45
-50
-55
180
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)
-70
180
135
135
90
-3
10
-2
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
-1
10
10
bode dig first order model
Figure 7 First order model
90
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 5- Fourth order model
By neglecting the roll mode the following

transfer function can be obtained and fourth
order model is reduced to second order model.
r = 0.0033S -0.00015__
Bode plots representing frequency domain yaw

response and comprising magnitude and phase
plots for above mentioned transfer functions are
drawn wrt fourth, second, first order model.
Plots for fourth and second order models are
almost similar except the presence of humps in
the fourth order model plot. However the first
order model plot is significantly different than
23
the first order plot in the magnitude and phase.

Based on the observation of above figures, it can
be concluded that the effects of model reduction
from fourth order to second order is not
significant ;namely the coupling effects of roll
mode on yaw motion is negligible. However
simplification of second order model to first
order model poses serious challenges and throws
implication of neglecting effect of sway couple
on yaw rate which is a very significant aspect
and hence cannot be undermined.
Hence it is justified to use second order Nomoto
model to represent the behaviour of fourth order
model.
7. CONCLUSION
The first order model is relatively simple,
doesnt have ill conditioning problem and
applied for small rudder angle yaw dynamics, it
requires identification of only two parameters
hence it is the first choice for autopilot design,
Second order Nomoto model is employed where
overshoot phenomenon due to large rudder angle
turning manoeuvre is to be studied. Since the
second order Nomoto model includes the
coupling effect from sway to yaw mode, it
introduces a zero and high frequency pole into
the transfer function which contribute in the
overshoot
tendency.
However
the
ill
conditioning problem with the second order
model due to near cancellation of zero and pole
prevail over the improvements gained in the
modelling potential. An approach that retains the
zero and at the same time avoids the ill
conditioning problem has been proposed.
The state space counterparts of the first order
model is found to be controllable and
observable, hence the state feedback and output
feedback controllers can by successfully
implemented. The state space counterpart of
second order model is observable but
conditionally stable (when Tv=T).Bode plots
with respect to model simplification from fourth
order to second and first order are depicted to
show the errors and differences due to model
simplification.
REFERENCES
1. Nomoto, K., Taguchi, K., Honda, K. and

Hirano, S., On the Steering Quality of
Ships, International Shipbuilding Progress,
Vol. 4, pp. 354-370 (1957).
2. Norrbin, N.H., On the Design and Analysis
of the Zig-Zag Test on Base of Quasilinear
FrequencyResponse, Technical Report No.
B140-3, The Sweden State Shipbuilding
Experimental Tank (SSPA),Gothenburg,
Sweden (1963).
3. Astrom, K.J. and Kallstrom, C.G.,
Identification of Ship Steering Dynamics,
Automatica, Vol. 12, pp. 9-22 (1976).
4. Hwang, W.Y., Cancellation Effect and
Parameter Identifiability of Ship Steering
Dynamics,
International
Shipbuilding
Progress, Vol. 26, No. 332, pp. 90-120
(1982).
5. Zhou, W.W., Cherchas, D.B. and Calisal, S.,
Identificationof Rudder-Yaw and RudderRoll Steering Modelsby Using Recursive
Prediction Error Techniques, Optimal
Control Application and Methods, Vol. 15,
pp.101-114 (1994).
6. Fossen, T.I., Guidance and Control of
Ocean Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons, NY
(1994).
7. Tzeng and Lin Adaptive ship steering
autopilot design with saturating and slew rate
limiting actuator International Journal Of
Adaptive Control And Signal Processing
(2000)
8. Viorel Nicolau The Influence Of The Ships
Steering Machine Over Yaw And Roll
Motions The Annals Of "Dunarea De Jos"
University Of Galati (2003)
9. L. Morawski, J. Pomirski and A. Rak
Design Of The Ship Course Control
System International Design Conference
(2006)
10. Tristan Perez Ship Motion Control
Springer-Verlag London Limited (2005)
11. S.Hammoud Ship motion control using
multi controller structure Journal of
Maritime Research (2011)
24
5. MATERIAL SELECTION IN
BEARING INDUSTRY USING
MULTI CRITERIA BASED TOPSIS
METHODOLOGY
comprising of all possible alternatives along

with their respective combinations of attributes
are demonstrated in order to validate the
effectiveness and flexibility of the model.
I.
Mr. J. S. Karajagikar
Asst. Professor Dept. of Production Engineering
& Industrial Management
College Of Engineering, Pune
Mr. R. R. Manekar
Dept. of Production Engineering & Industrial
Management
College Of Engineering, Pune
Abstract Decisions are made in the best
interest of an organization and effective decision
making is the vital factor in organizational
growth. Selection of appropriate bearing
materials for diverse applications is one of the
hardest tasks in any bearing manufacturing
industry. Material selection, the process of
determining the suitable material which provide
better performance, quality, durability and
efficiency of bearing plays a key role in bearing
manufacturing. A systematic and efficient
approach towards material selection is necessary
in order to select the best alternative for a
required bearing application. In other words
bearing material selection from among many
alternatives on the basis of many attributes is a
Multiple Criteria Decision Making problem.
This paper proposes an integrated decision
making approach based on the various attributes
of an alternatives of the bearing material by
using one of the most popular decision making
tool known as TOPSIS(Technique for Order
Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution). The
model will help managers and engineers to reach
a consensus on material selection for specific
application of bearing. The framework of
TOPSIS is demonstrated by using various
bearing material alternatives available under
each category of bearing steel and having
different chemical composition for each
alternative which are known as attributes. Four
major categories of bearing material each
INTRODUCTION
While selecting materials for engineering

applications, a clear understanding of the
functional requirements is required and various
important attributes need to be considered.
Material selection attribute is defined as an
attribute that influences the selection of material
for given application. The attributes of material
contributes at great extent in defining its
physical, chemical, mechanical, manufacturing
properties. Thus the selection among the
alternative materials which is meeting the
required properties on the basis of two or more
attributes is multiple criteria decision making
(MCDM) problem. The selection decisions are
complex as material selection is more
challenging today. There is need for simple,
systematic and logical methods or mathematical
tools to guide decision makers in considering a
number of selection attributes and their
interrelations. The objective of any material
selection procedure is to identify appropriate
selection attributes and obtain the most
appropriate combination of attributes in
conjunction with real requirement. Thus, efforts
need to be extended to identify those attributes
that influence material selection for a given
engineering application to eliminate unsuitable
alternatives and to select most appropriate
alternative using simple and logical methods.
In industries that are concerned with
large scale production the raw materials and
component parts possess huge share of total
product cost. In such case purchasing
department can play a key role in cost reduction.
So, MCDM tools and techniques can also help
purchase department in process of cost
minimization by selecting appropriate material
which is not over priced and also which can be
able to achieve the desired attributes in the end
products and can fulfill the actual and practical
needs of the end products. Material selection
process is one of the most significant variables,
which has direct impact on the performance of
an organization. As organization becomes more
25
and more dependent on the material for better

results of end products, the direct and indirect
consequences of poor decision making will
become more critical. The nature of this decision
is usually complex and unstructured. MCDM
problems involves tradeoffs among the criterias
that involve both quantitative and qualitative
factors, which may also be conflicting. In this
paper as considering every criteria for selection
of material was quite complex, hence with the
consent of experts and their relevant literature
we can recognize variables and effective
criterias in material selection, with regards to
this point the main and important criteria have
been extracted by expert judgement.
Technique for Order Preference by
Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) was first
developed by Yoon and Hwang and it is one of
the most popular and simplest MCDM tool. The
rank of each type of material is determined by
implementing TOPSIS method in this paper.
TOPSIS has been a favorable technique for
solving multi criteria problems. This is mainly
due to reasons like its concepts are much simpler
and easy to understand and also it requires less
computational efforts unlike other MCDM
methods like AHP and hence can be applied
easily.
II.
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
The proposed methodology for

selection problem, composed of
method, consists of following steps:
material
TOPSIS
Identify the criterias to be used in the

model.
Formation of decision matrix consisting
of alternatives and criterias.
Evaluation of alternatives with TOPSIS
and determination of the final rank.
In the first step with the help of going over

expertise of experts we try to recognize variables
and effective criteria in material selection and
the criteria which will be used in their evaluation
is extracted. Thereafter decision matrix is
composed comprising of alternatives and
criteria, with criteria on columns and alternatives
on rows. Finally alternatives are evaluated and
ranks are determined using TOPSIS method.
Schematic diagram of the proposed model for

material selection is provided in Figure 1.
Figure 8: Schematic model for TOPSIS

Methodology.
III. TOPSIS METHODS
TOPSIS method was introduced for the first
time by Yoon and Hwang and was appraised by
surveyors and different operators. As large
number of potential available vendors in the
current marketing environment, a full ANP
decision process becomes impractical in some
cases. To avoid an unreasonably large number of
pair wise comparisons we choose TOPSIS as the
ranking because of its concepts ease of use. Also
ANP is adopted simply for the acquisition of the
weights of criteria. A general TOPSIS procedure
for TOPSIS method is described below:
Step 1: Establish a decision matrix for the
ranking.
The structure of the matrix can be expressed as
follows:
26
Where m= 1 to i represents various alternatives

and n= 1 to j represents various criteria and
values entered into matrix represents
performance rating of each alternative with
respect to each criterion.
Step 2: Obtain a Normalized decision
matrix (Mij).
The normalized values (mij) of normalized
decision matrix are calculated as:
Step 5: Determine Positive and Negative

Ideal Solutions:
Vj+ = {V1+......Vn+}
= {(Max Vij j J)} for positive criteria.
= (Min Vij j J)} for negative criteria.
Vj- = {V1-......Vn-}
= {(Min Vij j J)} for positive criteria.
= {(Max Vij j J)} for negative criteria.
Where i = 1, 2, 3..m
Step 3: Standardize matrix to assign

weights:
Matrix after standardization is represented as:
Where J is associated with positive

criteria and J is associated with the negative
criteria.
Note: Positive and negative criteria are also
termed as Benefit and Cost criteria. As their
names suggest, benefit criteria is the one which
represents beneficial qualities in that material on
the other hand cost criteria represents the
qualities which are non-beneficial.
Hence a reliable expertise is needed
to be taken while deciding that the whether any
particular criteria is to considered as benefit
criteria or cost criteria.
Step 6: Obtain separation measures of each
alternative from Ideal One.
Where j = 1, 2, 3n
Weights are assigned to criteria as:
=
Where n = No of alternatives in decision matrix.
Where Si+ is the positive separation measure

from positive ideal solution Vj+.
Step 4: Obtain weighted normalized

decision matrix:
Weighted normalized
obtained as:
decision
matrix
is
=
Each criteria is multiplied by its corresponding
weight assigned.
Where Si- is the negative separation measure

from negative ideal solution Vj-.
27
appropriate chemical composition is a decision

making process out of several available
alternatives. By application of TOPSIS
methodology we tried to find out the best
available material alternative in each class of
bearing steel.
Step 7: Rank alternatives in descending order

by finding relative closeness (Pi) of particular
to Ideal Solution.
)
III.
The first step starts with the developing

of decision matrix, although the criteria
considered in the evaluation purpose are
essential for particular class of bearing steel but
the criteria may change as per the class of
bearing steel and some other criteria may also be
required to replace, added into the current
criteria as per the need. The detailed TOPSIS
process for material selection problem in bearing
steel industry is described below.
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
For the application purpose of this methodology,

we solved and applied this technique for
material selection problem in bearing industry.
There are numerous types of material available
having different chemical composition according
to each class of bearing steel. This material
selection is very critical process as the material
should retain appropriate physical as well as
chemical properties as required after the
bearings have been manufactured by using these
material. Hence selecting a material having an
Step 1: Developing a decision Matrix

C
Si
Mn
SUJ2
1.1
0.35 0.5
SUJ3
1.1
SUJ5
52100
Cr
Mo
0.025 0.025 1.6
0.08
0.7
1.15 0.025 0.025 1.2
0.08
1.1
0.7
1.15 0.025 0.025 1.2
0.25
1.1
0.35 0.45 0.025 0.025 1.6
0.1
Grade
1.05 0.75 1.25 0.025 0.025 1.2
1
0.1
Grade
1.1
3
0.35 0.9
0.025 0.025 1.5
0.3
Step 2: Obtain Normalized Decision Matrix ().
SUJ2
C
0.41
Si
0.25
Mn
0.21
(
= )
P
0.40
S
0.40
Cr
0.46
Mo
0.18
28
SUJ3
SUJ5
52100
Grade
1
Grade
3
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.49
0.49
0.19
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
0.46
0.18
0.58
0.23
0.39
0.54
0.534
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.23
0.41
0.25
0.38
0.40
0.40
0.43
0.69
Step 3: Standardizing Matrix to assign weights
Si
Mn
Cr
Mo
Sum
SUJ2
0.17
0.10
0.09
0.17
0.17
0.19
0.07
2.34
SUJ3
0.14
0.18
0.17
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.06
2.76
SUJ5
0.13
0.16
0.15
0.12
0.12
0.11
0.18
3.15
52100
Grade
1
Grade
3
0.17
0.10
0.08
0.17
0.17
0.19
0.09
0.13
0.18
0.18
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.08
2.37
2.86
0.13
0.08
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.14
0.23
3.00
Wj
0.15
0.13
0.13
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.12
SUJ2
C
0.17
Si
0.10
Mn
0.09
P
0.17
S
0.17
Cr
0.19
Mo
0.07
0.14
0.13
0.17
0.18
0.16
0.10
0.17
0.15
0.08
0.14
0.12
0.17
0.14
0.12
0.17
0.12
0.11
0.19
0.06
0.18
0.09
0.13
0.18
0.18
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.08
0.13
0.08
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.14
0.23
0.90
0.83
0.82
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.74
SUJ3
SUJ5
52100
Grade
1
Grade
3
Sum
Here weights are assigned to each attribute as per its

relative importance with corresponding alternative
material.
29
Step 4: Obtain Weighted Normalized decision matrix.

=
SUJ2
SUJ3
SUJ5
52100
Grade
1
Grade
3
C
0.02
Si
0.01
Mn
0.01
P
0.02
S
0.02
Cr
0.02
Mo
0
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
Step 5: Positive & Negative Ideal Solutions.

Vj+
0.019
0.02
0.02
Vj-
0.02
0.01
0.01
Here we are considering Carbon (C) and

Sulphur (S) as negative criteria because additionaly
as carbon content increases steel becomes
increasingly responsive to heat treatment which is
0.02
0.01
0.019
0.029
0.02
0.02
0.016
0.008
also not good as this may lose the elasticity in the

material. Also excess amount of Sulphur causes
material to become detrimental to the hot forming
properties.
Step 6: Obtain Separation measures from Ideal One.
( +)2 )^0.5
+ = (
=1
SUJ2
Si+
0.0272817
0.0237935
SUJ3
0.0170125
SUJ5
0.0263799
52100
Grade
1
( (0.0225938
)2 )^0.5
0.0192855
Grade
=1 3
SUJ2
SUJ3
Si0.0153346
0.0201986
30
SUJ5
52100
Grade 1
Grade 3
0.0226527
0.0152536
0.0219704
0.0234641
Step 7: Rank the alternatives by finding relative closeness (Pi) to ideal solution.
= (++)
SUJ2
SUJ3
SUJ5
52100
Grade 1
Grade 3
Pi
0.359829
0.459141
Rank
6
4
0.571097
0.366377
0.493006
0.548873
1
5
3
2
Thus from the rankings done using relative

closeness co efficient (Pi), SUJ5 material has the
best score amongst the six materials.
Conclusion
For bearing industry it is necessary to
maintain the good level of chemical composition
in the materials so that it its properties and
quality are not compromised. By above
mathematical treatment it is clear that the
material selection for a bearing industry involves
multiple criteria which show the important role
in selection of material. Technique for Order
Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution is
simple and understandable method for selecting
a suitable material. Using this method we select
the different alternatives according to the
importance of different criteria. Thus, TOPSIS
method used for different multi criteria decision
problems in suitable manner.
References
[1] William Ho, Xiaowei Xu, Prasanta k. Dey.
Multi-criteria decision making approaches
for supplier evaluation and selection,
European Journal of Operational Research
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
(2010), Volume: 202, Issue 1, Publisher:

Elsevier, Pages 16-24.
Pragati Jain and Manisha Jain, Fuzzy
TOPSIS Method in Job sequencing
problems on machines of unequal
efficiencies,
Canadian
Journal
on
Computing in Mathematics, Natural
Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Vol 2
No 6, June 2011.
Charles A Weber , John R Current, W C
Benon. Vendor Selection criteria and
methods, European Journal of Operational
Research 50(1991) 2-18, North Holland.
Shanian A, Savadogo O.,TOPSIS multiple
criteria decision support analysis for
material selection of metallic bipolar plates
for polymer electrolyte fuel cell, J Power
Sources; Vol 159 No 10, pp 95-104, 2006.
V. Rao, Decision making in the
manufacturing environment: Using graph
theory and fuzzy multiple attributes decision
making methods. India: Springer series in
advanced manufacturing, (2007).
Shih,H. S., Shyur, H.J., & Lee, E.S An
extension of TOPSIS for group decisionmaking. Mathematical and Computing
Modeling, 45:801-803, (2007).
Chen, Y., Kevin, W. LI & Xu, H., & Liu,S.
A DEA-TOPSIS method for multiple criteria
decision
analysis
in
emergency
management, Journal of Systems Sciences
and System Engineering, 18(4):489-507,
(2009).
31
6. DATA ACQUISITION AND

MONITORING OF EMG
(ELECTROMYOGRAM) SIGNALS
Mrinal Jyoti Sarma

Department of Electrical & Electronics
Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Ranchi, India
sarma.mrinaljyoti@gmail.com
Richa Pandey
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Ranchi, India
richarp@rediffmail.com
Abstract The paper presents a simple, low
cost and effective circuit which is designed for
the acquisition and processing of EMG signals
to finally interface with a working unit. The
EMG signals are acquired by a data acquisition
system, those signals are further conditioned to
drive and monitor the functioning of a movable
unit. The signal conditioning unit comprises of
instrumentation amplifier, low pass and high
pass filter, rectifier, amplifier and comparator
was developed for conditioning the acquired
EMG signals. A virtual model of the acquisition
system is done in PSIM (powersim), afterwards
it is designed in real time. Finally at the end the
design circuit was interfaced with a motor by
using arduino microcontroller.
Keywords EMG(electromyogram)signal,
instrumentation amplifier, Signal conditioning,
PSIM, arduino microcontroller.
I.
INTRODUCTION
EMG signals are the electrical potential

generated due to the contraction of muscles. In
medical science EMG signals are use to examine
the muscles. Those signals have particular
characteristics by seeing which doctors can
identify the condition of muscles. From the
beginning of medical science studies upon EMG
signals are going on, now in 21st century due to
the advancement in electronic components it is

become easier, but those equipments are still
costly. Our main intension is to design a low
cost EMG signal acquisition and processing unit
which can replace those costlier products. We
can use those processed EMG signals to show
some ideas which can make human life smooth
or may useful to engineering world as well as in
human machine interface [17]. For example we
can design prosthetic hand [1] [2] or leg [3]; also
the processed signals can be use in controlling of
wheel chair [4], which will be helpful for
physically challenged people. In our work we
control a motor by monitoring the EMG signals.
To interface the EMG signals with motor
arduino microcontroller is used. The use of
microcontroller makes the system more
versatile.
The EMG signals generated in our body
are having very low amplitude and exist for very
small duration [5]. This signal also contains
noises, those are mainly arises from the
electrode skin interface, built in noise in the
electronic components and noises due to
electromagnetic radiation from surrounding [6].
The acquired signals should be process very
carefully before use in any application. That is
why signal amplification and filtering plays vital
role in processing of EMG signals [6] [7].
Analysis should be done in such a way that it
doesnt lose its originality but all the noise
components should be removed. Works are still
going on in accurate extraction of EMG signals.
II. BASICS OF EMG SIGNALS
a. What is EMG signal
Central nervous system (CNS) is the control
hub of all activity of our body. Whenever we
need to accomplish any task, the central nervous
system sends signals to the respective body part
to perform that activity. For example, suppose
we need to pull a heavy object, at that time the
CNS will keep on sending signals to the arm
muscles to produce required amount of force to
pull that object. If the force is not sufficient then
more number of muscles will join to increase the
force. When any muscle is use to perform a task
the motor units are got excited [8]. A motor
unit is nothing but the combination of cell body,
32
dendrite and axon. When a motor unit is in

excited state exchange of ions occur through the
plasma membrane of the neuron cells of the
respective muscles [9]. Due to this exchange of
ions a potential difference builds inside and
outside of the plasma membrane. This type of
potential difference from several neuron cell
travels throughout the muscles and got
superimpose with one another and give rise to
EMG signals [10]. Thus the central nervous
system maintain good coordination among the
body muscles.
b. Characteristics of EMG signals
The EMG signals are of random in nature.
Normally its frequency range varies from 10 Hz
to 1000 Hz [11]. With this frequency range some
part of ECG (electrocardiogram) and EEG
(electroencephalography) are also included, so
we choose dominating frequency range of the
EMG signals which is from 50 Hz to 500 Hz
[12]. Its amplitude varies from (-70mv) to
around (40mv) [13] depending upon motor unit
action potential (MUAP) [8]. The duration of
EMG signals are depend upon age as well as
muscles, table no.1 shows the variation of
duration depending upon age and muscles. The
EMG signals have basically three or four phases.
Fig.1 shows normal EMG signal produce from
muscles.
TABLE I. VARIATION OF DURATION
DEPENDING UPON MUSCLES AND AGE
Action potential duration depending

upon age
Age
Biceps (ms)
Triceps (ms)
(years)
7.3-8.0
8.3-9.0
3-13
20-30
8.7-9.9
9.9-11.2
40-50
10.9-11.6
12.4-13.2
60-75
12.3-12.8
13.9-14.4
Serial
no
Fig. 1. Normal EMG signal

III. EMG ELECTRODES
Electrodes play a major role in the detection
of EMG signals. The EMG signals generated in
our body are having very low amplitude as well
as duration, so if the electrodes dont have good
conductivity then it will affect the quality of the
signals. There are mainly two types of electrodes
available one is inserted electrode and the
other one is surface electrode or skin electrode.
a. Inserted electrodes
These electrodes are further split up in two
categories needle and fine wire [8] and
mostly use in medical purpose, for example
someone is having neuromuscular disorder in
that situation these electrodes are put into the
particular muscles to detect the disorder. The
main advantage of these types of electrodes is
that they are having the small detection surface
which enables them to pick up individual Motor
Unit Action Potential (MUAP) [8] from the
muscles and can explore the infected muscles.
The main difference between the needle and fine
wire electrode is that diameter of needle
electrodes is more than that of fine wire, because
it contains insulated detecting wire inside the
needle, so they may cause pain to the patients.
As the fine wire electrodes are smaller in
diameter they can easily put and withdraw from
the muscles and less painful than needle
electrodes.
33
b. Surface electrodes or Skin

electrodes
As the name specifies these electrodes are
placed over the skin, they are non invasive.
These are made up of highly conducting
materials, so that they can conduct the low
amplitude EMG signals. There are mainly two
categories of these electrodes active and
passive [8]. The active electrodes have a preamplifier attach with it. This pre-amplifier
amplify the EMG signals before going to further
steps and they are costly. But the passive
electrodes dont have a pre-amplifier [8], and
they are reusable and disposable. These
electrodes are basically made up of silver-silver
chloride (Ag-AgCl). In our work we used
passive electrodes as they are economical.
IV.
HARRDWARE DESCRIPTION
This part describes the methodology

behind the monitoring of EMG signals. The
whole hardware part can be split up in two parts
EMG signal monitoring part and actuator
part. In Fig.2 layout of the hardware part is
shown.
instrumentation amplifier and set the gain

around 50dB. The gain should not be high
enough, because it may amplify the noise
components also. The next stage is a HPF. As
mention in the characteristics section, the
frequency range of EMG signals varies from 50
Hz to 500 Hz. So this HPF has the cut off
frequency of 50 Hz. This stage is followed by a
LPF of cut off frequency 500 Hz. Fig.4 shows
the output of the low pass filter. After the
filtration stage a full wave rectifier is used to
reshape the EMG signals, followed by a envelop
detector and gain amplifier. In Fig.5 the output
of envelop detector is shown. The amplifier has
the gain of 50dB. This is basically used to boost
up the EMG signals. The last stage is a
comparator; it is having a threshold voltage. So
whenever the EMG signals cross the threshold
voltage the comparator will give constant output
which will power up the next stage. Fig.6 shows
output of the comparator (in PSIM) and Fig.9
shows the output of real time comparator. In all
the stages except the instrumentation amplifier,
we used LF 351 op-amp, as it is economical and
it has the voltage range of +9 to -9, so suitable
for our work. In Fig.3 (a) and (b) PSIM design
of the hardware circuit is shown and Fig.8 shows
the acquisition part.
Fig. 2. Lay out of hardware

a. Acquisition and monitoring part
The first stage of the hardware part is
instrumentation amplifier. This amplifier
operates in differential mode [19]. Due to this
differential mode it can cancel the noises which
are common to both inputs. Actually with the
EMG signals some frequency components of
EEG (electroencephalography) [14] and ECG
(electrocardiogram) [15] signals are also got
super impose which act as noise. So the
instrumentation amplifier should have good
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) [16]. In
our work we choose INA 126P for
Fig. 3(a). PSIM design of acquisition circuit
Fig. 3(b). PSIM design of hardware circuit
34
Fig. 4. Output of low pass filter (in PSIM)
Fig. 7. Servomotor and DC motor driving

circuits
Fig. 5. Output of envelop detector (in PSIM)
Fig. 6. Output of comparator (in PSIM)

b. Actuator part
This part describes how to control of the
actuator part. The output of acquisition part is
used to power up the motor driving part. This
part consists of the circuitry part for the motor
control or actuator. Mainly we designed a PWM
(pulse width modulation) generator circuit by
using 555 timer for a servo motor [17] and
arduino microcontroller [18] based circuit for a
DC motor. In Fig. 7 the driving circuits are
shown.
V. CONCLUSION
The paper focuses basically on the
design and development of a low cost prosthetic
interface with surface EMG signals. Various
electric hardware and software components were
utilized to actuate the final circuit. The signal
acquired could drive the actuator for various
inputs and voltage range. The final movement of
the motor can be interfaced to a running model
for simulation. A new model has been designed
to control the motor with the specified signals
through microcontroller. The work is limited to
drive a motor which could be realized for final
modellind and prosthetic hand interface. This
can be utilized for developing a low cost
prosthetic part for a physically challenged
person, as well as for other equipments like
wheel chair, actuate DC motors and running of
servo motor etc.
35
Fig. 8. EMG signal acquisition part
[8]
[9]
Fig. 9. Output of the comparator

[10]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
M. Hildago, G. Tene, A. Sanchez, Fuzzy

Control of a robotic arm using EMG
signals.
Ton Tai Pan, Ping Lin Fan, Huihua Kenny
Chiang, Rong Seng Chang, Joe Air Jiang,
A myolelctric controlled partial hand
prosthesis project, IEEE transaction on
education, Vol.47, No.3, August 2004.
Md. Rokibul Islam, A.N.M. Mushfiqul
Haque, S.N. Amin, K.S. Rabbani, Design
and development of an EMG driven
microcontroller based prosthetic leg,
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Physics,
Vol.4, No.1, 2011.
Taslim Reza, S.M.Ferdous, Md. Nayeemul
Hasan, Md. Rokonuzzaman, Kazi Firoz
Ahmed, A.Z.M. Shahriar Muttalib, A low
cost surface electromyogram signal guided
automated wheel chair for the disable,
International Journal of scientific &
engineering research, Volume 3, Issue 2,
February 2012.
Mohan C, Vinod Kumar Giri, DC motor
control using EMG signal for prosthesis,
IJECT vol.2, Issue 2, June 2011.
Jingpeng Wang, Liqiong Tang, John E
Bronlund,
Surface
EMG
signal
amplification and filtering, International
Journal of Computer Applications (09758887), volume 82- No.1, November 2013.
Rubana H. Choudhury, Mamun B.I. Reaz,
Mohd Alauddin Bin Mohd Ali, Ashrif A.A.
Bakar, Kalaivani Chellappan, Tag G. Chang,
Surface
electromyography
signal
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
processing and classification techniques,

www.mdpi.com/journal/sensore,
17/september/2013.
Muhammad
Zahak
Jamal,
Signal
acquisition using surface EMG and circuit
design consideration for robotic prosthesis,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52556.
Ignacio Rodriguez Carreno, Luis Gila
Useros, Armando Malandra Trigueros,
Motor unit action potential deuration,
measurement
and
significance,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50265.
Peter Konrad, The ABC of EMG, A
practical introduction to kinesiological
electromyography , Version 1.4 March
2006.
Mark Novak, Professor Cerin Sherman,
Design of am arm exoskeleton controlled
by the EMG signals, Cornel college
PHY312, December 2011.
Igor Liiz Bernardes de Moura, Luan Carlos
de Sena Monteiro Ozelim, Fabiano Araujo
Soares,
Low
cost
surface
electromyographic signal amplifier based on
arduino microcontroller, International
Journal of Electrical, Robotics, Electronics
and Communications Engineering Vol:8
No:2, 2014.
Carlo
J.
De
Luca,
Surface
Electromyography:
Detection
and
Recording, DYLSYS.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephal
ography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocardiogr
aphy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonmode_rejection_ratio
Saravanan N, Mehboob Kazi M.S.,
Biosignal based human machine interface
for robotic arm.
Allada Triupathi Rao, M. Gopi, M.V.S.S.
Prasad, Real time ECg signal Transmission
for remote monitoring. ISSN: 2321-9939
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_am
plifier
36
7. SUSTAINABLE APPLICATION OF
COMPOUND PARABOLIC SOLAR
CONCENTRATOR
D.K.Patel
Mechanical engineering department,
Government engineering college, patan
Rai University, Ahmadabad, India
e-mail - dkpatel09@gmail.com
P.K. Brahmbhatt
Mechanical engineering department,
Government engineering college, modasa
Rai University, Ahmadabad, India
e-mail- pragneshbrahmbhatt@gmail.com
AbstractThis paper will evaluate the

sustainability of compound parabolic solar
concentrator and their practical use in heating air
and water in developing countries like India.
Delivering sustainable energy will require an
increased efficiency of the generation process
including the demand side. The utilization of
Solar Energy could cover a significant part of
the energy demand in the country. A
comprehensive review of the different Profile
designs with Auto LISP developed for
construction
of
Compound
Parabolic
Concentrator (CPC) having a flat one-sided
absorber which does not require any tilt
adjustment , details of construction of the wide
diversity of practically designs of CPC systems
is presented. Profile generated in Auto LISP is
used for ray-tracing, modeling of multiple
channelled concentrators and to gauge the
distribution of the absorbed solar radiation on
the absorber surface and the result can compared
with a theoretical optical model based on the
average number of reflections. A low cost solar
air and water heater with CPC having an
aperture area of 1.2m2 , an acceptance half angle
of 30and a flat absorber with concentration
ratio two was fabricated and experimentally
tested at Patan, North Gujarat (23.4ON, 72OE)
and operating performances determined. The
thermal performance of a compound parabolic
solar air and water heater for a single pass was

investigated experimentally. The effect of mass
flow rate of air on the outlet temperature,
thermal efficiency was studied. Experiments
were performed for two air mass flow rates of
0.012 and 0.016 kg s-1 and water mass flow rate
of 0.0025 kg s-1. The presented results can be
considered important for the design and the
operation of solar air and water heater used for
drying agricultural products, space heating and,
industrial purposes and solar water heater. The
typical examples of CPC solar thermal
applications are in cooking, water heating, air
heating, drying of agricultural, space heating and
,industrial purposes and food products, water
distillation, industrial process heating systems
and power generation.
Keywords
sustainability,
solar
concentrators, reflectors, solar air heater,
compound parabolic concentrator,Autolisp
I.
INTRODUCTION
As defined by the World Bank, sustainability
is the Development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
Energy tends to be the main player in achieving
the sustainable development based on the
dramatic increase in the world energy
consumption over the last few decades
accompanied with the established relation
between the recent technological advancement
and energy consumption patterns. Moreover,
attaining a sustainable and secure energy sector
is the main challenge nowadays to achieve
sustainability on the environmental, social and
economic levels [1] various programs were
launched by governments, academic, institutions
and industrial sectors to develop new energy
technologies, improve energy efficiency
methods and strive to find alternative and clean
energy resources. Energy is central to
sustainable development and poverty reduction
efforts. It affects all aspects of developmentsocial, economic, and environmental-including
livelihoods, access to water, agricultural
productivity,
health,
population
levels,
education, and gender related issues. Traditional
method of energy production continues to
degrade the ecosystem. Especially with some
37
types of soil, land can be over-harvested until it

is rendered useless. To encourage sustainability,
an increasing number of programs are being
implemented to expand the use of alternative
fuels and energy. Renewable energy resources
can improve quality of life by promoting
sustainable development. Systems such as solar
power are practical, reliable, cost-effective, and
healthier for people and the environment.
Amongst all renewable energy resources, the
energy from sun is available almost everywhere
except the polar reasons. In view of this, solar
energy technologies have attracted significant
attention of the researchers worldwide. India
receives solar energy equivalent to more than
5,000 trillion kWh per year, which is far more
than its total annual energy consumption. The
typical examples of low temperature solar
thermal applications are cooking, water heating,
air heating, drying of agricultural & food
products, distillation, greenhouse etc. while the
industrial process heating, air-conditioning and
power generation etc. are the examples of high
temperature applications.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Using the sun to dry crops and grain is one of
the oldest and most widely used applications of
solar energy. The simplest and least expensive
technique is to allow crops to dry naturally in the
field, or to spread grain and fruit out in the sun
after harvesting. The disadvantage of these
methods is that the crops and grain are subject to
damage by birds, rodents, wind, and rain, and
contamination by windblown dust and dirt. More
sophisticated solar dryers protect grain and fruit,
reduce losses, dry faster and more uniformly,
and produce a better quality product than open
air methods [2]. A great deal of experimental
work over the last few decades has already
demonstrated that agricultural products can be
satisfactorily dehydrated using solar energy.
Various designs of small scale solar dryers
having thermal energy storage have been
developed in the recent past, mainly for drying
agricultural food products [3]. Controlled drying
is practiced mostly in industrial drying
processes. Hot air for industrial drying is usually
provided by burning fossil fuels, and large
quantities of fuels are used worldwide for this
purpose. High cost of fossil fuels gradual
depletion of its reserve and environmental

impacts of their use have put severe constraints
on their consumption [4]. Discussions have
concentrated on improving the efficiency of
CPC concentrators by introducing new materials
and techniques for solar radiation collection and
absorption with minimal optical and thermal
losses [5]. Yan et al developed a dynamic model
of solar parabolic trough collectors applied as
direct steam generation systems. The model was
solved by an explicit Eulers method and
considered different working conditions and
thermal parameters. The simulated results were
validated using two real test data on typical
summer and winter days, and the steam generating process from unsaturated water to
superheated steam was studied. The relationship
between output steam features and solar
radiation, inlet water temperature, mass flow
rate, and collector area were evaluated [6].Odeh
and Morrison developed a transient simulation
model to analyze the performance of industrial
water heating systems by using parabolic trough
solar collectors. The system consisted of a
parabolic trough collector with a glass cover, a
back-up boiler, and a thermal storage tank. The
high-accuracy model was applied to optimize the
system operation during transient radiation
periods [7]. Kim et al. researched the thermal
performance of evacuated CPC solar collector
with a cylindrical receiver and analyzed a
numerical model based on the irradiation
determined in each moment; they concluded that
the numerical model could accurately estimate
the performance of the solar collectors [8].
Tchinda and Ngos developed mathematical
equations to study the thermal processes in a
CPC collector with a flat one-side receiver with
various dimensions. The results showed that for
a given length, the efficiency increased as the
flow rate increased, and the outlet temperature of
the heat transfer fluid decreased with an increase
of mass flow rate; the selective coating and the
nature of the reflector material changed
considerably the thermal performance of the
CPC [9]. Pramuang and Exell developed a
method to determine the performance
parameters the optical efficiency, the heat loss
coefficients, and the effective heat capacity of a
truncated CPC applied to an air heater under
non-steady conditions. The optical efficiency
38
and the first order loss coefficient agreement

were around 2% and 3%, respectively. They
concluded that their method could be applied at
any time of the year in variable tropical climates
where a steady state method was not possible
[10]. Prapas et al.
investigated the flow
distributions through the receiver tubes of a CPC
collector for both eastwest (EW) and north
south (NS) alignments of the system. The
results showed that the flow distribution was
non-uniform in an EW alignment, compared
with a close approximation to a uniform
distribution for the NS alignment. However,
both alignments presented a similar thermal state
performance of the concentrator[11]. Prasad and
Tiwari developed a thermal analysis of a
concentratorassisted solar distillation unit to
optimize the glass cover inclination. The solar
device was a CPC. An analytical expression for
the air mass flow rate, wind speed and the
collector length on the thermal performance of
the air heater, an instantaneous thermal
efficiency was carried[13]. This paper will
evaluate the sustainability of compound
parabolic solar concentrators and their practical
use in heating air and water for cooking, water
heating, air heating, drying of agricultural and
food products, water distillation, industrial
process heating systems and power generation in
developing countries like India.
III. COMPOUND
PARABOLIC
CONCENTRATOR (CPC)
CPC is a non-imaging type concentrating

solar collector where the incident rays, after
reflection from the reflector, are not focused at a
point or line but are simply collected on absorber
(receiver) surface. The concentration ratio C,
which is defined as the ratio of aperture area to
absorber area is generally 2 to 10. CPC achieves
the ideal concentration(C=1/sina). It is
generally oriented in E-W direction. It does not
need a continuous tracking of the sun but it
necessitates only a few tilt adjustments per year.
The rays incident in the range of acceptance
angle 2 a are fully accepted by CPC. The CPC,
derives from the fact that it is consist of two
parabolic mirror segments with different focal
points. The angle between the axis of the CPC
and the line connecting the focus of one of the
parabolas with the opposite edge of the aperture

is the acceptance half angle a. CPCs consist
basically of three elements, (i) Receiver should
have the highest absorptance for solar radiation
as possible and must be constructed with
highconductivity metals in order to conduct
efficiently the absorbed heat into the heat
transfer fluid. Most receiver materials do not
have a very high absorptance, and they need to
be covered with special solar selective surface
coatings [1]. A commercial selective surface for
applications in solar energy made from a silicon
polymer, with an emissivity from 0.28 to 0.49
and absorptance values from 0.88 to 0.94 was
applied on the surface of this receiver. (ii) Cover
is a transparent insulation that allows the
passage of solar radiation to the reflector and
receiver, having a high transmittance of solar
radiation, and a low transmittance of the thermal
radiation from the receiver; also, it must have
high durability and low cost. The cover used was
a low-iron tempered glass with a thickness of 5
mm. (iii) Reflectors for solar concentrators
should have the highest reflectance as possible.
Its function is to focus beamsolar radiation onto
the receiver, which is located at the focus of the
system. Two aluminum sheet segments with a
reflectance of 0.87 were used to construct the
reflector sides.
IV. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
OF CPC PROFILE
The acceptance angle of the CPC solar

collector plays an important role in determining
the optimal orientation of the collector and
developing the most appropriate integrated
tracking system. The aperture of the stationary
CPC collector is always directed toward the
equator at an angle equal to the local latitude and
its axis is oriented either along the north
Geometric Profile of CPC (a =30,

L2=60)
Fig. 1.
39
south or the eastwest direction depending on

the specific application and the region of
operation. CPC solar concentrators with larger
acceptance angle are able to improve diffuse
radiation interception, but this will yield a
decrease in the concentration ratio of the
collector. AutoCAD offers lsp files which can
be used for Auto LISP routings as acad.lsp.
Auto LISP program is developed for geometrical
profile generation of CPC from polar coordinate
equations and file save as cpc.lsp. Fig.1 shows
CPC profile generated through Auto LISP CPC
by adding two variables half acceptance angle
and aperture length in loaded cpc.lsp file of
AutoCAD.
V.
MULTIPLE CHANNELLED
CONCENTRATOR (MCC)
MCC consists of a system of two or more
channels, one inside the other, all of them having
the same central axis. The walls of innermost
channels have both the internal and external side
reflecting. The wall of the external channel has
only the internal side reflecting. The set of
channels allows getting a less cumbersome
concentrator in relation to the known
concentrators, since the dimension of length is
reduced. The MCC maintains the characteristics
of an ideal concentrator, as it accepts all the
radiations with an inclination smaller or equal to
acceptance half-angle.
Multiple Channelled Concentrator CPC

With length Surface (a =30, L2=100,40,10)
Fig. 3.
The most important characteristics of these

concentrators are less cumbersome, a large
variety of choices in the planning, which allows
a better adaption of the concentrator to the
various types of usage, and the concentration of
our proposed models, when used truncated, is
larger than those of truncated Compound
Parabolic Concentrators (CPC) for the same
acceptance angle and the same length. Auto
LISP program used to generate and modeling of
multiple channelled concentrator consists of a
system of two or more channels, one inside the
other, all of them having the same central axis as
per Fig.2(a) model of three-channelled
concentrator with acceptance half-angle
a=30,have all the characteristics of ideal
concentrators, namely their concentration is
C=1/sin 30=2 and they accept all the radiations
with inclinations less than 30 rejecting those
with inclinations greater than 30.The another
model generated by Auto LISP as Fig.2(b)
three-channelled concentrator with various
acceptance half-angle a=30,25, 20and with
same aperture length can be used the
possibilities of bettering some of the known
applications and of developing new projects.
Fig.3 shows the mcc model with length in three
dimensions.[13].
VI. ANALYSIS
Multiple Channelled Concentrator (MCC)

(a) CPC(a =30, L2=100,40,10) And (b) (a
=30, 25,20,L2=100)
Fig. 2.
Applying heat balancing the following partial

differential equations are be derived.
For the transparent cover

= () + ( ) +
( ) ( ) ( )
For the flat absorber
40
= () ( )
( )
()
For the fluid
= ()
( )
The characteristics of the cpcs
Parameter
Symbol
Acceptance half angle
Cover absorptance
Flat
plat
absorber
absorptance
Cover transmittance
Cover emittance
Flat
plate
absorber
emittance
Cover reflectance
Reflector reflectance
Flat
plate
absorber
reflectance
=
()
Value
30
0.2
0.95
0.89
0.85
0.91
0.05
0.86
0.15
environmental factors and the design variables

The effect of the environmental factors are
external and may not be easily altered for
improved performance, thus only design
variables are left as the only ones that may be
considered for optimal collector performance.
Auto LISP generated profile of CPC with
acceptance half-angle 30and aperture length
60cm for the full and truncated solar collector
was printed to scale as printing templates and
used in the construction of the reflector support
and profile. The printed CPC profile generated
by Auto LISP design templates was then glued
to the wooden supporting plates, which was precut
with
measuring
dimensions
of(30x60x80cm), for the full profile.The
respective profiles were cut out using an saw and
assembled in the laboratory. This technique gave
an accurate profile and structure supports, and a
rigid exo-skeleton framework supported the
reflective panels of the collector. Anodized
aluminium with a specular reflectance of
approximately 87%
Where the useful thermal power QU extracted

from the CPC collector is calculated from the
relationship
= { ( (, ) ())}
The effect of increasing collector length on

the thermal performance is found. As collector
length is increased the absorber average
temperature hence outlet temperature is
appreciably increased. However instantaneous
efficiencies slightly decrease with the increase in
length of the collector which presumably results
from the greater heat looses to the
surroundings.[14]-[15].
VII.
FABRICATION METHODOLOGY
D.K.Patel and P.K.Brahmbhatt

designed and manufactured Compound parabolic
solar concentrator for air and water
collector[16]. The factors which affect the
performance of a solar collector include the
Picture to show the prototype of CPC

Solar Air Collector.
Fig. 4.
is rolled as per Wooden templates profile for

reflector .The collector assembly was placed in a
location where there was access to sunlight and
throughout the experiment, the collector was
kept with its absorber aligned east-west with the
tilt angle being the latitude of the place (23.4O)
towards south so as to maximize useful solar
energy. Air and water used as the heat transfer
fluid. One collector panel with CPC truncated of
the full size within the acceptance half angle of
30is fabricated. The collector has a total
aperture area of 1.2 m2 and a flat plat absorber
area of 0.48m2. This collector has overall
dimensions of 0.8m height; 0.6m aperture width,
0.3m receiver width and 1.6m length the
41
receiving surface which is black painted GI

sheet absorber plate for improving the value of
the heat transfer coefficient between the
absorber plate and the fluid thus result in a
higher efficiency and low cost material as shown
in Fig.4 .
VIII.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
a. Compound Parabolic Solar Air

Collector
The performance test of the solar air collector
prototype was carried out with glazing and
thermal insulation including rectangular airflow
duct, and total weather station at the Patan,
North Gujarat (23.4ON, 72OE). In the experiment
we measured the readings of global radiation Ht,
absorber temperature Tr, reflector temperature
Tm, cover temperature Tb, air inlet temperature
Tin, air outlet temperature Tout and ambient
temperature Ta, were taken for two mass flow
rates m (0.012 kg/s and 0.016 kg/s) from 8 a.m.
to 5p.m. at the interval of 1 hour in the month
May.
Flowrate=0.012Kg/s
Ta
Tin
Tout
70
Temperature versus different standard

local time during days for the air mass flow rate
at 0.016 Kg/s corresponding to the outlet, inlet,
and ambient.
Fig. 6.
In this study the absorber was made of

galvanized iron sheet with black chrome
selective coating and thickness of plate was
0.5mm. Fig.5&6 show the variation of the
ambient, outlet and inlet temperatures as a
function of air mass flow rates and time during
day.
The
temperature
was
measured
experimentally, and it can be seen from graph
that the curves of outlet temperature tend to
decrease with increasing air mass flow rate. For
a specific air mass flow rate at a constant
ambient temperature, the outlet and inlet
temperatures increase with increasing solar
intensity. In general, the inlet temperature was
found to be increasing exponentially from the
morning for mass flow rates m =0.012 kg/s and
0.016 kg/s. Drying under controlled conditions
of temperature and humidity helps the
agricultural food products to dry reasonably
rapidly to safe moisture content and to ensure a
superior quality of the product.
60
b. Compound Parabolic
Water Collector
Temperature (C )
50
40
Solar
30
20
10
Tb
Tr
To
0
8:00
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
80
Time (Hr)
70
50
Temperature( C)
60
. Temperature versus different standard

local time during days for the flow rate at 0.012
Kg/s corresponding to the outlet, inlet, and
ambient.
Fig. 5.
40
30
20
10
Flowrate=0.016 Kg/s
70
Ta
Tin
Tout
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Local Time (Hr)
60
Temperature (C )
50
40
Absorber ,Water Outlet and Ambient

temperature during day time for the water mass
flow rate at 0.0025kg/s
Fig. 7.
30
20
10
0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time (Hr)
Using the CPC profile generated by Auto LISP

program with acceptance half-angle 30and
42
aperture width 60cm and 160cm length , a

wooden mould was prepared . The collector
assembly was placed in a location where there
was access to sunlight and throughout the
experiment, the collector was kept with its
absorber aligned east-west with the tilt angle
being the latitude of the place (23.4O) towards
south so as to maximize useful solar energy.
Water was used as the heat transfer fluid. The
performance test of the prototype was carried
out without glazing and thermal insulation
including reflector, absorber and storage tank
and total weather station at the Patan, North
Gujarat (23.4ON, 72OE). In the experiment we
measured the readings of global radiation Ht,
absorber temperature Tr, reflector temperature
Tm,
cover temperature Ta, water inlet
temperature Ti, water outlet temperature To and
ambient temperature Tb, was taken for one
mass flow rate m (0.0025 kg/s ) from 8 a.m. to
5p.m. at the interval of 1 hour in the month
February.
IX. CPCS ACHIEVE SUSTAINABILITY
Highlighting the sustainable aspects of the
compound parabolic collector is a simple task
because the device is sustainable by nature. It
has been created with the intent of helping those
who lack clean drinking water, with the focus
being to improve their quality of life and drying
process in the preservation of agricultural
products, food products, especially fruits and
vegetables require hot air in the temperature
range of 4560C for safe drying. Developing
efficient and cost effective CPCAH solar dryer
with thermal energy storage system for
continuous drying of agricultural food products
at steady state and moderate temperature (40
75C) has become potentially a viable substitute
for fossil fuel in much of the developing world
like India. The hope is that one day, solar
parabolic collectors will provide a continuous
source of air heating and hot potable water, and
people will never go without the basic need. By
implementing the simple technology, several
positive outcomes will occur that benefit the
people who will use them in a sustainable way
over the long term thus hot air for industrial
drying, agricultural products and foodstuff, such
as fruits, vegetables, aromatic herbs, wood, and

hot water are usually provided by burning fossil
fuels, and large quantities of fuels, high cost of
fossil fuels gradual depletion of its reserve and
environmental impacts of their consumption are
saved worldwide for these purpose.
CPC profile generated by Auto LISP is more
accurate, error free and requires less time than
drawn by hand, used for modeling of mcc and
analyzing raytrace for different incident angle.
The MCC generated have the better advantages
in fact under the same length of truncation a
greater concentration than the CPC. In
particularly MCC may be used for photovoltaic
cell, as to obtain as much as possible uniform
density of concentration on it. CPC prototypes
are based around providing the most efficient
design, easily geometrically constructed and
fabricated through using low cost material(GI)
factoring in cost and durability, amongst other
features .The water outlet temperature (76C)
attained by CPC is higher than available in FPC
even when the CPC is flat. The efficiency of the
Solar Air collector improves with increasing
solar intensity at mass flow rate of 0.012 and
0.016 kg s-1, due to enhanced heat transfer to the
air flow. Optimum values of air mass flow rates
are suggested to maximize the performance of
the solar collector. The reason for the significant
increase in efficiency from of 0.012 and 0.016
kg s-1 can be attributed to changes in flow
condition from laminar to turbulent. It could also
be seen that slope of the efficiency curves
decreases, meaning decrease in loss coefficient,
with increase in mass flow rates. The air outlet
temperature (66C) attained by CPC is higher
than available in FPC even when the CPC is flat.
The stationary low cost CPC solar air heater and
water heater with the concentration ratio of 2
suns has been proposed for air heating with
specific advantages of no need of continuous
tracking, no utmost accuracy required in
fabrication, acceptance of diffuse radiation,
saving of material by truncation, low loss and
used for domestic up to small commercial size
drying of crops, agricultural products and
foodstuff, such as fruits, vegetables, aromatic
herbs, wood, etc., contributing thus significantly
to the economy of small agricultural
communities and farms. Thus compound solar
43
parabolic collector qualified as a sustainable

technology and has to improve the quality of life
for a community or species, and retain those
improvements indefinitely for Sustainability.
Reference
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Chen CF, Lin CH, Jan HT, et al. Design of

a solar concentrator combining paraboloidal
and hyperbolic mirrors using ray tracing
method. Opt Commun 2009;282:3606.
L. M. Bal, S. Satya and S. N. Naik, Solar
dryer with thermal energy storage systems
for drying agricultural food products: A
review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol. 14, (2010), pp. 2298-2314 .
A. Madhlopa and G. Ngwalo, Solar dryer
with thermal storage and biomass-backup
heater, Solar Energy, vol. 81, (2007), pp.
449-62
V. Shanmugam and E. Natarajan,
Experimental study of regenerative
desiccant integrated solar dryer with and
without reflective mirror, Applied Thermal
Engineering, vol. 27, (2007), pp. 1543-51.
Grass C, Schoelkopf W, Staudacher L, et al.
Comparison of the optics of non-tracking
and novel types of tracking solar thermal
collectors for process heat applications up to
3008C. Sol Energy 2004;76:20715.
Yan Q, Hu E, Yang Y, Zhai R. Dynamic
modeling and simulation of a solar direct
steam
generating
systemInternational
Journal of Energy Research 2010;34:1341
1355.
Odeh S. D, Morrison GL. Optimization of
parabolic trough solar collector system.
International Journal of Energy Research
2006; 30:259 271.
Kim Y, Han G, Seo T. An evaluation on
thermal performance of CPC solar collector.
International Communications in Heat and
Mass Transfer 2008; 35:446 457.
Tchinda R, Ngos N. A theoretical evaluation
of the thermal performance of CPC with flat
one-sided
absorber.
International
Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer
2006; 33:709718.
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Pramuang S, Exell THB. Transient test of a

solar air heater with a compound parabolic
concentrator. Renewable Energy 2005;
30:715728.
Prapas DE, Norton B, Melidis PE, Probert
SD. Convective heat transfers within air
spaces of compound parabolic concentrating
solarenergy collectors. Applied Energy
1998; 28:123135.
Prasad B, Tiwari GN. Effect of glass cover
inclination and parametric studies of
concentrator-assisted
solar
distillation
system. International Journal of Energy
Research 1996; 20:495505.
D.K.Patel
and
P.K.Brahmbhatt
(2014)Compound
Parabolic
Solar
Concentrator with AutoLISP Proc.
Ist
International Conference on MEET, Bhopal.
pp 941-947.
Rene T chinda .Thermal behavior of solar
air heater with compound parabolic
concentrator. Energy conversion and
Management 49(2008) 529-540. Science
Direct, Elsevier.
D.K.Patel and P.K.Brahmbhatt , Analysis
and Performance Investigations on a Solar
Air Heater with Compound Parabolic
Concentrator
International Journal on
Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing
and Communication , Volume: 3 Issue:
2,(2015) Page 064-071.
D.K.Patel
and
P.K.Brahmbhatt
(2014)Computer Aided Design and
Manufacture Of Compound Parabolic Solar
Air
Collector
Proc.
International
Conference
on
Recent
Trends
in
Engineering and Technology, Published by
Elsevier, pp, 134-136
Duffie JA, Beckman WA. Solar engineering
of thermal process New York: John Wiley
and Sons; 1980.
Patel DK, Brahmbhatt PK. Thermal
performance of compound parabolic solar
air heater. Discovery, 2015, 29(112), 138143.
44
8. EFFECT OF RADIATIVE HEAT

TRANSFER TERM IN
WEAK NONLINEAR WAVES IN
FLUID WITH INTERNAL STATE
VARIABLES
Nahid Fatima
Amity Valley, Pachgaon, Gurgaon, Haryana
drnahidfatima@gmail.com
Abstract: In present paper, an attempt has been
made to discuss the effect of radiative heat
transfer term in weaknonlinear waves in fluid
with several internal state variables. . The
analytical method of characteristics is used to
show that a plane finite amplitude disturbance
propagates through this system at the frozen
sound speed. Behaviour of finite amplitude gas
dynamic disturbance headed by a planer,
cylindrical or spherical wave front in
characteristic plane is investigated.
Key Words: Radiative Heat Transfer Non Linear
Waves, Fluid
I.
INTRODUCTION
Studies of nonlinear wave by using the

progressivewave theory have been carried out
by several authors. Germain9 reviewed the
theory of progressive waves for wide
applications in several fields. Fusco and
Engelbreckt8 presented the asymptotic analysis
of nonlinear waves in rate dependent media to
study the high and low frequency wave
processes and obtained an evolution equation for
viscoelastic media. Shukla et.al.13 have applied
progressive wave approach to study decay
behaviopur of a sawtooth profile in
chemicallyreacting gases. Clark and Rodgers6
have investigated the structure of plane steady
shockwave in a gas with several internal energy
modes. Becker and Bhme1 have discussed the
structure of compression wave for nparallel
relaxation modes. Colemann and Gurtin7 have
discussed the growth and decay of
discontinuities in fluids with internal state
variables.
Equations governing one dimensional motion of
a fluid with several internal state variables,
neglecting various transport effects, are given by
,t + u,x + u,x +
Certain papers,2,3,4,5,7 deal with the analysis of

formation of plane shock waves in one
dimensional unsteady flow with discontinuities
resulting from the motion of a piston. Clark5 has
discussed growth and decay behaviour of plane
waves propagating through a spatially uniform
but time dependent chemically reacting gas
mixture in a general state of disequilibrium.
Sharma and Shyam12 have discussed behaviour
at the wave head of a finite amplitude gas
dynamic disturbance in a chemically reacting
fluid. Pandey and Chaturvedi11 have discussed
weak waves in reacting gases. Ojha and Tiwari10
have considered propagation of spherical shock
waves in nonideal atmosphere. In many
important phenomenon, it is necessary to
investigate the processes, in which there occurs
the motion of the mixture or various gases and
fluids, or gases and fluids with solid particles, or
fluids only, accompanied by chemical phase or
some other transition and the phenomena of
diffusion, representing itself the internal relative
motion of substances constituting the mixture.
u
0
x
(1.1)
u,t + uu,x + p,x = 0
(1.2)
(1.3)
ci,t + uci,x =
wi
, (i 1,..., N ).
(1.4)
where t is time, x is the distance of the axis or

the centre of symmetry from a plane , is the
density, p is the pressure, u is the gas velocity,
ci concentration of the ith species and wi rate of
production of ith species respectively. af is the
frozen sound speed given by
a f2 (p, ) S,ci
h,
1 h, p
(1.5)
where subscripts S,ci denote that the derivative

is taken with these quantities held constant,
while S is entropy and h being enthalpy given by
h = h(p, S,c1,c2,...cn)
Thus,
45
h
h,
p ,ci
(2.4)
h
h, p
p ,ci
af [(ci),t, + (ci),t,] =
and = 0, 1, 2 refers to the case of a planer

cylindrical and spherical motion respectively
and comma followed by an index denote partial
differentiation with respect to that index.
II.
EQUATIONS
FORM
IN
wiJ
(2.5)
Adding and subtracting equation (2.3) and (2.4),

we have
CHARACTERISTIC
(2.6)
and
Following Wegener14, we choose axis of

symmetry in the direction of propagation of
wave and introduce two characteristic variables
and defined as follows :
dx x,
u a f , where (x, t) constant

dt t ,
and
dy x,
u a f , where (y, t) constant

dt t ,
Applying transformation
and
x, ( f ), x, ( f ),
f, t
(2.1)
t , ( f ), t , ( f ),
f, x
where
x,
x,
t ,
t,
0,
equations (1.1) to (1.4) reduces to

af(,t, + ,t, ) + (u,t, u,t, ) +
u
J 0
r
(2.2)
af (u,t, + u,t, ) + (p,t, p,t, ) = 0,
(2.3)
(p,t, + p,t, ) + af (u,t, u,t, )
(2.0a)
(2.0b)
(2.7)
If unperturbed field ahead of the wave whose
behaviour is to be investigated is assumed to be
spatially uniform, all x derivatives of equations
(1.1) to (1.4) vanishes and thus, we have
0,t = 0 i.e.
(2.8)
0 = constant,
0u0,t = 0 i.e.u0 = 0,
(2.9)
(2.10)
w
c i 0,t i

(2.11)
i = (1, 2, ..., n).
where subscript 0 indicates a value in the
background field. From equation (2.8) to (2.11)
the background state can be visualized in terms
of a fixed vessel uniformly filled with the gas
mixture which is at rest. Perturbations of the
background state will be assumed to propagate
through the mixture behind the wavefront = 0
46
. Continuity of the variable p,,u and ci (i =

1,...N) at = 0 is essential but discontinuities in
their derivatives are permitted. Any derivatives
with respect to must be continuous,
discontinuities can appear only in the
derivatives.
III. BEHAVIOUR AT THE WAVEFRONT
Differentiating equation (2.6) with respect to
and equation (2.7) with respect to and
subtracting one from the other and evaluating
the resulting equation at = 0+, we get
2 0 a f 0 u, a f 0 [u, 0, , u 0, ]
0 a 2f 0
x
Integrating
equation
, 0i a f0 i
u , u , i
0 a f
0
(3.5),
1/ 2
we
have
t 1
a f0
exp 1
x
ti 2

dt ,

(3.6)
u,
u,
i is the value of
at the initial
where
time t = ti. From equation (2.6) and equation
(2.7), after some manipulation, we have
p, t, p, t, a f (u, t, u, t, )
2Q(-1)
[u, t 0, ]
(3.7)
From equation (2.0a) &(2.0b) when evaluated at
= 0+ yields
2a f0 (t, ) u, t 0, (a f , t 0, a f0 , t, ) 0
(3.8)
(3.1)
Applying initial conditions given by (2.8) and
(2.9) and = 0+ equations (2.2) to (2.5) reduces
to
a f0 , 0 u,
(3.2)
t 0, p, p 0, t, 0 a f0 t 0, u,
(3.3)
t 0, c i , t, c i 0, 0,
(3.4)
From the above equation, we get

1 u, t 0,
(t , ),
4 a f0
(3.9)
Combining equation (3.1) with (3.2) to (3.4), we

get
Equation (3.9) can be written as
1 u , t 0 ,
( t , ),
2 t 0 , t , 0
4 a f0
a f0
1
log[( 0 a f0 )1/ 2 u, ] 1
t0,
2
x
where
(3.5)
where
Integrating equation (3.10), we have
(3.10)
t, t,i exp 2 ( t )dt
ti
47
u , i e
1 0 a f0 i
t 4a f 0a f
0
0
i
2 ( t ) dt t
ti
t
ei
1/ 2
1 a f 0

2
x
dt
.dt
(3.11)
where = 1 + 2 and
t = ti.
u, r
u, ri
u i
is value of
at
1/ 2
0i a 3f0 i
0 a 3f
0
t
a f0
u, i exp 1 (t )
dt
x
ti 2
t
a f
1/ 2
3
(t ) x 0 dt
t a
1
0i f0 i
ti
1 ( 1)u, i
.e
.dt
0 a 3f
2
ti
(3.12)
IV. DISCUSSION
for 0
2 | | /( 1)
1/ 2
exp( | | R0 / a f 0 )
| | a f 0
(u, x ) C 2
1
( 1)erfc (| | R / a )1 / 2
R
0
0
f0
2a f 0 exp( | | R0 / a f 0 )
for 2
( 1) R0 Ei (| | R0 / a f 0 )
then
u, x 0 as t , the wave damps out
ultimately. But if
u, x < 0 and | u, x | >
( u, x )C then there exists finite time ts given by
1
2 | |
ts
log 1
| | | u, x | ( 1)
i
for 0
For a plane wave = 0, equation reduces to the

form as obtained by Clarke25, and, therefore, all
his conclusions follow immediately.
and
Here, we shall consider the following situations

in which the wavefront is of cylindrical or
spherical geometry.
such that | u, x | as t ts, i.e. the wave
Case I:
If the medium ahead is one of uniform
equilibrium, in that case wi = 0 as a result of
which p0, a f 0 etc. are constants and < 0.
R(t) = R0 +
a f 0 t , where R0 is the
position of the wave front at time t = 0. Here ti

has been set equal to zero for convenience. Thus,
equation (3.12) reduces to
u, x
u, x ( R0 / R)/ 2 exp( | | t )
i
1
/2
1
u, xi ( R0 / R) exp( | | t )dt
2 0
t
(4.1)
ts
(R
/ R)/ 2 exp( | | t )dt 2 | u, x | ( 1)
for 1,2
terminates into a shock at an instant ts. Thus, we

find that a compression wave steepens up into a
shock after a finite time only if the initial
discontinuity associated with the wave is
sufficiently strong. From the above expressions
of ( u , r )C, we can see that
(u, x ) C
||
which means that the chemical reactions in the

flow have a effect on the tendency of the wave
surface to grow into a shock in the sense that an
increase in || will cause ( u , r )C to increase and
thus
delays
(u, x ) C
R0
the
shock
formation.
Also,
0 implies that the curvature has a
stabilizing effect and that an increase in the

initial curvature causes an increase in
( u , r )C. For | u, x | = ( u, x )C, it follows from
(4.1) that at a plane compression wave head the
discontinuity propagates with the constant initial
strength and at a cylindrical and spherical wave
head they propagate according to
48
u, r
2 | | a f0
( 1) R
1/ 2
exp( | | R / a f0 )
erfc (| | R / a f0 )1/ 2
(4.2)
and
u, x
mean that the chemical rate process in the flow

accelerates the steepening of a compression
wave to grow into shock.
Reference
2a f 0 exp( | | R)
(4.3)
( 1) REi (| | R)
[1]
respectively.
Case II:
[2]
If the medium ahead is in a state of

disequilibrium, i.e. w0 0
[3]
(3.12) can be written in the following form

u, x
u, x ( R0 / R0 a f 0 t )/ 2 exp( t )
[4]
[5]
t
1
/ 2
1
u, xi R0 /( R0 a f 0 t) exp(| | t)dt
2
0
(4.4)
and indicate suitable mean value over the

interval ti to t and ti has been equal to zero for
convenience.
From equation (4.4), if
u, x < 0 and > 0, a
[6]
[7]
[8]
finite time t*s is given by
[9]
1
2
t log 1
| u, x | 1 |
[10]
for 0
*
s
[11]
(4.5)
[12]
and
t*s
R0
2
exp( (t ))dt
for 1,2
/ 2
a
t
)
|
u
,
|
( 1)
0
f0
x
(R
0
(4.6)
Thus, we find that in a state of disequilibrium
sufficiently
far
from
equilibrium
the
discontinuity associated with a compression
wave, no matter how small always breakup into
a shock after a finite time. It follows from (4.5)
and (4.6) that
t *s
0
and
t *s
0,
R 0
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
Becker, E. And Bhme, G.: 1969, Non

Equilibrium Flow (PartI), Ed. By P.P.
Wegener, Marcel Dekker, New York, P.
71.
Becker, E. : 1970, J. Royal Aeronout.
Soc., Vol. 74, P. 736.
Bhutani, O.P. And Chandran, P.:1977,Int.
J. Engng. Sci., Vol.15, P.537
Brger, W.: 1966, Z.A.M.M., Vol. 46, P.
149.
Chu, B.T.: 1958, Proc. Heat Transfer And
Fluid Mech. Inst., Stanford University
Press.
Clarke, J.F.: 1977, J. Fluid Mech.,
Vol.81(No.2), P. 257.
Clarke, J.F. And Rodgers, J.B.: 1965, J.
Fluid Mech., Vol.21, P. 591.
Coleman, B.D. And Gurtin, M.E.: 1967,
The Phys. Of Fluids, Vol.10(No. 7), P.
1454.
Fusco, D. And Engeklbreckt, J.: 1984,
Nuovo Cim. Vol.80(B), P. 49.
Germain, P.:1972, Progressive Wave Jber,
DGLR, P. 11.
Ojha And Tiwari: 2004, Ultra Scientist
Phys. Sci., Vol.16(No.2), P. 205.
Pandey, K. And Chaturvedi, R. : 2004,
Proceeding National Academy Science,
Vol. 74A(No.3), P. 285
Sharma, V.D. And Shyam, R.:1980, India
J. Pure Appl. Math., Vol.11 (No.4), P.
478.
Sharma,V.D.,Sharma,R.R.,Pandey, B.D.
& Gupta, N.:1992,International Journal Of
Eng. Science, Vol.30,P.263
Shukla, P., Sharma, R.R. And Singh, L.P.:
1994, Int.J.Engng Sci., Vol.32(No.3), P.
527.
Wegener, P.: 1970, Non Equilibrium
Flow, PartII, M Arcel Dekker.
49
9. INVESTIGATION TO COMPARE
HEAT AUGMENTATION FROM
PLANE, DIMPLED AND
PERFORATED DIMPLE
RECTANGULAR FINS USING
ANSYS
Sachin Kumar Gupta
Student, Thermal Engineering
Gautam Buddha University
Greater Noida, India
sachin93gupta@gmail.com
Dr. Harishchandra Thakur

Assistant Professor, Thermal Engineering
harish@gbu.ac.in
AbstractThe investigation is conducted to

compare heat transfer rate from Plane, Dimpled
and Perforated Dimple Rectangular Fins under
natural convections. This numerical simulation
is accomplished by 3D modeling and analysis
using Solidworks and ANSYS, 14. This will
help in finding out the new fin topologies with
heat transfer characteristics that will do better
than conventional plane fin.The main goal is to
increase the heat transfer rate through the fin
surface and to decrease material cost. The main
techniques through which fins increase the
Nusselt number are through Boundary layer
regeneration and flow mixing enhancement.
Dimpled and perforation are applied to smooth
surfaces to promote flow mixing and initiate
turbulence in the flow. Seven fins are designed
in this research first finis plane fin, three are
dimpled and another are perforated dimpled
finwithdifferent shapes (circle, square and
triangle). The different shape dimple on the fin
have same cross section area of 100mm2and
perforation done on different shape of dimple
also having same cross section area of 64 mm2.
These dimples and perforated dimples
aredistributed on 2 rows and 3 columns. The
results show that for same base temperature the
perforated dimple
fins
having higher
temperature drop then the dimpled and plane fin.

Triangular perforated dimpled fin gives best
value of convective heat transfer coefficient,
nusselt number, heat transfer than the other
dimpled and perforated dimple fin.
Keywordsdimpled fin, plane fin, perforated
dimpled fin, natural convection, heat transfer,
thermal boundary layer, passive technique
I.INTRODUCTION
Enhancement of heat transfer is one of
important significance in various industrial
applications. One of the methods of augmenting
heat transfer is the use of fins or extended
surfaces. The thermal systems designed and
sized to generate, transmit and dissipate the
appropriate amount of unwanted heat as per
required demand [1]. The heat generation may
lead to burning problems which lead to system
failure of electric and electronic so to overcome
this problem, efficient heat sink is necessary.
Natural convection is one of the heat removing
techniques from devices and plays an important
role in maintaining their reliable operation.
Extended surfaces (fins) are used in heat
exchanging devices to increase the heat transfer
between a primary surface and the surrounding
fluid. Due to increasing in demand for
lightweight, compact, and economical fins, the
optimization of the fin size become significant.
So the fins designed to achieve maximum heat
removal with minimum use of material, and also
simplicity in manufacturing of the fin shape.
Various types of heat exchanger fins, ranging
from relatively simple shapes, such as
rectangular, square, cylindrical, annular, tapered
or pin fins, to a combination of different
geometries, have been used [2]. Passive
techniques are used in solar heater, electronic
cooling devices, biomedical equipment etc. The
research on dimples or surface indentations are
considered important because in dimple
manufacture the material is removed whereas in
pin-fin or rib tabulators extra material is added
which leads to increase in weight and cost of the
equipment. A variety of Numerical and
experimental work has been carried out on
augmentation of heat transfer.
50
II.CLASIFICATION OF ENHANCEMENT
TECHNIQUES
surface of the duct with bulk fluid from the core

flow.
Heat transfer enhancement or augmentation

techniques refer to the improvement of thermo
hydraulic performance of heat exchangers.
Existing enhancement techniques can be broadly
classified into three different categories:
(v) Swirl flow devices: They produce and

superimpose swirl flow or secondary
recirculation on the axial flow in a channel.
These include helical strip or cored screw type
tube inserts, twisted tapes. They can be used for
single phase and two-phase flows.
1. Passive Techniques
2. Active Techniques
3. Compound Techniques.
The effectiveness of any of these methods is
strongly dependent on the mode of heat transfer
(single- phase free or forced convection, pool
boiling, forced convection boiling or
condensation, and convective mass transfer), and
type and process application of the heat
exchanger.
Passive Techniques
These techniques use surface or geometrical
modificationssuch as perforation, protrusions,
dimples and pin fins to the flow channel by
adding inserts or additional devices. They alter
the existing flow behavior (except for extended
surfaces) which promotes higher heat transfer
coefficients also increase pressure drop. Passive
techniques do not require any direct input of
external power rather use it from the system
itself which leads to an increase in fluid pressure
drop. Heat transfer augmentation by these
techniques can be achieved by using:[3]
(i) Treated Surfaces: Surface having a fine scale
alters their finish or coating which may be
continuous or discontinuous. They are used for
Boiling and condensing duties.
(ii) Rough surfaces: The surface modification
which promote turbulence in the flow field.
(iii) Extended surfaces: It provide effective heat
transfer and modified finned surfaces also led to
improve the heat transfer coefficients by
disturbing the flow field in addition to increasing
the surface area.
(iv) Displaced enhancement devices: These are
the inserts that are used primarily in confined
forced convection, and they improve energy
transport indirectly at the heat exchange surface
by displacing the fluid from the heated or cooled
(vi) Coiled tubes: These lead to relatively more

compact heat exchangers. It produces secondary
flows and vortices which promote higher heat
transfer coefficients in single phase flows as
well as in most regions of boiling.
(vii) Surface tension devices: These consist of
wicking or grooved surfaces, which direct and
improve the flow of liquid to boiling surfaces
and from condensing surfaces.
(viii) Additives for liquids: These include the
addition of solid particles, soluble trace additives
and gas bubbles in single phase flows and trace
additives which usually depress the surface
tension of the liquid for boiling systems.
(ix) Additives for gases: It include liquid
droplets or solid particles which are introduced
in single- phase gas flows either as dilute phase
(gas-solid suspensions) or as dense phase
(fluidized beds).
Active Techniques
These techniques are more complex from the
application and design point of view as the
method requires some external power input to
cause the desired flow modification and to
improve heat transfer rate. It have limited
application as it require external power as it is
difficult to provide external power input in many
cases. Augmentation of heat transfer by this
method can be achieved by [3]:
(i) Mechanical Aids: Instrument stir the fluid by
mechanical means or by rotating the surface
which includes rotating tube heat exchangers
and scrapped surface heat exchangers.
(ii) Surface vibration: Applied in single phase
flows to obtain higher heat transfer coefficients.
(iii) Fluid vibration: Used in single phase flows
and considered to be the most practical type of
vibration enhancement technique.
51
(iv) Electrostatic fields: The form of electric or

magnetic fields or a combination of the two from
dc or ac sources, which can be applied in heat
exchange systems involving dielectric fluids.
Depending on the application, it can also
produce greater bulk mixing and induce forced
convection or electromagnetic pumping to
augment heat transfer
(v) Injection: Technique is used in single phase
flow and pertains to the method of injecting the
same or a different fluid into the main bulk fluid
either through a porous heat transfer interface or
upstream of the heat transfer section.
(vi) Suction: It involves either vapour removal
through a porous heated surface in nucleate or
film boiling, or fluid withdrawal through a
porous heated surface in single-phase flow.
(vii) Jet impingement: It involves the direction
of heating or cooling fluid perpendicularly or
obliquely to the heat transfer
Compound Techniques
A compound augmentation technique is the one
in which more than one of the above mentioned
techniques is used in combination for improving
the thermo-hydraulic performance of a heat
exchanger.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW
Various experimental, analytical and numerical
researcheshavebeen carried out on enhancement
of heat transfer through dimpled fin. The first
person to suggest the use of dimple on plane
surface for heat transfer augmentation was
Kuethe [4] in 1971, as per him the dimples are
expected to promote vortex generation which
results
in
heat
transfer
augmentation.Experimental analysis performed
by V.N Afnasyev [5] on surfaces shaped by
systems of spherical cavities and they found that
heat transfer was increased by 150% as
compared to plane surface. Nikolai Kornev[6]
examined vortex structure and heat transfer
augmentation in turbulent flow over staggered
dimple array in narrow channel using Large
Eddy Simulation. Mahmood and Ligrani [7]
carried out an experimental analysis on the
influence of dimple aspect ratio, temperature
ratio, Reynolds number, and flow structure in
dimple channel. Z Wang [8] carried out
Numerical simulation of laminar channel flow

over dimple surface and identified a symmetric
3D horseshoe vortex inside a single
dimple.S.L.Borse and I.H Patel [9] performed an
experimental study on the effect of dimples on
heat transfer over flat surface under forced
convection. They conclude use of dimples on
surface which results in heat transfer
augmentationwith lesser pressure drop and also
heat transfer enhancement is more effective in
staggered arrangement as compare to in line
arrangement. Moon [10] investigated the
channel height effect on heat transfer over the
dimpled surfaces. Heat transfer coefficient and
friction factorswereinvestigated in rectangular
channels, which had dimples on one side of wall.
IV.ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
Numerical studies were conducted to
determine the heat transfer on the different
aluminium fins for natural convection.Analytical
study has been calculated on following
assumptions:
1. The fin material is homogeneous and
isotropic.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over
the fin surface.
3. There are no heat sources within the fin itself.
4. There is no free convection or radiation heat
transfer.
V.DATA PROCESSING
Thissteady state investigationcarried out under
natural convection for a given base temperature
of the fins and ambient airtemperatures. The
investigationis used to determine the values of
performance parameters.
A) Grashofnumber
B) Nusselt number
C) Average heat transfer coefficient
D) Rate of heat transfer
52
to know the effect of shape on heat transfer

through dimpled fin and perforated dimpled fin.
where,
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
L = Length of the Plate in meters
= Kinematic Viscosity at film temp in m2/s.
= Coefficient of volumetric expansion in K-1
T = Temperature difference in K
Pr =Prandtl number
Kair= Thermal conductivity of air at film
temperature in W/mC
Qa = Average heat transfer rate in Watts
VI.CFD MODELING AND SIMULATION
The model is designed in Solidworks and
simulation performed in ANSYS 14.5.
Workbench environment with ANSYS system of
steady state thermal has the capability of solving
the convective transport of energy and the
thermal conduction in solids. In the any CFD
simulation, the steps in performing fluid analysis
are:
1) Modeling in Solidworks
2) Import the geometry in ANSYS steady state
thermal
3) Generating mesh
4) Set up the analysis byproviding boundary
conditions
5) Control and monitor the solver to achieve a
solution
6) Visualize the results and create a report.
Geometry Modeling
Different fin geometries were designed using
Solidworks software which is specifically
designed and preparation of geometry for
simulation. The fins having length of 100mm,
height of 120mm and its thickness is 3mm as
shown in fig 1. There are 6 newly designed
finsin which 3 are dimpled as shown in fig 1 and
another 3 are perforated dimpled as shown in fig
2 of square, circular, and triangular shape. The
fin is modeled with adding same amount of
material in various dimpled fins and same
amount of material subtracted in various
perforated dimpled fin. The base area of various
shapes of dimple and perforation are kept same
Circular dimpled
Square dimpled
Triangular dimpled
Figure 9: Solid Fin and Dimpled fins(circular,

square, triangular)
Circular Perforated
Square Perforated
Triangular Perforated
Figure 10: Different Perforated (circular, square,

triangular) Dimple Fins
TABLE 1: DIFFERENT DIMPLES DIMENSION
Dimension,
mm
Thickness,
mm
Area, mm2
Square
dimple
A=10
Circular
dimple
D=11.28
Triangular
dimple
S=15.3
100
100
100
53
TABLE 2: DIFFERENT PERFORATION DIMENSION
Perforatio
n
Dimensio
n, mm
Perforated
Area,
mm2
Square
perforate
d dimple
Circular
perforate
d dimple
a=8
d=9.028
Triangul
ar
perforate
d dimple
s=12.235
64
64
64
Create Mesh for the Geometry

The standard Mesher in a Steady State Thermal
which enables an automatic mesh generation
using efficient mesh generation techniques,
meshes were created with high contact sizing
relevance (dense meshing near the dimple
surface). The total number of elements and
nodes are 2092 and 4539 respectively.
Analysis Setup
Under Steady State Thermal of the ANSYS
Workbench, appropriatematerials Aluminum
assigned to the created fin.Then we move to
setup for applying boundary conditions to the
fin. The temperature of base of fin is fixed at
100oC and natural convective heat transfer from
other face of the fins.
Visualizing the Results
When the solver was terminated, the results were
examined which is the post processing step.
Temperature distributionand heat flux along the
fin surface as well as parameters likeNusselt
Number, heat transfer coefficient and changes in
other parameters can also be predicted
bycomputational analysis. Fig.3 and Fig.4 shows
the temperature and heat flux contours over the
convective surface area of the solid, dimpled and
perforated dimpled fin respectively. It can
beseen that the dimpled and perforated dimpled
fin are pumping out the more heat from the base.
The top ends of the fins are cooled faster.
54
Figure 3: Temperature Contours Along fins
55
than the corresponding shape dimpled fins and

perforated triangular dimpled fin having higher
than the other fins.
From figure 8, it has been found that the heat
transfer rate ofperforated triangular dimpled fin
have higher than the corresponding shape
dimpled fins and perforated triangular dimpled
fin having higher than the other fins.
Perforation in Dimpled fin leads to enhances
heat dissipation rates and at the same time
decreases the expenditure of the fin material.
Figure 4: Heat Flux Contours along fins
100
VII.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The simulation investigates the perforation and
dimple shape geometry effecton the convective
heat transfer from the fins by Natural
Convection. In this study a comparison is made
between different shapes of dimpled and
perforated dimpled fin.The comparison of
different fin by using temperature distribution
along the fin is one of the many ways. The result
show that thehighest temperatures drop along the
non-perforated fin. Perforated Dimple fins
having higher temperature drop than the
corresponding shape dimpled fin and the
triangular perforated dimple fin have lowest
temperature drop.Also, the difference between
temperature ofthe base and tip of the fin play an
important characteristic in the perception of the
work of the fin, which can beused to compare
this characteristics with other fins and through
the same graphics as shown in Figure 5which
says that the highest drop of temperature
between the fin's base and its tip occur in
thetriangular perforated dimpled fin. This
happen because the triangle area destroyed the
area of thermalboundary layer larger than the
rest shapes because its width larger than rest
shapes.
From figure 6, it has been found that heat
transfer coefficient for perforated dimpled fins
are higher than their corresponding shape
dimpled fin and solid fin having lowest value. It
is also found that the heat transfer coefficient is
highest for triangular perforated dimpled
surface.
From figure 7, it is found that the Nusselt
number of perforated dimpled fin have higher
98
96
94
92
90
88
0
20
40
60
80
100 120
Solid Fin
Circular Dimpled Fin
Square Dimpled Fin

Triangular Dimpled Fin
Perforated Circular Dimpled Fin

Perforated Square Dimpled Fin
Perforated Triangular Dimpled Fin
Figure 5: Temperature Distribution along the

Height of Fin
56
5.5315
6
5
3.557
3.964 4.094
4.81 4.5586 4.7081
3
2
1
0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
9.432
8.354
6.287
6.976 7.196
7.916 8.121
Figure 6: Variation of Heat Transfer Coefficient

with different Fins
30
25
19.635 20.3
20 17.638
27.4286
23.85122.60423.345 5
15
10
5
0
Figure 7:Variation of Nusselt Number with

Different geometries
Figure 8: Variation of Heat Transfer Rate with

Different Fins
VIII.CONCLUSION
From the investigation the following conclusion
were made:
It is found that the temperature drop
along the perforated dimple fins length
is consistently higher than that for the
non-perforated and dimpled fin.It is
found that the heat transfer rate is more
for different perforated dimplefin
compare to plane and dimpled fin.
It is also concluded that from various
dimpled fins circular shape dimple have
minimum heat transfer rate whereas
triangular shape have highest value.
It is also concluded that from various
perforated dimple fins circular shape
dimple have minimum heat transfer rate
whereas triangular shape have highest
value.
It is found that the Nusselt number, heat
transfer andheat transfer coefficient is
maximum in case of triangularperforated
dimple fin.
Perforated Dimplefin leads to decreases
the expenditure of the fin material.
57
Acknowledgment
We would like to be thankful to the Gautam
Buddha University, Greater Noida. At the same
time we could not forget the direct or indirect
support of faculty and friends to make this paper
successful.
References
[1] G.
D.Gosavi
,
S.V.Prayagi
and
V.S.NarnawareG, use of perforated as a
Natural Convection Heat Transfer- Review,
International Journal of Current Engineering
and Technology, special issue 2, pp. 506509, february, 2014.
[2] Sahin B, Demir A (2008b). "Performance
analysis of a heat exchanger having
perforated square fins", Applied Thermal
Engineering 28(6): 621-632.
[3] Kakac E, Bergles A, Mayinger SF (1981).
Heat Exchangers, Thermal Hydraulic
Fundamentals and Design Hemisphere
Publishing Corporation.
[4] Kuethe A. M., (1971). Boundary Layer
Control of Flow Separation and Heat
Exchange, US. Patent No. 3,578,264.
[5] V.N., Afanasyev, Ya.P., Chudnovsky, A.I.,
Leontiev, P.S.,Roganov, Turbulent flow
friction and heat transfer characteristics for
spherical
cavities
on
a
flat
plate,Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science 7 (1) (1993) 1-8.
[6] Nikolai Kornev. Flow structures and heat
transfer
on
dimpled
surfaces
(http://www.tsfp7.org/papers/2B4P.pdf).
[7] Mahmood, G. I., Ligrani, P. M., Heat
Transfer in a dimpled channel: combined
influences of aspect ratio,temperatur6e ratio,
Reynolds number and flow structure,
International Journal heat Mass Transfer 45,
2011-2020, 2002.
[8] Z., Wang, K.Z., Yeo, B.C., Khoo, Numerical
simulation of laminar channel flow over
dimpled surface, AIAA Paper No. AIAA
2003-3964.
[9] Dr.S.L.Borse and I.H. Patel, Experimental
investigation of heat transfer enhancement
over the dimpled surface, Iftikarahamad H.
Patel et al. / International Journal of
Engineering Science and Technology
[10]
(IJEST) ISSN: 0975- 5462 Vol.4 No.8

August 2012 (PP no 3666-3672).
Moon H.K., T. OConnell, Glezer B.,
Channel Height Effect on Heat Transfer
and Friction in a Dimpled Passage, ASME
J. Gas Turbine and Power, 122, April 2000,
Pp.307- 313.
58
10. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF

SELECTED FRUITS USING LASER
DOPPLER VIBROMETER
Jitendra Bhaskar1, Anand Kumar2, Bishakh
Bhattacharya3
1,2
, Harcourt Butler Technological Institute,
Kanpur, INDIA
3
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, INDIA
Email: bhaskar48m@yahoo.com
Abstract-Mechanical damages make decay of

fresh fruits fast during transportation from farms
to packing houses and from packing houses to
retail outlets. This damage could cause great
economic loss to fruit industry. Fruits materials
tend to behave as viscoelastic materials, when
they are subjected to various conditions of stress
and strain. Food can be regarded as a kind of
complex polymer. The different food matrix
shows different dynamic responses due to its
nature of viscoelastic material. Dynamic
response under pseudo-random excitation helps
in predicting the behavior and selecting the
material to protect the fruit. Laser Doppler
vibrometer (LDV) is a very useful non-contact
vibration measurement technique which gives us
very good results. There are various types of
fruits available in winter season of Northern
India but some of them-Orange, Apple, and
Pomegranate were selected for the dynamic
response at SMSS lab IIT Kanpur.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical injuries are responsible for
considerable decay of fresh fruits and
vegetables. Mechanical stresses occur during
picking and packaging but a remarkable
contribution to the development of damage can
be due to transportation from farms to packing
houses and from packing houses to retail outlets.
With regard to transportation, frequent attention
was devoted to delicate fruits such as apples.
Singh and Xu (1993) reported that as many as
80% apples can be damaged during simulated
transportation by truck depending on the type of
truck, package and position of the container
along the column. Other results of tests carried
out on apples during transportation confirm high
susceptibility of these fruits to mechanical
vibrations and the great influence of the kind of

container on damage (Shulte et al., 1990; Timm
et al., 1996). Apple fruit can be damaged
because of some impact forces which are the
main sources of apple degradation during the
contact. To reduce the damage, it is necessary to
investigate normal contact forces. The normal
contact force models depend on dynamical
parameters such as spring and damping. [1].
Vibration and shock during transport injures
fruit and vegetables, especially fruit with a soft
pericarp. Mechanical damage in truck transport,
including abrasions and bruises, reduces quality
to a level where truck transport may become
problematic. Losses in fresh fruit rose by 17%
and in vegetables 10% during transport and
distribution in 2006 in Japan (Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2008). Fruit
must thus be packaged in cushioning sufficient
to protect it from vibration and shock. Domestic
fruit is mainly transported by truck using many
types of containers, including corrugated
fiberboard containers and cushioning materials.
Fruit for export may also be packaged using the
same material and design as in distribution in
Japan, causing problems in mechanical damage
and internal quality, necessitating the
development of better packaging for exported
fruit.
Agricultural and food materials tend to behave
as viscoelastic materials, when they are
subjected to various conditions of stress and
strain (Mohsenin 1986; Tsuji et al., 1992). Food
can be regarded as a kind of complex polymer.
The different food matrix shows different
mechanical properties in different viscoelastic
regions: the glass-like region, where the material
shows a rigid and brittle character and the
modulus is relatively high , the glass-transition
region, where the storage modulus of the
material decreases remarkably , the rubber-like
region, where the material shows a high-elastic
property; and the terminal region, where the
material flows like liquid (Le Mast et al.,
2002).
II.
LITERARTURE SURVEY:
This study was conducted in Arabia to measure
and analyze the dynamic response of fruit Apple
under random force as natural excitation of road
and truck condition to investigate the effect of
59
vibration frequency 0-1.6 kHz and warping

papers on the mechanical damage during
transporting, the fruits were resting on foam bad
to simulate free-free condition on the exciter
with force transducer [2]. The physical,
mechanical and chemical properties of banana
fruits at different level of ripeness were
determined in Iran. Relation between stage of
banana ripeness and these properties were
investigated and correlation coefficients were
calculated [4].This research was conducted over
one Iranian variety of Oak (Quercus Persica)
with 70 observations. Physical and mechanical
properties of oak were necessary for equipment
used in activities such as transportation, storage,
grading, packing etc. [5].
Fruits are usually graded according to their
quality. Grading process was classifying fruits
according to size, shape, weight, color and
ripening stage [6]. In work done by Idriss
ABOUDAOUD [7], objective was to study the
feasibility of the control of the maturity of
Orange fruit by the ultrasonic echo pulse method
with immersion in water.In Tehran Maximum
height for packing and storing of fresh
pomegranate fruit in the box was determined to
be less than 123 cm based on a rupture force of
40.7 N [8]. Effects of road conditions and
packaging materials on all fig varieties were
found
statistically
significant
during
transportation in Turkey. The cumulative effect
of highway conditions (16 Hz2.54 m s-2) on
the all visual attributes of the figs were five
times higher than the off-road conditions (3
Hz0.56 m s-2). Highway road conditions
severely affected the figs quality in all six visual
attributes because of long transportation time.
Although highway conditions have much
smoother road conditions than off-road
conditions, high acceleration created this visual
harmful effect on the fresh fig fruits. According
to the results of the experiment, transportation
generally affected the quality of the figs in terms
of visual and measured attributes. Highway
conditions had more negative effects on the
quality of the figs comparing to off-road
conditions. This effect was accelerated because
of the long transportation time of fruits. It was
found that cardboard packaging materials are not
convenient for transportation in any road
conditions. Polystyrene boxes decreased the
negative effect of transportation comparing with

the cardboard boxes [10].
III.
MATERIALS:
There are various types of fruits available in
winter season of Northern India but some of
them-Orange, Mosummi, Kinnu, Apple, Guava
and Pomegranate were selected for the dynamic
response. Fruits were purchased from local
market near IIT Kanpur .
IV. METHODOLOGY
There are various types of methodologies used
for getting dynamic response of objects. But
non-contact types are very important in view of
accuracy. Laser Doppler Vibrometer is very
promising machine for measuring the dynamic
response of objects.
Figure 2: Orange on
Figure 1 : Orange with shaker
LDV
V. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS:
Fruits were tested in winter season. This would
be the reason of very slow weight loss due low
evaporation
rate.
Orange,
apple
and
pomegranate have very different nature of
material inside the scalp. Orange was juicy,
Apple was solid than orange. Pomegranate was
having hard scalp than apple and orange.
Structure and arrangement was pomegranate
grains. Dynamic responses of steel bowl,
Orange, Apple and Pomegranate were recorded
on LDV with in 250, 500, 1000 & 2000 Hz
range. Data plotted in frequency domain. All
peaks showing maximum velocities at
resonance.
60
Graph 1: Only steel bowl 1000 hz 3200 fft

Orange
Graph 2: Dated-12/12/14
1-500Hz
(wt
177.25 gm 19/12/14, 176.93 gm on 23.12.14)
500 Hz
(weight 176.93 gm)
-500 Hz 800FFT
Graph 7: Jan 02, 2015 ( wt 157.65 gm)

Pomegranate
2000Hz
Pomegranate
Graph 9: Dated Jan 02, 2015 pomegranate
Graph 5: Dated Jan 02, 2015 ( wt 176.32 gm)

Apple
2000 Hz
Dynamic response of only steel bowl

has shown three peaks on approximate
frequency 50 Hz, 410 Hz and 820 Hz.
But when fruits were kept in bowl then
third peak response on third frequency
has been diminished.
Graph 2 to 5 has shown almost same
pattern only slighter change in the 5th.
Orange has shown a similar dynamic
response that first resonance frequency
was observed at about 16-17 Hz.
61
Table: showing the important data of graph.

1
reso. Freq Velocity
2nd freq. Remarks
(Hz) Appr. data
mm/s
(Hz)
Other peaks Hz
31.88 Hz
1.17
850
450
16-25 Hz
2.70-2.9
150-200 No change appreciable response
between Dec.12-23, 2014
16-16.25
2.90
180-220 200, 640 Hz
16.88-17
3.16
300, 450, 800 Hz
st
Item
Steel bowl
Orange
Pomegranate
Apple
Weight loss (gm)

Dec 23
176.93
182.65
158.36
5.
Apple and pomegranate have shown
similar dynamic response that is first
resonance frequency same as Orange,
but other higher frequencies were also
available at 650 Hz and 450 Hz. This
may be due to solid/ non-juicy materials
6.
inside.
Fruits
Orange
Pomegranate
Apple
Dec 19
177.25
-
REFERENCES:
1. Evaluation of impact effect and fruit
properties on apple dynamic behavior by
Hossein Barikloo & Ibrahim Ahmadi,
Australian Journal crop sciences AJCS
7(11):1661-1669 (2013) ISSN: 18352707.
2. Vibration analysis influence during
crisis transport of the quality of fresh
fruit on food security Ayman H. Amer
E, Nabil S, Mostafa M. Azam CIGR
Journal
Open
access
at
http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 15,
No.3 181.
3. Post harvest chemical and physical
mechanical propertiesof some apricot
varieties cultivated in Turkey Haydar
Hacseferogullara,*,_Ibrahim Gezerb,
Mehmet Musa Ozcanc,Bayram Murat
Asmada, Journal of Food Engineering
79 (2007) 364373.
4. Comparison of Some Chromatic,
Mechanical and Chemical Properties of
Banana Fruit at Different Stages of
Ripeness. Mahmoud Soltani Modern
Applied Science Vol. 4, No. 7; July
2010. www.ccsenet.org/mas.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Jan02, 2015
176.32
181.86
157.65
Physical and mechanical properties of
Oak (Quercus Persica) fruits. Jalilian
Tabar F. January, 2011 Agric Eng Int:
CIGR Journal Open access at
http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 13,
No.4 1.
Design and manufacturing of prototype
for orange grading using phototransistor,
Gamal Rashad Gamea*, Mohamed Aly
Aboamera, and Maged Elsayed Ahmed
Egypt. Australian Journal of Agriculture
Engineering ISSN: 1836-9448.
The maturity characterization of orange
fruit by using high frequency ultrasonic
echo
pulse
method
Idriss
ABOUDAOUD, Proceedings of the
Acoustics 2012 Nantes Conference 2327 April 2012, Nantes, France.
Determination of engineering properties
of pomegranate fruit to calculation the
height of box for handling ,Tehran, Iran.
Hazbavi, International journal science
invention today IJSIT, 2013, 2(6), 492501.
Changes in the mechanical properties of
the greenhouse tomato fruit skins DOI
10.2478/v10022-009-0001-z
during
storage in Lublin. TECHNICAL
SCIENCES Abbrev.: Techn. Sc., No 12,
Y 2009.
Assessment of the Quality Losses of
Fresh Fig Fruits during Transportation,
Blent
AKMAK,
Journal
of
Agricultural Sciences, Turkey. October
2010.
62
11. EXPERIMENTAL
STUDY
OF
COMPARISON OF SIMPLE VCRS
AND VCRS WITH PHASE CHANGE
MATERIAL(PCM) AS POTASSIUM
CHLORIDE (KCL)
Taliv Hussain1* ,Sahil Chadha2, Gaurav Singh
Jaggi3,Rahul Wandra4,Gourav Roy5
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Lovely Professional University Phagwara,
Punjab (India) -144402
Email:taliv.17727@lpu.co.in
Phone no: 08283836492
Abstract-The performance of heat transfer is
most essential area of research in the field of
thermal engineering. For the process of heat
transfer there are huge numbers of refrigerants
which can be used to transfer the heat from low
temperature reservoir to high temperature
reservoir by using vapour compression
refrigeration system. The vapour compression
refrigeration technology has made a great
improvement over a few decades in the form of
efficiency of cycle through significant efforts of
thermal engineers and manufacturers. The
modification of cycle should be investigated to
enhance the efficiency of the system. In this
paper the experimental study is conducted to
predict the comparison between the Simple
VCRS and the VCRS with Phase change
material (PCM) as KCL (potassium chloride) on
the evaporator. In this paper the use of PCM can
further decrease the temperature of the
evaporator. We mainly bring the focus on to
decrease the temperature of evaporator as
lowest as possible so there is need of PCM. The
use of PCM directly enhances the performance
of the system by 21-25%.So by the use of the
Phase change material there is an increment in
the coefficient of performance (COP) of the
system.
Keywords: Phase change material, KCL, vapour
compression refrigeration system,COP
INTRODUCTION
Vapour compression refrigeration system is
a system which is used to transfer heat from low
reservoir to the high reservoir by the use of a
working fluid known as a refrigerant. It is a

system which uses the high grade energy results
in the increase of coefficient of performance.
Vapour compression refrigeration system which
consists of certain parts such as Compressor,
Evaporator, Condenser and Expansion valve. It
has smaller size for the given capacity of
refrigeration. This refrigeration system can be
employed over a large range of temperatures and
the coefficient of performance of this
refrigeration system is quite high. To further
increase the coefficient of performance the PCM
(Phase change material) can be used in the
evaporator and to get the lowest temperature of
evaporator the PCM can also be used. It has the
main advantage that it has the less running cost.
In this refrigeration system the low pressure and
temperature vapour refrigerant is drawn into the
compressor through the inlet or suction valve
where it is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature. The high pressure and temperature
vapour refrigerant is discharged into the
condenser through the delivery or discharge
valve. So this refrigeration uses the compressor
work which is a high grade energy which
implies that the amount of energy used in the
system is totally converted into the useful work
which helps to increase the coefficient of
performance of this refrigeration system.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Webb (1984) developed a unified
theoretical treatment of evaporative systems:
cooling towers, evaporative coolers and
evaporative condensers. His model considered
the effect of the variation in temperature of the
deluge water in an evaporative cooler, but stated
that for an evaporative condenser the film
temperature remains essentially constant due to
the fact that the variation in the refrigerant
temperature is negligibly small.
Y.S.Lee and C.C.Su have studied the
performance vapour compression refrigeration
system with isobutene (R600a) as refrigerant and
compare the results with R12 and R22. They
used R600a about 150 g and set the refrigeration
temperature about 4 C and -10 C to maintain
the situation of cold storage and freezing
applications. They used 0.7 mm internal
diameter and 4 to 4.5 m length of capillary tube
63
for cold storage applications and 0.6 mm internal

diameter and 4.5 to 5 m length of capillary tube
for freezing applications. They observed that the
COP lies between 1.2 and 4.5 in cold storage
applications and between 0.8 and 3.5 in freezing
applications.
A.S. Dalkilic and S. Wongwises [1], have
studied
the
performance
on
a
vapourcompression refrigeration system with
refrigerant mixtures based on R134a, R152a,
R32, R290, R1270, R600 and R600a was done
for various ratios and their results are compared
with R12, R22 and R134a as possible alternative
replacements. The results showed that all of the
alternative refrigerants investigated in the
analysis have a slightly lower COP than R12,
R22, and R134a for the condensation
temperature of 50 C and evaporating
temperatures ranging between 30 C and 10
C. Refrigerant blends of R290/R600a (40/60 by
wt. %) instead of R12 and R290/R1270 (20/80
by wt. %) instead of R22 are found to be
replacement
refrigerants
among
other
alternatives.
Yinhai Zhu and Peixue Jiang [4] developed a
refrigeration system which combines a basic
vapor compression refrigeration cycle with an
ejector cooling cycle. The ejector cooling cycle
is driven by the waste heat from the condenser in
the vapor compression refrigeration cycle. The
additional cooling capacity from the ejector
cycle is directly input into the evaporator of the
vapor compression refrigeration cycle the
system analysis shows that this refrigeration
system can effectively improve the COP by the
ejector cycle with the refrigerant which has high
compressor discharge temperature.
Andrea Chesi, Giovanni Ferrara, Lorenzo
Ferrari and Fabio Tarani [5] analyze a
complex system in which the solar powered
ejection machine is used to increase the
efficiency of a traditional vapor compression
machine by subtracting heat from the condenser.
By means of a transient analysis, performed with
a reference building and with climate data
corresponding to four different system locations
worldwide, the year-round performance of such
a system in a space cooling application is
estimated in terms of energy balance and savings

on power costs with respect to the traditional
solutions.
A. Selvaraju and A. Mani [6] investigate the
experimental analysis of the performance of a
vapor ejector refrigeration system. The system
uses R134a as working fluid and has a rated
cooling capacity of 0.5 kW. The influence of
generator,
evaporator
and
condenser
temperatures on the system performance is
studied. For a given ejector configuration, there
exists an optimum temperature of primary vapor
at a particular condenser and evaporating
temperatures,
which
yields
maximum
entrainment ratio and COP.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
This experimental setup involves simple
vapour compression refrigeration system with
the basic parts such as evaporator, compressor,
expansion device and condenser. This setup
includes the reciprocating compressor and
refrigerator R134a. In this system the phase
change material (KCL) is also used in order to
increase the coefficient of performance. In this
particular setup air cooled condenser is used for
the better heat transfer results. In this particular
setup the PCM i.e KCL is used to enhance the
performance and to obtain the better heat
transfer rate.
Fig:1 Experiment setup

MEASURING DEVICES
1. Pressure Gauge: The bourdon pressure
gauges are used to measure the suction (inlet)
and discharge(outlet) pressure of compressor.
64
2.
Thermocouple:
Temperatures
of
refrigerant and the ambient air at different points
are measured by use of RTD PT100 type
thermocouples.
and simple VCRS

CALCULATION AND RESULTS
Based
on
the
experimental
results,
thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant at
different points in the cycle are obtained using
the P-H chart of refrigerant R-134a and the
parameters such as mass flow rate, cooling
capacity and COP of the system are calculated
from the equations:
3. Voltmeter and Ammeter: Ammeter and

voltmeter are used to measure the electrical
current and voltage of input power respectively.
Before temperature measurement, the surface
of the tubes is polished for removing any type of
dust or rust and then the thermocouples are laid
onto the surface. Insulation tapes are wrapped
around the copper tubes to prevent any heat
losses to ambient air.
A. Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref*

(h2 h1)
B. Mass flow rate of refrigerant mref
OBSERVATION TABLE
C. Cooling effect produced Qr = mref*
Table 1: Result obtained by using PCM (Kcl)
Parameters
Unit and
Symbol
Simple
VCRS
system
At
(h1 h4)
VCRS with
(Kcl) PCM
At
At
At
30C
27
C
30
C
27C
Suction
Pressure
Bar
0.24
0.55
0.43
0.51
Discharge
Pressure
Bar
9.72
9.49
11.16
10.43
Evaporator
Outlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius(C)
12.93
13.31
-17.1
-16
Compressor
Outlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius(C)
44.12
50.21
44
43.5
Condenser
Outlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius(C)
31.44
31.51
33.3
32.5
Current
Ampere(A)
1.21
1.80
0.69
0.99
Voltage
Volt(V)
190
190
190
190
D. COP =
Where,
h1 = enthalpy of refrigerant at inlet
compressor in kj/kg (1)
h2 = enthalpy of refrigerant at exit
the condenser kj/kg (3)
h4 = enthalpy of refrigerant at entry
evaporator in kj/kg (4)
of
of
of
of
Table 2: Result of the experiment at

ambient air temperature 27C
Performance result of Air Conditioner

(Tamb-27C)
Simple
VCRS VCRS
Parameter Unit
system with
(Kcl)PCM
229
131.1
3.75
4.74
Compressor Watt
work Wc
COP
-----------65
Table 3: Result of the experiment at ambient

air temperature 30C

[5]A. Selvaraju and A. Mani, Experimental
investigation on R134a vapor ejector
refrigeration system, International Journal of
Refrigeration, Vol.29 (2006) pp.1160-1166.

(Tamb-30C)
Simple
VCRS VCRS
Parameter
Unit
system with
(Kcl)
PCM
Compressor
work Wc
Watt
COP
------------
342
188
3.87
4.53
REFERENCES
[1] R.L. Webb, A unified theoretical treatment
for thermal analysis of cooling towers,
evaporative condensers, and fluid coolers,
ASHRAE Trans 90 (Part 2B) (1984) 398415.
[2] Y.S. Lee, and C.C. Su, Experimental studies
of isobutene (R600a) as the refrigerant in
domestic refrigeration system, Applied
Thermal Engineering 22, pp. 507519, 2002.
[3] A.S. Dalkilic, and S. Wongwises, A
performance comparison of vapour-compression
refrigeration system usingvarious alternative
refrigerants,International Communications in
Heat and Mass Transfer, 37, pp. 13401349,
2010
[4] Yinhai Zhu and Peixue Jiang, Hybrid vapor
compression refrigeration system with an
integrated ejector cooling cycle International
journal of refrigeration, vol.35, 2012, pp.68-78.
[5] Andrea Chesi, Giovanni Ferrara, Lorenzo
Ferrari and Fabio Tarani Suitability of
coupling a solar powered ejection cycle with a
vapour
compression refrigerating machine Applied
Energy, vol.97, 2012, pp.374-383.
66
12. STUDY
OF
FATIGUE
LIFE
CALCULATION OF STEEL UNDER
VARIOUS LOADING CONDITION
Anil Kumar
Asst.Prof (Krishna Engineering College)
Email-anil.kec609@gmail.com
Abhishek Pandey
Asso.Prof.(Krishna Engineering College)
Email-kec.abhishek@gmail.com
ABSTRACT- The aim of this work is to
investigate the capability of experimental
analysis, as a destructive tool testing, to
characterize and quantify the fatigue behavior of
material. This is achieved by studying the load
parameter to the variations in material
microstructure ,are the main factor affecting
fatigue life .Family of steel including the mild
steel,stainless steel are used in experiment and
including the non-ferrous material as aluminum
as a case of presenting the load and variation in
microstructure both.
Rotating bending test was performed on various
standards fatigue specimen on rotating beam
machine to correlate the parameter to the fatigue
behavior .This enables the evaluation of the
ability of fatigue tests to predict life of machine
components.
KeywordsDestructive tool, microstructure,
rotating beam
I.
INTRODUCTION
The Stress-Life Method

To determine the strength of materials under
action of fatigue loads, specimens are subjected
to repeated or varying forces of specified
magnitudes while the cycles or stress reversal
are counted to destruction.
The most widely used fatigue-testing device is
the R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam
machine. This machines subject the specimen to
pure bending (no transverse sheer) by means of
weights. The specimen is very carefully
machined and polished, with a final polishing in
an axial direction to avoid circumferential
scratches. Other fatigue-testing machines are
available for applying fluctuating or reversed

axial stresses, torsional stresses, or combined
stresses to the test specimens[1].
To establish the fatigue strength of a material,
quite a no. of tests are necessary because of the
statistical nature of fatigue. For the rotatingbeam test, a constant bending load is applied,
and the no. of revolution (stress reversals) of the
beam required for failure is recorded. The first
test is made at a stress that is somewhat under
the ultimate strength of the material. The second
test is made at stress that is less than that used in
the first. This process is continued, and the
results are plotted as an S-N Diagram.
To establish the fatigue strength of a material,
quite a no. of tests are necessary because of the
statistical nature of fatigue. For the rotatingbeam test, a constant Bending load is applied,
and the no. of revolution (stress reversals) of the
beam required for failure is recorded. The first
test is made at a stress that is somewhat under
the ultimate strength of the material. The second
test is made at stress that is less than that used in
the first. This process is continued, and the
results are plotted as an S-N Diagram.
The chart may be plotted on semi-log paper or
on log-log paper. In the case of ferrous materials
and alloys, the graph becomes horizontal after
the material has been stressed for a certain no. of
cycles. The plotting on log paper emphasis the
bend in the curve, which might not be apparent
if the results were plotted by using Cartesian,
coordinates.
The ordinate of the S-N Diagram is called the
fatigue strength Sf; statement of this strength
value must always be accompanied by a
statement of the no. of cycles N to which it
corresponds. S-N Diagrams can be determining
either for a test specimen or for a actual
mechanical elements. Even when the material of
test specimen and that of the mechanical element
are identical, there will be significant difference
between the diagrams for the two [2].
In the case of the steels, a knee occurs in the
graph, and beyond this knee failure will not
occur, no matter how great the no. of cycles. The
strength corresponding to the knee is Called the
67
endurance limit Se , or the fatigue limit. The

graph never does become horizontal for nonferrous metals and alloys, and hence these
materials do not have endurance limit. S-N curve
for most common aluminium alloys excluding
wrought alloys having a tensile strength below
38 kpsi. Since aluminium does not have an
endurance limit, normally the fatigue strength Sf
is reported at a specific no. of cycles N[1].
The body of knowledge available on fatigue
failure from N=1 to N= 1000 cycles is generally
classified as low-cycles fatigue or finite life
region. High-cycles fatigue is infinite-life
region, and then is concerned with failure
corresponding to stress cycles greater than 1000
cycles.
quenching fatigue life decreases while in case of

annealing and normalizing fatigue life increases
[7].
Experimental observation-1
Mild Steel Brine Quenched
S.NO
Stress (MN/sq.)
No. Of Cycles
41.4
6389
31.05
14300
20.7
22000
45
Stress (MN/sq.m)
As noted previously, it is always good

engineering practice to conduct a testing
program on the materials to be employed in
design and manufacture. This, infect, is a
requirement, not an option, in guarding against
the possibility of a fatigue failure.
Because of this necessity for testing, it would
really be unnecessary for us to proceed any
further in the study of fatigue failure except for
one important reason, the desired to know why
fatigue failure occurs so that most effective
method or methods can be used to improve
fatigue strength. Thus our primary purpose in
studying fatigue is to understand why failures
occur so that we can guard against them in an
optimum manner.
Experimental procedure-In this research we
have done five experiment to analysing fatigue
life. How fatigue life varies with Stress is shown
in fig.
Stress (MN/sq.m)
40
35
30
25
20
15
6000
9000
12000
15000
18000
21000
24000
No. of Cycles
Experiment no-2
Mild Steel water Quenched
S.NO Stress (MN/sq.)
No. Of Cycles
41.4026
4448
31.05
12200
20.7
19998
We have taken five specimen such as mild Steel

with various quenching method (oil, water and
brine), aluminium and stainless steel to conduct
experiment.
Experiment conduct on rotating beam machine
which was developed by R.R.Moore to know
fatigue life is varies from load[4].
We have observed fatigue life decreases while
increasing with load.in case of mild steel with
68
45
31.05
110
Stress (MN/sq.m)
40
35
Stress (MN/sq.m)
35
30
Stress (MN/sq.m)
30
25
Stress (MN/sq.m)
25
20
15
3000
6000
9000
12000
15000
18000
20
15
21000
No. of Cycles
10
Experiment no-3 oil quench

5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
No. of Cycles
Mild Steel Oil Quenched

Experiment no-5
S.NO Stress (MN/sq.)
No. Of Cycles
41.4
9800
Stainless steel
31.05
17650
S.NO
Stress (MN/sq.m)
No. Of Cycles
20.7
25325
41.4
64878
51.75
11138
62.103
1274
45
Stress (MN/sq.m)
35
65
30
60
25
55
Stress (MN/sq.m)
Stress (MN/sq.m)
40
20
15
6000
9000
12000
15000
18000
21000
24000
No. of Cycles
Stress (MN/sq.m)
50
45
27000
40
35
Experiment no-4
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
No. Of Cycles
Aluminium
CONCLUSION &DISCUSSIONStress
S.NO (MN/sq.m)
No. Of Cycles
11.3506
1180
12.93
908
20.7
304
By practical readings and further calculations it

is investigated that heat treated specimen had
low values of fatigue life, which is due to
increase in brittleness, hardness and low
endurance strength. Quenching invariably sets
up residual stresses in the specimen and
resulting in cracks.
69
Generally the microstructure change takes place

in the specimen which is also depicted in our
experimental results. As above 725O C, the mild
steel mainly contains face centered cubic
structure known as Austenite. The solid
solubility of Austenite is much higher than that
of with solid solubility of up to 2.11 % C.
Austenite is denser than ferrite and is ductile at
elevated temperatures [6].
[6]. N. Damir, A. Elkhatib, G. Nassef

Prediction of fatigue life using model analysis
for grey and ductile cast iron International
Journal of Fatigue vol.29 (2007) pg.499507(Elsevier).
[7].Seakjee lee &young kook lee (2008);
prediction of austenite grain growth during
austenitization of low alloy steels material and
design, vol29 pp1840-1844.
When the specimen is suddenly cooled, the

Austenite instantaneously starts transforming
into Martensite as because the cooling curve
does not enter into the pearlite region.
Martensitic is very hard and higher percentage
of carbon.
[8].Ashwin Suresh Pandit, Theory of the

Pearlite Transformation in Steels, (2011).
The fatigue life of the specimen is reduced by

increase in its brittleness and residual stresses.
References[1]. V. B. Bhandari Machine Design- Tata

McGraw Hill Publications.
[2]. Shigley-Machine Design- Tata McGraw Hill
Publications.
[3]. V. Kazymyrovych *, J. Bergstrm, F.
Thuvander2010 Local stresses and material
damping in very high cycle fatigue
International Journal of Fatigue,vol 32 (2010)
pg.16691674(Elsevier).).
[4]. Enrique Castillo,*, Alfonso FernandezCanteli c, Mar Luisa Ruiz-Ripoll A general
model for fatigue damage due to any stress
history, International Journal of Fatigue vol30
(2008) pg.150164(elsevier).
[5]. G. Socha Experimental investigations of
fatigue cracks nucleation, growth and
coalescence in structural steel International
Journal of Fatigue vol. 25 (2003) pg.139147.
(Elsevier).
70
13. EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL
PERFORMANCE OF LIQUID FLAT
PLATE
COLLECTOR
BY
COMPARING
SINGLE
GLASS
SHEET WITH THE DOUBLE
GLASS SHEET
TalivHussain1*,Wasiur Rahman2, Saddamul
Haque3,Rocky Singh Labana4,Md.Sabbir Ali5
Phone no: 08283836492
ABSTRACT- With the rapid exhaustion of
natural resource there is upsurge in utilization of
non-conventional resources. Being abundance in
availability and non-polluting in nature they are
given preference over fossil fuels. With the
advancement of technical era it gave birth to
new devices which are utilized to harness nonconventional energy. Few of them are solar
collectors and wind mills. In this experiment we
are harnessing solar energy using solar flat plate
collector. We are varying the use of glass sheet
to determine collector efficiency. In first
instance we are using single glass sheet as the
outer shield and in second instance pair of glass
is used. To enhance the performance of solar
collector we use toughen glass sheet, because of
its better optical property. Toughen glass sheet
of 5 mm is used in the experiment. After
comparing and contrasting the efficiency of two
experiments conducted using single and double
glass sheet, we concluded that the setup having
single glass sheet is more efficient than the
double glass sheet. Efficiency of solar collector
is enhanced by 28-32%, if single glass sheet of
better optical property is taken into
consideration.
Keywords: Solar Flat plate Collector, Collector
Efficiency.
I. INTRODUCTION
With the depletion of natural resource like fossil

fuels the world is on the verge of witnessing
major setback of energy crisis. Energy growth is
going on in arithmetic way where as its
consumption is increasing in geometrical way.
With the natural resources hitting new lows with
each passing days, it has dented the economy of
many countries which relied heavily on them. It
is a matter of great concern not only for us but
also for our coming generation, looking at
current scenario of energy consumption its not
very difficult to predict that the energy resource
will not last much longer. The scientists are
working hard on finding alternative of these
resources. One of the best alternatives for
prevention of depletion of the energy resources
is use of non-conventional energy, which is
available in abundance around us. They are
majorly solar, wind and tidal energy. These
natural resources are harnessed to produce
energy which can be utilised for performing
various activities. Non conventional energy
resource turns out to be boon in this acute
energy crisis situation. Non conventional energy
is far much better than the fossil fuels and other
resources. In terms of availability, cost, affect on
environment and many more factors under
which non conventional energy is preferable
over fossil fuels. The only factor which
underlines the advantage is its sparsely
distribution across the earth. With the
advancement of technical era, more and more
technology is put into work to harness non
conventional energy. Major products being solar
cell and wind mill are the gift of technology. Our
area of concern is solar liquid collector, which
utilizes solar energy to heat up water which is
used for domestic as well as industrial purpose.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
k. Chung et al: An experiment is conducted to
evaluate the pressure variation on the collector
and the wind uplift force. Two suggestions are
composed to reduce the wind uplift; these are
lifting the model and guide plate. Wind speed
used for the evaluation of wind uplift is in the
range of 20-50 m/sec. There is significant effect
on wind uplift using guide plate normal to the
wind. The effect of lifting the model is not much
effective to reduce the wind lift. Ahmet Koca et
71
al: an experiment is performed to evaluate the

exergy and energy performance of the integrated
flat plate solar collector with phase changing
material for thermal storage. Mobilterm 605 is
used as a working fluid with thermal
conductivity .145W/mK. PCM material used is
CaCl2.6H2O. Energy and exergy efficiencies are
45% and 2.2%. Katharina Resch et al: a review
is done on the Thermotropic layers used for the
overheating protection. Their transmittance is
the function of the temperature of the collector.
At greater temperatures transmittance declines
reduce the collector temperature. Thermotropic
hydrogels, thermotropic polymer blends and
thermotropic systems with fixed domain are
mainly applied for overheating protection.
Ahreza Hobbi et al: To observe the effect of
heat enhancement devices on collector
performance an experiment is being conducted.
Basically four different types of arrangement are
analyzed regular circular tube, regular tube with
twisted strip tabulator, regular tube with coil
spring wire and regular tube with conical ridges
installed in every 152mm. There is meagre effect
on the performance of collector. Hamid
Moghadam et al: Developed the optimum tilt
angle for the flat plate solar collector to receive
maximum solar radiation. A MATLAB program
is developed to evaluate the optimum tilt angle
on the day basis, month basis, annual basis or
any specified time interval. The results are
constant with experimental data. Naiem
Akhtaret et al: observed the changing effect of
absorption of radiation in glass cover on the top
loss coefficient for single and double glass
cover. Temperature of the glass cover is
increased by 6c in case of single glazing.
Temperature of the glass cover is increased by
14c and 11c in case of double glazing. There is
a difference of 49% in the value of convective
heat transfer coefficient, by taking and
neglecting the absorption in glass cover in case
of double glazing. The correlations are
developed for to compute the absorption effect
in the glass cover. Y. Raja Sekhar et al: To
detect the loss coefficient considering the
aspects like insulation, emissivity of absorber,
ambient temperature, wind loss coefficient, and
tilt an experiment is conducted. Apart from
experiment they are also theoretically analyzed.
After analysing both experimental n analytical
process following conclusion is drawn,

efficiency reduces with increment in emissivity
of the plate, efficiency elevates with increase in
ambient temperature, with increase in wind loss
coefficient efficiency decrease, not much
changes occur due to tilt on top loss coefficient.
III.EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The setup used in the experiment consists of a
wooden frame, a thin glass sheet, aluminium
sheet, copper pipe and insulating material. The
dimension of wooden frame is 900mm x
1245mm. Wooden frame is being insulated
using glass wool having 5 cm thickness, copper
pipe of 10 mm diameter is placed which is
brazed over by aluminium sheet of 3 mm
thickness. In this experiment we explore the
collector efficiency yielded by the solar flat plate
collector under the action of single and pair of
glass. Thickness of both glass sheets is same i.e
5 mm. We make use of toughen glass as the
outer covering of the solar panel where sun rays
falls directly. After passing through the glass,
rays reaches the aluminium plate which gets
heated up due to the action of sun rays over
them, this heated plate heats up the copper coil
running beneath it by convective heat. Water
running inside the coil also gets heated up.
Water is supplied from one end of the pipe and
temperature is observed at the inlet as T1, as
water flows through the pipe it extracts heats
from the copper coil resultant gets heated up and
water received at the outlet has comparatively
higher temperature than its inlet, outlet
temperature is measured as T2. During first setup
single glass is used in experiment and
observation is recorded and then double glass is
used and recording is taken accordingly.
The dimensions of tubes are:
10 mm
Inner Diameter of
Tube
2 mm
Thickness of Tube
100 mm
Spacing
Tubes
between
72
1. Solar power meter

2. Temperature Sensor
3. Liquid mass flow rate Measurement
1. Solar power meter: Solar power meter is used to
measure intensity of radiation falling on collector
Surface in watt/m2
2. Temperature Sensor: The Dial gauge type
temperature sensor is used to measure the
temperature of the inlet and outlet water from
the water flat plate collector. The range of the
dial gauge type temperature sensor is from 0250C.
3. Liquid mass flow rate Measurement: The
liquid flow rate is measured by conventional
method in which we have recorded the time
required to fill the beaker of known volume. By
the help of this data,we have calculated
discharge(volume/time) at the outlet of the water
flat plate collector.
IV.CALCULATION AND RESULT

Now, we can determine the efficiency of solar
flat plate collector using the formula:
= mct/IA
Where, m= mass flow rate
c= specific heat capacity
Figure 1. Liquid flat plate collector
t= T2-T1
Measuring devices and instruments
I= intensity of sun rays
The different parameters are measured in this

study. The instruments used are as follows:
A= area of solar flat plate collector
Table 1. Data obtained in experiment (WHEN SINGLE GLASS SHEET IS USED)
Time
Outlet
Temperature of
water
T2 (in C))
Inlet
Temperature of
water
T1 (in C)
Water Flow
Rate Mf
(kg/s)
Solar
Intensity
I (W/m2)
Temperature
difference
T
(T2-TI) (in
C)
Efficiency
in %
10:00 AM
29
25
0.008
610
20.1
11:00 AM
33
25
0.008
680
35.2
73
12:00 PM
37
25
0.008
750
12
47.4
1:00 PM
41
25
0.008
800
16
60.1
2:00 PM
38
25
0.008
755
13
51.1
3:00 PM
34
25
0.008
685
40.2
4:00 PM
28
25
0.008
600
15.3
Table 2. Data obtained in experiment (WHEN DOUBLE GLASS SHEET IS USED)
Time
Outlet
Temperature
of water
T2 (in C))
Inlet
Temperature
of water
T1 (in C)
Water
Flow Rate
Mf
(kg/s)
Solar
Intensity
I (W/m2)
Temperature
difference
T
(T2-TI) (in
C)
Efficiency
in %
10:00 AM
28
25
0.008
610
15.2
11:00 AM
31
25
0.008
680
26.1
12:00 PM
35
25
0.008
750
10
40.1
1:00 PM
38
25
0.008
800
13
48.4
2:00 PM
36
25
0.008
755
11
44.1
3:00 PM
32
25
0.008
685
31.2
4:00 PM
27
25
0.008
600
10.1
Single glass sheet
60
70
50
60
EFFICIENCY
EFFICIENCY
Double glass sheet
40
30
20
50
40
30
20
10
10
0
10:00 11:00 12:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00
10:00 11:00 12:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00
TIME
TIME
V.CONCLUSION
collector efficiency on using single glass sheet

of better quality.
After conducting the experiments using same

mass flow rate of water in the case of single
glass and double glass sheet we came to
conclude that collector efficiency is maximum
for single glass cover as compare to double glass
cover. Thus there is an 28-32% increase in
74
Glass
used
Single
Double
sheet Maximum
Efficiency
(%)
60.1
48.4
Maximum
Temp.
Difference
(oC)
16
13
REFERENCES
[1] K. Chung, K. Chang and Y. Liu,
Reduction of wind uplift of a solar collector
model, Journal of wind engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, 96 (2008) 12941306
[2] Ahmet Koca Forecasting of thermal
energy storage performance of Phase
Change Material in a solar collector using
soft computing techniques, Expert Systems
with Applications, 37 (2010)27242732
[3] Atharina Resch Thermotropic layers for
flat-plate collector A review of various
concepts for overheating protection with
Polymeric materials, Solar energy materials
& solar cells, 93 (2009)119-128
[4] G.D.Rai, Non-conventional Source of
Energy,
fourth
Edition,
Eighteenth
reprint:2006
[5] B.H.Khan, Non-Conventional Source of
Energy,
Second
Edition,
Seventh
reprint:2011
[6 ] Ismail.H. Ozsabuncuoglu, Economic
analysis of flat plate collectors of solar
energy, energy policy, 23, no.9 (1995)-755763
75
14. EFFECT OF PHASE CHANGE

MATERIAL(PCM) AS SODIUM
CHLORIDE (NACL)
IN VCRS
SYSTEM
AS
COMPARE
TO
SIMPLE VCRS SYSTEM
Rahul Wandra1,Taliv Hussain2,Sourabh3,Neeraj
Katoch4,Sahil Chadha5
Email:rahul.17901@lpu.co.in
Phone no: 08283836492
Abstract -The main motive of this experimental
study is to investigate and develop novel
approach for the COP of vapour compression
refrigeration system with the help of phase
change material. In Refrigeration heat transfer
from low temperature reservoir to high
temperature reservoir by using vapour
compression
refrigeration
system.
Here
experimental study is conducted to observe the
performance of phase change material. The
usage of sodium chloride (NaCl) phase change
material will help to improve the COP of vapour
compression refrigeration system. When the
environment temperature is more than that of the
PCM, heat is transfered from the surroundings
to the material, which creates a cooling effect
and changes PCMs state from solid to liquid.
When the environment temperature is lower than
that of the PCM, heat is transfered from the
PCM to the surroundings, generating a warming
effect and PCM changes back to its solid state.
Substance with a high heat of fusion which melts
and solidifies at a certain temperature is capable
of storing and releasing large amounts of
energy. The PCM is located behind the five sides
of the evaporator cabinet in which the
evaporator coil is immersed. The result depends
on the type of PCM and thermal load, around
20-27% COP improvement of the refrigeration
cycle has been observed with PCM in respect to
without PCM. With the increase of the quantity
of PCM (0.003-0.00425 m3) COP increases
about 6%.
Keywords: COP, PCM, vapour compression

refrigeration system.
INTRODUCTION
Vapour compression refrigeration system is a
system, where the transfer of heat from low
temperature reservoir to high temperature
reservoir takes place with the help of working
fluid, known as refrigerant. The vapourcompression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant
as the medium which absorbs and removes heat
from the space to be cooled and subsequently
rejects that heat elsewhere. In vapour
compression refrigeration system, the refrigerant
undergoes phase change. There are many types
of industrial plants that often utilize large
vapour-compression refrigeration systems e.g,
Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical
processing plants, and natural gas processing
plants etc. The most commonly used method of
cooling is with vapour-compression cycles,
because it is fairly easy to construct a cooling
device employing this method and the cost is
low. In fact, conventional refrigerators use this
method of cooling to keep drinks chilled.Air
conditioners also employ a vapour-compression
cycle to cool the ambient air temperature in a
room. This refrigeration cycle is approximately a
rankine cycle run in reverse. A working fluid is
pushed through the system and undergoes state
changes (from liquid to gas and back). The
latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant is
used to transfer large amounts of heat energy,
and changes in pressure are used to control when
the refrigerant expels or absorbs heat energy.
However, for a refrigeration cycle that has a hot
reservoir at around room temperature and a cold
reservoir that is desired to be at around 34F, the
boiling point of the refrigerant needs to be fairly
low. The basic vapour compression or
mechanical refrigeration cycle involves the
circulation of refrigerant, which in the process of
boiling (evaporating) absorbs large amounts of
heat and gives up heat when condensing. This
heat which must be gained or lost during the
change of state is called latent heat of
vaporisation. It is in general more than the
specific heat,that is the heat lost or gained during
a one degree change in temperature.
76
LITERATURE SURVEY
In 1805, the American inventor Oliver Evans
described
a
closed
vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by
ether under vacuum. Heat would be removed
from the environment by recycling vaporized
refrigerant, where it would move through a
compressor and condenser and would eventually
revert to a liquid form in order to repeat the
refrigeration process over again. However, no
such refrigeration unit was built by Evans.In
1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain,
Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapourcompression refrigeration system in the world. It
was a closed-cycle that could operate
continuously, as he described in his patent: I am
enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of
producing the cooling or freezing of fluids, and
yet at the same time constantly condensing such
volatile fluids, and bringing them again into
operation without waste. His prototype system
worked although it did not succeed
commercially.The
first
practical
vapor
compression refrigeration system was built by
James Harrison, a British journalist who had
emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for
a vapour compression system using ether,
alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical icemaking machine in 1851 on the banks of the
Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong,
Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making
machine followed in 1854. Harrison also
introduced commercial vapour-compression
refrigeration to breweries and meat packing
houses, and by 1861, a dozen of his systems
were in operation in Australia and England.
James M. Calm , has studied the emission and
environmental impacts of the different
refrigerants (R11, R123, R134a) due to leakage
from centrifugal chiller system. He also
investigated the total impact in form of TEWI by
analyzing the direct and indirect CO2 emission
equivalent due to leakage and energy
consumption by the system. He studied the
change in system efficiency or performance due
to charge loss. He also summarized the methods
to reduce the refrigerant losses by the system
like design modifications, improvement in
preventive maintenance techniques, use of purge
system for refrigerant vapour recovery, servicing
and lubricant changing in system. Samira

Benhadid-Dib and Ahmed Benzaoui , have
showed that the refrigerants are widely used in
both industrial and domestic equipments. These
fluids, which are banned due to their
environmental toxicity, are expected to be
replaced. Replacing them is a difficult task
considering that the only solutions currently,
called "natural" refrigerants, such as ammonia,
hydrocarbons and CO2. The disadvantages of
these products are mainly toxicity (NH3),
flammability (HC) and high pressures
(CO2).Eric Granryd has enlisted the different
hydrocarbons as working medium in
refrigeration system. He studied the different
safety standards related to these refrigerants. He
showed the properties of hydrocarbons (i.e. no
ODP and negligible GWP) that make them
interesting refrigerating alternatives for energy
efficient and environmentally friendly. But
safety precautions due to flammability must be
seriously taken into account.Y.S.Lee and C.C.Su
have studied the performance vapour
compression refrigeration system with isobutene
(R600a) as refrigerant and compare the results
with R12 and R22. They used R600a about 150
g and set the refrigeration temperature about 4
C and -10 C to maintain the situation of cold
storage and freezing applications. They used 0.7
mm internal diameter and 4 to 4.5 m length of
capillary tube for cold storage applications and
0.6 mm internal diameter and 4.5 to 5 m length
of capillary tube for freezing applications. They
observed that the COP lies between 1.2 and 4.5
in cold storage applications and between 0.8 and
3.5 in freezing applications.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental setup consists of a vapour
compression system with the basic components
i.e. evaporator, compressor, expansion device
and condenser .The system consists of a three
phase, 220V, reciprocating compressor and
refrigerant R134a. Air cooled type condenser is
used for their good heat transfer performance.
Evaporator section is of shell and tube type
using copper tubes. Refrigerant used is R134a.
Different controlling elements are used like
voltmeter, an ampere meter, bourdon tube type
77
low pressure gauge and high pressure gauge,

temperature sensor.
Parameters
Unit and
Simple
VCRS
system
Symbol
At
VCRS with
(Nacl) PCM
At
At
At
30C
27
C
30
C
27C
Factors affecting the performance

Amount of charge filled and system
pressure
Diameter of capillary tubes working fluid
property
Inlet water temperature
MAJOR COMPONENTS
The experimental setup consists of a single
stage vapour compression system. Its main
components are hermetically sealed compressor
driven by a constant speed motor, an
evaporator,an condenser ,a capillary tube as an
expansion device and handset valve.
MEASURING DEVICES
Ammeter and voltmeter are used to measure the
electrical current and voltage of input power
respectively. The bourdon pressure gauges are
used to measure the suction (inlet) and discharge
(outlet) pressure of compressor. Temperatures of
refrigerant and the ambient air at different points
are measured by use of RTD PT100 type
thermocouples.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 1: Result obtained by using PCM (Nacl)
and simple VCRS
Suction
Pressure
Bar
0.21
0.53
0.33
0.21
Discharge
Pressure
Bar
8.22
8.93
8.91
9.13
Evaporator
Degree
-11.4
Outlet
Celsius(C) 11.21 12.43
Temperature
12.33
Compressor Degree
42.13 49.87 42.55 43.20
Outlet
Celsius(C)
Temperature
Condenser
Degree
31.92 30.32 31.37 32.14
Outlet
Celsius(C)
Temperature
Current
Ampere(A)
1.52
1.67
0.92
1.20
Voltage
Volt(V)
180
180
180
180
CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

FORMULAE USED
While performing the experiment, the result
obtained. Based on this result thermodynamic
properties of refrigerant R134a are obtained at
the different point of the system. In order to
calculate the enthalpy, using the P-h chart of the
refrigerant R134a and we are getting different
parameters as:
A. Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref*
(h2 h1)
C. Cooling effect produced Qr = mref*

(h1 h4)
78
REFERENCES
D. COP =
Where,
h1 = enthalpy of refrigerant at inlet of
h2 = enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of
h3 = enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of the
condenser kj/kg (3)
h4 = enthalpy of refrigerant at entry of
Table 2: Result of the experiment at ambient air
temperature 27C

(Tamb-27C)
Simple
VCRS VCRS
Parameter Unit
system with
(Nacl)
PCM
Compressor
work Wc
Watt
COP
------------
273.6
165.6
3.73
4.63

temperature 30C
[1] Evans, Oliver (1805). The Abortion of the

Young Steam Engineer's Guide. Philadelphia,
PA: Fry & Kammerer.
[2] "James Harrison Evolution
Refrigerators & Freezers"
of
Lab
[3] James M. Calm, Emissions and

environmental impacts from air-conditioning
and refrigeration systems, International Journal
of Refrigeration 25, pp. 293305, 2002.
[4] Eric Granryd, Hydrocarbons as refrigerants
- an overview, International Journal of
Refrigeration 24, pp. 15-24, 2001.
[5] Y.S. Lee, and C.C. Su, Experimental studies
of isobutene (R600a) as the refrigerant in
domestic refrigeration system, Applied
Thermal Engineering 22, pp. 507519, 2002.
[6] Samira Benhadid-Dib, and Ahmed Benzaoui,
Refrigerants and their environmental impact
Substitution of hydro chlorofluorocarbon HCFC
and HFC hydro fluorocarbon. Search for an
adequate refrigerant, Energy Procedia 18, pp.
807 816, 2012
[7] The Repertory of patent inventions
[formerly The Repertory of arts ... - Google
Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-0110.

(Tamb-30C)
Simple
VCRS VCRS
Parameter Unit
system with
(Nacl)
PCM
300.6
216
Compressor Watt
work Wc
3.58
4.70
COP
------------
79
15. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF A

WASTE-HEAT-UTILIZATIONSTRATEGY USING
THERMOELECTRIC DEVICE IN
C.I. ENGINE
R. Srivastava*, S.K. Dhiman#, J.V. Tirkey##
* Department of Mechanical Engineering, I.T.S.
Engg College Gr. Noida
# Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla
Institute of Technology, Ranchi
## Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi
AbstractThe present worldwide problem

regarding automobiles is limitations of fuel and
environmental pollution. When an internal
combustion engine is operating, a large amount
of energy is wasted as exhaust gas and with
engine cooling. The efficiency of an internal
combustion engine ranges from 30% to 40% and
about 60% to 70% of the overall energy loss in a
combustion engine is heat. The present
experimental
and
computational
study
investigates waste heat recovery from the
exhaust gas heat of an internal combustion
engine using a thermocouple and heat pipes to
produce electric power. This system proposes
thermoelectric generation (TEG), working with
heat pipes to produce electricity from a limited
hot surface area. The current TEG system is
directly connected to the exhaust pipe, to utilize
the maximum possible heat available at the
exhaust of C.I. engine. As designed, this heat
recovery system produces a maximum of
1.54mV when the hot exhaust gas heats the
evaporator surface of the heat pipe to 277o C.
The results obtained, promises great possibilities
for application of this technology in future
energy-efficient vehicles.
KeywordsExhaust
gas,
thermoelectric
generator, thermocouples, and heat pipes.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Recent trend about the best ways of utilizing the
deployable sources of energy in to useful work is
to reduce the rate of consumption of fuel as well
as environmental pollution. Out of all the

available sources, the internal combustion
engines are the major consumers of fuel around
the world. Out of the total heat supplied to the
engine from the fuel, approximately, 30 to 40%
is converted into useful mechanical work; the
remaining heat is expelled to the environment
through exhaust gases and engine cooling
systems[1]. The recovery and utilization of
wasteheat not only conserves fuel but also
reduces the amount of waste heat and
greenhouse gases damped to environment. In
automobile engines significant amount of heat is
released to the environment. For example, As
much as 35% of the thermal energy generated
from combustion in an automotive engine is lost
to the environment through exhaust gas and
other losses. The amount of such loss,
recoverable at least partly or greatly depends on
the engine load [2].However, in all the energy
saving technologies used, engine exhaust heat
recovery is considered to be one of the most
effective. Many researchers recognized that
Waste Heat Recovery from the engine exhaust
gases has the potential to decrease fuel
consumption without increasing emissions, and
recent advancements in technology have made
these systems viable and cost effective.
Figure 1.1 Schematic shows total energy

distributions of an I.C. engine.
In present investigation the recovery and
utilization of waste heat is done using
thermoelectric generators [3] which is based on
the principle of Seebeck effect or thermoelectric
effect. The principle of Thermoelectric is the
creation of electric current from a temperature
gradient or the creation of a temperature gradient
from a current. Thermoelectric are based on the
Seebeck Effect and the Peltier Effect, which
were both discovered in the early 1800's. The
Peltier Effect is widely known and used in many
80
electric cooling applications that vary from small

digital cameras to large refrigeration units and
air conditioners. The Seebeck Effect runs in
reverse of the Peltier Effect. Physicist Thomas
Seebeck found that if you placed a temperature
gradient across the junctions of two dissimilar
conductors, electrical current would flow. This is
the thermoelectric concept that would be of
interest, because it takes the wasted heat and
converts it to useful electricity. Thermoelectric
power generators convert heat energy to
electricity. When a temperature gradient is
created across the thermoelectric device, a DC
voltage develops across the terminals. When a
load is properly connected, electrical current
flows.
The present research posses a heat pipe
thermoelectric generator [4] system which
provides a large heated surface area, on which
numerous thermocouples can be installed. As the
heat pipe used is very efficient conducting
device, it is possible to transfer a large amount
of heat through the thermocouples to the heat
sink.
The
performance
of
different
thermocouples is described by: ZT = (2/)T;
where is the Seebeck coefficient in VK-1;
is the electrical conductivity in Sm-1; is
the thermal conductivity in Wm-1K-1 of
thermoelectric material and T is absolute
temperature in Kelvin. Coefficient of
Performance (COP) of any thermocouple
basically depends on the thermal conductivity
and electrical conductivity of the material in use.
For better COP, there is a need for materials
with low thermal conductivity and higher
electrical conductivity. In the present
investigations, three easily available materials
i.e., copper, iron and aluminum are selected to
obtain the performance of three thermocouples
TC1 (Al-Cu), TC2 (Cu-Fe) and TC3 (Al-Fe) [6].
The electrical and thermal conductivity of these
materials in their purest form is in the order as:
copper > aluminum> iron under normal
conditions. Out of these three thermocouples,
TC3 was found to show good performance for
various temperature differences. For future
automotive vehicles, this technology offers
increased fuel economy and improved engine
efficiency by converting some waste heat to
electricity.
II.
EXPERIMENTATION
In order to vary the load on a C.I. engine to
obtain various output parameters, the C.I. engine
was coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer using a
universal coupling. A movable assembly was
fabricated to mount the hydraulic dynamometer
and the C.I. engine, a movable assembly is
fabricated so as to move the complete
experimental set up to the easily available water
sources,which is provided to the Hydraulic
dynamometer for load variation on the engine.
The schematic of movable assembly is shown in
figure2.1.
Figure 2.1: Schematic shows a movable

assembly.
The shaft of both Hydraulic Dynamometer and
the C.I. engine was made coincident using
various spacers to avoid any kind of vibration
and breakdown. The following objective is
shown in figure 2.2.
Figure2.2: Schematic shows shafts of

hydraulic dynamometer and the diesel engine
made coincident.
Both the Hydraulic dynamometer and the C.I.
engine are coupled using the universal coupling
as shown in figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3:
coupling.
Schematic
shows
universal
A fuel measuring and supply system is

fabricated which is attached to the inlet of the
81
C.I. engine, start/stop valve were used to

measure the accurate amount of fuel consumed
by the engine for different load conditions. The
mass of fuel consumed for varying load
condition is measured using the fuel measuring
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Schematic shows fuel metering

device and supply system
.
The actual model fabricated is shown in Figure
2.5.
the hydraulic dynamometer, thus as the brake

power increases mass of fuel consumption and
the temperature of the exhaust gases also
increases.Different temperature of the exhaust
gases at different load was obtained using a
thermometer. The temperature of cold junction
was always maintained at room temperature i.e.
27o C (300 K).
The main components of the manufactured
experimental TEG system, illustrated in Figure
2.5 are the main exhaust pipe, TEMs, and the
heat pipe. The heat pipe used is a high
conductive aluminium rod, 15 cm in length, 3.81
cm in outer diameter and 3 mm in thickness, it is
incorporated between the exhaust of the engine
and the muffler to utilize the maximum possible
heat coming out of the engine [5]. This heat pipe
act as the hot junction and ceramic material used
act as the cold junction of the thermoelectric
generator (TEG), two different wires
(thermocouple) are winded on this heat pipe at
one end and at other end they are attached to the
cold junction. The heat pipe after winding
thermocouples is made insulated at outer surface
area using jute material. These thermocouples
after the cold junction is attached to a scientific
multimeter to complete the circuit and obtain the
voltage generated due to the temperature
difference at two junctions. Figure 2.6 shows
theactual fabrication of the thermoelectric
generator with heat pipe (aluminium rod)
winded
by
aluminium
and
copper
thermocouples.
Figure 2.5: Schematic shows actual fabricated

model.
When the load on an engine is increased more
power is required to maintain the same speed of
the vehicle, so more amount of fuel would be
supplied from the injector nozzle to the engine
cylinder during compression stroke, as a result
of combustion the pressure and temperature
inside the engine cylinder increases because of
which the temperature of the exhaust gases
coming out of the engine cylinder increases
rapidly. The variation of mass of fuel consumed
(mf) and the temperature (T) of the exhaust gases
released with Brake power is plotted on a graph
for various load condition. The Brake power
(B.P.) solely depends on the load provided by
Figure 2.5: Schematic shows block diagram of

TEG.
Different voltages for different type of
thermocouples were obtained for varying
temperature
differences.
The
different
82
engine higher temperature can be obtained,

temperature at the exhaust of the engine
increases with increase in brake power. Different
values of voltages are obtained at different
temperature of the exhaust gases for different
thermocouples.
T
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
mf
1.4
Temperature (K)
thermocouples used are Al-Cu, Fe-Cu and AlFe. Thermocouple TC1 and TC3 are just in
twisted form because aluminum cant be welded
under normal conditions and TC2 is fabricated
(without the use of third material as a binder).
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
THERMOCOUPLE
TC1
TABLE 2.1
MATERIAL THERMAL
4.5777
4.0691
3.5604
3.0518
2.5432
2.0345
1.5259
1.0172
B.P.(kW)
ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY
CONDUTIVITY
(ohm m)
(Sm-1)
Al
3.2 x 10-7
3.13 x 106
Cu
2.8 x 10-7
3.6 x 106
The voltage generated depends largely on the

temperature difference across the thermocouple.
When these thermocouples are studied for their
TC2
Fe
1.66 x 10-6
6.024 x 105
voltage generation
with the
temperature
ranging
O
up to 250 C, the curves obtained
for voltage
2.25 x 10-6
4.4 x 105
generation withCu temperature
were parabolic
in
nature. Out of these three-7 thermocouples,
TC3
Al
3.2 x 10
3.096 x 106
thermocouple (TC3) has best performance for
the selected temperature range-6 as shown in5 fig
Fe
1.5 x 10
6.7 x 10
3.1.
III.
0.5086
The specifications of all the three thermocouples

are listed in table 2.1 [6].
mF (kg/h)
Figure 2.6: Schematic shows winding of

thermocouples.
1.2
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION
Graph 3.1 represents the experimental results
obtained. As from the result we can see that as
the brake power increases the mass of fuel
consumption and the temperature of the exhaust
gases increases. Thus by increasing load on an
Graph 3.1: Variation of mass of fuel and

temperature of exhaust gas with brake power.
Graph3.2 shows that in normal mode, voltage
generated with temperature is maximumfor
aluminium-iron thermocouple (TC3) for all
temperature ranges with its maximum value of
1.542mV at a temperature difference of 250o C.
The experimental results from graph 3.2
conclude that thevoltage generated increases
with increase in temperature of the exhaust
gases, so higher voltages can be obtained for
higher
temperature.
Aluminum-iron
thermocouple shows better performance as
compared to other combinations (i.e. copperaluminium TC1 & copper iron TC2) indicating
the importance of combination of materials with
high electrical conductivity and low thermal
conductivity. For TC3 combination, aluminum
fulfills the requirement of high electrical
conductivity where as iron has low thermal
conductivity. Aluminum shows better prospects
as one of the thermocouple materials, however,
difficulty arises with aluminum for the
fabrication of its thermocouple as aluminum
does not fuse with other materials under simple
laboratory conditions.
83
Voltage, mV
engine.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Al-Cu
CuFe
100
200
300
Temperature Difference, T
Graph 3.2: Variation

Temperature difference.
of
voltage
with
IV. CONCLUSION
From the present investigations it is concluded
that the voltage generated depends on the
temperature of the exhaust gases, as the
temperature of the exhaust gases increases the
voltage generated also increases. Thus for a
better performance of thermoelectric generator
higher temperature at exhaust is required, so the
heat pipe would be more effective when it is
incorporated between the exhaust pipe and the
muffler. When the heat pipe is incorporated
between the muffler and the exhaust pipe
maximum amount of heat can be utilized by the
thermoelectric generator. The above results for
voltage
generation
using thermoelectric
generator concludes that the performance of AlFe thermocouple is better than the other
thermocouples used for normal mode of
operation in lower as well as higher temperature
range. All the three thermocouples were able to
produce voltagesbut their magnitude is very low.
Thus instead of using a single thermocouple for
voltage generation, numerous thermocouples can
be used to obtain a considerable amount of
voltage. The semiconductor materials shows
better electrical properties than the metal
thermocouples,
so
semiconductors
as
thermocouples can be used to obtain higher
voltages. A large number of N-type and P-type
semiconductors can also be doped together to
obtain effective voltage that will increase and
enhance the performance and efficiency of the
REFERENCES
[1] T. Endu, S. Kawajiri, Y. Kojima, K.
Takahashi, T. Baba, S. Ibaraki, T. Takahashi,
Study on maximiszngexergy in Automotive
Engines, SAE Int. Publication 2007-010257, 2007.
[2] M. Hatazawa, Performance of a thermo
acoustic sound wave generator driven with
waste heat of automobile gasoline engine,
transaction of the Japan society of
Mechanical engineers 70 (689) (2004) 292299. Part B.
[3] J. S. Jadhao, D. G. ThombareReview on
Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery for I.C.
Engine,
International
Journal
of
Engineering and Innovative Technology
(IJEIT) Volume 2, Issue 12, June 2013.
[4] Francisco P. Brito, Jorge Martins, L.M.
Goncalves and Rui Sousa Universidade do
Minho Temperature Controlled Exhaust
Heat Thermoelectric Generation 2012 SAE
International,10.4271/2012-01-1214.
[5] X. Liu, Y.D. Deng, S. Chen, W.S. Wang,
Y. Xu, C.Q. Su A case study on
compatibility of automotive exhaust
thermoelectric
generation
system,
catalytic converter and muffler Elsvier
International Journals 2(2014)6266.
[6] Vinod Kumar, Jaspal Singh and S.S. Verma
Performance Comparison of Some
Common Thermocouples for Waste Heat
Utilization Asian Journal of Chemistry Vol.
21, No. 10 (2009), S062-065.
CONTACT INFORMATION
F. A. Author, PG Student, Department of
Mechanical Engineering at Birla Institute of
Technology, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
(srv.rohan@gmail.com).
S. B. Author, Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering at
Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi,
Jharkhand, India (skdhiman@bitmesra.ac.in)
T. C. Author, Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering at
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU),
Varanasi,
Uttar
Pradesh,
India
(jvtirkey@gmail.com)
84
16. EFFECT OF VARIOUS CUT-OUT

ON BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF
LAMINATED COMPOSITE PLATE
USING FE SIMULATION
Rekha Shakya*, Tushar Sharma,
Bahadur
Applied Mechanics Department
MNNIT, Allahabad, U.P., 211004
shkya1989@gmail.com*
tushar.sharma2412@gmail.com
Rajendramech@gmail.com
Rajendra
Abstract This paper investigate the

buckling analysis of composite laminated plate
with various cut-out (i.e., Elliptical-horizontal,
Elliptical-vertical, Square, Rectangle, Circle,
Diamond, Triangle) using FE simulation. The
effect of buckling load on symmetric cross-ply
[(0/90)2]s and angle-ply [(15/-75)2]s, [(30/-60)2]s
and [(45/-45)2]s was determined on square
composite laminate. These cut-outs are placed at
the centre of the laminate. The buckling analysis
is performed using FE simulation software
Ansys 14.0 considering same area for all cutouts. The effect of position of circular cut-out
placed along the center line is also investigated.
Results shows that elliptical-horizontal and
triangular cut-out give highest and lowest
buckling load as compared to other cut-out,
respectively. The results are validated with
literature and show that cross-ply laminate give
best result as compared to angle-ply laminate
with irrespective of cut-out shape
Keywordsbuckling, laminated composites,
different cut-out, FEM
I.
INTRODUCTION
There are many application of composite
material like marine, mechanical, aerospace, and
automotive industries in which they are used,
reason behind this is because they are lighter and
have high strength. Composite laminate can
sustain much higher load under the action of
various in-plane load, such as, uni-axial
compression, in-plane shear and combined in-
plane shear and compressive loads. Furthermore,

cut-out are provided in these laminated structure
because of various reasons, cut-outs to serve as
doors and windows, ports for mechanical and
electrical systems, holes for damage inspection,
etc. It is necessary to understand the behavior of
structural components such as buckling load,
deflections, and modal characteristics, large
deflection behavior, failure characteristics [1].
Ghannadpour et al. [2] performed buckling
analysis of cross-ply laminated composite plate
with circular/elliptical cutouts with two different
boundary conditions, first case is simply
supported on all edges, second case is clamped
edge in unloaded edge and simply supported in
loaded edge. They find that as circular cut-out
diameter of square plate increases, buckling load
will be decreased. They also find that buckling
load with clamped boundary condition on
unloaded edges is 2 times higher than the
buckling load for the plate with simply
supported boundary condition. Carle Pellegrino
et al. [3] investigated linear and non-linear
behavior of steel plates with one hole
(circular/rectangular), subjected to shear loading.
The influence of the position with respect to two
main
axes,
dimension,
shape
(rectangular/circular) and orientation of hole
were also investigated. Kumar et al. [4] studied
the effects of flexural boundary conditions on
buckling and post-buckling behavior of axially
compressed
quasi-isotropic
laminate,
(+45/_45/0/90)2s with various shaped cut-outs of
various sizes using the finite element method.
The FEM formulation is based on first order
shear deformation theory and von Karmans
assumptions are used to incorporate geometric
nonlinearity. The 3-D Tsai-Hill criterion is used
to predict the failure of a lamina while the onset
of delamination is predicted by the inter-laminar
failure criterion. Ovesy et al. [5] investigated
effects of cutouts on the buckling critical
stresses as well as natural frequencies. To
predict the behavior of the moderately thick
plates containing cut-outs, A Reddy type, third
order shear deformation theory of plates is
applied to the development of two versions of
finite strip method (FSM), namely semianalytical and spline methods. Kumar et al. [6]
studied stability and failure of a composite
85
laminate with a centrally placed cutout of

various shapes (i.e., circular, square, diamond,
elliptical-vertical and elliptical-horizontal) under
combined action of uni-axial compression and
in-plane shear loads. The effects of cutout shape,
direction of shear load and composite lay-up on
buckling and post-buckling responses, failure
loads and failure characteristics of the laminate
has been discussed. An efficient utilization of
material strength is observed in the case of
laminate with circular cutout as compared to the
laminate with other shaped cutouts. Altan et al.
[7] analysed buckling coefficients of
symmetrically laminated reinforced concrete
plates with a central rectangular hole under
biaxial static compression loadings using finite
element method. Composite structure of these
plates has been constituted from four, six, eight
and ten laminas including steel and concrete.
The effect of change in central rectangular hole
from the point view of size and direction on
buckling coefficients is investigated in this
study. Symmetrically laminated plates under
biaxial in-plane loadings are taken into
consideration in the analyses of simply
supported and clamped boundary conditions.
Obtained results are compared with each other
according to a/l and b/l where a, b are the hole
sizes and l is the length of the plate, respectively.
Arman et al. [8] performed effect of a single
circular delamination around the circular hole on
the critical buckling load of woven fabric
laminated
composite
plates
has
been
investigated experimentally and numerically.
The determination of the critical delamination
diameter for laminated composite plates has
been intended by using three dimensional
buckling analyses. For the experiments, crossply
laminated
composite
plates
with
delamination and without delamination have
been produced. The experimental critical
buckling loads of plates have been found by
clamping from the two edges and then these
results have been compared with the results
obtained from the numerical analyses. For the
numerical analyses, ANSYS FEA program has
been used. It has been seen that the numerical
buckling analysis are very close to the
experimental results. Komur et al. [9] analyzed
buckling behavior of woven-glass-polyester
laminated composite plate
having an
elliptical/circular cut-out using FEM. Parametric

study is also carried out in this paper on various
plates based on the shape and position of the
elliptical hole. Ouinas et al. [10] studied
buckling analysis of square plates with and
without elliptical notch made of composite
material using finite element method. The
boron/epoxy laminated plates were arranged
asymmetrically.
In this study, a buckling analysis was carried out
for square laminated composite plate with
various cut-out (i.e., Elliptical-horizontal,
Elliptical-vertical, Square, Rectangle, Circle,
Diamond, Triangle) located at centre using FE
simulation. The plate is made of woven-glass
polyester composite material. The effect of
position of circular cut-out placed along the
center line on buckling behavior is also
investigated.
II. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
a. Element
In the present study, Ansys 14.0 which is known
general purpose finite element software was
preferred as numerical tool. In this shell element
were used which is SHELL281. This shell
element is used for analyzing thin to moderatelythick shell structures. It is also used for layered
applications for modeling laminated composite
shells or sandwich construction. It is well-suited
for large rotation, linear, and/or large strain
nonlinear applications. The element has eight
nodes with six degrees of freedom at each node:
translations in the x, y, and z axes, and rotations
about the x, y, and z axes.
b. Material
properties
and
Geometric model
In this work, the laminated plates were taken
into account having wovenglass fibers as
reinforcement material and polyester as matrix
material. The mechanical properties of the
wovenglasspolyester composite material are
listed in Table 1 [9]. In real composite
applications, different plate and cutout form may
be used owing to design necessities. Dimension
of square composite plate considered is 120 mm
x 120 mm. The thickness of square composite
86
plate is 1.6 mm. The boundary condition apply

to laminated plate is shown in Fig. 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of the wovenglass-polyester composite material

E1=E2
(MPa)
31,610
G12 (MPa)
12
3220
0.206
To observe the buckling behavior of composite

laminate plate with centrally placed cut-outs
shape, cross-ply [(0/90)2]s and angle-ply [(15/75)2]s, [(30/-60)2]s, [(45/-45)2]s laminates were
used symmetrically. The major axes (b) and
minor axes (c) of elliptical horizontal cut-out are
taken as 0.012 and 0.06 respectively. The area of
cutouts considered in analysis is taken as same
for all cutout shapes and is equivalent to the area
of the elliptical-horizontal cut-out. . Different
cutout shapes details and their dimensions are
given in Table 2. Furthermore, effect of
positioning of circular cut-out along center line
on buckling load is also studied in this work.
The area of circle for this particular case is 1/30th
area of laminated plate.
Different model and mesh structure were made,
because of different cut-outs shape. Among
them, there is one model with boundary
condition and loading condition is shown in
fig.1
Fig.1. Geometry, boundary & loading condition

of the model
Table 2. Different cutout shapes and their

dimensions.
Cutout shapes
Cutout dimensions (in mm)
Elliptical horizontal
Major axis=0.012,
Minor axis=0.06
Elliptical vertical
Major axis =0.06,

Minor axis =0.012
Rectangular
length=0.06726,
width=0.03363
Square
Each side=0.04756
Circular
Radius=0.0268
Diamond
Same as square just rotate

450
Triangular
base=0.07227,
height=0.06259
87
Table 3. Buckling load results with stacking sequences for elliptical horizontal and vertical cut-outs
Stacking
b/a=0.5, c/a=0.1,
=00
b/a=0.4, c/a=0.2,
=00
b/a=0.3, c/a=0.2,
=00
b/a=0.5, c/a=0.1,
=900
Paper
result
Ref [9]
Present
result
Ref [9]
Present
result
Ref [9]
Present
result
Ref [9]
27.3279
27.3279
26.8142
25.5285
27.0715
25.6911
21.3457
20.1215
23.6842
23.6842
21.8233
22.5203
22.5122
23.1707
17.9382
17.8543
19.2308
19.2308
17.4165
18.5366
17.9194
18.6179
14.9614
15.1822
17.6113
17.6113
16.1759
16.9919
16.304
16.3415
13.8447
14.2105
Sequence
(0/90)2s
(15/-75)2s
(30/-60)2s
(45/-45)2s
RESULT & DISCUSSION

In this work, Convergence test of mesh size is
done on plate with elliptical hole having
dimension as b/a=0.4, c/a=0.2, =00. No. of
element on each side of plate is varied from 10
to 70 according to which size of element & total
no. of element in plate decreases & increases
respectively. In the first part, the result is
validated with Komur et.al [9] as shown in
Table.3. In this table result were validated for
elliptical-horizonal cut-out and elliptical-vertical
cut-out for symmetrically cross-ply [(0/90)2]s
and angle-ply [(15/-75)2]s, [(30/-60)2]s, [(45/45)2]s laminates. The effect of horizontal and
vertical elliptical cut-out on buckling load with
[(0/90)2]s ply is shown in fig. 2.
III.
Fig.2. Effect of (a) Elliptical-horizontal & (b)

Elliptical-vertical cut-out on buckling load
The effect of different cut-out shape on buckling

load for different stacking sequence is shown in
88
Fig. 3. In case of [(0/90)2]s cross-ply laminate,

steep decrement in buckling load between
elliptical horizontal and rectangular cut-out, and
also between circular and diamond cut-out as
shown in fig.3. The elliptical-horizontal cut-out
give higher value and triangular cut-out give
lower value. In this case except these two, other
cut-out have closer value. In case of [(15/-75)2]s
laminate, there are high difference of buckling
load between elliptical horizontal and
rectangular cut-out, and all other cut-out have
almost close value. In case of angle ply [(30/60)2]s, [(45/-45)2]s laminates, from rectangle to
diamond cut-out there are closer value of
buckling load. The difference between buckling
loads among all these laminates [(0/90)2]s crossply laminate give highest buckling load as
comparison to all other laminates. In each case
of laminate, elliptical horizontal cut-out give
maximum buckling load and triangular cut-out
give
minimum buckling load. From rectangular to

diamond cut-out, there are closer value of
buckling load for angle-ply [(15/-75)2]s, [(30/60)2]s, [(45/-45)2]s laminates, whereas decrement
is occurred with high value from circular to
diamond cut-out. Furthermore, the buckling load
of all cut-out shape give closer value for [(30/60)2]s, [(45/-45)2]s laminates, and much closer
value obtained for triangular cut- out.
Meanwhile diamond cut-out give much closer
value for cross-ply [(0/90)2]s and angle-ply
[(15/-75)2]s, laminates. The highest value of
buckling load are calculated for [(0/90)2]s plates,
while the lower values are computed for angleply [(45/-45)2]s. In other words cross-ply
[(0/90)2]s plates give best results as comparison
to all other angle-ply.
Fig. 3. Effect of different cut-out on buckling

load
Fig. 4. Effect of positioning of circular cutout on

buckling load
89
laminate. The buckling analysis is performed

using FE simulation software Ansys 14.0
considering same area for all cut-outs. The effect
of position of circular cut-out placed along the
center line is also investigated.
Based on result of present investigation,
following important conclusions can be drawn:
Fig. 5. Nodal solution result for (a) Circular, (b)

Square, (c) Diamond, (d) rectangular & (e)
Triangular cut-out
The effect of different cut-out on nodal solution

calculate from FE simulation software Ansys for
[(0/90)2]s ply is shown in Fig. 5.
The effect of positioning of circular cut-out
along x-axis on buckling load is also
investigated. For this analysis square plate with
circular cutout is selected, and Circular hole is
moved from left to right on central line for
[(0/90)2]s plates. In the centre of plate buckling
load value is lowest as shown in fig. 4. As the
circular hole is moved apart from centre
buckling load increases, it means it strength
increases as position of circular cut-out moved
away from centre.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, buckling response of square

composite laminated plate with various cut-out
(i.e., Elliptical-horizontal, Elliptical-vertical,
Square, Rectangle, Circle, Diamond, Triangle)
made of woven-glass-polyester composite
material using FE simulation is investigated.
These cut-outs are placed at the centre of the
Stacking sequence (0/90)2s, have maximum

buckling load on comparing with other
stacking sequences.
Laminate with elliptical horizontal cutout
have maximum buckling load, while laminate
with triangular cut-out have minimum
buckling load.
Triangular cut-out and rectangular cut-out
give much closer value for angle-ply [(30/60)2]s, [(45/-45)2]s laminates.
Diamond cut-out give much closer value for
cross-ply [(0/90)2]s and angle-ply [(15/-75)2]s,
laminates.
Buckling load increases as the circular cutout moves from centre to edges, means
laminate plate is weaker in centre of plate
and as the circular cut-out moved away from
centre it strength increases.
REFERENCES
[1]
YH Zhang, CH Yang, "Recent

developments in finite element analysis for
laminated composite plates," Compos Struct,
vol. 88, pp. 147-57, 2009.
[2] S.A.M. Ghannadpour, A. Najafi, B.
Mohammadi, "On the buckling behaviour of
cross-ply laminated composite plates due to
circular/elliptical
cutouts,"
Composite
Structures, vol. 75, pp. 3-6, 2006.
[3]
Carle Pellegrino, Emanuele Maiorana,
"Claudio Modena. Linear and non-linear
behaviour of steel plates with circular and
rectangular holes under shear loading,"
J.Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 47, pp. 607616 2009.
[4]
Dinesh Kumar, S.B Singh, "Effect of

boundary condition on buckling and post-
90
buckling responses of composite laminate

with various shaped cut-outs," J.Composite
Structure, vol. 92, pp. 769-779 2010.
[5] H.R Ovesy, j. Fazilati, "Buckling and free
vibration strip analysis of composite plates
with cutout based on two different modeling
approach," J.Composite Structures, vol. 94,
pp. 1250-1258, 2012.
[6] Dinesh Kumar, S.B.Singh, "Stability and
failure of composite laminate with various
shaped cut-outs under combined in-plane
loads," J.Composite, vol. Part B 43, pp. 142149, 2012.
[7] Mehmet Fatih Altan, and Murat Emre
Kartal, "Investigation of buckling behavior of
laminated reinforced concrete plates with
central rectangular hole using finite element
method," Materials and Design, vol. 30, pp.
22432249, 2009.
[8] Yusuf Arman, Mehmet Zor, Sami Aksoy,
"Determination of critical delamination
diameter of laminated composite plates under
buckling loads," Composites Science and
Technology, vol. 66, pp. 29452953, 2006.
[9]
M. Aydin Komur, Faruk Sen , Akn
Atas, Nurettin Arslan,"Bucklinganalysis of
laminated composite plates with an
elliptical/circular cutout using FEM,"
Advances in Engineering Software, vol. 41,
pp. 161164, 2010.
[10] Djamel Ouinas, Belkacem Achour,
"Buckling analysis of laminatedcomposite
plates [(h/_h)] containing an elliptical notch,"
Composites, vol. Part B 55, pp. 575579,
2013.
91
17. TO
EVALUTE
THE
PERFORMANCE
OF
VCRS
SYSTEM BY COMPARING LESSER
SUPERHEATED
REFRIGERANT(R-134a)
TO
HIGHER
SUPERHEATED
REFRIGERANT (R143a)
Rahul Wandra1* ,Taliv Hussain2, Jagannath
Verma 3,Arjun Sharma4,Gourav Roy5
Abstract:- Starting from the era of
refrigeration and
air conditioning system,
superheating continuous to be conspicuous topic
in basic refrigeration system. In a conventional
cooling system refrigerant superheating inside
the system is majorly responsible for maximum
energy losses. In this paper we have
concentrated on the more accurate approach of
effect
of
refrigerant
superheating
on
refrigeration effect of modified vapour
compression system and further investigate the
work input in compressor and volumetric
efficiency.
By
undertaking
different
configuration and different models of
compressor it is well evaluated that compressor
plays a big role in refrigerant superheat losses
where superheat is not only responsible for
compression losses but also effects positively on
refrigeration effect .Experimental results show
that the COP of simple vapour compression
system with lesser superheated refrigerant is 3.5
where as the COP of vapour compression
system with higher superheated refrigerant is
3.17 by varying different ambient air conditions.
VCRS having more superheated refrigerant R134a decreases coefficient of performance
(COP) by 9.4% and this paper will give us the
clear evidence that what would be the required
conditions that can fulfill our control over COP.
Keyword: COP, VCRS, Superheating.
INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration is a technology which absorbs
heat at low temperature and provides
temperature below the surrounding by rejecting
heat to the surrounding at higher temperature. In
a refrigerator heat is continuously pump from
lower temperature to higher temperature.
According to second law it can be possible only
with aid of external work done. The substance
which works in a system to extract heat from a
cold body and to deliver it in a hot body is
known as refrigerant. Here in our study R-134a
refrigerant is of our interest. Vapour
compression refrigeration cycle is an improved
type of air refrigeration cycle. It consists of four
main components like condenser, compressor,
evaporator and expansion valve. Here in this
paper we will analyses the effect of change in
operating Condition like superheating on the
performance of the vapour Compression cycle.
Superheating or boiling delay is the phenomenon
in which liquid is heated to a higher temperature
then its standard boiling point without actual
boiling. Main objective of our study is to know
superheating effect on refrigeration effect, work
input, coefficient of performance and
Volumetric efficiency of compressor in presence
or R-134a as a refrigerant.
LITERATURE SURVEY
Domanski and McLinden [1992] presented
simulation results showing different relative
rankings of refrigerants studied depending on the
cycle used for performance comparison (llsl-hx
or reversed Rankine cycle).Goswami et al.
[1993] employed an evaporative cooling on
existing 2.5 Ton Trane Heat Pump by using four
media pad of cellulose bound cardboard
structures around the outdoor placed condenser.
The thickness of the media was 20.32 cm. They
reported electric energy saving of 20% for the
retrofitted system when ambient temperature
was 34C.Yueming.Li et al. [2009] developed
the special simulation module for water-cooled
VRF based on the Energy Plus's codes, and
using manufacturer's performance parameters
and data. He embedded that simulation module
in the software of Energy Plus. After modeling
and testing the new module, on the basis of a
typical office building in Shanghai with water-
92
cooled VRF system, the monthly and seasonal

cooling energy consumption and the breakdown
of the total power consumption were analyzed.
The simulation results showed that, during the
whole cooling period, the fan-coil plus fresh air
(FPFA) system consumed about 20% more
power than the water-cooled VRF VRF system
and the air-cooled VRF system was performed
too. All of these provided designers some ideas
to analyze the energy features of this new system
and then to determine a better scheme of the air
conditioning system..Pongsakorm et al. [2013]
modelled and experimentally studied the
performance of an inverter air conditioner with
evaporative cooled condenser. For 1 Ton
refrigeration, 15 cm thickness of cellulose media
pad was used. At lower frequency range, COP
observed was maximum.

used to measure the suction(inlet) and
discharge(outlet) pressure of compressor.
Temperatures of refrigerant and the ambient air
at different points are measured by use of RTD
PT100 type thermocouples. Before temperature
measurement, the surface of the tubes are
polished for removing any type of dust or rust
and then the thermocouples are laid down onto
the surface. Insulation tapes are wrapped around
the copper tubes to prevent any heat losses to
ambient air.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
In this project our main focus concentrated on
the air conditioner i.e. Superheated VCRS by
employing external source of superheater and
Less superheated cycle. It was seen that
performance of the refrigerator can be further
analysed by introducing superheating system in
between the outlet of evaporator and inlet of
compressor and this is done by installing
external superheater. In case of less superheated
cycle system air cooled condenser has been used
generally right now. The experimental setup
consists of a single stage vapour compression
system with the basic components i.e.
evaporator, compressor, expansion device
,condensers and a external super heater source.
The coil type heat exchanger has been attached
in series after condenser and parallel to the
suction line before compressor. The shifting of
air cooled air conditioning system to the
subcooled i.e.(system with heat exchanger) air
conditioning system is done with the help of the
system of hand set valve attached. The whole
experiment is carried out on R134a (tetra
flouroethane) which is used as refrigerant in
setup.
After taking the desired numerical figure of
reading systemize. system with superheating
,and then we perform the same experiment with
air cooled condenser.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT OF DIFFERENT AMBIENT

TEMPERATURES
Ambient Air Conditions : DBT - 28C
Parameters
Symbol
Unit
Evaporator
absolute
Pressure
Condenser
absolute
Pressure
Evaporator
exit
Temperature
Compressor
exit
Temperature
Condenser
exit
Temperature
Total electric
current
Peva
bar
Total electric
voltage
Less
superheated
cycle
High
superheated
cycle
10.1
3.48
Pcon
Bar
10.4
13.98
T1
10
10
T2
80
57
T3
16.64
42
Ampere
2.12
1.4
Volt
225
225
93
Ambient Air Conditions : DBT - 33C
Parameters
Symbol
Unit
Less
superheatedr
Evaporator
absolute
Pressure
Condenser
absolute
Pressure
Peva
Bar
0.98
High
superheated
VCRS
0.157
Pcon
Bar
9.8
1.0166
Evaporator
exit
Temperature
Compressor
exit
Temperature
Condenser
exit
Temperature
T1
-18
15
T2
41
80
T3
-18
40
Total
electric
current
Total
electric
voltage
Ampere
1.911
2.533
Volt
225
225
Chart for comparison of COP and compressor

work for two different cycles on the basis of two
different ambient temperatures.
Here in this chart we are comparing two cycles

one is highly superheated and other is less
superheated . we plot this chart on the basis of
different ambient temperature .Its easily
visualize us in this graph that less superheated
cycle attain high coefficient of performance
where as high superheated cycle contains less
coefficient of performance.
PH CHART COMPARISON OF TWO VCRS
CYCLES
Her we have two different cycles one is highly

super heated and second cycle is less
superheated VCRS cycle. After visualizing the
chart we can easily able to analyses the fact that
with increase of ambient temperature no doubt
COP will gradually decrease and also with
respect to less superheated cycle superheated
cycle decreases more then later cycle.
EXPERIMENTAL
DISCUSSIONS
RESULTS
AND
Here in this research paper our group member

job was to identify the effect of superheated
94
VCRS system i.e system with external

superheating and non superheated VCRS i.e. air
cooled refrigeration system or less superheated
cycle .Here we have also comparing the results
of both superheated VCRS system and less
superheated cycle, experimental tests are
performed consecutively in two stages. During
our first stage of experiment, less superheated
cycle is being operated and so that we will be
able to get some valuable numeric figure, in the
second stage superheated VCRS system is used
under the same ambient conditions. Data are not
recorded rapidly but its taken after a steady state
condition is achieved in the system so that
properties of refrigerant remain constant in the
system. Experimental tests are performed at
three ambient temperatures i.e. 28C and 33C
in order to have better understanding of the
system behavior under different climatic
conditions
CALCULATIONS
Based
on
the
experimental
results,
thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant at
different points in the cycle are obtained using
the P-H chart of refrigerant R-134a and the
parameters such as mass flow rate, cooling
capacity and COP of the system are calculated
from the equations:
Performance Results of Air Conditioner (Tamb - 28oC)

Less
superheatedV
Parameter
Unit superheated
Variation(%)
CRS
cycle
Compressor
Work , Wc
Coefficient of
performance
(COP)
Watt
315
477
51.4%
-
4.18
3.71
-11.2%

Less
superheated
Parameter
Unit
Super
Variation
heated VCRS
(%)
Cycle
Compressor
Work , Wc
Coefficient of
performance
Watt
430
570
32.5%
3.7
3.32
-10.2%
a. (COP)
Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref* (h2
h1)
b. Mass flow rate of refrigerant mref
c. Cooling effect produced Qr=mref* (h1 h4)
d. COP =
Where,
condenser kj/kg (3)
of
of
the
of
The voltage and ampere of the input power

are obtained from the voltage meter and ampere
meter attached in the experimental set-up. Using
this voltage and ampere reading, work done of
the compressor is obtained Table 1, 2 and
3shows the results obtained from the
observations recorded at three different ambient
air temperature i.e. 28C and 33C
CONCLUSION
In this experiment a superheated VCRS with
heat exchanger and air simple air cooled VCRS
is experimentally investigated. Experimental
results show that there is considerable decrease
in the COP of the superheated VCRS as compare
to air cooled VCRS and further there is
significant increase in compressor work for
95
superheated vcrs system as compared air cooled

vcrs. In case of superheated VCRS there is
decrease in the steady state COP from 3.7 to
3.32 under the following conditions: the wetbulb temperature is 21C, dry-bulb temperature
is 29C, air velocity is 2.4 m/s and power
consumption is increased by 29% whereas as
COP decrease by 10%. The experimental
investigation also verifies that compressing
temperat0ure and pressure increases in case of
superheated VCRS system which increases the
compressor work. The superheated VCRS
system thus results in increasing refrigeration
effects and increasing power consumption of the
compressor which consequently lead to loss of
energy. Thus the use of superheated system with
superheater will increase the peak load
conditions of power network in extreme hot
weather conditions because vapour compression
air conditioners are the main cause of peak loads
At last it can be well concluded that with high
superheating, we can greatly increases the
refrigeration effect ,hence ultimately cooling
effect of refrigeration but at the same time work
required in compressor is also increased and
which consumes higher power then less
superheated VCR cycle and also this research
paper can easily visualize us that in case of high
superheated cycle coefficient of performance of
refrigeration decreases gradually with increase
in ambient temperature.

refrigerants Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf.
,735-1935
[ 4] J. Chen, J. Yu, Performance of new
refrigerant cycle using refrigerant mixture R32/
R134a
for
residential
air-conditioner
applications, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008)
20222027.
[5] Klein, S. A., 2010. Engineering Equation
SolverLemmon EL, McLinden MO, Huber ML,
2002,
[6] REFPROP 7.0, NIST, USA.
[7] ISI CODE for testing refrigerators no.
1476-1979
[8] Gosney W B, The maximum coefficient of
performance of a refrigerant ,paper 2.74, XII
international
congress
of
refrigeration,
Madrid,1967.
[9] ASHRAE , handbook of fundamentals,
1973
[10]
S. Pongsakorn, S. Thepa, 2013,
Modeling and experimental study on the
performance of an inverter air conditioner using
R-410A with evaporative cooled condenser,
Applied Thermal Engineering, 51, 597-610.
REFERENCES
[1] Pramod Kumar (2002) Finite time
thermodynamic analysis of refrigeration and air
conditioning and heat pump systems PhD
thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, N
D. Arora, C.P. (2010),
[2]Refrigeration and Air conditioning, 3rd
edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi
[3] A.S. Dalkilic , S. Wongwises,a
performance comparison of vapour compression
refrigeration system using various alternative
96
18. KINEMATIC DESIGN

OPTIMIZATION OF PLANERLINK MECHANISM BASED
MANIPULATOR
optimizing kinematic performance of the

manipulators based on the motion and force
manipulability concepts. Klein and Blaho [7] use
the minimum singular value as a measure.
Gosselin and Angeles [8] applied a global
conditioning index to four different cases, which
is based on the distribution of the condition
number of the Jacobian matrix over the entire
manipulator workspace. Park and Brockett [9]
introduced the kinematic distortion index, which
is a measure of the distortion associated with the
mapping from configuration to work space.
Singh and Rastegar [10] developed global
velocity ellipsoid concept, which represents the
velocity transmission characteristics of a
manipulator. Doel and Pai [11] introduced
formalism for the systematic construction of
performance measures of robot manipulators in a
unified framework based on differential
geometry. Kircanski [12] determined the
isotropic configurations of planar and spatial
manipulators in the form of polynominal.
Zanganeh and Angeles [13] introduced a set of
conditions for the submatrices of the Jacobians
under which a parallel manipulator can attain an
isotropic configuration. Matone and Roth [14]
investigated the effects of actuation schemes on
the minimum singular value, the manipulability
and the condition number measures of kinematic
performance. Bhavesh Patel [15] represented the
state of art of the kinematics of planer
mechanisms. Also, Bhavesh Patel [16]
investigated the force effects on the planer
mechanisns.
Jagdish M Prajapati
The M S University of Baroda
Vadodara, India
j.m.prajapati-med@msubaroda.ac.in
Abstract-This paper presents optimized
kinematic design of a planer mechanism (4-link)
based planar manipulator is presented in this
paper. In case of the parallel manipulator, there
is only one location defined between force and
motion where local mobility index is one. In this
paper, for maximum local mobility index,
optimum link lengths of the manipulator that is
function of the location of the input link are
obtained. Charts, showing the optimum
kinematic design of the 4 link planer
manipulator are obtained. It is clear from this
result, that the performance of the manipulator
is maximum for a position interval in addition to
a certain position. Also, at some positions better
relationship between force and motion is
observed where local mobility index is not
exactly unit.
Keywords: Optimal kinematic design; Local
mobility index; Force manipulability
I.
INTRODUCTION
To design a kinematic optimum manipulator
is the central focus of researchers. Some criteria
are there to design robotic manipulators.
Yoshikawa [1] introduced the concept of endeffector manipulability as a measure of the
kinematic transmission characteristics of
manipulator. One of the most important criteria
in the optimal robot design is that the robot can
achieve isotropic configurations. The equal
forces may be exerted in all directions. Salisbury
and Craig [3] proposed to use the ratio of the
largest and smallest singular values of Jacobian
matrix. The most manipulability measures have
been derived from the condition number of the
Jacobian matrix, and have been used by Asada,
Chiu and Park [4], [5] and [6] for analyzing and
This paper presents how the link lengths are

optimized for the closed-loop, four-bar planer
mechanism as a manipulator with the help of
local mobility index. The performance index is
defined as the ratio between the minimum and
maximum joint torque vector norms. For the
investigated
manipulator,
optimum
link
measurements that maximize the performance
index have been achieved based on the position
of the input link. Comparing these results with
those of the parallel manipulator, it is seen that
better conditions are reached in terms of forcemotion relationship with the planar manipulator.
97
Nomenclature
length of the input link 2
length ratio of the input link 2
length of the coupler link
length ratio of the coupler link
length of the output link
rotation. Manipulator with a parallelogram

mechanism is a special case of the four-bar
mechanism consisting of equal two opposite
links.
When the end-effector position is taken as the
task domain position vector, the Jacobian matrix
is defined as the matrix representing the
transformation mapping the joint rates into the
cartesian velocities. This transformation is
written as
length ratio of the output link
(1)
length of the input link 1

derivative of 92 with respect to q
Jacobian matrix
Where
is the vector of joints rates
and
is the vector of cartesian velocities, the
Jacobian matrix is given by
generalized Jacobian matrix

coefficients of Freudenstein's
(2)
equation
{ }
vector of joints rates

rotation of the input link 1
rotation of the output link
rotation of the output link (end-
effector)
end-effector link length ratio
{ }
vector of cartesian velocities

local mobility index
rotation of the input link 2
II.
MOTION
MANIPULABILITY
CHARACTERISTICS
The planar manipulator with a four-bar
mechanism under study is shown in Fig. 1.
Planar manipulator with a four-bar mechanism
has two actuators that are fixed to the base link
and drive the two input links. One of the links in
a four-bar mechanism connected to the input
link 1 oscillates while the other has a full
Fig. 1. The planar manipulator with a four-bar

mechanism.
where
is the derivative of the
auxiliary coordinates with respect to and is
the link length ratio. As seen in Fig. 1,
expression can be written. In this
case,
is obtained. The
derivative
can be determined by
Freudenstein's equation. Freudenstein's equation
is a displacement equation for the four-bar
linkage, which holds true for each position of the
linkage. In a compact form, it writes
(3)
98
Where
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
(4)
Thus, the force manipulability at the

mechanism's endpoint is at its worst. On the
other hand, the force manipulability is at its best
when a force is exerted in the direction of
eigenvector emin. The local mobility index (LMI)
is denned as the ratio between the minimum and
maximum eigenvalues of the generalized
Jacobian matrix
, Lee (1993):
(11)
(5)
The angle is found explicitly as a function
of p and the parameters L2, L3, L4. Such a
solution is obtained by expressing sin and cos
in terms of tan(/2),
(6)
(7)
and substituting those values in Eq. (3), the
angle 2 is found as shown below
Using the above equations, derivative in
the Jacobian matrix is expressed as
The local mobility index is bounded as

. The best-conditioned point is
identical to an isotropic point where local
mobility index equals one. This indicates that
the joint torque vector norms are equal for
endpoint force exerted in any direction. The
isotropic point is a special condition where the
mechanism has a uniform mobility in all motion
directions.
The local mobility index of the planar
manipulator shown in Fig. 1 can be derived from
the generalized Jacobian matrix
as
(8)
or
(9)
The generalized Jacobian matrix,
,
defined as the quadratic form of the Jacobian
matrix,
, is used to characterize the force
manipulability of the mechanism.
can be
written as the product of two matrices:
(10)
The propagation from the input joint torques
to the output end effector force is directly proportional to the eigenvalues of
. If the
eigenvalues of the generalized Jacobian matrix
are max and min, one can conclude that when the
endpoint force is in the direction of eigenvector
related to the maximum eigenvalue of
,
the largest to exert a unit endpoint force.
(12)
The expression LMI in Eq. (12) defines a
five-variable function depending on the input
link position as seen in Eqs. (4)-(9) and
dimensionless link lengths L2, L3, L4 and . For
the subject of optimal kinematic design of planar
manipulator with four-bar mechanism, variables
L2, L3, L4, which are the characteristic
dimensions of this mechanism and variable ,
which determines the position of the endeffector on output link have been used. In order
to generalize the results, using the length of
input link 1, link lengths have been made
99
dimensionless. The design variables , L2 and L4

which maximize the objective function LMI
have been searched in the study. In the derived
numerical results, first and later , L2; ., L2
and L4 variables left free, respectively and the
optimization problem is solved giving constant
values to the other variables. The unconstrained
optimal design problem is solved by employing
Newton's method iteratively, Papalambros
(2000).
III.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
The performance index of the manipulator for
a parallel planar manipulator with equal opposite
link lengths is drawn in Fig. 2 using L2 = 0.3, L3
= 1 and L4 = 0.3 numerical values and depending
on input link and end-effector position. As seen
in this figure, the = /4 position of the input
link and = 0.707107 value for the end-effector
position equal local mobility index to one in
such a parallel manipulator. These values
obtained for the manipulator with parallelogram
mechanism are the same with results for the
planar two link manipulator obtained in the
studies of optimal kinematic design by Gosselin
and Angeles [8], Singh and Rastegar (1995),
Kircanski (1996) and Lee et al. (1993).
L2 as design variables graph

with L3 = 1 and , L2 and L4 as
Fig. 3. The maximum local mobility index

joint angle ( , L2 = 0.3, L3 = 1, L4 = 0.3)
versus joint
for parallel
Fig. 3 displays the maximum local mobility

index values obtained by the optimization of different link lengths of the manipulator depending
on the position . As seen in graph (full line),
if only the value is optimized, local mobility
index equals 1 at = /4, = 0.707107 point.
With L3 = 1, L4 = 0.3 constant values and and
v/s
design variables graph

(dashed line) are
derived. It is seen in these graphs that with the
variable-length manipulator, the performance
index can be kept at its maximum value in a
position interval. As the number of free design
variable increase, force-motion quality rises. As
seen in the
graph, it is possible to keep
performance index constant at its maximum
value from = 0 to approximately 1.2 rad.
position by the optimization of l2 and
variables. This position can be increased to
approximately 1.4 rad. by the optimization of ,
L2 and L4. Such a manipulator which has a
higher kinematic performance than that of a
parallel manipulator can be realized through
hydraulically actuated linkage.
IV.
Fig. 2. The local mobility index

angle and the link length ratio
manipulator.
(dotted line),
CONCLUSION
Optimal kinematic design of planar

manipulator with a four-bar mechanism has been
presented. The performance index is defined as
the ratio called local mobility index between the
minimum and maximum eigenvalues of the
generalized
Jacobian matrix. For
the
manipulator, the link measurements that
maximize the performance index depending on
the input link position have been found. The
attained results have been compared to those of
the parallel manipulator and it is seen that better
results have been achieved in terms of forcemotion relationship. The force-motion performance of the manipulator can be elevated by
the optimization of two design variables with
setting the input link long and end-effector
100
position short formerly, from the beginning of

the motion and vice versa latter. In this case, the
performance index can be kept at its highest
value from
= 0 to approximately 1.2 rad.
position. If the optimization problem is solved
with three variables as the output link length is
added among the design variables, it is possible
to raise this interval to 1.4 rad. As a result of the
comparisons, better conditions have been
obtained in terms of force-motion relationship
also at the other points in addition to this
maximum value of the performance index. As
the number of free design variables increases,
quality of the force-motion is possible to be
raised.
REFERENCES
[1].
T.
Yoshikawa,
(1985)
Dynamic
manipulability of robot manipulators,
Journal of Robotics Systems 2 (1) pp. 113124.
[2]. T. Yoshikawa, (1985) Manipulability of

robotic mechanism, The International
Journal of Robotics Research 4 (2) pp. 3-9.
[8]. C. Gosselin, J. Angeles, (1991) A global

performance index for the kinematic
optimization of robotic manipulators,
Journal of Mechanical Design 113, pp. 220226.
[9]. F.C. Park, R.W. Brockeet, (1994) Kinematic
dexterity of robotic mechanisms, The
International Journal of Robotics Research
13 (1), pp. 1-15.
[10]. J.R. Smigh, J. Rastegar, (1995) Optimal
synthesis of robot manipulators based on
global kinematic parameters, Mechanism
and Machine Theory 30 (4), pp. 569-580.
[11]. J. K. Doel, D. Pai, (1996) Performance
measures for robot manipulators: a unified
approach, The International Journal of
Robotics Research 15 (1), pp. 92-111.
[12]. M. Kircanski, (1996) Kinematic isotropy
and optimal kinematic design of planar
manipulators and a 3-DOF spatial
manipulator, The International Journal of
Robotics Research 15 (1), pp. 61-77.
[3]. J.K. Salisbury, J.J. Craig, (1982) Articulated

hands: force control and kinematic issues,
International Journal of Robot Research 1
(1) pp. 4-17.
[13]. K.E. Zanganeh, J. Angeles,

(1997)
Kinematic isotropy and the optimum design
of parallel manipulators, The International
Journal of Robotics Research 16 (2), pp.
185-197.
[4]. H. Asada, K. Yosef-Toumi, (1986) Analysis

and design of a direct-drive arm with a fivebar-link parallel drive mechanism, ASME
Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement
and Control 106, pp. 225-230.
[14]. R. Matone, B. Roth, (1997) The effects of

actuation schemes on the kinematic
performance of manipulators, Journal of
Mechanical Design 119, pp. 212-217.
[5]. S.L. Chiu, (1988) Task compatibility of

manipulator postures, The International
Journal of Robotics Research 75(5), pp. 1321.
[15]. B. P. Patel, J. M. Prajapati, (2011) A

review on Kinematics of Hydraulic
Excavators
Backhoe
Attachment,
International journal of engineering science
and technology, 3(3), pp. 1990 - 1997.
[6]. F.C. Park, J.W. Kim, (1988) Manipulability

of closed chains, ASME Journal of
Mechanical Design 120, pp. 542-548.
[7]. C.A. Klein, B.E. Blaho, (1987) Dexterity
measures for the design and control of
kinematically redundant manipulators, The
International Journal of Robotics Research 6
(2), pp. 72-83.
[16]. B. P. Patel, J. M. Prajapati, (2012)

Evaluation of Resistive Force using
Principle of Soil Mechanics for Mini
Hydraulic Backhoe Excavator, International
Journal of Machine Learning and
Computing, Vo. 2 No. 4, pp. 386 391.
101
19. IN-PLANE FREE VIBRATIONS OF

SYMMETRICALLY LAMINATED
RECTANGULAR
COMPOSITE
PLATES
Kumar Pankaj1,a, Ujjwal Bhardwaj2,b, Priyanka
Singh2,c
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, I.T.S

Engineering College, Greater Noida, U.P.
201308, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, I.T.S

Engineering College, Greater Noida, U.P.
201308, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Dronacharya

College of Engineering, Gurgoan, Haryana
122001, India
a
pankajrajput2@gmail.com,
bhardwaj.civil@gmail.com,
c
sweetpriti.singh@gmail.com
b
Abstract: This work presents accurate upperbound solutions for free in-plane vibrations of
single-layer laminated rectangular composite
plates with an arbitrary combination of clamped
and free boundary conditions. A Ritz method with
a simple, stable and computationally efficient set
of trigonometric functions is developed to obtain
accurate in-plane modal properties of
rectangular plates with arbitrary uniform elastic
edge restraints. In-plane natural frequencies and
modes shapes are calculated by the TRM.
Reliability of the method is assessed by
comparison with known solutions for square
composite plates. Influence of degree of
orthotropy, aspect ratio and boundary conditions
upon the in-plane vibration behavior are
discussed. Effects of uniform elastic spring
stiffness on the in-plane natural frequencies and
modal shapes are also presented.
Keywords:Laminates, Composites, In-plane
vibration, Ritz method, Trigonometric set
I.
INTRODUCTION
Composites are engineering materials made from

two or more materials with signicantly different
properties which remain distinct on a

macroscopic level within the entirety of the
structure. It can be defined as a mixture of two or
more mechanically separable materials that when
combine, give properties superior to the
properties of the individual components.
Composite materials like carbon-ber reinforced
polymer, plywood, aramid ber laminates and
berglass laminates have been used in a
multitude of applications. The mechanical
properties of composites are generally not
isotropic, but orthotropic. Composites serve as
lighter substitutes for their metallic, isotropic
counterparts. This is especially apparent in the
aerospace industry.
Free vibration analysis of composite plates plays
a key role in many engineering applications, such
as civil, aerospace, marine, automotive structural
components, electronic circuit boards, energy
scavenging devices and optical and mechanical
equipments. Vibration is totally a mechanical
phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an
equilibrium point. And free vibration occurs
when a mechanical system is set off with an
initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely.
In-plane vibration is different from the flexural
vibration. Here in-plane means only two
components is considered for the vibration
analysis i.e. vibrating body is said to be in plane
only.
Although relatively less references can be found
in the wide literature to deal with in-plane
vibration of rectangular plates, confident
prediction of membrane modal behavior of plate
systems can be of key importance in some
engineering
applications,
like
vibration
transmission in built-up structures and/or
vibration excitation due to fluid turbulent
boundary layer or forces not perfectly
perpendicular to the middle plane.
In the past literatures there are many methods
discussed to analyze the in-plane free vibrations
of rectangular plates. D.J. Gorman. (June 2006)
[1] developed the exact solutions for the free inplane vibration of rectangular plates with two
opposite plate edges are given either type of
simple support, the other two edges being given
any combination of classical edge conditions.
102
The first of simple support is characterized by

null displacement parallel to the edge as well as
normal stress perpendicular to the edge and the
second type of support, where the displacement
normal to the edge is fully restrained as well as
the shear stress along the edge. Each type of
simple support is shown to be analogous to the
well-known simple support edge conditions
encountered in the flexural vibration analysis of
rectangular plates. Y.F. Xing, B. Liu. (March
2009) [2] derived all possible exact solutions for
the free in-plane vibrations of a rectangular plate
by using a direct separation of variables
approach. Using the Rayleigh quotient variational
principle, all classical boundary conditions
including two distinct types of simple support
boundary conditions are formulated undergoing
in-plane free vibrations for rectangular plate.
A numerical approximate method is required
when any arbitrary combinations of supporting
edges or lay-ups other than cross-ply are
involved. From the literature review it is found
that there are mainly four methods have been
adopted for achieving analytical type in-plane
vibration solutions of plates. These are the Ritz
method, the
Kantorovich
method, the
superposition method and the Fourier series
method. The approaches in which summation of
continuous differentiable functions are assumed
as the displacement solutions for the problem.
Beslin O, Nicolas (1997) [15] comparative study
has been done on the use of trigonometric set
over polynomial with some remarkable
advantages.
As per the literature survey and of the best
knowledge Kobayashi et al. (1988) [4] published
the first Ritz-based results for in-plane natural
frequencies and mode shapes of rectangular
plates. They used a series of product of power
functions for the admissible functions. and
discussed a limited number of computed results
for point-supported isotropic plates for the inplane vibration analysis. Bardell et al. (1996) [5]
did their work on isotropic plates and calculated
the first six frequency parameters with all edges
simply supported, clamped or free using a set of
orthogonal polynomials in conjunction with
Hermitecubics. Singh and Muhammad (May
2004) [6] developed a modified form of the Ritz
method for the analysis of in-plane modes of

isotropic non-rectangular plates. Woodcock et al.
(2008) [7] did the first attempt in providing
specific information about the influence of angle
of orthotropy on the in-plane free motion of
rectangular plates. They used the Ritz
formulation along with Hamilton principle to
study the effect of ply orientation on the in-plane
vibrations of composite plates. The natural
frequencies were calculated by adopting simple
polynomial functions as admissible solutions.
Lorenzo Dozio (October 2010) [17] used the Ritz
method using a set of trigonometric functions to
obtain accurate in-plane modal properties of
rectangular plates with arbitrary non-uniform
elastic edge restraints. Lorenzo Dozio (October
2010) [3] presented the accurate upper-bound
solutions for free in-plane vibrations of singlelayer and symmetrically laminated rectangular
composite plates with an arbitrary combination of
clamped and free boundary conditions. In-plane
natural frequencies and modes shapes are
calculated by the Ritz method with a simple,
stable and computationally efficient set of
trigonometric functions. Influence of fiber
orientation, stacking sequence, degree of
orthotropy, aspect ratio and boundary conditions
upon the in-plane vibration behavior are also
discussed.
Du et al. (2007) [14] developed an analytical
method for the in-plane frequencies and mode
shapes of isotropic rectangular plates with
classical boundary conditions and elastically
restrained edges. It assumes displacement
solutions as a linear combination of double
Fourier series with supplementary terms such that
the assumed solution exactly satisfies both the
governing differential equations and the
boundary conditions.
Gorman (2004a, 2004b, 2005 and 2009) [10, 11,
12, 13] introduced the superposition method as a
valuable analytical-type tool to predict in-plane
natural frequencies and mode shapes of isotropic
and especially orthotropic plates. Highly accurate
frequency parameters and shapes of symmetric,
anti-symmetric and symmetric-anti-symmetric
modes are presented for fully clamped plates with
various aspect ratios and orthotropic elastic
properties. It provides solutions which satisfy
103
exactly the governing differential equation

throughout the entire domain of the plate.
Boundary conditions are satisfied to any desired
degree of accuracy by increasing the number of
terms in the solution.
As the previous review demonstrates, not much
approximate solutions are available for free inplane vibration of generally orthotropic multilayered and laminated plates of rectangular
platform with any combination of clamped and
free boundary conditions. Also, very little
research has done to find the accurate in-plane
modal properties of square/rectangular plates
with uniform elastic edge restraints. In order to
achieve the above mentioned goals, the Ritz
method has been adopted due to its
computational simplicity, wide flexibility, high
reliability and computational efficiency.
II.
counterclockwise beginning from the edge x

= a /2. For instance, 1 and 1 are used to
indicate the distributed stiffness for the tangential
and normal springs, respectively, along the
bottom edge of the plate.Noting that, in this
formulation, the stiffness for each of the elastic
restraints is allowed to vary arbitrarily along an
edge, i.e., = () for = 1, 3 and
= ()for = 2,4.
Strain And Kinetic Energy
The strain energy of the rectangular plate is
given by the following expression as per [3].
2
u 2
v
u v
2
A
11
22
12
y
a / 2 b/ 2
x y
x
1

U
dx dy
2
2 a / 2 b / 2 u
u v
v u v
2 A16 x A26 y y x A66 y x
FORMULATION
Where the In-plane rigidities are given as:
Consider a rectangular symmetrically laminated

composite plate of dimensions ab. Where length
is a andwidth b lying in the (x, y) plane
corresponding to the middle surface of the plate.
The plate consists of Nl layers. The material used
is assumed to be homogeneous and orthotropic.
The thickness of the plate is denoted by h and the
kth layer is denoted by hk. The origin of the (x, y)
coordinate system is assumed to be located at the
plate center and the kth layer is located between
the points z = zk and z = zz+1 in the thickness
direction. Displacements of the composite plate
in the x and y direction are indicated with
u=u(x,y,t) and v=v(x, y, t), respectively. An
arbitrary combination of clamped (C) and free (F)
boundary conditions are considered. Throughout
the paper, a four-letter symbolic notation is used
for describing the type of boundaries. For
example, a CFCF plate has clamped edges at x =
a/2 and free edges at y = b/2.
A general support conditions are also considered,
which are represented by massless normal and
tangential springs along each edge.The stiffness
value of each restraining spring is denoted by
where = 1, 2, 3, 4 refers to the plate edge (i.e.,
location) and = U, V
refers to the
corresponding degree of freedom (i.e.,
direction).And the plate boundaries are numbered
Nl
Aij Qij
k 1
Z k 1 Z k
The kinetic energy of the rectangular plate is

given by the following expression:
a / 2 b / 2
u 2 v 2
1
T m0 dx dy
2 a / 2 b / 2 t t
Nl
Where,
m0 k Z k 1 Z k
k 1
k is the density of the kth layer.

In order to treat these equations taking the nondimensional coordinates as:
2x
2y
,
a
b
Consider a harmonic motion with frequency ,

i.e.
u , , t u , e iwt ue iwt
v , , t v , e iwt veiwt
104
The maximum strain energy and the maximum

kinetic energy stored in the plate during in-plane
stretching in a vibratory cycle are calculated as:
U max
2
b u 2
u v
u u
a v
2 A12
2 A16
A11 A22

b
a
1 1
1
v v
b u v
a u v
d d
2 A16
2 A26
2 A26
2 1 1

a
b
2
2
u v
a u
b v
A66 b A66 a 2 A66
Tmax
1 1
1 m0 ab 2
u 2 v 2 d d
2 4
1 1
The energy functional of the system is

determined as:
U max Tmax
Ritz Trigonometric Set
The Ritz approximation method is used to solve
the problem and so it is employed by assuming
the following solutions for the amplitudes u and
v:
M
The trigonometric admissible function first

proposed by Beslin and Nicolas [13] for flexural
vibration of Kirchhoff plates are here applied:
m sinam bm sincm d m
Similarly, n can be defined accordingly

where and m are replaced by and n,
respectively.
n sinan bn sincn dn
Where the coefficients ai, bi, ci and di are listed
in Table 3.1
I
1
2
3
4
>4
ai
/4
/4
/4
/4
/2(i 4)
bi
3/4
3/4
-3/4
-3/4
/2(i 4)
ci
/4
-/2
/4
/2
/2
di
3/4
-3/2
-3/4
-3/2
/2
u , amnmu nu
Table 2.1. coefficients of Ritz trigonometric set
m 1 n 1
M
v , bmnmv nv
m 1 n 1
Where amn and bmn are unknown coefficients and

(),
()
(),
()
are
appropriate admissible functions which satisfies
at least the geometrical boundary conditions of
the problem under consideration. In this related
problem, the following displacement boundary
conditions apply for each edge.
u=v=0
A subset of m()=pm(x) is plotted in Fig. 2.1

where functions of increasing order are arranged
in a matrix-like form. It is seen from the Fig. 1
that the first and third functions 1() and 3()
allow a non-zero displacement at = 1 and
= 1, respectively. Whilesecond and fourth
trigonometric functions 2() and 4(), allow a
free slope at the opposite edges = 1. These
can be interpreted as required degrees of
freedom at the corner nodes of the plate.
: Clamped Edge
graph of p(2)
graph of p(1)
1
graph of p(3)
graph of p(4)
0.5
-0.5
-1
0
0.5
x
graph of p(9)
p(7)
-0.5
0
0.5
x
graph of p(10)
-1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
x
graph of p(14)
p(14)
-0.5
0
x
0.5
-0.5
0
0.5
x
graph of p(11)
-0.5
0
x
0.5
-0.5
0
0.5
x
graph of p(12)
-0.5
0
0.5
x
graph of p(16)
-0.5
0
0.5
x
graph of p(15)
-1
-1
-1
-1
0
0.5
x
graph of p(8)
-1
-1
-1
-1
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-1
p(11)
p(10)
0
0.5
x
graph of p(13)
0
0.5
x
graph of p(7)
-1
-1
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
p(13)
0
-1
p(15)
p(5)
p(6)
-0.5
-1
-1
0
0.5
x
graph of p(6)
-1
-1
-0.5
-0.5
p(8)
p(12)
0
0.5
x
graph of p(5)
p(16)
-0.5
0.5
0
-1
v
m
nu nv n
0.5
0
0
-1
p(9)
m ,
u
m
p(4)
p(3)
0.5
Since homogeneous condition is considered, the

relation involved for both u and v along one
edge, it is assumed as:
p(2)
u, v not restrained : Free Edge
p(1)
0.5
-0.5
0
x
0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0
x
0.5
105
Fig. 2.1. The first 16 functions of Ritz

trigonometric set
The functions 1(), , 4() are arranged in a
similar fashion for = 1. As such, the first four
functions 1, ,4 permit one to easily satisfy
free and clamped boundary conditions by
selecting a proper combination among them. The
four combinations of boundary conditions are
considered in this work are tabulated in Table
2.1
For case m, n > 4 all trigonometric functions
have zero deflection and slope at both ends ,
= 1 and the order of a function is seen related
to the number of oscillations inside the
domain.This offers a great numerical stability
because of its well-conditioned mass and
stiffness matrices are obtained here, even
considering very high order functions
(m, n 1), i.e. M, N can be taken very large
and no special attention to round-off errors is
required.
A further attractive property of the present
trigonometric set has in its simple algebra and
calculus. First, a very low number of operations
are needed contrary to other Ritz functions such
as polynomials to manage them and this number
does not increase with order. Second, all
integrals involved in calculations of mass and
stiffness matrices can be obtained analytically
without restoring to recursive formulas. Last,
using simple trigonometric identities, it can be
shown that a huge number of elements of such
integrals are identically zero. As a consequence,
the mass and stiffness matrices tend to be highly
sparse. , even when it is large can be solved by
very efficient method using MATLAB.
Ritz approximations for u and v, is solved
numerically for the resulting sparse eigenvalue
problem in a very efficient way using, iterative
projection methods of Arnoldi type. An
algorithmic variant of the Arnoldi process called
the Implicitly Restarted Arnoldi method is used
here as implemented in MATLAB via the builtin eigs function.
Boundary Condition (I)

BOUNDARY
1
2
3
4
CONDITIONS
FF
FC
CF

CC
Table 2.2. Combination of first four functions in
the trigonometric set to satisfy the related
boundary condition
Combinations of first four functions are
to satisfy the related boundary condition.
Bullets in a row indicate which
functions are retained in the final set.
Boundary Condition (II)
Classical boundary conditions can be easily
recovered by accordingly setting the values of
the related springs. A free condition along one
edge, designated by the symbol F, is obtained by
setting to zero both the corresponding normal
and tangential spring. Infinitely large value of
both sets of springs allows simulating an
essentially clamped (C) edge. Two distinct sets
of simple support boundary conditions are
physically realizable in the case of in-plane
vibration analysis of rectangular plates. The first
type of simple support condition can be obtained
by specifying infinite stiffness for the tangential
springs and zero stiffness for the normal springs.
Zero and infinite values for the tangential and
normal springs, respectively, allow simulating
the S2-type boundary condition.
In a similar fashion, three types of elastically
restrained edges, indicated by the symbols E1 ,
E 2 and E12 , are here introduced. E1 -type

edges are characterized by elastically restrained
displacement parallel to the edge and free
displacement normal to the edge. On the
contrary, support type E 2 allows free parallel
displacement along the edge and elastically
restrained displacement normal to the edge.
When both normal and parallel displacements
along the edge are elastically restrained, the edge
2
support is denoted by E1 .
106
Coupled Eigenvalue Problem (I)

The coefficient amnand bmn can be obtained by
taking the extremum of the energy functional
is given as:
After putting gives the following coupled

eigenvalue equations:
uu
mnrs rs
vu
mnrs rs
r 1 s 1
M
r 1 s 1
01 10
12 mr ns
a 00 11
b 11 00
uu
10 01
01 10
K mnrs
A22 I mr
I ns A66 I mr
I ns A26 I mr
I ns I mr
I ns
b
a
b
a
vu
K mnrs
A12 I mr01 I ns10 A16 I mr11 I ns00 A26 I mr00 I ns11 A66 I mr10 I ns01
a
b
a
b

b
a
uu
K mnrs
A22 I mr00 I ns11 A66 I mr11 I ns00 A26 I mr10 I ns01 I mr01 I ns10 E mr 1 J ns1V E mr1 J ns3V J mr2V E ns 1 J mr4V E ns1
b
a
2

2
m0 ab 00 00
I mr I ns
4
J mr
k m r d
1
1
J ns
k n s d
1
In which
d m d r
d d d
1
When elastic boundaries are considered, coupled

eigenvalue equations will be formulated as
simple elemental equation and few expressions
are modified as and rest will remain like that
only:
m ab 00 00
0 I mr
I ns
4
vv
a K mnrs
brs 2 M mnrsbrs 0
Where
b 11 00
a
10 01
A I I A16 I mr
I ns A26 I mr00 I ns11 A66 I mr
I ns
a
b
I mr
M mnrs
b 11 00
a 00 11
uv
10 01
01 10
K mnrs
A12 I mr
I ns A16 I mr
I ns A26 I mr
I ns A66 I mr
I ns
a
b
M mnrs
vu
mnrs rs
vv
a K mnrs
brs 2 M mnrsbrs 0
b 11 00
a 00 11
uu
10 01
01 10
K mnrs
A11 I mr
I ns A66 I mr
I ns A16 I mr
I ns I mr
I ns
a
b

r 1 s 1
uv
a K mnrs
brs 2 M mnrsars 0
b
a
b
a
uu
K mnrs
A11 I mr11 I ns00 A66 I mr00 I ns11 A16 I mr10 I ns01 I mr01 I ns10 E mr 1 J ns1U E mr1 J ns3U J mr2U E ns 1 J mr4U E ns1
a
b
2
2
b 11 00
a 00 11
uv
10 01
01 10
K mnrs A12 I mr I ns A16 I mr I ns A26 I mr I ns A66 I mr I ns
a
b
uv
a K mnrs
brs 2 M mnrsars 0
The elements of the plate stiffness and mass

matrices are as follow:
vu
mnrs
uu
mnrs rs
r 1 s 1
0,
0
a mn
bmn
K
M
I ns
d n d s
d d d
1
are the integrals of the derivatives of order and

of the trigonometric functions.
Coupled Eigenvalue Problem (II)
New coupled eigenvalue equations after
considering elastic boundary are following
0
Emr
m 0 r 0 d
0
Ens
n 0 s 0 d
J ns k I ij00
In simplified matrix form for the MATLAB
implementation
the
coupled
eigenvalue
equations can be written as:
K a K b M a 0
uu
mnrs
uv
mnrs
mnrs
K a K b M b 0
vu
mnrs
vv
mnrs
mnrs
107
Results are obtained by adopting a square

selection strategy, where the same number of
terms M = N is used in the series expansion, with
no regard to symmetry.
III.
RESULTS
In this section,several plate problems involving

different combinations of boundary conditions
and complicating factors have been solved by
TRM (Trigonometric Ritz Method) and analysis
has been done to focus on single-layer
composite
plates
made
of
an
isotropic/orthotropic material. First, to check the
accuracy of the applied method validation of the
results are presented in the tabular form. After
that, this method is more expended to the next
level another kind of elastic boundary conditions
are considered and parametric studies are done
by using data in tabular form and graphs are
also drawn to analyze it better.
Validation of the method
(Degree)
15
30
45
FIRST
MODE
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
considered for the comparison of the results and

validity of the work.
Elastic
Modulus
(E1)
(N/ )
Passio
ns
Ratio
(v)
Thicknes
s(h)
(mm)
Leng
th
(a)
(m)
Densi
ty
(rho)
(Kg/
)
70e9
0.3
2.5
2700
Table 3.1. Material properties and dimensions

of the composite plate
For the sake of comparison with data provided in
Ref.3, an orthotropic material with the following
properties is utilized in Table 3.1.
v12v21 v 2 ,
G12
For the sake of comparison with the previous

references and validity of the work few works
are done on the single layer composite plates.
First a square single-layered composite plate (i.e.
b/a=1) is taken into consideration where ratio of
elastic modulus is E2/E1 = 1.5 & 2.5. The angle
of orthotropy in the following tabulated results
will vary from 0 to 90 with 15 increments.
The CCCC and FFFF boundary conditions are
Ang
FFFF(b/a=1)
E2/E1=1.5
Ref.3
Present
1.265
E1 E 2
2 1 v12v 21
The properties used to calculate in-plane nondimensional frequency parameter is given in the
Table 3.1. Results are presented in the form of
the
non-dimensional
in-planefrequency
parameter
is
given
as,
a 1 v12v21
2
E1
Error (%)
FFFF(b/a=1)
E2/E1=2.5
Ref.3
Present
Error (%)
1.3473
6.50592885
1.2906
1.4588
13.032698
1.2831
1.4387
12.1268802
1.4529
1.6924
16.4842728
1.2736
1.3164
3.36055276
1.3103
1.3762
5.02938258
1.2764
1.455
13.9924788
1.3929
1.7414
25.019743
1.2655
1.2717
0.48992493
1.3562
1.2697
6.37811532
1.2943
1.4705
13.6135363
1.3586
1.7854
31.4146916
1.2609
1.2532
0.61067491
1.345
1.232
8.40148699
108
SECOND
1.3076 1.4745
12.7638422 1.3904 1.795
MODE
FIRST
1.2655 1.2717
0.48992493 1.3562 1.2697
MODE
60
SECOND
1.2943 1.4705
13.6135363 1.3586 1.7854
MODE
FIRST
1.2736 1.3164
3.36055276 1.3103 1.3762
MODE
75
SECOND
1.2764 1.455
13.9924788 1.3929 1.7414
MODE
FIRST
1.265
1.3473
6.50592885 1.2906 1.4588
MODE
90
SECOND
1.2831 1.4387
12.1268802 1.4529 1.6924
MODE
Table 3.2. Non-dimensional in-plane frequency parameter of
composite FFFF plates.
Angle
(Degree)
FIRST
MODE
0
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
15
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
30
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
45
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
MODE
60
SECOND
MODE
FIRST
75
MODE
SECOND
29.0995397
6.37811532
31.4146916
5.02938258
25.019743
13.032698
16.4842728
single-layer
CCCC(b/a=1)
CCCC(b/a=1)
E2/E1=1.5
E2/E1=2.5
Ref.3
Present
Error (%)
Ref.3
1.8329
1.84836
0.843472093
2.1175
1.96334
1.8558
1.80412
2.114
1.98584
1.8418
1.74136
2.1066
2.0052
1.8449
1.71556
2.1028
2.0092
1.8418
1.74136
2.1066
2.0052
1.8558
1.80412
2.114
1.98584
7.280283353
2.784782843
-6.06244087
5.453360843
4.813443463
7.010678086
4.451207913
5.453360843
4.813443463
2.784782843
-6.06244087
Present
Error (%)
1.9156
2.0064
4.74002923
2.6132
2.3008
1.9215
1.8879
2.6088
2.3672
1.9341
1.93912
0.25955225
2.5998
2.4178
-7.0005385
1.9408
1.88736
2.5951
2.4244
-6.5777812
1.9341
1.93912
0.25955225
2.5998
2.4178
-7.0005385
1.9215
1.8879
2.6088
2.3672
11.9546916
1.74863388
9.26096289
2.75350371
1.74863388
-
109
MODE
FIRST
MODE
90
SECOND
MODE
9.26096289
1.8329
1.84836
2.1175
1.96334
0.843472093
7.280283353
1.9156
2.0064
2.6132
2.3008
4.74002923
11.9546916
Table 3.3. Non-dimensional in-plane frequency parameter of single-layer composite CCCC

plates.
Further by
using above properties and TRM methodology
in various results for in-plane non-dimensional
frequency is calculated. For the square plate
present results are compared with Ref.3 with
stiffness ratio E2/E1 = 1.5 & 2.5. Computed
eigenvalues are presented in two tables
according to the combination of clamped and
free edge supports. For the FFFF condition this
is depicted in Table 3.2 and for CCCC condition
it is presented in Table 3.3.
For
the
isotropic plate where E2/E1=1, are considered for
the study where elastic boundaries are applied
and various effects are tabulated in present work.
For the analysis the current approach is
E1 E1 E1 E1 plate with
V
V
V
V
edge stiffness k 0 (i.e. k1 k2 k3 k4 k0
investigated for a square
and k1
k 2U k 3U k 4U 0 ).
The first four in-plane dimensionless frequency

From these tables, the influence of aspect ratio,
material stiffness ratio, and angle of orthotropy
and boundary conditions on the in-plane
vibration of single-layer generally orthotropic
plates may be observed. First, it is noted that,
with all the other parameters kept fixed, the
frequency values decrease with increasing
number of free edges. Moreover, for each
boundary support condition, higher eigenvalues
are obtained when the plate has higher stiffness
ratio E2/E1 regardless of aspect ratio and angle of
orthotropy. For both completely free and
completely fixed square plates, i.e., b/a = 1.0 i.e.
Table 3. Due to symmetry, all the frequencies
are symmetric with respect to 45 orientation.
So this can be seen from both the Table 3&4; the
present result is very much close to the previous
work. This gives the validity of the method and
can be used for the further parametric study.
Although in FFFF results for 2nd mode is varying
as compared to other results but this can be
treated in range. Rest all results are quite
friendly compared to the previous one.
Numerical study on isotropic plate
parameters
a 1 v12v21
are shown
2
E1
in Table 4.4 and Table 4.5 for two finite values

of the dimensionless elastic edge stiffness:
k* = k0 (a/2)(1 2)/E.
From using data of Table 4.4 & 4.5 different
kind of elastic edges (E1, E2, E12) and few
values of the dimensionless elastic edge
stiffness, k=1, 102 , 104 , 106 are considered.
It is observed from the calculated nondimensional in-plane frequency parameter that
in the isotropic plate with plate dimension aspect
ratio b/a=1 i.e. a square plate, the effects of E1elastic edge is same as the E2-elastic edge
conditions because of equal length and breadth
of the plate. But when rectangular plate is
considered where aspect ratio b/a=2 is taken for
study, there is some variations in the effects of
E1-elastic edge and E2-elastic edge. While
considering E12-elastic edge conditions, this has
relatively large value of non-dimensional
frequency parameter compared to E1- and E2edge.
110
E1 support (b/a=1)
4th Mode
3.2915
3.215
rd
3 Mode
5.125
4.4504
3.2143
3.2143
2nd Mode
3.2143
3.2143
1.2601
1.2601
st
1 Mode
1.2601
1.2601
1.136
1.2588
E2 support (b/a=1)
4th Mode
3.2915
3.8244
rd
3 Mode
5.125
4.4504
3.2143
3.3126
2nd Mode
3.2143
3.2143
1.2601
1.4547
1st Mode
1.2601
1.2601
1.136
1.3154
E12 support (b/a=1)
2nd Mode
9.21
8.434
7.4011
8.161
1st Mode
5.125
4.2986
3.8803
4.821
Table 4.4. Non-dimensional in-plane frequency parameter of isotropic EEEE plates with aspect ratio b/a=1
E1 support (b/a=2)
4th Mode
rd
6.482
nd
2.1794
0.92926
3 Mode
2 Mode
st
1 Mode
E2 support (b/a=2)
4th Mode
2.8329
2.7547
2.8329
2.1794
2.1794
0.92926
0.61767
0.92926
0.61767
0.92926
0.73413
2.754
2.7953
rd
6.517
2.268
2.268
2.5276
nd
2.754
0.81092
0.81092
1.0852
0.73537
0.73537
0.73537
0.80178
8.517
7.8621
2.8721
6.7079
3 Mode
2 Mode
st
1 Mode
E12 support (b/a=2)
2nd Mode
st
1 Mode
4.482
4.6049
2.6009
3.9778
Table 4.5. Non-dimensional in-plane frequency parameter of isotropic EEEE plates with aspect ratio b/a=2.
For the orthotropic plates where elastic modulus
have different value in different directions, all
studies are done by taking stiffness ratio E1/E2 =
2. All three previously discussed elastic edge
conditions are considered and different values of

the dimensionless elastic edge stiffness, k=1,
101 , 103 , 105are
also
considered.
111
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=1, 1st Mode, Support- E1

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
Non-dimensional frequency paprmeter
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=1, 2nd Mode, Support-E1

5
4
3
2
1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
k=1e-5
K=1
K=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
Figure 4.3. Variation of the first two frequency parameter and dimensionless elastic edge 1 square
composite plate with 1 = 2 with respect to degree of orthotropy
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=1, 1st Mode, Support- E2

1.4
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
K=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=1, 2nd Mode, Support- E2

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
Figure 4.4. Variation of the first two frequency parameter and dimensionless elastic edge 2
square composite plate with 1 = 2 with respect to degree of orthotropy

2
112
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=1, 1st Mode,

Support- E12
20
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=1, 2nd Mode,

Support- E12
20
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
k=1e-5
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
square composite plate with 1 = 2 with respect to degree of orthotropy
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=2, 1st Mode,

Support- E1
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=2, 2nd Mode,

Support- E1
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
K=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
rectangular composite plate with 1 = 2 with respect to degree of orthotropy

2
113
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=2, 1st Mode,

Support- E2
Non-dimensional frequency
paprmeter
paprmeter
0.84
0.82
0.8
0.78
0.76
0.74
0
20
40
60
80
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=2, 2nd Mode,

Support- E2
4
3
2
1
0
0
100
20
k=1e-1
60
80
100
Angle (degree)
Angle (degree)
K=1
40
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
k=1
k=10e-2
k=10e-4
k=10e-6
1
2
= 2 with respect to degree of orthotropy
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=2, 1st Mode,

Support- E12
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
paprmeter
paprmeter
rectangular composite plate with
E1/E2 = 2, b/a=2, 2nd Mode,

Support- E12
15
10
5
0
0
Angle (degree)
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
50
100
Angle (degree)
k=1e-5
k=1
k=1e-1
k=1e-3
k=1e-5
rectangular composite plate with 1 = 2 with respect to degree of orthotropy

2
114
Numerical study on multi-layer composite plate

FREQUENCY PARAMETER
b/a=1
(90/0)2S
th
FFFF
CFCF
3.0535
2.9378
Mode
rd
5.6168
2.4157
2.3160
Mode
nd
4.4042
1.1154
.96926
Mode
1
st
1.51898
.99699
.86661
Mode
(90/02/90)S
4th
1.3698
3.0535
7.2902
2.4157
5.3237
1.1154
3.0651
.99699
2.7405
Mode
3rd
5.6168
Mode
2nd
4.4042
Mode
1st
1.51898
Mode
b/a=2
(90/0)2S
4th
1.3698
2.0004
1.9329
1.9888
1.9041
.85628
.74678
Mode
3rd
3.7186
Mode
2nd
1.18066
.60198
.52013
Mode
(90/02/90)S
4th
0.81118
2.0004
6.1124
1.9888
4.0212
.85628
2.3615
.60198
1.6448
Mode
3rd
3.7186
Mode
2nd
3.6132
Mode
1st
Mode
IV.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented a reasonably

comprehensive set of numerical results for inplane free motion of single-layer generally
orthotropic and symmetrically laminated
rectangular plates with an arbitrary combination
of clamped and free boundaries. An analysis has
done on in-plane vibration analysis of
rectangular plates with uniform elastically
restrained edges. Accurate analytical-type
solutions have been obtained by a highly stable
trigonometric set of trial functions in the Ritz
method.
Following observations and conclusions we
made on the study of In-plane vibrations.
3.6132
Mode
st
CCCC
After validating the results for the single-layer

composite plates, work is next extended to
multi-layer composite plates. Two kinds of
different laminates (90/0)2s and 90/0/0/90)s are
taken. Both are symmetric in nature and each
lamina thickness is 2.5 mm. Three different kind
of basic boundary conditions are considered,
FFFF, CFCF and CCCC. This work is done for
aspect ratio, b/a=1, 2. The non-dimensional
frequencies for four modes are tabulated in the
following Table 4.1.
1.18066
0.81118
Table 4.1: Non-dimensional in-plane frequency

parameter of multi-layer composite plates.
1. First, it is noted that, with all the other

parameters like orthotropic angle, aspect
ratio of the plate, material stiffness ratio
kept fixed, the frequency values decrease
with increasing number of free edges.
2. Moreover, for each boundary support
condition, higher eigenvalues are obtained
when the plate has higher stiffness ratio
E2/E1 regardless of aspect ratio and angle of
orthotropy.
3. For square composite plates, the effects of
E1 and E 2 are same. While for rectangular
plates E1 and E 2 elastic edge have
different effects on the In-plane frequency.
4. Calculated
non-dimensional
In-plane
frequency parameter on the effect of E1
elastic edge and E 2 elastic edge are similar
and value sometime overlaps each other.
This possibility is much for the 1st mode
115
than the 2nd mode and so on while E12

elastic edge offers large value of nondimensional In-plane frequency.
5. It is observed that dimensionless elastic
edge stiffness value (k*) has significant
effects on the non-dimensional frequency
parameter. As the value of dimensionless
elastic edge value is increasing it is shifted
towards fully restrained edges.
6. Angle of orthotropy has varied results for
different cases studied. There is no such
similar pattern. But boundary condition
when keeping same and other parameters
like
material
stiffness
ratio
and
dimensionless elastic edge stiffness value
varies and values of non-dimensional
frequency parameter changes but follows
similar pattern can be seen in the graphs.
V.
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Effect of ply orientation on the in-plane
116
20. EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION OF
COMPARISION OF AIR COOLED
AND WATER COOLED
CONDENSER ATTACHED WITH
COOLING TOWER
Gourav Roy1* ,Taliv Hussain2, Rahul Wandra3
Email:gouravroy2@gmail.com
Abstract-This paper presents an experimental
investigation of comparison of air cooled
condenser and water cooled condenser with
cooling tower. Water cooled condenser is
attached to cooling tower in vapour compression
refrigeration system. The VCRS system is made
with the component of refrigerator to check the
performance of air cooled and water cooled
condenser with cooling tower. Data is noted
after steady state condition is achieved in the
system and the properties of refrigerant (R143a)
and air remained constant after (20min).
Experimental test are performed at two ambient
air temperatures 27C and 30C.At 27C
ambient temperature the COP of air cooled
condenser is 4.59 which is increases up to 4.817
when VCRS attached with cooling tower.
Similarly at 30C ambient temperature the COP
varies from 4.49 to 4.58 when we move from air
cooled condenser to water cooled condenser
attached with cooling tower. There is an increase
in the COP of VCRS attached with cooling tower
as compare to air cooled condenser.
Keywords-Air cooled condenser, Water
cooled
condenser,
vapour
compression
refrigeration system, evaporative cooling pad.
Nomenclature-COP
Coefficient of
performance
h1
Enthalpy of refrigerant at inlet of
compressor in kj/kg
h2 Enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of compressor
in kj/kg
h3
Enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of the
condenser kj/kg
h4 Enthalpy of refrigerant at entry of evaporator
in kj/kg
mref Mass flow rate of refrigerant

Qr Cooling effect
Wc Compressor work
T1 Suction temperature of refrigerant into the
compressor
T2
Discharge temperature of refrigerant into
the compressor
T3 Condenser outlet temperature of refrigerant
T4
Outlet temperature of refrigerant from
capillary tube
I
Inlet current
V
Inlet voltage
I.
INTRODUCTION
The key to nation building lies in the

optimum and proper use of energy and capital.
Research on refrigeration and air conditioning
has facilitated the correction of human vision; it
has given us vast technology such as VCRS,
VARS, psychometry etc .India Scientific Policy
Resolution (SPR) of 1958 emphasis use of the
scientific approach toward development of
nation building which remains valid even today.
In refrigeration and air conditioning domain,
several scientists have contributed greatly to our
understanding of VCRS. During 1834 the first
mechanical device cooling system have been
develop later it become vapour compressor.
The major objective of our
experiment involved compare between the air
cooled and water cooled condenser attached with
cooling tower. Water cooled condenser has some
special advantage in order to increase the
performance as compared to air condenser. We
can increase the COP of system by attached with
it cooling tower. By taking two different ambient
temperature 27C and 30C,calculate following
parameter such discharge pressure, suction
pressure, Condenser Outlet Temperature,
Condenser Inlet Temperature etc. As we
increase the ambient temperature COP get
decrease for air condenser as well as water
condenser with cooling tower .For air cooled
condenser at 27C and 30C, COP is 4.59 and
4.49.Similarly for water cooled condenser at
27C and 30C, COP is 4.817 and 4.58
respectively.
II.
LITERATURE SURVEY
117
S.S. Hu, B.J. Huang et al. [1] conducted an

experimental investigation on a split air
conditioner having water cooled condenser.
They developed a simple water-cooled air
conditioner utilizing a cooling tower with
cellulose pad filling material to cool the water
for condensing operation. The experimental
investigation verified that the water-cooled
condenser and cooling tower results in
decreasing the power consumption of the
compressor.
Sreejith K et al. [2] Heat can be recovered by
using the water-cooled condenser and the system
can work as a waste heat recovery unit. The
recovered heat from the condenser can be used
for bathing, cleaning, laundry, dish washing etc.
The modified system can be used both as a
refrigerator and also as a water heater. Therefore
by retrofitting a water cooled condenser it
produce hot water and even reduce the utility bill
of a small family. In this system the watercooled condenser is designed as a tube in tube
heat exchanger of overall length of 1m. It
consists of an inlet for the cooling water and an
exit for collecting the hot water. The hot water
can be used instantly or it can be stored in a
thermal storage tank for later use.
Adarsh Mohan Dixit, Aditya Desai,
Akshay Vyas et al.[3] They made setup of 1.5
ton air conditioner was constructed and tested in
the present study. The experimental results show
the coefficient of performance (COP) reaches
8.03 that are higher than the standard value
(5.98) of those conventional residential split air
conditioners.
Kulkarni and Rajput [4] theoretically
analyzed the performance of indirect-direct two
stages cooler with cellulose and aspen media in
direct stage. They selected the most frequently
occurring inlet condition of 39.9 0C DBT and
32.8 % RH for the analysis. The saturation
efficiency ranged from 121.5 to 106.7 % for two
stages cooler.
III EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
cellulose pad are used in cooling tower cool the

warm water discharged from the condenser and
feed the cooled water back to the condenser. The
COP varies from 27C to 30C as the ambient
temperature increase. Initially our setup is air
cooled condenser .Through with the help of
external fan air is circulated to air condenser in
VCRS system. Air passes horizontally through
condenser and takes latent heat from the
refrigerant which further helps to condense the
refrigerant.
Our experiment setup consists of single stage
vapour compression system which contains
different components parts such as expansion
device, compressor, evaporator and evaporative
cooled condenser. The compressor of volume
(cc) 4.5 are used to increase the pressure and
temperature of refrigerant (R134a).Here the
capillary tube is used, made up of a copper tube
of very small diameter. Capillary tube used as
expansion device. The evaporator is used to
reduce the pressure, dissipating heat and making
liquid refrigerant to much cooler. Evaporator
used in this experiment setup is tube and fin
type.
Fig.1 Air Cooled Condenser

After calculated different parameter by using air
condenser, now condenser is dipped in water
tank which is attached to cooling tower as shown
in (Fig.2).
In the present work we have concentrated

toward the comparison of air cooled and water
cooled which is attached to cooling tower. Here
118
Fig.3 Cellulose pad within cooling tower

IV.
EXPERIMENT
DISCUSSION
PARAMET
ERS
UNIT
Fig.2 Water Cooled condenser with cooling

tower
Different measuring devices are used in this
experiment setup such as Digital Thermometer
TPM-10, which gives the temperature at various
points within the system. Pressure gauge is also
used; first pressure gauge measures the suction
pressure before the compressor and second
pressure gauge measure the discharge pressure
after the compressor. Similarly ammeter and
voltmeter are used to measure the current and
voltage to input to the system.
A cellulose pad of 2 inch thickness is installed in
the cooling tower. The main function of
cellulose pad is to provide the evaporative action
by transferring the latent heat of water coming
from water dip condenser.
RESULT
AND
Air
Cooled
condens
er
Water
cooled
condense
r
with
cooling
tower
At
27
C
At
30
C
At
27
C
At
30
C
Suction
Pressure
Psi
12
12
Discharge
Pressure
Psi
21
5
21
5
150
15
0
Condenser
Inlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius
C
40.
1
42.
3
37.
2
39.
4
Condenser
Outlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius
C
36.
2
38.
4
28.
9
31.
1
Compressor
Inlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius
C
9.1
11.
1
19.
1
21.
1
Compressor
Outlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius
C
44.
4
46.
4
40.
1
42.
1
Evaporator
Inlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius
C
23.
4
22.
7
22.
5
21.
8
Evaporator
Outlet
Temperature
Degree
Celsius
C
13.
1
12.
4
17.
6
16.
9
urrent
Ampere 1.2
A
1.2
1.2
1.2
119
Voltage
Volt V
20
0
20
0
200
20
0
Dry
Bulb Degree
Temperature
Celsius
C
27
27
25
25
Wet
Bulb Degree
Temperature
Celsius
C
20
20
15
15
Fig 4: Pressure-Enthalpy diagram for air cooled

condenser and water cooled with cooling tower
at an ambient temperature 27C
Table 1: Result of the experiment of air cooled

cooling tower
The above table at an ambient temperature 27 C
and 30 C respectively. Our experiment was
carried out in two consequent steps. In initial
step we have taken air cooled condenser and
calculated COP. Further that we dipped the
condenser in water and condenser is attached
with cooling tower. While performing the
experiment refrigerant and air remained constant
in order to achieve steady state also current and
voltage is constant for both the ambient
temperature 27C and 30C in air cooled
cooling tower.
Fig 5: Pressure-Enthalpy diagram for air cooled

condenser and water cooled with cooling tower
at an ambient temperature 30C
V. CALCULATION AND RESULT
parameter at air cooled condenser and water
cooled condenser attached with cooling tower.
a. Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref* (h2
h1)
d. COP =
Where,
120

condenser kj/kg (3)
Parameter
COP
Air Cooled Water

condenser
Cooled
condenser
27
C
30
C
27
C
30
C
4.59
4.49
4.817 4.58

temperature 27C and 30C
after taking latent heat from refrigerant with the

help of pump it circulate to cooling tower where
it became to cooled down and again circulate to
condenser. From(graph 1) which shown that the
COP of system decrease as the ambient
temperature goes on increase. The test result
shown that at an ambient temperature 27C
when we move from air cooled condenser to
water cooled condenser with cooing tower there
is 4.94% COP gain. Similarly at an ambient
temperature 30C there is 2% rise in COP as we
move from air condenser to water condenser
with cooling tower.
REFERENCES
[1] S.S. Hu, B.J. Huang, Study of a high
efficiency residential split water-cooled air
conditioner, Applied Thermal Engineering 25
(2005) 15991613
[2] Experimental Investigation of A Domestic
Refrigerator Having water cooled condenser
using various compressor oils, Sreejith K,
Assistant Professor, Dept.Of Mechanical.
[3] Improving efficiency of air conditioner by
cellulose
pad/International
journal
of
engineering science & humanities ISSN 22503552
Graph 1: cop variation with ambient temperature
[4] Kulkarni R.K., Rajput S.P.S.,(2011) :

Theoretical Performance Analysis of IndirectDirect Evaporative Cooler in Hot and Dry
Climates, International Journal of Engineering
Science and Technology, 3, pp.1239-1251.
From the above graph it is clear shown that as

the ambient temperature increase COP of system
in both cases 27C and 30C decrease .AS the
COP decrease cooling capacity of system is also
decrease. But COP in water cooled condenser
with cooling tower have higher COP than simple
air condenser in both ambient temperature 27C
and 30C.
VI CONCLUSION
This air cooled condenser design is very simple
and easy to use. We used same condenser and
dipped in water it became water cooled
condenser, further it is attached to normal
cooling tower. The hot water from condenser
121
21. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID FLOW

ANALYSIS OF HIGH SPEED
CRYOGENIC TURBINE USING
CFX
Sushant Upadhyay, Shreya Srivastava, Siddharth
Sagar, Surabhi Singh, Hitesh Dimri
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS
Academy of Technical Education,
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
sushantupadhyay747@gmail.com
Abstract A turbo expander also

referred as an expansion turbine, is a centrifugal
or axial flow turbine through which a
high pressure gas is expanded to produce work
that is often used to drive a compressor. The low
pressure exhaust gas from the turbine is at a very
low temperature that is 120K or less depending
upon the operating conditions. It is widely used
as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes
and
liquefaction
of
gases
such
as oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon and krypton.
A cryogenic system needs many components,
compressor, heat exchanger, expansion turbine,
instrumentation, vacuum vessel etc. At present
most of these process plants operate at medium
or low pressure due to its inherent advantages. A
basic component which is essential for these
processes is the turbo expander.
The main aim of this project to attain a
minimum temperature and pressure and to study
the variation of Mach number and entropy. This
is done by computational fluid flow analysis of
high speed rotating turbine. This involves with
the three dimensional analysis of flow through a
radial expansion turbine, using nitrogen as
flowing fluid. The work is performed
on
various modules of Ansys that is BladGen,
TurboGrid, CFX-Pre, CFX-Post. Bladegen is
used to create the model of turbine using
available data of hub, shroud and blade profile.
Turbogrid is used to mesh the model. CFX-Pre
is used to define the physical parameters of the
flow through the Turbo expander. CFX-Post is
used for examining and analyzing results. Using
these
results
variation
of
different
thermodynamic properties like Temperature,

Pressure, Mach number, entropy etc. inside the
turbine can be seen.
Several graphs are plotted showing the
variation of pressure, temperature, entropy and
Mach number along streamline and span wise to
analyze the flow through cryogenic turbine.
KeywordsRadial
Turbogrid, CFX
I.
turbine,
Bladegen,
INTRODUCTION
Turbo expanders are high speed rotating

devices typically used in cryogenic applications
including natural gas, petrochemicals and air
separation industries. As high pressure gas is
expanded across the turbine to produces
cryogenic temperature, the majority of the
energy potential in the gas is extracted and
transferred through the shaft to run the
compressor.
Though nature has provided an abundant
supply of gaseous raw materials in the
atmosphere (oxygen, nitrogen) and beneath the
earths crust (natural gas, helium), we need to
harness and store them for meaningful use. For
large-scale storage, transportation and for low
temperature applications liquefaction of the
gases is necessary. For producing atmospheric
gases like nitrogen, oxygen and argon in large
scale, low temperature distillation provides the
most economical route. The low temperature
required for liquefaction on of common gases
can be obtained by several processes.
Compared to the high and medium pressure
systems, turbine based plants have the advantage
of high thermodynamic efficiency, high
reliability and easier integration with other
systems. The expansion turbine is the heart of a
modern cryogenic refrigeration or separation
system. Cryogenic process plants may also use
reciprocating expanders in place of turbines.
II.
OVERVIEW OF CRYOGENIC
TURBOEXPANDER
The turboexpander essentially consists of a
turbine wheel and a brake compressor mounted
on a single shaft, supported by the required
122
number of journal and thrust bearings. These

basic components are held in place by an
appropriate housing, which also contains the
fluid inlet and exit ducts. The basic components
are turbine wheel, brake compressor, shaft,
nozzle, bearing, diffuser, seals, etc.
passage has a profile of a three dimensional

converging duct, changing from purely radial to
an axial-tangential direction. Work is extracted
as the process gas undergoes expansion with
corresponding drop in static temperature.
III. OBJECTIVE OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION
In the technologically advanced countries
many industrial gas manufacturers have
switched over from the high-pressure Linde and
medium pressure reciprocating engine based
Claude systems to the modern expansion turbine
based, low pressure cycles. Thus in modern
cryogenic plants use turboexpander as one of the
most important components.
For the development of computational fluid
flow analysis of turbo expander system this
project thas been initiated. The objectives
include: (i) building computational fluid
dynamic knowledge base on cryogenic
turboexpanders
(ii)
construction
of
a
computational fluid flow model and study of its
performance.
IV. LITERATURE REVIEW
Most of the rotors for small and medium

sized plants are vertically oriented for easy
installation and maintenance. It consists of a
shaft with the turbine wheel fitted at one end and
the brake compressor at the other. The highpressure process gas enters the turbine through
piping to the cold end housing and, from there,
into the nozzle ring. The fluid accelerates
through the converging passages of the nozzles.
Pressure energy is transformed into kinetic
energy, so that reduction in static temperature
takes place. The high velocity gas streams
impinge on the rotor blades, imparting force to
the rotor and creating torque. The nozzles and
the rotor blades are so aligned as to eliminate
sudden changes in flow direction and consequent
loss of energy. The turbine wheel is of radial or
mixed flow geometry, i.e. the flow enters the
wheel radially and exits axially. The blade
One of the main components of most

cryogenic plants is the expansion turbine or the
turboexpander. Since the turboexpander plays
the role of the main cold generator, its
properties- reliability and working efficiency to
a great extent, affect the cost effectiveness
parameters of the entire cryogenic plant.
The concept that an expansion turbine might
be used in cycle for the liquefaction of gases
was first introduced by Lord Rayleigh in a letter
to Nature dated June 1898. He discussed the
use of a turbine instead of a piston expander for
the liquefaction of air. In 1898, a British
engineer named Edgar C. Thrupppatenteda
liquefying machine using an expansion turbine.
A simple method sufficient for the design of a
high efficiency expansion turbine is outlined by
Kun et. al [1-2].
Agahiet. al. [3-4] have explained the design
process of the turboexpander utilizing modern
technology, such as CFD software, Computer
Numerical Control Technology and Holographic
Techniques to further improve anal ready
123
impressive
turboexpander
efficiency
performance. Several characteristics values are
used for defining significant performance
criteria of turbo machines such as turbine
velocity ratio, pressure ratio, flow coefficient
factor and specific speed [5]. Balje has
presented a simplified method for computing the
efficiency of radial turbo machines and for
calculating their characteristics [6].The concept
of specific speed was first introduced for
classifying hydraulic machines. Balje [7]
introduced this parameter in design of gas
turbines and compressors.
PhD dissertation of Ghosh [8] explains the
detailed summary of technical features and
experimental
analysis
of
cryogenic
turboexpander. S.K. Ghosh, R.K. Sahoo, S.K.
Sarangi in 2005 gave a computational approach
to the design of a cryogenic turbine blade
profile[9].
considered as the mean surface within a blade.

The solid surface are developed using non
uniform rational B splines. The suction and
pressure surfaces of two adjacent channels are
computed by translating the mean surface in the
positive and negative theta direction through half
the blade thickness.
Blade merge topology property is used after
making all the surfaces. The blade faces will be
merged where they are tangent to one another.
Create fluid zone property is selected, to create a
stage fluid zone body for the flow passage, and
an enclosure feature to subtract the blade body.
This resulting enclosure can be used for a CFD
analysis of the blade passage. Create all blades
this property is used to create All the blades are
created using create all blades property by
specifying the number of blades in the Bladegen
model. Here we are using ten numbers of blades.
Different views and curves of radial expansion
turbine in bladegen are as following.
V.
COMPUTATIONAL
ANALYSIS
FLUID
FLOW
Mainly three steps are involved in

computational
fluid
flow
analysis
of
turboexpander. Bladegen is used to create the
model of turbine using available data of hub,
shroud and blade profile. Turbogrid is used to
mesh the model. CFX-Pre is used to define and
specify the simulation settings and physical
parameters required to describe the flow through
turboexpander at inlet and outlet. CFX-Post is
used for examining and analyzing results. The
present design procedure is available in literature
[8].
VI. BLADEGEN
MODEL
DESIGNING
OF
Fig.1 Meridional blade profile with different

spans
THE
Designing of model is done by Bladegen

module available in Ansys by using available
hub, shroud and blade profile coordinates. The
hub and the tip streamlines are taken from the
literature [8, 9]. The hub and tip streamlines are
joined with a set of tie lines to create a surface.
Blade Editor will loft the blade surfaces in the
streamwise direction through curves that run
from hub to shroud. The surface so generated is
124
Fig.2 Variation of beta and theta at different

spans
Fig.4 Turbine rotor view after importing from

Bladegen
Fig.3 Solid Model of turbine generated in

Bladegen
VII. MESHING OF TURBINE MODEL
Turbogrid is used for meshing of model. High
quality hexahedral meshes are created that are
tuned to the demands of fluid dynamic analysis
in turbine rotor. Geometry information regarding
turbine rotor is imported from bladegen.
Turbogrid uses this bladegen file to set the axis
of rotation, the number of blades, and a length
unit that characterizes the scale of the machine.
After setting topology definition, mesh data
setting is used to control the number and
distribution of mesh elements. Here the target
number of nodes are set upto 250000 to produce
a fine mesh. Before generating the 3D mesh, the
mesh quality should be checked on the layers,
especially the hub and shroud tip layers. After
correcting mesh quality on layers, the mesh is
generated with 228640 nodes and 206368
elements.
Fig.5 Turbine rotor view after setting topology

VIII. PHYSICS DEFINITION OF MESHED
MODEL IN
CFX-PRE
CFX-Pre is also known as physics-definition
pre-processor for ANSYS CFX. In CFX,
physics of meshed turbine rotor is defined using
turbo mode. Under basic setting in turbo mode,
we set the machine type as radial turbine and
rotation axis to z. In component definition we
set component type rotating and set rotation
value 218780 rev/min. A list of regions that
correspond to certain boundary types will
automatically be selected by turbo mode. This
information should be reviewed in the Region
Information section to ensure that all is correct.
Boundary conditions and interfaces are set up
using this information. Tip clearance at shroud
is set up in the wall configuration option.
Physics definition tab is used to set fluid
type, analysis type, model data, inflow and
outflow boundary templates and solver
parameters.
After setting physics definition CFX-Pre will try
to create appropriate interfaces and boundary
conditions using the region names presented
previously in the region information.
125
Fig.6 Flow direction at inlet and outlet

IX. OBTAINING RESULTS IN CFX CFDPOST
Fig.7 Pressure variation along streamwise inlet

to outlet
CFD-Post is a flexible, state of art postprocessor. It is used to allow easy visualization

and quantitative analysis of results of CFD
simulations. Speed of post-processing for turbo
machinery simulation can be increased using
turbo workspace. It includes all the expected
plotting objects like, plans, isosurfaces, vectors,
streamlines, contours, animations, etc. Precise
quantitative analysis such as weighted average,
forces, results, compariso11111ns, built in and
user defined macros can be easily done. It can
create user defined scalar and vector variables.
CFD-Post includes automatic reports, charts, and
tables.
X. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig.8 Pressure variation along span wise
Various graphs and contours available from

generated results are as following.
TEMPERATURE
VARIATION
STREAMWISE AND SPANWISE
PRESSURE
VARIATION
STREAMWISE AND SPANWISE
ALONG
Static and total pressure variation can be

seen from the graph below. Total pressure varies
from 3 bar to 1.6 bar while static pressure varies
from 2.4 bar to 1.27 bar along streamline from
inlet to outlet of turbine rotor.
ALONG
Static and total temperature variation can be

seen from the graph below. Total temperature
varies from 99.6K to 96.7K, while static
temperature varies from 88.2K to 90K along
streamline from inlet to outlet of turbine rotor.
126
Fig.9 Temperature variation along streamwise

inlet to outlet
Fig.11 Mach Number variation along streamwise

inlet to outlet
ENTROPY
STREAMWISE
VARIATION
ALONG
Fig.10 Temperature variation along spanwise
MACH NUMBER
STREAMWISE
VARIATION
ALONG
Fig.12 Entropy variation along streamwise inlet

to outlet
127
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering (1996),

V41, 941-947
[4] R. R. Aghai, M. C. Lin, B. Ershaghi,
Improvements of the efficiency of the
turboexpanders in cryogenic applications
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering (1996),
V41, 933-940
[5] von der Nuell , W. T. Single - stage radial
turbine for gaseous substances with high
rotative and low specific speed Trans ASME
(1952), V74, 499-51
Fig.13 Velocity vectors at 50% span
XI. CONCLUSION
This work is a modest attempt at flow analyzing
inside a cryogenic turboexpander through
computational fluid dynamic. A prototype
expander has been designed, meshed and
simulated using this recipe. The design
procedure covers the designing of hub, shroud
and blade profile of turboexpander in Bladegen.
A CFX model has been developed for flow
analysis inside the turbine rotor. The modelling
of the various parts of the turbine is done in
Bladegen and the computational fluid flow
analysis is done using CFX. Various graphs and
contours
indicating
the
variations
of
temperature, pressure, velocity inside the turbine
along the streamline are given.
[6] O. E. Balje, A contribution to the problem of

designing radial turbomachines Trans ASME
(1952), V74, 451-472
[7] O. E. Balje, A study on design criteria and
matching of turbomachines: Part-A
similarity relations and design criteria of
turbines Trans ASME J Eng Power (1972),
83-101
[8]
Ghosh,
S.k.
Experimental
and
Computational Studies on Cryogenic
Turboexpander Ph.D dissertation, NIT
Rourkela.
[9] Ghosh, S.K., Seshaiah, N., Sahoo, R.K.,

Sarangi, S.K. Design of Turboexpander for
Cryogenic applications, Indian Journal of
Cryogenics, Special Issue - Vol.2, 75-81
[10]Dimri, H. Computaional Fluid Flow
Analysis of
Cryogenic Turboexpander
M.Tech dissertation, NIT- Rourkela.
XII. REFERENCES
[1] L.C. Kun, T.C. Hanson, High efficiency
turboexpander
in a N2 liquefier AICHE
Spring meeting, Houston, Texas (1985).
[2] L. C. Kun, Expansion turbines and
refrigeration
for gas separation and
liquefaction
Advances
in
Cryogenic
Engineering (1987), V33, 963-973
[3] R. R. Aghai, M. C. Lin, B. Ershaghi, High
Performance
cryogenic
turboexpanders
128
22. THERMAL
ANALYSIS
OF
VARIOUS PERFORATED TREE
SHAPED FIN ARRAY USING
ANSYS
Sachin Kumar Gupta, Rahul Singh, Divyank
Dubey, Harishchandra Thakur
sachin93gupta@gmail.com
harish@gbu.ac.in
AbstractThe effective heat transfer from
surfaces using various shapes and sizes extended
surface has been a constant research interest. In
the field of electronics, augmentation of heat
transfer using fins has been a continuous
challenge. With the evolution of various
structures and materials to manufacture fins has
progress more quickly to the research. The
present paper discusses the possibility of using
different types of perforated and non-perforated
tree fin array as a fin for a processor in a
computer terminal. The investigation is
conducted to compare heat transfer from arrays
of Tree fins without and with different
perforations. This would be accomplished by 3D
modeling and analysis using ANSYS, 14.5. The
main goal is to increase the heat transfer rate
through the fin surface and saving material cost.
Savings in materials and energy provide strong
motivation for the development of improved
methods of enhancement. The perforations are
applied to smooth surfaces to promote flow
mixing and initiate turbulence in the flow. Seven
fins are designed in this research first fin is plane
tree fin, three having 6 perforation and another
having 12 perforation of different shapes (circle,
square and ellipse). The different shape
perforations on the fins have same cross section
area. The results show that for same base
temperature the greater perforated fins having
higher temperature drop then lesser numbered
perforated tree fins and plane tree fin. Square
perforated tree fin gives best value of
temperature drop than the other perforated tree
fins and plane tree fin.
Keywordstree shaped fin, , perforated fin,
convection, heat transfer,
I.
INTRODUCTION
In todays modern age the miniaturization of

mother boards and processors and the sudden
spurt in their usage has intensified the search for
the right kind of heat dissipation mechanisms
from electronic chips. The heat transfer can be
augmented by the three different techniques such
as Passive techniques, Active techniques and
Compound techniques. The active heat transfer
augmentation techniques have not found
commercial interest because of the capital and
operating cost of the enhancement devices. The
majority of passive techniques employ special
surface geometry or fluid additives for
augmentation . Passive techniques are the best
enhancement techniques. Extended surfaces are
widely used passive techniques to augment heat
transfer.
II.
CLASIFICATION OF
ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES
Heat transfer enhancement or augmentation

techniques refer to the improvement of thermo
hydraulic performance of heat exchangers.
Existing enhancement techniques can be broadly
classified into three different categories:
1. Passive Techniques
2. Active Techniques
3. Compound Techniques.
The effectiveness of any of these methods is
strongly dependent on the mode of heat transfer
(single- phase free or forced convection, pool
boiling, forced convection boiling or
condensation, and convective mass transfer), and
type and process application of the heat
exchanger.
a. Passive Techniques
These techniques use surface or geometrical
modifications to the flow channel by adding
inserts or additional devices. They alter the
existing flow behaviour (except for extended
surfaces) which promote higher heat transfer
coefficients also increase pressure drop. Passive
techniques do not require any direct input of
external power rather use it from the system
itself which leads to an increase in fluid pressure
drop. Heat transfer augmentation by these
techniques can be achieved by using:[3]
129
(i) Treated Surfaces: Surface having a fine

scale alter their finish or coating which may be
continuous or discontinuous. They are used for
Boiling and condensing duties.
(ii) Rough surfaces: The surface modification
which promote turbulence in the flow field.
(iii) Extended surfaces: It provide effective
heat transfer and modified finned surfaces also
led to improve the heat transfer coefficients by
disturbing the flow field in addition to increasing
the surface area.
(iv) Displaced enhancement devices: These
are the inserts that are used primarily in confined
forced convection, and they improve energy
transport indirectly at the heat exchange surface
by displacing the fluid from the heated or cooled
surface of the duct with bulk fluid from the core
flow.
(v) Swirl flow devices: They produce and
superimpose swirl flow or secondary
recirculation on the axial flow in a channel.
These include helical strip or cored screw type
tube inserts, twisted tapes. They can be used for
single phase and two-phase flows.
(vi) Coiled tubes: These lead to relatively
more compact heat exchangers. It produces
secondary flows and vortices which promote
higher heat transfer coefficients in single phase
flows as well as in most regions of boiling.
(vii) Surface tension devices: These consist
of wicking or grooved surfaces, which direct and
improve the flow of liquid to boiling surfaces
and from condensing surfaces.
(viii) Additives for liquids: These include the
addition of solid particles, soluble trace additives
and gas bubbles in single phase flows and trace
additives which usually depress the surface
tension of the liquid for boiling systems.
(ix) Additives for gases: It include liquid
droplets or solid particles which are introduced
in single- phase gas flows either as dilute phase
(gas-solid suspensions) or as dense phase
(fluidized beds).
b. Active Techniques
These techniques are more complex from the
application and design point of view as the
method requires some external power input to

cause the desired flow modification and to
improve heat transfer rate. It have limited
application as it require external power as it is
difficult to provide external power input in many
cases. Augmentation of heat transfer by this
method can be achieved:
(i) Mechanical Aids: Instrument stir the fluid
by mechanical means or by rotating the surface
which includes rotating tube heat exchangers
and scrapped surface heat exchangers.
(ii) Surface vibration: Applied in single phase
flows to obtain higher heat transfer coefficients.
(iii) Fluid vibration: Used in single phase
flows and considered to be the most practical
type of vibration enhancement technique.
(iv) Electrostatic fields: The form of electric
or magnetic fields or a combination of the two
from dc or ac sources, which can be applied in
heat exchange systems involving dielectric
fluids. Depending on the application, it can also
produce greater bulk mixing and induce forced
convection or electromagnetic pumping to
augment heat transfer
(v) Injection: Technique is used in single
phase flow and pertains to the method of
injecting the same or a different fluid into the
main bulk fluid either through a porous heat
transfer interface or upstream of the heat transfer
section.
(vi) Suction:
removal through
nucleate or film
through a porous
flow.
It involves either vapour

a porous heated surface in
boiling, or fluid withdrawal
heated surface in single-phase
(vii) Jet impingement: It involves the

direction of heating or cooling fluid
perpendicularly or obliquely to the heat transfer
c. Compound Techniques
A compound augmentation technique is the
one in which more than one of theabove
mentioned techniques is used in combination for
improving the thermo-hydraulicperformance of a
heat exchanger.
130
III.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A variety of experimental, analytical and

Numerical research work has been carried out
on enhancing of heat transfer. The tree shaped
flow paths are the most common and visible way
of distribution in the engineering as well as the
actual world entity propagation. The tree shaped
flow paths have been put in place on the
principle of global optimization of system
performance subject to global constraints [1].
The intension of optimization is the
minimization of overall resistance offered by the
volume-point flow.
Thermal performance and mass minimization of
extended surfaces was studied for rectangular,
pin and triangular shaped arrays for effective
heat dissipation from various surfaces by
different convection models natural and
forced[2,3,4,5,]. With the various availability of
latest materials and methodologies of transport
and thermal media deposition, the landscape of
heat dissipation has changed.
A systematic theoretical investigation of the
effects of fin spacing, fin height, fin length and
temperature difference between fin and
surroundings on the free convection heat transfer
from horizontal fin arrays was carried out with a
parametric study to ascertain optimum
performance, this performance was analyzed and
shown that it cannot be obtained from one or
two parameters[6]. Experimental investigations
on pin-fin arrays subjected to forced convection
environments to find the dependencies of nusselt
number on Reynolds number yielded good
results [7].
The effect of free convective heat transfer from
fins and fin arrays attached to a heated
horizontal base was experimentally studied [8].
The technique of variable interferometry has
been exploiting and experiments have been
carried out under steady state conditions.
The utilization of tree shaped fins for effective
heat dissipation in space environment was
studied [9]. This paper discusses about different
tree fin shaped for Aluminium materials keeping
volume constant. The usages of square fins in
the heat sink used for the processor were result
to be lower heat conducting capability than other
tree fins.
IV.
ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS
Numerical studies were conducted to

determine the heat transfer on the different
aluminium fins for natural convection.Analytical
study has been calculated on following
assumptions:
1. The fin material is homogeneous and
isotropic.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over
the fin surface.
3. There are no heat sources within the fin itself.
4. There is no free convection or radiation heat
transfer.
V.
CFD MODELING AND

SIMULATION
The model is designed in Solidworks and

simulation performed in ANSYS 14.5.
Workbench environment with ANSYS system of
steady state thermal has the capability of solving
the convective transport of energy and the
thermal conduction in solids. In the any CFD
simulation, the steps in performing fluid analysis
are:
7) Modeling in Solidworks
8) Import the geometry in ANSYS steady state
thermal
9) Generating mesh
10) Set up the analysis by providing boundary
conditions
11) Control and monitor the solver to achieve a
solution
12) Visualize the results and create a report.
a. Create Geometry
Different fin geometries were designed using
Solidworks software which is specifically
designed and preparation of geometry for
simulation. The selection of tree fins with three
stems is selected with the angle between the
stems taken as 90oas has been reported to be the
best when considering other angles of 30o and
60o[9].
131
Figure 12: (a) Tree fin with 6 perforation (b)Tree

fin with 12 perforation
B.Create Mesh for the Geometry
Figure 11: Sketch of the proposed plane tree fin

In this research we made tree fins having base
sheet length of 10010010mm, height of the
fin 55 mm and its thickness is 5 mm as shown in
fig 2.
TABLE I.
TABLE 1: DIMENSIONS OF GIVEN TO
THE TREE FIN
Steam
Number(
S)
Lengt
h
(mm)
Slot
Dimensio
n
(mmm
m)
1
25.0
10
5
None
2
17.7
7.1
5
55
3
12.5
5
5
3.553.5
5
4
12.5
5
5
2.52.5
There are 6 newly designed fins in which 3 fins
having 6 perforation and another 3 fins having
12 perforation of square, circular, and elliptical
shape shown in fig1. The base areas of various
perforated shapes are kept same to know the
effect of shape on heat transfer through
perforated fin.
a)
Widt
h
(mm)
Dept
h
(mm
)
The standard Mesher in a Steady State Thermal

which enables an automatic mesh generation
using efficient mesh generation techniques,
meshes were created with high contact sizing
relevance (dense meshing near the dimple
surface). The total number of elements and
nodes are 6564 and 13678 respectively.
C.Analysis Setup
Under Steady State Thermal of the ANSYS
Workbench, appropriate materials Aluminum
assigned to the created fin. Then we move to
setup for applying boundary conditions to the
fin. The temperature of base of fin is fixed at
95oC and natural convective heat transfer from
other face of the fins.
D. Visualizing the Results
When the solver was terminated, the results were
examined which is the post processing step.
Temperature distributionand heat flux along the
fin surface as well as parameters and changes in
other parameters can also be predicted by
computational analysis. Fig.3 shows the
temperatureover the convective surface area of
the plane, 6 perforated and 12 perforated fins
respectively. It can be seen that the larger
perforated fin are pumping out the more heat
from the base. The top ends of the fins are
cooled faster.
b)
a)
132
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Figure 13: Temperature contours a) plane b) 6 circular perforation c) 12 circular perforation d) 6

elliptical perforation e) 12 elliptical perforationf) 6 square perforation g) 12 square perforation
133
a)
b)
c)
e)
f)
g)
Figure 14: Heat Flux contoursa) plane b) 6

circular perforation c) 12 circular perforation d)
6 elliptical perforation
e) 12 elliptical
perforationf) 6 square perforation g) 12 square
perforation
d)
134
VI.
The simulation investigates the perforationshape

geometry effect on the convective heat transfer
from the tree fins by Natural Convection. In this
study a comparison is made between different
shapes of perforation in as shown in fig 4.The
comparison of different tree fin by using
temperature distribution along the fin.
The results show that, thehighest temperatures
were along the non-perforated tree fin, and lower
temperatures distributionalong the perforation
fins with square shaped.Also, the difference
between temperature in the base of fin and its
tipregarded from the important factors in the
perception of the work of the fin, which it can
beused to compare this factor with other fins.
and through the same graphics canbe say that,
the highest drop of temperature between the tree
fin's base and it is tip occur in the square
perforated tree fin. This happen because the
square
area
destroyed
the
area
of
thermalboundary layer larger than the rest
shapes. It also shows that greater the number of
perforation larger will be the temperature drop
along the tree fin and larger will be heat
dissipation.
95
85
75
65
55
45
35
0
10
20
30
40
50
55
Tree Plane Fin

6 Circular Perforation
6 Square Perforation
6 Ellipse Perforation
12 Circular Perforation
12 Square Perforation
12 Ellipse Perforation
Figure 15: Temperatures attained by the various

tree fin along the length from base
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 16: Graph showing the minimum

temperatures attained by various tree fins for
Aluminium alloy
135
From figure 5, shows the minimum temperature

attains by the various tree fins. It is found from
the graphs that fins with greater number of slots
having minimum temperatures compared to fins
without slots and fins with lesser number of slots
due to increase in effective heat transfer surface
area (45.617oC without slots and 37.307oC with
12 number of square perforation are present on
the stems of the tree fin made of Aluminium
alloy at a chip temperature of 95oC).
VII.
o
o
o
o
[5]
[6]
CONCLUSION
The array of tree fins with 12 number of
perforation having a better heat transfer
capability when compared to a tree fin
without perforation and with 6 number
of perforation.
Aluminium alloy can be used in the
shape of tree fins with greater number of
perforation as a heat sink for an
effective transfer of heat being
generated.
It is concluded that the maximum heat
transfer ratewill takes place in12 square
perforationtree fin .
The heat transfer coefficient is
maximum for bothaluminium in square
perforated surface tree fin.
Perforated fin leads to decrease the
expenditure of the material
[7]
[8]
[9]
Dissipating Heat by Natural Convection,

International Journal of Engineering and
Innovative Technology (IJEIT),2(11), 2013,
245-249.
YogeshJaluria, Jing Yang,A Review of
Microscale Transport in the Thermal
Processing of New and Emerging Advanced
Materials, Journal of Heat Transfer, 133,
JUNE 2011,
Senol Baskaya, Mecit Sivrioglu, Murat
Ozek, Parametric study of natural
convection heat transfer from horizontal
rectangular fin arrays, International Journal
of Thermal Sciences, 39(8), pp. 797805,
2000.
M Tahat, Z.H Kodah, B.A Jarrah, S.D
Probert, Heat transfers from pin-fin arrays
experiencing forced convection, Applied
Energy, 67(4), pp.419442, 2000.
C. B. Sobhan, S. P. Venkateshan, K. N.
Seetharamu, Experimental studies on steady
free convection heat transfer from fins and
fin arrays, Wrme - und Stoffbertragung,
25(6), pp 345-352, 1990.
David Calamas, John Baker. Behavior of
Thermally Radiating Tree-like Fins, Journal
of Heat Transfer, 135, AUGUST 2013.
23. References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
A Bejan, Shape and Structure, Engineering

to nature, (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 2000).
N MacDonald, Trees and Networks in
Biological Models (Wiley, Chichester, UK,
1983).
R. Sam Sukumar, G.Sriharsha, S.BalaArun,
P.Dilipkumar, Ch.Sanyasi Naidu, Modelling
And Analysis Of Heat Sink With
Rectangular Fins Having Through Holes,
International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications(IJERA), 3(2),
2013, 1557-1561.
S M.Wange, R.M.Metkar, Computational
Analysis of Inverted Notched Fin Arrays
136
23. A REVIEW ON THE ANALYTICAL

ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF
EARTH AIR TUNNEL HEAT
EXCHANGER
Jagjit Kaur#1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru
Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana,
Punjab, INDIA.
Email: j.jagjeet@ymail.com
Harminder Kaur#2
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering
College, Ludhiana, Punjab, INDIA.
Email: harminder12@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Today we primarily use fossil fuels to
heat and power our homes. Its convenient to use
coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy
needs, but we have a limited supply of these
fuels on the Earth. Were using them much more
rapidly than they are being created. Eventually,
they will run out. And because of safety
concerns and waste disposal problems it gives
globalization problems. Research is carried out
in order to increase a share of renewable energy
source in the overall task of energy generation.
Various research efforts have been rationalized
to prove the benefits these could be derived from
the utilization of renewable energy for
electricity. These sources are currently offered
worldwide as an environment friendly which is
the major focal advantage. In a developing
country like India, there is a huge gap in demand
and supply of electricity and rising electricity
prices have forced us to look for cheaper and
cleaner alternative. Earth air tunnel heat
exchangers are simple systems to save energy in
buildings. The EATHEs are considered as one of
the most passive system due to its ability to
provide both the effects; heating in cold months
and cooling during warm months. They use the
earths near constant subterranean temperature
to warm or cool air for residential, agricultural
or industrial used. This paper reviews on the
experimental and analytical studies of EATHE
systems around the world.
Abbreviations: EATHE earth air tunnel heat

exchanger
Keyword: Fossil fuels Earth air tunnel heat
exchanger; renewable energy; passive system
I.
INTRODUCTION
Energy security and stability are currently the

main issues throughout the world. Looking to
the energy crisis world over the importance of
energy for the existence of our society, it is
imperative and urgent to find alternative source
to replace conventional fuel or at least mitigate
its widespread consumption and consequent
impact on the environment. Passive heating or
cooling systems are known for their advantage
of consuming no or very less energy as
compared to the active heating and cooling
system. EATHE is one of the most passive
system due to its ability to provide both the
effects; heating in cold months and cooling
during warm months. The thermal capacity of
earth is such that the diurnal variations of the
surface temperature do not penetrate much
deeper than 0.5 m and seasonal variations up to a
depth of about 3m. Beyond this depth the earths
temperature remains constant. The value of this
temperature is usually seen to be equivalent to
the all year mean of the soil air temperature of
its surface. Therefore at sufficient depth, the
ground temperature always higher than that of
the outside air in winter and is lower in summer.
The earths thermal potential energy may be
exploited using EATHE system.
II.
TYPES OF EARTH
There are mainly two types of heat

exchangers. One is open systems and second is
closed systems. In open systems, ambient air
passes through tubes buried in the ground for
preheating or pre-cooling and then the air is
heated or cooled by a conventional air
conditioning unit before entering the building.
A. Open system:
In open systems, ambient air passes
through tubes buried in the ground for
137
preheating or pre-cooling and then the air is

heated or cooled by a conventional air
conditioning unit before entering the building. It
has some advantages over others which are;
Simple design; lower drilling requirements than
closed-loop designs; subject to better
thermodynamic performance, typically lowest
cost.
augmented for further moisture reduction, active

or passive systems may treat the air stream.
Formal research indicates that EATHE reduce
building ventilation air pollution. Whenever
using earth tubes with or without antimicrobial
material, it is extremely important that the
underground cooling tubes have an excellent
condensation drain and be installed at a 2-3
degree grade to ensure he constant removal of
condensed water from the tubes.
IV.
Fig. 1 Open Type Earth Air Tunnel Heat

Exchanger [5]
B. Closed system:
In closed systems the heat exchangers are
located underground, either in horizontal,
vertical or oblique position, and a heat carrier
medium is circulated within the heat exchanger,
transferring the heat from the ground to a heat
pump or vice versa.
Fig. 2 Closed type Earth Air Tunnel Heat

Exchanger [5]
III.
SAFETY
If humidity and associated mold colonization is

not addressed in system design, occupants may
face heath risk. At some sites, the humidity in
the earth tubes maybe controlled simply by
passive drainage if water table is sufficiently
deep and the soil has relatively high
permeability. In situations where passive
drainage is not feasible or needs to be
EFFECTIVENESS
Implementation of EATHE for either

partial or full cooling and/ or heating of facility
air have had mixed success. EATHE can be very
cost effective in both up front or capital costs
well as long term operation and maintenance
costs. However this varies widely depending on
locations latitude, altitude, ambient earth
temperature, climatic temperature, relative
humidity extremes, solar radiation, water table,
soil type, soil moisture content and the
efficiency of the buildings exterior envelope
design. Generally dry and low density soil with
little or no ground shade will yield the least
benefit, while dense damp soil with considerable
shade should perform well. A slow drip watering
system may improve thermal performance.
Damp soil in contact with the cooling tube
conducts heat more efficiently than dry soil.
Earth cooling tubes are much less effective in
hot humid climates where ambient temperature
of solar thermal buffer zone the earth approaches
human comfort temperature. The higher the
ambient temperature of earth, the less effective
they are for cooling and dehumidification.
However, they can be used to partially cool and
dehumidify the replacement fresh air intake for
passive solar thermal buffer zone areas.
Not all regions and sites are suitable for
EATHE. Conditions which may hinder or
preclude proper implementation include shallow
bedrock, high water tables, and insufficient
space, among others. In some areas only cooling
or heating may be afforded by EATHE. In these
areas, provision for thermal recharge of the
ground must especially be considered.
138
V.
DESCRIPTION OF EATHE
It is underground heat exchangers that can

capture heat from or dissipate heat to the ground.
They use the earths near constant subterranean
temperature to warm or cool air or other fluids
for residential, agricultural or industrial uses.
Temperature difference between air and soil can
be utilized to pre cool and pre heat ventilated air
supply using EATHE in summer and winter
respectively. An earth air heat exchanger consist
of one or more tubes lied under the ground in
order to cool in summer or pre-heat in winter,
the air to be supplied in a building. The physical
phenomenon of earth air heat exchanger is
simple: the ground temperature commonly
higher than the outdoor air temperature in winter
and lower in summer, so it makes the use of the
earth convenient as warm or cold sink
respectively. Both of the above uses of earth air
heat exchanger can contribute to reduction in
energy consumption. Several researchers have
described the earth-to-air heat exchangers
(EATHE) coupled with buildings as an effective
passive energy source for building space
conditioning. An earth-to-air heat exchanger
system suitably meets heating and cooling
energy loads of a building. Its performance is
based upon the seasonally varying inlet
temperature, and the tunnel-wall temperature
which further depends on the ground
temperature. The performance of an EATHE
system depends upon the temperature and
moisture distribution in the ground, as well as on
the surface conditions.
The principle of using ground inertia for heating
and cooling is not a new concept, but rather a
modified concept that goes back to the Ancients.
This technology has been used throughout
history from the ancient Greeks and Persians in
the pre- Christian era until recent history
(Santamouris and Asimakopoulos, 1996). For
instance the Italians in the middle Ages used
caves, called colvoli, to pre-cool/pre-heat the air
before it entered the building. The system which
is used nowadays consists of a matrix of buried
pipes through which air is transported by a fan.
In the summer the supply air to the building is
cooled due to the fact that the ground
temperature around the heat exchanger is lower

than the ambient temperature. During the winter,
when the ambient temperature is lower than the
ground temperature the process is reversed and
the air gets pre-heated.
VI.
EXPERIMENTAL
AND
ANALYTICAL ANYLASIS
An EATHE is an underground heat exchanger

that can capture heat from and/ or dissipate heat
to the ground. It is used geothermal energy for
many applications like agricultural or industrial
uses, heat recovery ventilation, and alternate to
conventional central heating or air conditioning.
In this chapter research papers are considered for
understanding the effect of different parameters
under different conditions.
Jacovides et al. (1995) described a TRNSYS
model for the simulation of earth tube systems
(TRNSYS is a computer modeling tool). They
did not discuss the general potential of earth
tubes for cooling or heating. The model includes
latent heat transfer phenomena between the air
and the pipe, and models the moisture content of
the air circulating in the pipe and moisture
migration through the soil with a temperature
and moisture gradient. In the case studied (which
is mostly applicable to greenhouses), the earthto-air heat exchanger is buried under the
foundation of the building. Ground temperature
is therefore a superposition of the soil
temperature field due to surface ground
temperature and the temperature field due to the
pipes themselves. Limited validation of the
model was provided, as the time period was
short (two summer months) and relative
humidity was not measured. Mihalakakouet et
al. (1996) provided simulation data for an earth
tube system in Dublin, Ireland, and study the
influence of pipe length, pipe radius, air flow
velocity, and soil depth. The data shown
indicated that with a system featuring a 30 m
long, 125 mm diameter tube buried 1.2 m
underground, with air velocities of 8 m/s, one
can expect a maximum rise of air temperature
between 2.1 and 7.9C, depending upon the time
139
of year. These values increase roughly by 1C

for each additional meter in depth, and by 0.5 to
0.9C for each additional 20 m in length. Lower
velocities increase the temperature rise, and so
do smaller diameters. However there was no
discussion about the global energy performance
of the system, which should include the energy
used to power the fans. Also, it doesnt either
provide a summary of energy gains on a monthly
basis. Gauthier et al. (1997) presented a fully
transient three-dimensional heat transfer model
of heat pipes. The model can handle multiple
pipes, non-homogeneous soil properties,
transient boundary conditions, and evaporation
and condensation in the pipes. The model was
validated against data from an earth tube system
installed in a commercial greenhouse in Canada
(unfortunately, only 3 days of data is used,
probably because the model is very
computationally expensive). They concluded
with a parametric study to quantify the effect of
various system variables. Deglin et al. (1999)
conducted a theoretical model, with a particular
application to livestock buildings; validation
using an experimental setup is detailed.
Corrugated, non-perforated plastic pipes were
used. Validation was done with one year of data
for a system including 18 m long, corrugated
PVC pipes with 3 different diameters (250, 315
and 400 mm), buried at three different depths
(1.50, 2.25 and 3.00 m). The authors concluded
that (1) soils saturated in water are better from a
thermal point of view, (2) greater depths are
preferable
since
they
provide
higher
temperatures in winter and lower temperatures in
summer, (3) smaller pipes are more thermally
efficient, i.e. they result in a higher heat
exchange per unit volume of air; however they
cause greater pressure losses and require larger
installations (4) lower fan speeds lead to higher
efficiencies, and (5) 70% of the heat transfer
occurs within the first 10 m of the pipe.
Sawhney et al. (1999) described a recirculation
underground system made with concrete pipes.
The system is used to air-condition a building in
a tropical climate. The pipes form a closed
circuit. Metal wire mesh is used to prevent
insects and foreign matter from entering. The
system is designed to work both for cooling and
heating. Only one month of monitoring (May)
was done. Air from the house is cooled by
around 1.5C as it passes through the system.

Temperature of air delivered by the system is
fairly stable (around 27C, - 13 - which is the
ground temperature for the location). Relative
humidity is somewhat higher (5%) than that of a
non-conditioned room; that is, moisture is added
as it is circulated through the tubes. Given that a
3 HP blower is used to circulate the air, the COP
was found to be only 3.35.
Staahl (2002) focused on the quality of the air
coming out of earth tubes, particularly related to
the moisture content. The author noted that the
material of the earth-tube wall is of great
importance since it determines the moisture
transfer: for example concrete will let the
moisture through, plastic will not. For that
reason the relative humidity predicted by the
author for a concrete tube is 100% year round.
For a plastic tube it reaches 100% only in
summer in a Nordic climate. Over half the year
the relative humidity is above 80%, which is
conducive to mold growth. He also mentioned
mold growth in two of three Swedish schools
equipped with earth tubes. On the energy side,
the author predicted(through simulations) that an
earth tube will typically deliver 1,200 kWh/yr to
a house in the Swedish climate, or about 10% of
the heating needs.
Bansal et al. (2009)
developed a mathematical modeling to
investigate the potential of storage capacity of
the ground for cooling with the help of an
EATHE system integrated with evaporative
cooler. From mathematical model they
concluded that for a given diameter of pipe,
volumetric flow rate set of inlet &outlet
temperature owing to coupling the evaporative
cooler with EATHE, there is a decrease in the
length of the buried pipe. This decrease is found
to be in the range of 0.9-93.5% of length. They
also concluded the decrease in length also
depends upon the bypass factor that decreases by
93.5-22.9% when factor decreases from 0.2-0.5.
Bansal et al. (2011) presented enhancement in
the performance of simple EATHE by
integrating an evaporative cooler at outlet. After
experimentation the result showed that while
ambient air itself is comfortable for 25.65 of the
hours, use of integrated EATHE- evaporative
cooling system provides comfortable air for
34.16% hours in one year; whereas simple
140
EATHE is able to provide comfortable air only

for 23.33%additional hours. They found that on
annual basis the integrated EATHE-evaporative
cooling system delivers 4856 MJ of cooling
effect, 4500MJ is achievable with simple
EATHE system and remaining 3190MJ is
achieved due to integration of EATHE with
evaporative cooling at its outlet. Bansal et al.
(2012) made an attempt to enhance the
performance of active cooling system by
coupling it with EATHE in four different hybrid
modes. In mode I air conditioner alone supplied
the conditioned air to the room and EATHE is
not functional. In mode II air conditioner
supplies conditioned air to the room and 100%
conditioned air from EATHE is also delivered
directly to the room. Air conditioner supplies the
conditioned air to room and 100% conditioned
air from EATHE is used for cooling the
condenser tubes of air conditioner during mode
III. In mode IV air conditioner supplies the
conditioned air to room and 50% conditioned air
from the EATHE is fed to the room directly and
remaining 50% air is used for condenser cooling
of air conditioner. After experimentation they
have investigated the thermal performance of the
developed 1.5 TR window type air conditioner
and found the power consumption to be reduced
by 18.1% when cold air from EATHE is
completely used for condenser cooling of the air
conditioner.
VII.
CONCLUSION
The ground or earth acts as a very large store of

heat energy. It can be used as a heat source in
winter or a heat sink in summer. The ground can
be used to moderate the temperature in buildings
standing on it. A ground heat exchanger can be
used to extract heat energy from the ground in
winter season to transfer the heat into houses at
the same time, it can be used to provide a very
efficient mechanism for heat rejection from
buildings, free of all carbon emissions on site. It
can make use of solar energy stored in the
ground to provide one of the most energyefficient ways of heating or cooling houses.
Most systems usually constructed from 424inch
diameter, smooth walled, rigid or semi rigid

plastic, plastic coated metal pipes or plastic
pipes, buried 1.5 to 3m underground where the
ambient earth temperature is typically 10 to
23C. Ground temperature becomes more stable
with depth. Smaller diameter tubes require more
energy to move the air and have less contact
surface area. Larger tubes permit a slower air
flow, which yields more efficient energy transfer
and permits
much higher volumes to be
transferred, permitting more air exchanges in a
short every time period. Sharp 90 angles should
be avoided in the construction of the tube. Two
45 bends produce less turbulent, more efficient
air flow.
REFERENCE
[1] Bansal V., Misra R., Agrawal G.D., Mathur

J., (2009) a mathematical modeling to
investigate the potential of storage capacity of
the ground for cooling with the
help of an
EATHE system integrated with evaporative
cooler. Energy builds. Vol.42, pp. 645-8.
J., (2011) enhancement in the performance of
simple EATHE by integrating an evaporative
cooler at outlet. Energy builds. Vol.52, pp.
745-8.
J., (2012) enhance the performance of active
cooling system by coupling it with EATHE in
four different hybrid modes. Energy builds.
Vol.42, pp. 645-9.
[4] Breesch H., Bossaer B., Janssens
A.,(2005),Passive cooling in a low energy
office building, Energy Build, Vol. (45),pp.
215-222.
[5] Dubey Manojkumar,, Bhagoria J.L.,
Atullanjewar ,(2013), Earth Air Heat
Exchanger
in
Parallel
Connection,
International Journal of Engineering Trends and
Technology (IJETT), Vol.4, pp.2463-246
141
[6] Gauthier C., LacroixM.,Bernier H.,

(1997),Numerical simulation of soil heat
exchanger-storage
systems
for
greenhouses,Renewable Energy, Vol. (36), pp.
125-129.
[7] Ghosal G., Argiriou A., Lykoudis S.,
Balaras C., Asimakopoulos D.,(2004),
Experimental study of a earth to air heat
exchanger coupled with a photovoltaic system,
Journal of solar energy engineering, pp. 189195.
[8] Jacovides C .P., Mihalakakou G., (1995),
An underground pipe system as an energy
source for cooling/heating purposes,Energy
conversion management ,Vol. (3), pp. 1463-83
[9] Mihalakakou G., Lewis J. O.,Santamouris
M., (1996) , On the heating potential of buried
pipes
techniques
application
in
Ireland,Energy Buildings,pp. 103-117.
[10] Staahl F., (2002), Preheating of Supply
Air through an Earth Tube System Energy
Demand and Moisture Consequences, energy
build, pp. 315-318.
[11] Santamouris, G., Mihalakakou G., Balarar
C.A.,(1995), Use of buried pipes for energy
conversation in cooling of agricultural
greenhouses, Solar Energy, Vol. 55,pp. 111124.
[12] Shukla Ashish,Tiwari G.N., Sodha
M.S.,(2006),
Thermal
modeling
for
greenhouse heating by using thermal curtain
and an earthair heat exchanger, Building and
Environment ,Vol. 41,pp.84350.
[13 ] Sawhney R.L., Buddhi D.,Thanu N.M.,
(1999), An experimental study of summer
performance
of
a
recirculation
type
underground air pipe air conditioning system,
Renewable energy, pp. 26-48.
142
24. ECOFLUSH
WASTEWATER
RECYCLING AND RAINWATER
HARVESTING TOILET FLUSH
SYSTEM
Mukesh Kumar Roy

MAE, ASET
Amity University Uttar Pradesh
Noida, U.P., India
mukesh.roy@student.amity.edu
Ayush Goyal
ECE, ASET
Noida, U.P., India
agoyal1@amity.edu
Vivek Kumar
MAE, ASET
Noida, U.P., India
vkumar7@amity.edu
AbstractThis research work proposes a
household wastewater recycling and rainwater
harvesting toilet flush system. This approach is
economical and prevents the wastage of water at
household or domestic level. By recycling
wastewater this system avoids the waste of
potable water and conserves energy used for
pumping groundwater with boring submersibles
and purification and filtration of water by
municipal corporations or governmental
agencies. Furthermore, the collection of
rainwater provides an additional source of water
for the flush. The recycled wastewater and
harvested rainwater will be stored in a tank,
which will be regularly treated with chlorine so
as to ensure no bacterial growth. The tank
storing the recycled wastewater will be
connected to the toilets flush. This Ecoflush
toilet system will save approximately 73000
litres of fresh potable government supply water
or groundwater per annum and approximately
200 units of electricity per annum for an average
household of 4-5 members.
Keywordswastewater recycling; rainwater

harvesting; energy conservation; toilet flush
system; ecoflush
I.
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most basic essential needs

in our daily life routine. Its scarcity in our life is
the biggest fear and thus various methods and
systems are developed for its storage and
conservation. Reusing rain water and water
wasted in domestic purposes is one of the
biggest challenges. It is one of the utmost
requirements to save this water and recycle it so
that it can be used again for different purposes.
Previous research on recycling of water for
toilet flushing has been published on a method
for processing and re-using of gray water for the
flushing of toilets, particularly in vacuum toilet
systems used in aircraft to optimize the use of
available water. A method for processing and
reusing gray water for flushing a toilet,
comprising the following steps: a) filtering said
gray water to provide filtered water, b)
collecting said filtered water in a processing
tank, c) anodically oxidizing said filtered water
in said processing tank to provide processed
water, and d) using said processed water for
flushing a toilet bowl in a lavatory or toilet [1].
Other previous work relates to a system for
the treatment of aircraft toilet waste water to
permit discharge of the treated water to the
atmosphere during flight, utilizing the pressure
differential that is created between the aircraft's
cabin pressure and the external atmosphere. The
system includes a filter to remove suspended
solids and other contaminants from the waste
water, and may also include means to purify the
water to potable water standards and means to
recirculate the treated water for reuse on the
aircraft [2].
A third publication in this area describes a
water saving device of a flush valve type toilet
bowl to economize on water by controlling the
quantity of washing water according to urine or
feces. The water saving device of a flush valve
type toilet bowl comprises: a housing having a
space inward; a sensor-cum-controller attached
to a space of an upper cap of the housing to
sense a user, to distinguish urine or feces
143
automatically after stool and to drain the

corresponding washing water [3].
A fourth area of research in this field relates
to infrared-based monitoring signals providing a
free water-saving toilet tank control device. The
device includes an infrared sensing device with
valve control structure; input of the
microcontroller I / O with the infrared
transmitter and receiver connected to the output,
the output of the microcontroller I / O and
control motor in series is connected to the water
pipe of the pulse switch to perform the opening
and closing structure; the switch actuator
comprises two sets of switches which are
respectively connected to output ends of the coil
of the pulse motor [4].
A fifth paper on economical toilet flushing
delineates a toilet stool flushing apparatus
having two flush water channels, for carrying
out pattern-dependent flushing and flushing a
toilet stool such that the quantity of flush water
is switched between stool flushing and urine
flushing, wherein the toilet stool flushing
apparatus is comprised of a human body
detecting means which is set such that the length
of a human body detecting duration correlates
with the quantity of flush water, to thereby
simplify the equipment and improve the
operational ease thereof [5].
A sixth published work in the area of
economical flushing relates to a control device
of a pressure sensor of a seat toilet, which can be
used for automatically distinguishing urine and
stool so as to flush. The control device
comprises a pressure sensor. The input end of a
single-chip is connected with a flag bit of the
pressure sensor. According to the time length of
human pressure, the control device can
automatically distinguish the urine and stool [6].
Various systems are developed that recycle
waste water from household and then use it in
flush systems of toilets. These systems comprise
two flush levels i.e. one for urine and one for
stool. Flush water released is dependent on the
duration of the users stay time but a longer stay
time does not always correspond to more stool
or urine and thus it results in fresh potable water
wastage.
Therefore, in view of the cited prior arts,

there is a need to improve the flush system to
save potable groundwater and government main
supply plant-treated water from being wasted in
toilet flushing.
Hence, the present work proposes a waterrecycling, energy-conserving toilet flush system
which collects water from rain harvesting and
recycled shower, sink, kitchen, and laundry
wastewater from the households sewage drain
pipe into a tank for flushing the toilet.
II.
METHODOLOGY
a. Wastewater Recycling and Rain

Harvesting System
The principal object of the proposed system
is to provide an eco-friendly flush system that
filters and collects recycled water from a
household sewage drain pipe as well as rain
harvesting system and uses it in toilet waste
flushing to save potable groundwater and
government main supply plant-treated water
from being wasted in toilet flushing.
Still another object of the proposed system is
to provide an energy-saving environmentfriendly flush system that reuses water from the
kitchen, sink, shower, and washing machine.
Another object of the proposed system is to
provide a flush system that uses rainwater
harvesting as an additional source of water
supply and thus reduces the demand of
groundwater.
Yet another object of the proposed system is
to provide a low installation and low running
cost water-recycling toilet flush system that
avoids expensive water purification as only
simple membrane filtration is used for filtering
the wastewater stored for toilet flushing.
Still another object of the proposed system is
to provide a medicated storage of recycled water
that automatically releases chlorine into the tank
to prevent microbial growth.
b. Proposed System Design
The proposed system provides an ecofriendly toilet flush system that filters and stores
recycled water from household use in a tank for
toilet waste flushing to save potable groundwater
144
and government main supply plant-treated water

from being wasted in toilet flushing. The flush
system collects water from rain harvesting and
recycled shower, kitchen, and laundry
wastewater sourced from the households
sewage drain pipe. The collected water is
membrane-filtered and stored in a tank of
approximately 200-litre or above capacity. The
tank has a drainage pipe in case water exceeds
the storage level of the tank. Chlorine is released
into the tank on a daily basis to prevent bacterial
growth in the recycled water in the tank. The
approach is environment friendly and provides
an efficient way to reuse the wastewater at house
hold level and saves energy required for
pumping groundwater with a boring submersible
and purification and filtration of main supply
water by municipal corporations and
government agencies.
c. Proposed System Components
In a preferred embodiment of the proposed
system, the water-recycling, energy-conserving
toilet flush system comprises a household waste
water collection system from the households
sewage drain pipe; a rain water harvesting
system; water recycling unit; and a storage tank.
d. Proposed System Flowchart
Figure 1 illustrates the design of our
proposed wastewater recycling and rainwater
harvesting toilet flush system.
FIGURE 1: FLOWCHART OF THE WASTEWATER

RECYCLING AND RAINWATER HARVESTING
TOILET FLUSH SYSTEM
III. RESULTS
On average an Indian household of 4-5
members will require 20 flushes (given that each
member requires approximately 4 flushes per
day). Each flush is of approximately 10 litres of
water, i.e., one household requires 200 litres of
flush water per day. Table 1 presents the results
of water and energy consumption for an average
Indian household using the normal toilet flush
and the eco-smart flush system proposed in this
paper.
TABLE 1: NORMAL VERSUS ECOFLUSH WATER
AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR AN AVERAGE
HOUSEHOLD
Household
Potable
Consumption water
Consumed
Electric
energy
Consumed
Normal
Toilet
~200 litres / ~22 units /

day
month
(for
daily usage of
740
watt
pump
motor)*
Ecoflush
Toilet
0 litres / day
(since
all
toilet flush
water
is
household
recycled
wastewater
or harvested
rainwater)
~5 units /
month
(for
daily usage of
370
watt
pump motor
connected to
recycled
water tank)
*740 WATT PUMP MOTOR IS USED AS AN

EXAMPLE ONLY
*DATA AS PER BSES WEBSITE
IV. CONCLUSION
As shown in Table 1, the normal toilet
requires 200 litres of potable government supply
water or groundwater whereas the Ecoflush
saves this water since all the flush water in this
proposed system is recycled household
145
wastewater or harvested rainwater. Additionally,

a normal household consumes 22 units of
electricity per month for daily usage of a 740
watt pump motor to daily pump hundreds of
litres of fresh potable government supply water
for the days use for toilet flushing. On the other
hand, the Ecoflush system will only consume
less than 5 units of electricity per month for
daily usage of a 370 watt pump motor to pump
the recycled wastewater from a storage tank into
the toilet flush in the bathroom. Only a small
370 watt pump motor will suffice for the
Ecoflush system because the head (vertical
distance) to pump water is much less for the
Ecoflush since the recycled wastewater storage
tank will be in the house, whereas a large 740
watt pump motor is required in normal
household systems because the head (vertical
distance) to pump water is high since water is
pumped from government supply pipes (or
groundwater) to storage tanks on the roof. Thus
the Ecoflush will save 200 litres of potable
government supply water / day and 17 units of
electricity per month for an average Indian
household. Table 2 presents these figures for
annual consumption.
This Ecoflush water and electricity saving

toilet system can be an integral part of any
government funded housing development
program, whether it be for construction or
renovation of new or existing government
quarters or government funded household
schemes.
This Ecoflush wastewater recycling system
will be an example of sustainable household
water usage, which will save water and
electricity for future generations to come.
25. References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
US Patent No. 7,118,677

US Patent No. 6,143,185
Patent Publication No. 20020066310
TABLE 2: ANNUAL WATER AND ENERGY

CONSERVATION
Water Saved
Ecoflush
Toilet
Energy Saved
~73000 litres / ~204 units /

annum
annum
Furthermore, this household wastewater

recycling system is supplemented by rainwater
harvesting, which is a cost-effective method for
additional water gain in households.
In normal households, potable water
provided by the government comes to the
household pipes after it is treated by government
plants. This precious potable water is wasted in
toilet flushing. The Ecoflush wastewater
recyling system will not only save this potable
water but will also save energy and government
funds and expenditure incurred by government
plants that treat water for household
consumption.
146
25. EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION OF ENHANCING
THE COP OF VCRS SYSTEM BY
USING COOLING TOWER
Gourav Roy1* ,Taliv Hussain2, Rahul Wandra3
Email:gouravroy2@gmail.com
Phone no: 08968749228
Abstract: During the hot days when sun light
at its maximum intensity VCRS (water cooled
condenser) consume more power to cool down
the substance and also consume lots of water. As
the standard VCRS (water cooled condenser)
approach
practical
limits,
experimental
modification should be performed to increase
the system efficiency and capacity. One possible
means to increase the COP of VCRS (water
cooled condenser) is by using cooling tower
consist of single cellulose pad on it. In this
paper experimental investigation in order to
enhancing the COP of VCRS (water cooled
condenser) that utilize single cellulose pad as
the filling material of cooling tower. The
cooling tower performance is improved due to
good water wet ability of cellulose pad that
cause a uniform water circulation over the entire
surface of pads and a perfect contact between
water and cooling air. A VCRS has been built
with water cooled condenser. In first case water
cooled condenser is used at ambient temperature
29C and 32C.There is increase in COP 4.69 to
4.67.Similarly in second case water cooled
condenser is attached with cooling tower with
single pad at an ambient temperature 29C and
32C, COP increase from 4.93 to 4.68.
Keywords-Air cooled condenser, Water cooled
condenser, vapour compression refrigeration
system, evaporative cooling pad.
Nomenclature-COP
Coefficient of
performance
h1
Enthalpy of refrigerant at inlet of
compressor in kj/kg
h2 Enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of compressor

in kj/kg
h3
Enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of the
condenser kj/kg
h4
Enthalpy of refrigerant at entry of
evaporator in kj/kg
mref Mass flow rate of refrigerant
Qr Cooling effect
Wc Compressor work
T1 Suction temperature of refrigerant into the
compressor
T2
Discharge temperature of refrigerant into
the compressor
T3 Condenser outlet temperature of refrigerant
T4
Outlet temperature of refrigerant from
capillary tube
I
Inlet current
V
Inlet voltage
I.
INTRODUCTION
The fruit of development would not reach to the

common man until energy reached the last
household of the country. In RAC the special
focus is given on VCRS in order to improve the
performance and cooling capacity of a system.
The refusal to accept anything without testing
and trail, the capacity to change previous
conclusion in the face of new evidence, the
reliance on observe fact this all is necessary.
Special emphasis will be placed on equity in
development of VCRS system, so that the
benefit of technological growth reaches the
majority of population, leading to an improved
quality of life forever citizen of country.
Our main focus how to
increase the COP of VCRS system .Cooling
tower is one of the appropriate method to
improve the performance of water cooled
condenser.In order to further improving COP,
use cellulose pad within the cooling tower which
helps to increase the COP. For two different
ambient temperature 29C and 32C COP varies
from 4.96 to 4.67 at water cooled
condenser.Similarly in next case cooling tower
with single pad at 29C and 32C respectively
COP changes from 4.93 to 4.68.
II.
LITERATURE SURVEY
Fouda and Melikyan et al. [1] A

simplified mathematical model was used to
147
discuss the heat and mass transfer between the

air and water in a direct evaporative cooler. A
comparison between the model results and the
experimental results was presented. The results
indicate that during a steady state condition, the
cooling efficiency is decreased by increasing the
inlet frontal air velocity, and increased by
increasing the pad thickness. This is because the
contact surface between water and air is
increased.
S.S. Hu, B.J. Huang et al. [2]
conducted an experimental investigation on a
split air conditioner having water cooled
condenser. They developed a simple watercooled air conditioner utilizing a cooling tower
with cellulose pad filling material to cool the
water
for
condensing
operation.
The
experimental investigation verified that the
water-cooled condenser and cooling tower
results in decreasing the power consumption of
the compressor.
Sreejith K et al. [3] Heat can be
recovered by using the water-cooled condenser
and the system can work as a waste heat
recovery unit. The recovered heat from the
condenser can be used for bathing, cleaning,
laundry, dish washing etc. The modified system
can be used both as a refrigerator and also as a
water heater. Therefore by retrofitting a water
cooled condenser it produce hot water and even
reduce the utility bill of a small family. In this
system the water-cooled condenser is designed
as a tube in tube heat exchanger of overall length
of 1m. It consists of an inlet for the cooling
water and an exit for collecting the hot water.
The hot water can be used instantly or it can be
stored in a thermal storage tank for later use.
Adarsh Mohan Dixit, Aditya
Desai, Akshay Vyas et al.[4] They made setup
of 1.5 ton air conditioner was constructed and
tested in the present study. The experimental
results show the coefficient of performance
(COP) reaches 8.03 that are higher than the
standard value (5.98) of those conventional
residential split air conditioners.
W.L Lee et al. [5] performed
the experiments to study the effect of water
cooled air conditioning systems in residential
building in Hong Kong with outdoor at 35C
DBT. The test results showed that COP was
increased by 14-20% as compared to the air-
cooled condenser which reduced the peak load

in the month of July by 27%. Later in 2008 he
also studied the performance of domestic water
cooled air conditioning using tube-in-tube
helical heat exchanger condenser. The outdoor
condition was 33C DBT and 68% RH. The
mass flow rate of tap water was 5-8lt/min. An
increase of 12-20% in COP was recorded.
S.S.Hu et al. [6] studied the
split type residential water cooled air
conditioning system using cellulose pad to
remove heat of the water immersed condenser.
The experiment was done at an ambient
condition of 35oC DBT and 27oC WBT, air
velocity of 1.7m/sec and water flow rate of
5.1lt/min. The COP was increased from 2.96 to
3.45which is an increase of 17%.
III.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A VCRS system is build which consists of a

single stage with the basic components i.e.
evaporator, compressor, expansion device and
condenser. A tank of ten liters is built and
condenser is put in that tank and tank is filled
with water as shown in the figures. A water
circulation system including a small pump
(15Watt), is put in the tank and the outlet of
pump is connected to the cooling tower because
the function of the pump is to transfer the hot
water from the condenser tank in to the cooling
tower where it is cooled a bucket. Water
circulation rate is constant for all tests. Hot
ambient water is passes over the evaporative
media pad of the cooling tower and gets cooled
and cooled water is collected in the tank which
is located in the below of the cooling tower in
the cooling tower tank second pump is installed,
function of this pump is to transfer the cooled
water from the cooling tower tank in to the
condenser tank, it become a closed cycle in
which hot water and cold water circulate. In
cooling tower evaporative pad of thickness 2
inch is used.
Here the capillary tube is used, made up
of a copper tube of very small diameter.
Capillary tube used as expansion device. The
evaporator is used to reduce the pressure,
dissipating heat and making liquid refrigerant to
much cooler.
148
(Fig 3) Represent the close view of cooling

tower which consist of cellulose pad.
Fig 3:Cooling Tower

tower
After calculated different parameter by using
water cooled condenser, now condenser is
attached to cooling tower as shown in (Fig.2).
IV.
EXPERIMENT RESULT AND

DISCUSSION
PARAMETERS
Water Cooled
condenser
Water cooled
condenser with
cooling tower
At
At
At
At
29C
32C
29C
32 C
UNIT
Suction Pressure
Psi
12
12
Discharge
Psi
160
160
148
148
Condenser Inlet
Degree
36.2
38.4
35.2
37.4
Temperature
CelsiusC
Condenser Outlet
Degree
29.1
31.3
28.1
30.3
Temperature
CelsiusC
Compressor Inlet
Degree
10.2
12.2
19.2
21.2
Temperature
CelsiusC
Compressor Outlet
Degree
43.1
45.1
35.3
37.3
Temperature
CelsiusC
Evaporator Inlet
Degree
20.1
19.4
21.3
20.5
Temperature
CelsiusC
Evaporator Outlet
Degree
-16.2
-15.2
-18.1
-17.4
Temperature
CelsiusC
1.23
Pressure

tower
Here the cooling tower performance is
improved due to good water wet ability of
cellulose pad that cause a uniform water
circulation over the entire surface of pad and a
perfect contact between water and cooling air.
The cooling tower cool the warm water
discharged from the condenser and feed the
cooled water back to the condenser. They, thus
reduce the demand of cooling water in system.
Current
0.68
1.42
0.63
Voltage
210
200
210
200
149
Table 1: Result of the experiment of water

cooled condenser and water cooled condenser
with cooling tower
The given experiment was carried out at two
different ambient temperature 29 C and 32 C
respectively. In first case we calculate the COP
of system with water cooled condenser and then
same water cooled condenser is attached to
cooling tower. While performing the experiment
refrigerant and air remained constant in order to
achieve steady state also current and voltage is
constant for both the ambient temperature.
Fig 5: Pressure-Enthalpy diagram for water

with cooling tower at 32C
V. CALCULATION AND RESULT

parameter at air cooled condenser and water
cooled condenser attached with cooling tower.
a. Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref* (h2
h1)
d. COP =
Fig 4: Pressure-Enthalpy diagram for water

with cooling tower at 29C
Where,
compressor in kj/kg(1)
condenser kj/kg (3)
evaporator in kj/kg(4)
Parameter
Water Cooled
condenser
of
of
the
of
Water Cooled
condenser with
cooling tower
29 C
32 C
29 C
32 C
COP
4.69
4.67
4.93
4.68
Compressor Work
142
280
132.6
246

temperature 29C and 32C
150
again circulated at the water condenser where it

act as cooling medium. From our experiment
there is increase in COP of the system as we
move from simple water condenser to water
condenser with cooling tower which at 29C is
5.11% and at 32C is 0.21%. Also as the
ambient temperature is increase compressor
work is also increase in both the cases. AT 29C
compressor changes 7.02% and 32C it is
13.82% when we cooling tower.
REFERENCES
Graph 1: Compressor work variation with
ambient temperature
Graph 2: cop variation with ambient temperature

The above two graph represent variation of
ambient temperature with compressor work and
COP. As the ambient temperature increase from
29C to 32C the compressor work goes on
increase in both case water condenser and water
condenser with cooling tower. Similarly the
ambient temperature increase COP of system
decrease further decrease in cooling capacity.
[1] A.Fouda and Z. Melikyan.A simplified

model for analysis of heat and mass transfer in a
direct evaporative cooler. Appl. Therm. Eng.
2011; 31: 932-936.
[2] S.S. Hu, B.J. Huang, Study of a high
efficiency residential split water-cooled air
conditioner, Applied Thermal Engineering 25
(2005) 15991613.
[3] Experimental Investigation of A Domestic
Refrigerator Having water cooled condenser
using various compressor oils, Sreejith K,
Assistant Professor, Dept.Of Mechanical.
[4] Improving efficiency of air conditioner by
cellulose
pad/International
journal
of
engineering science & humanities ISSN 22503552.
[5] Lee WL, Yik FWH. A framework for
formulating a performance based incentive
rebate scale for the demand side energy
management scheme for commercial buildings
in
Hong
Kong
Application
Energy,
2002;73:13966
VI CONCLUSION
The cooling tower concept is simple and easy to
install in normal water cooled VCRS system.
Cooling tower is used to cool down the hot
water from condenser which is circulated with
help of water pump. This cool water collect at
the bottom of cooling tower from where it is
151
26. IMPROVEMENT IN THERMAL

EFFICIENCY OF A CI ENGINE
USING
A
WASTE
HEAT
RECOVERY TECHNIQUE
Aashish Sharmaa, 1, Ajay Chauhana, Himanshu
Nautiyalb, 2, Varunc, Pushpendra Kumar Sharmab
a
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara,

Punjab, India
b
THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering &

Technology, Tehri, Uttarakhand, India
c
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur,

(HP) India
aashish.16420@lpu.co.in
h2nautiyal@gmail.com
Abstract A big portion of the heat supplied to

an internal combustion (IC) engine is not
converted into work and wasted through the
exhaust gases in surroundings. If this heat is
recovered or used by some means then
improvement can be obtained in engines overall
efficiency. In the present work, an experimental
work is carried out to study the effect of waste
heat recovery of exhaust gas in a Compression
Ignition (CI) engine. The results show that
considerable reduction in engine fuel
consumption can be obtained with the help of
exhaust heat recovery through a heat exchanger.
A significant amount of heat of exhaust gases
can be recovered by vaporization of fuel using a
heat exchanger.
Keywordsengine; efficiency; ignition; heat;
recovery
I.
INTRODUCTION
Energy has become an indicator of economic
growth and social development of a country.
Generally human consume the energy from
fossil fuels and use this energy in various sectors
of domestic and industrial activities as well as
for their comfort. Almost all developing and

developed countries in the world are dependent
on fossil fuels to obtain energy but their
contribution in problem of climate change has
become a matter of great concern. Today the
entire world is focusing on the proper and best
use of fossil fuels so that the environmental
problems associated with them can be reduced
considerably. This has become a great interest
for scientists and engineers to find out the
suitable alternatives for using efficient use of
fossil fuels and recovering heat so that wasted
heat can be reduced. IC engines have become an
integral part of all human and commercial
activities in daily life and widely used in power
generation, transportation and agricultural
sectors. But today the need of demand reduction
and low harmful emissions through the efficient
engines is being increased. Advance technology
has the major interest in recent years particularly
in highly efficient IC engine. The IC engines
have several applications and are commonly
used in cars, aircrafts and boats etc [1]. But the
problem of fuel crises due to their fast depletion
nature, environmental impediments associated
with them are putting a question mark in the
using of IC engines in future. Therefore, it is
important to think about the improvement of
efficiency of IC engines.
IC engines transform about 25% to 35%
chemical energy into mechanical work. About
70% of total energy is wasted through exhaust
gas, coolant and radiation [2]. Exhaust gas
temperature is high due to combustion process
inside the cylinder, which cause cylinder wall
temperature get high and proper cooling is
required to minimize the cylinder wall
temperature. Several industrial activities and
processes
in
various
sectors
requires
considerable amount of heat energy which
generally not utilized efficiently. The wasted
heat energy from the industries is transferred
into the surroundings in the form of unburned
fuels, sensible heat discharge from drain water
and through sensible and latent heat through
exhaust gases discharge. If this wasted energy is
recovered by some means, better results in the
performance of engine can be obtained. So, there
is a big scope to recover wasted heat energy
from IC engine and use it in some other
152
applications. The wasted heat energy can be

recovered efficiently through the combustion
equipment to utilize wasted fuel and through
heat recovery equipment to reuse sensible and
latent heat through exhaust gases. Several efforts
have been expended to reuse the wasted heat
during past decades. This work describes the
utilization of waste heat which is coming
through exhaust gas and the engine performance.
II.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Waste energy from engine is normally a

byproduct which is in form of heat. Energy is
lost from the IC engine to the environment in the
form of exhaust gas, cooling water, lubrication
oil and radiation. Generally waste heat recovery
is a technique, which enhance the performance
of engine and can reduce the brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc) and consequently thermal
efficiency is improved. Tahani et al. [3] showed
the waste heat recovery from 12 lt. CI engine
using organic Rankine cycle. In the study, two
different configuration of organic Rankine cycle
(ORC) for waste heat recovery from exhaust gas
and coolant: preheat configuration and two stage
configuration. An optimized result was given at
different working fluids R-134a, R-123 and R245fa. The power generation and cycle thermal
efficiency were maximized. Finally it was found
that R-123 is the best working fluid which gave
best performance and increase thermal
efficiency by 11.73% and 13.56 % respectively
in both configurations. It was also observed that
preheating configuration has better result if R134a is used as working fluid in both
configuration but preheat configuration was not
sufficient to recover total heat due to mass flow
rate limitation.
Alberto Boretti [2] showed optimum speed
power turbine to recover the exhaust heat of CI
diesel and gas engine. This was done by using
turbocharger and intercooler and improvement
was shown in fuel conversion efficiency at
optimum speed. The exhaust energy is recovered
by the power turbine that operates at optimum
speed. A by-pass and continuously variable
transmission (CVT) link is used to crankshaft.
Gear ratio between power turbine and crankshaft
is replaced by CVT. Due to this advantage
power turbine decoupled from the speed of

crank shaft.
Chauhan [4] presented a review on recovery of
waste heat in IC engine. The study discussed six
technologies to recover the waste heat which has
come from the exhaust gas of IC engines viz.
turboelectric generator technique, organic
Rankine cycle technique, six stroke cycle
technique, new development in turbocharger
technique and combination of these techniques.
These techniques have some merits and
demerits, but useful to recover waste heat from
exhaust.
Bibin et al. [1] carried out a study on waste heat
recovery in a hybrid engine with supplementary
combustion chamber. In this study waste heat
was utilized by producing the electrical energy
with the help of turbocharger. The waste heat is
utilized to burn the additional amount of the
fuel. The thermoelectric generator which was
used in produces electrical energy. Finally
energy was recovered by the combination of
compressor and alternator that was coupled with
the turbine.
Kumar et al. [5] studied a waste heat recovery in
IC engine using thermos-electric technology. In
the study a heat exchanger and 18 thermoelectric
generator modules were designed and tested in
test rig and overall efficiency of an engine was
improved by using waste heat. Thermoelectric
module was used as a generator which was a
solid state device that converts thermal energy
into electrical energy from a temperature
gradient. Its principle was based on Seebeck
effect. Thermoelectric modules were selected on
the basis of temperature differences between
exhaust side and engine coolant side.
Rashad et al. [6] studied a single cylinder
diesel engine performance under recycling and
conditioning of exhaust for air intake. In the
study a single cylinder air cooled engine having
8.3 HP and running at 1500 rpm was tested at
test rig for measuring parameters. The engine
was operated in different conditions viz. increase
O2 percentage in an open mode up to 30% and
increase CO2 in inlet charge for close mode
operation. The results showed that inlet charge
153
leads to increase the rated brake power with

increasing O2 percentage and decreases fuel
consumption and increase brake mean effective
pressure. CO2 presence in inlet charge show
harmful effect on engine performance. A
theoretical model was also presented to predict
overall performance.
the self-made heat exchanger. Copper tube is use

in heat exchanger for the heat recovery and flow
is parallel flow in the shell and tube heat
exchanger.
III. EXPERIMENTATION
After the combustion process in IC engines,
efficiency of engine is low due to high amount
of heat losses. This heat loss is either by the
exhaust gas or coolant. So there are various
parameters that affect the thermal efficiency and
bsfc of the engine. Direct injection and indirect
injection are the injection methods that affect the
performance of a CI engine. Many assumptions
and operating factor affect the performance of
the engine.
Compression
ratio:
mechanical
efficiency reduces on increasing the
compression ratio due to increase in
weight of reciprocating parts.
Engine speed: on increasing the engine
speed, loss of the heat during
compression decreases.
Engine output: with an increase in
engine output the air fuel ratio
decreases.
Injection timing: for higher ignition
advance pressure and temperature at the
beginning of injection are lower.
Quality of the fuel: lower self-ignition
temperature must be use for better
performance.
Intake temperature: on increasing the
intake temperature, compressed air
temperature increase causes delay period
reduces.
Intake pressure: on increasing the intake
pressure reduces the auto ignition
temperature.
So assumptions are based on these factors that
can increase the performance of engine. The
objective of the present work is to study the
recovery of waste heat exhaust gas by
vaporization of fuel through a small heat
exchanger. An amount of fuel is vaporized by
The experiment is conducted on modified single

cylinder water cooled engine that runs at 1500
rpm having 5.2 kW power. The experimental
setup is shown in Fig 1 and test rig specification
is given in Table 1. To conduct the experiment,
firstly a heat exchanger is selected for waste heat
recovery. The diameter of the heat exchanger is
optimized and other parameters viz. length and
thickness of heat exchanger are found out.
Copper pipes are used inside the heat exchanger
of length 2000 mm.
TABLE 1: ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
Manufacture
Kirloskar Oil Engine Ltd.,

Pune
Engine
Single Cylinder. 4-Stroke,
water cooled diesel engine
Bore
87.5 mm
Stroke
110 mm
Comp. Ratio
17.5
Capacity
661cc (0.661 Ltrs)
Power
5.2 kW at 1500 rpm
Sp.
Fuel 220
gms/kW-hr
Combustion
(0.22kg/kW-hr)
154
RPM
1500 rpm
BHP@1500 rpm 5.2 kW
Cooling System
Water Cooled
Experiment is done on the test rig. The engine
which is used in this experiment is run on dual
mode: one without diesel vapor mixture and
another with diesel vapor mixture. Firstly all
readings without diesel vapor mixture are
measured. The supply valve of water for engine
is open first. Now fuel supply is started and time
taken is measured with the help of digital stop
watch for the fuel consumption. The first load is
set and first reading of exhaust temp at 27 crank
angle injection timing on computer through the
thermocouple noted down. Time is taken for the
first 20 cc of fuel. This procedure continues for
next load and found all reading for exhaust gas
temperature without diesel vapor mixture at 27
crank angle injection timing. Similarly all
procedure is continued at 30 crank angle
injection timing and 27 crank angle injection
timing with direct port supply (DPS).
Now experiment testing is done with the diesel
vapor fuel mixture. A heat exchanger is used to
this process. A constant supply of exhaust gas is
used through the differential valve. Only 4 % of
exhaust gas is used in this process. Now the fuel
supply is started to the heat exchanger this fuel
is vaporized by the heat exchanger. Again time
taken is measured with the help of stop watch.
Now diesel vapor mixture is used in intake
system which is supplied by the accumulator.
Again the loads are set and measured all reading
at 27 crank angle injection timing. Similarly all
readings are measured at 30 crank angle
injection timing and 27 crank angle injection
timing with DPS.
A heat exchanger-accumulator mechanism is
used to vaporize the fuel and catalytic cracking.
Accumulator has 20 mm inner shell diameter
and 50 mm of outer shell diameter. Accumulator
is mounted on intake manifold to supply the
diesel fuel in vapor form and it is mixed with air
into intake system. Fig 2 shows the schematic of
heat exchanger and its specifications are
presented in Table 2.
Exhaust Gas out

Diesel
in
Diesel
out
Exhaust Gas in
Fig 2: Schematic of heat exchanger

TABLE 2: SPECIFICATIONS OF HEAT
EXCHANGER
S.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Particular
Dimension
(mm)
420
280
the 2
Diameter
Length
Thickness of
cylinder
Diameter of the 12
copper pipe
Length of the copper 2000
pipe
IV. DATA ANALYSIS
The engine is tested at different loads from 5 kg

to 30 kg at different time intervals, by
connecting a thermocouple at the engines
exhaust. Heat loss through the exhaust gas from
internal combustion is calculated as follows. The
following data were assumed for the study [7]
Volumetric efficiency is 0.8 to 0.9

Density of diesel fuel is 0.71 to 0.85
gm/cc
Calorific value of diesel is 42 to 45
MJ/kg
Density of vapor fuel is 1.167 kg/m3
Specific heat of exhaust gas is 1.1-1.25
KJ/kg K
Exhaust heat loss through diesel engine:
Compression ratio (r):
155
r = (Vc+Vs) / Vc
Vc = 4 10 -5 m3
TABLE 4: TIME FOR 20 CC OF FUEL
Total volume (Vt) = Vc + Vs =7.01 10-4 m3
Load (kg)
Time (sec)
Mass flow rate of fuel (on the basis of specific

fuel consumption) f
84
76
10
62
15
53
20
47
25
34
30
26
s.f.c = f / power
f = 0.3177 gms/sec
Volume rate = swept volume speed
Volume rate (V) = Vs N
= 8.262 10-3 m3/ sec
Volumetric efficiency (v)
a. Design for the heat exchanger

Mass flow rate of exhaust gas which is flowing
in heat exchanger, we are using only 4% of mass
flow rate of total exhaust gas. Table 5 and Table
6 show the mass flow rate of exhaust gas and
fuel at different loads.
v = volume of air/ swept volume

v = a / a n Vs
a = v a n Vs
= 8.625 gm/sec
TABLE 5: MASS FLOW RATE OF EXHAUST

GAS AT DIFFERENT LOADS
Mass flow rate of exhaust gas (E)

E = f + a= 8.9427 10-3 kg/ sec
Load (kg)
Mass flow rate

(kJ/s)
3.5 10-4
Table 3 show the exhaust temperature

measurement by thermocouple at different loads
and Table 4 shows the time for 20 cc of fuel.
3.6 10-4
10
3.8 10-4
TABLE 3: EXHAUST
MEASUREMENT
15
3.9 10-4
20
4.0 10-4
25
4.4 10-4
30
4.79 10-4
Heat loss in exhaust gas (QE) = E Cp T

= 4.13 kJ/sec (or kW)
Load
(kg)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Exhaust
temp.
(0C)
300
340
380
395
405
430
460
Voltage
(V)
240
240
240
240
240
240
240
TEMPERATURE
Current
(A)
5
8
12.5
17.5
22
26
Heat
loss
(kJ/hr)
12892.5
13923.9
15986.7
17533.8
19080.9
20628
21146.4
TABLE 6: MASS FLOW RATE OF FUEL AT

DIFFERENT LOADS
156
Load (kg)
Mass flow rate (kJ/s)
15
355
0.053
20
370
0.06
25
385
10
0.068
30
400
15
0.080
20
0.081
25
0.09
30
0.095
Inlet temperature of cold fluid (Tc1) is 30 C.

Now equation for heat balance is:
Heat gain by cold fluid
fluid
c Cc Tlm =
heat loss by hot

h Ch Tlm
Table 7 and Table 8 show the inlet temperature

of hot fluid Th1 and outlet temperature of hot
fluid Th2 . From these two tables we can design
the heat exchanger.
Rate of heat transfer (Q) = c Cc T
TABLE 7: INLET TEMPERATURE OF HOT

FLUID
LMTD:
Load (kg)
Temperature (0 C)
300
340
10
380
15
395
20
405
25
430
30
460
Tc2 = 330K
= 3.9kW
ln[(Th2 Tc2) / (Th1 Tc1)]

/Q)* [(Th2 Th1) + (Tc1 Tc2)]
= (UA
A = 0.1266048 m2
Area of the tube,
At = h / v
= 1.3682 *10-3 m2
At = d2 / 4
But,
d = 0.012 m
Length of the tube,
A = dL
L = 0.28 m
TABLE 8: OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF

HOT FLUID
0
Load (kg)
Temperature ( C)
270
300
10
335
Diameter of the heat exchanger,

A = D2 / 4
D = 0.4015m
V. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
As performance characteristics are given by the
brake thermal efficiency and bsfc. Thus results
obtained from the experiment shows the
157
variation of brake thermal efficiency and bsfc

with respect to brake power.
a. Brake Thermal Efficiency
Fig 3 shows the variation of brake thermal
efficiency without diesel vapor mixture and with
diesel vapor mixture at 27 crank angle for
injection timing. This graph shows the variation
in brake thermal efficiency at various loads i.e.
with brake power at 50%, 75% and 100% load
conditions. The brake power is 2.388 kW with
50% load at 27 crank angle injection timing,
corresponding to these values, the brake thermal
efficiency without diesel vapor mixture is 0.238
and with diesel vapor mixture are 0.262. Also
the brake powers were 3.544 and 4.776 at 75 %
and 100% load respectively, corresponding to
these values, the brake thermal efficiencies
without diesel vapor mixture are 0.251 and
0.252 and with diesel vapor mixture brake
thermal efficiency are 0.283 and 0.290
respectively. This shows 10% increment with
50% load, 13% increment with 75% load and 15
% increment with 100% load in brake thermal
efficiency are obtained when diesel vapor
mixture is used.
Fig 3: Variation in brake thermal efficiency

without diesel vapor mixture and with diesel
vapor mixture at 27 crank angle injection
timing

timing
Fig 4 shows the graph of brake thermal
efficiency without diesel vapor mixture and with
diesel vapor mixture at 30 crank angle injection
timing. This graph again shows the variation in
brake thermal efficiency with brake power at
50%, 75% and 100% load conditions. The brake
power is 2.6196 kW with 50% load at 30 crank
angle injection timing, corresponding to these
values, the brake thermal efficiency without
diesel vapor mixture is 0.229 and with diesel
vapor mixture is 0.252. The brake powers at
75% and 100% load are 3.542 and 4.7426
respectively, corresponding to these values, the
brake thermal efficiencies without diesel vapor
mixture are 0.2301 and 0.240 and with diesel
vapor mixture brake thermal efficiency are
0.2581 and 0.272 respectively. This shows
10.19% increment with 50% load, 12.12%
increment with 75% load and 13.6% increment
with 100% load in brake thermal efficiencies
with use of diesel vapor mixture.
Similarly graph plotted at 27 crank angle
injection timing with direct port supply (DPS) in
Fig 5. The brake power is 2.388 kW with 50%
load at 27 crank angle injection timing with
DPS, thus the brake thermal efficiency without
diesel vapor mixture is 0.245 and with diesel
vapor mixture is 0.279. The brake powers are
3.544 and 4.776 with 75 % and 100% load
respectively at 27 crank angle injection timing
with DPS, giving the brake thermal efficiencies
without diesel vapor mixture of 0.249 and 0.259
and with diesel vapor mixture 0.281 and 0.31
respectively. Hence showing 14% increment at
50% load, 12.17% increment at 75% load and
19.8 % increment at 100% load in brake thermal
efficiencies when diesel vapor mixture at 270
crank angle injection timing with DPS is used.
158

timing with DPS
Fig 6: Variation in bsfc at 27 crank angle

injection timing
At 27 injection timing with DPS, the increment

in brake thermal efficiency is more because of
charge potential is better than to others. There is
a fine mixing of charges inside the engine
cylinder at this injection timing and reduce the
delay period for combustion causes peak
pressure increase and less fuel consumption
achieved.
b. Brake
Specific
Fuel
Consumption
Same as the brake thermal efficiency, brake
specific fuel consumption was shown in Fig 6.
These graphs are plotted at 27, 30 and 27
with DPS injection timing.
Fig 6 shows the graph of bsfc without diesel
vapor mixture and with diesel vapor mixture at
27 crank angle injection timing. This graph
shows the variation in bsfc with brake power at
50%, 75% and 100% load conditions. The brake
power is 2.388 kW with 50% load at 27 crank
angle injection timing, corresponds to these
values, bsfc without diesel vapor mixture is 0.38
and with diesel vapor mixture is 0.31. The brake
powers are 3.544 and 4.776 at 75 % and 100%
load respectively and the bsfc without diesel
vapor mixture are 0.33 and 0.32 and with diesel
vapor mixture bfsc are 0.305 and 0.301
respectively. Hence 5.9% reduction of bsfc at
full load condition when with diesel vapor
mixture is achieved.

injection timing
Fig 7 shows the graph bsfc without diesel vapor
mixture and with diesel vapor mixture at 30
crank angle injection timing. The brake power
is 2.6196 kW with 50% load at 30 crank angle
injection timing which gives the bsfc without
diesel vapor mixture of 0.359 and with diesel
vapor mixture of 0.3295. The brake powers are
3.542 and 4.742 at 75 % and 100% load
respectively, corresponding these valves, the
bsfc without diesel vapor mixture are 0.352 and
0.345 and with diesel vapor mixture bfsc are
0.32 and 0.292 respectively, hence showing 15%
reduction in the bsfc at full load condition with
diesel vapor mixture.
Fig 8 shows the graph of bsfc without diesel
vapor mixture and with diesel vapor mixture at
27 crank angle injection timing with dps. This
graph shows the variation in bsfc with brake
power at 50%, 75% and 100% load conditions.
The brake power is 2.388 kW with 50% load at
27crank angle injection timing with dps, the
bsfc without diesel vapor mixture is 0.378 and
with diesel vapor mixture is 0.27. The brake
159
powers are 3.544 and 4.776 with 75 % and

100% load respectively, corresponds to the bsfc
without diesel vapor mixture of 0.339 and 0.302
and with diesel vapor mixture bfsc of 0.263 and
0.260 respectively, hence giving 13.9 %
reduction in the bsfc at full load condition with
diesel vapor mixture.
optimum condition for the brake specific fuel

consumption. This shows the advantage of
combustion of diesel vapor with the recovery of
heat from exhaust gases that can be used to
obtain less fuel consumption and increasing
thermal efficiency at decrease load condition.
References
So bsfc at 27, 30 and 27 injection timing is
calculated with dps from the graphs the optimum
condition is found at 30 crank angle injection
timing. At this condition there is the maximum
reduction
of
15%
in
bsfc.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

injection timing with DPS
VI. CONCLUSION
The heat which is considered as waste heat come
from the exhaust gases can be utilized by
vaporization of diesel. This evaporated fuel mix
with the intake air and burns completely. It
reduces the delay period which causes increase
in combustion pressure and develops more
power. Due to the proper mixing, the charge
burns completely and there is no unburnt hydro
carbon present in exhaust thereby reducing the
emissions. Specific heat of fuel increases due to
vaporizing and bsfc is decreases significantly.
The fuel ignites at multiple points and no flame
propagates in combustion chamber thereby
perfect combustion takes place causing less
emission. The percentage increment in brake
thermal efficiency with diesel vapor mixture is
15% at full load 27 injection timing, 13% at 30
injection timing and 19.8% for 27 DPS.
Thermal efficiency is high in case of 27
injection timing with DPS due to perfect mixing
and air-fuel ratio. It is also observed that brake
specific fuel consumption reduces by 5.44% for
27, 15% for 30 and 14% for 27 with DPS as
the load increases. So 30 injection timing is the
[5]
[6]
[7]
Bibin, Y. Kojima, K. Takahashi, Baba T.,

Ibaraki S., Takahashi T., Study on
Maximizing Exergy in Automotive Engines,
SAE Int. Publication 2012-01-0257, 2007.
Boretti A, Optimum Speed Power Turbine to
Recover the Exhaust Energy of Compression
Ignition Diesel and Gas Engines SAE Int.
Publication 2012-01-0537 (2012).
Tahani, E. Bellos A, Kakaras E., A
comprehensive study on waste heat recovery
by organic rankine cycle, June 26-29, 2013,
Perugia, Italy.
Chauhan V, A Review of research in
mechanical engineering on recovery of
waste heat in internal combustion engine,
International Journal Of Research In
Engineering & Applied Sciences, 2012, 2
(12) 2249-3905.
Kumar R., Sonthalia A, Goel R,
Experimental study on waste heat recovery
from an internal combustion engine using
thermoelectric technology, Thermal Science,
2011, 15 (4), 1011-22.
Rashad AM, Investigation of a single
cylinder diesel engine performance under
recycling and conditioning of exhaust for air
intake, Transactions of the Japan Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Part B 70 (689)
(2009) 292299.
Xuejun H, Deli G., Analysis of Exhaust Gas
Waste Heat Recovery and Pollution
Processing for Z12V190 Diesel Engine,
Maxwell Scientific Organization, Res. J.
Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 2012, 4, 1604-11.
160
27. MOTION CONTROL SYSTEM OF

DC MOTOR DRIVE THROUGH PID
CONTROL
Pragya Singh
Mechanical & Automation Engineering
Department
Amity University
Sec-125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh India
pragyaanilsingh@gmail.com
Hemant Chouhan
Mechanical & Automation Engineering
Department
Amity University
Sec-125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
hchouhan@amity.edu
Abstract: The proposed work presents the
motion control of DC motor which is an
indispensable feature to be taken into
considerations for many industrial applications.
The work deals with the comparison between
manual control to a simple on/off control and a
PID control. The results are interpreted and
compared through responses obtained by
MATLAB software. The response of the dc
motor through the graphs show that the open
loop condition has a time delay in the systems
performance and implementation of ON/OFF
controller improves the results to an extent,
while the PID controller finds its path in
eliminating the error and gives the most
appropriate result.
Keywords DC motor drive, open and
closed loop, PID controller
I.
INTRODUCTION
An electric drive is an electromechanical

system that employs an electric motor as a prime
mover to control the motion of different
machines and mechanisms. On account of
increased competition and detailed transparency
of practical applications, there is a requirement
of high performance drives which should be
efficient in all the fields required for its
performance apart from just fulfilling the
industrial requirements. To match such kind of
expectations from the industry,a high
performance drive should be able to maintain the

dynamic speed command and load regulating
responses. Direct current motors find an
immense use in variable speed controls and
position control system where good dynamic
response and steady state response is required.
Robotic drives, printers, machine tools, rolling
mills, textile and paper industries are a good
source of DC Motor drive applicant. The electric
drive holds features like adaption of control
characteristics to the application, easy and
simple speed control methods, high efficiency,
wide range of power, speed and torque ratings.
A typical electric drive system includes a
controller, a transmission system, an electric
motor and a driven load.
From control system perspective, DC motor can
be taken as a Single Input Single Output (SISO)
system having speed characteristics which suits
well with all mechanical loads. This
characteristic makes the DC motor applicable in
all the controllable devices and provides good
adjustments to the terminal voltage. This
emblematic feature makes the DC motor a good
choice over other driver system and the speed
control of these motors can also be enhanced.[1 ,
2]
For speed control of dc motor drive a closed
loop system is employed which calculates the
error at the output and gives it back to the input
of the actuator. This makes the output of the DC
motor as totally desirable for the system and no
differences occur at the receiving end.There are
many methods available for maintaining the
speed of DC motor but Proportional-IntegralDerivative (PID)Controller is the most reliable
and commonly used in all the industrial
processes. The output of the motor is regulated
and estimated by PID for the proper results. [3]
161
Fig.1: Block diagram of a closed loop control of

a DC motor drive
The speed of separately excited DC motor can
be regulated as per the required speed by the
implementation of the PID controller.
II(a) MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF DC
MOTOR
A separately excited DC motor consists of a
field and armature winding each of them with
separated supply. Field winding is used to
generate flux and armature current is drawn by
the commutator and brush segment. The field
current excites the motor and as a result
armature current flows into the circuit.
Therefore, the motor develops a Back EMF and
a torque to balance the load torque at particular
speed level. [2]
Td = Jd/dt + TL
(3)
Eb = K
(4)
Td= KIa
(5)
Applying Laplace transform to above equations,

we get,
Ia(s)=Va-Eb/Ra+La(s) = (Va-K)/(Ra(1+La/Ras))
(6)
also,
(s) = (Td-TL) /Js=(KIa- TL )/Js
(7)
Ta= La/Ra represents armature time constant and

Tm = JRa/(K)2 represents electromechanical
constant and replacing K by Km. By applying
block reduction method to the block diagram of
motor model, the transfer function can be
obtained as:
(s)/va(s) = [(k/Ra)/(Js(1+sTa) /1+(K22)/
Js(1+Ta)
(8)
further simplifying the equation we get,
(s)/Va(s)
(9)
(1/Km)/(1+sTm)(1+sTa)
Thus, it is observed that two time constants i.e.

Tm and Ta of the above system transfer
function(T/F) are taken for account for the
response of system.[1]
Fig2: Equivalent circuit of a DC Motor

Applying Kirchhoffs law to the
Equivalent circuit
Va=IaRa + La di/dt + Eb
(1)
Td=Jd/dt + B + TL
(2)
Where Va = armature voltage; Eb = motor back

EMF; Ia= armature current; Ra = armature
resistance; La = armature inductance; TL = Load
Torque; Td = developed Torque; J = moment of
inertia; B = friction co-effecient of motor; =
angular velocity
Table 1: Showing useful ratings of DC Motor as

required
Since, field current If is constant, the flux will

be constant. therefore, the emf induced and
torque developed can be obtained as :
162
The motor considered for the experimental

response is Maxon DC Motor with operating
specifications are shown in table1.
III.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
II(b) CURRENT CONTROL LOOP
Initially, when only the motor is run and the

output is derived with no closed loop added to
the system, the initial response of the system
will be very slow due to the starting torque and
armature resistance. The desired output is
achieved after a delay of few seconds.
The presence of electromechanical windings

leads to generate resistance at the commence,
but the speed controller leads off at that very
moment. Initially, due to the electromechanical
constant, there is no output as speed from the
motor. Hence,
III (a) OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
the feedback output voltage Va is maximum and

there is a large amount of current flow in the
motor due to zero Back EMF.This may lead to
reach maximimum rated motor current and
would damage the motor. Therfore, arises the
requirement of a control loop to regulate the
armatue current in order to save the motor.[2]
Whenever there is an increase in current from
the reference current as denoted by the speed
controller, the armature current rises and the
error in the speed output is calculated, this leads
to lower the acceleration and torque required for
the DC motor. So, the error generated at the
output is fedback to the speed controller input to
eventually generate the desired amount of input
from the reference position.[3 , 4]
II(c) PID CONTROLLER
A proportional-Integral-Derivative controller is a
feedback loop controller which observes the
error generated and calculates the required
amount of input to be allowed to be fed to the
system. The controller also estimates the error
and gives the required amount of the input value
to be needed on calculation of the previous
records. The controller attempts to minimize the
error by adjusting the process through use of
manipulated variable. The PID controller
algorithm
consists
of
three
termsP(proportional), I- (Integral), D-(Derivative). P
depends on the present error, I is the integation
of the past observed values, and D is the
prediction of future errors based on current rate
of change. The error can be defined as the
difference in the
desired output and the
observed output.[3 , 6]
Fig:3: Time
motor
Response of Open loop of DC
In Fig(3). it can be seen that the final output is

achieved successfully, but the time required for
the system to reach the rated speed is 2 seconds.
This time consumption of the system leads to
show the system response as very slow.
This result embarks for some solution which
would make the system respond quickly with
better results.
III(b) FEEDBACK LOOP
(1) ON/OFF CONTROLLER
A feedback loop is applied to the DC Motor
which takes the output of the system and gives
the input accordingly.
When the system starts at first, the speed of the
rotor rises to the required level. The speed rises
continuously despite the level of maxima.
163
The controller calculates the difference in the

output and switches off the current. The motor is
stopped and the speed starts decreasing. The
velocity of the shaft starts dropping to the
required level and keeps dropping further.
Again, the controller calculates the difference
between the outputs and switches on the motor.
Hence, the speed starts rising again. This is
repeated each time the controller senses an
imbalance in the output desired.
Fig4. shows the response of the motor with an
ON/OFF controller implied in the feedback loop.
This response goes with many ups and downs
and does not remain constant at the required
level, though it manages to maintain the output
with a short span of change in speed. Here,the
need arises of something that manages to
calculate the error and tries to maintain the
output at constant level.
The response of the controller can be described

in terms of responsiveness of the system to the
error generated and to the degree to which the
controller overshooots the setpoint. The
controller describes the error in rise time, time
delay and percentage overshoot of the system.
The controller can be prepared as per the
requirement of the system according to the error
to be improved. There can be many
combinations set by the P,I,D terms viz., P only
,PI, PD or PID controller according to the need
of the system.
start
run the dc motor speed control model for

parameters
calculate the[ Kp,Ki,Kd] parameters
calculate the equation of PID by implementing

the parameters
Fig4: Time response for on/off controller

(2) PID CONTROLLER
PID comprises of Proportional-IntegralDerivative terms in the system the system ought
to be free from errors and behaves as in an ideal
condition.
The PID works with an algorithm process which
has various instructions and conditions to
follow. The main advantage of using PID is that
it allows for consideration of easily constuctable
bounded initial conditions. By tuning the three
parameters in the algorithm, the controller can
provide control action for the speed of the DC
motor.[3 , 5 , 6]
no
desired output
yes
end
Fig.5: Flow chart of a PID algorithm
The application of PID parameters
ameliorates the response of the dc motor and
helps in achieving the right output.
164
Fig 6: Time response for P only controller
Fig. 7: Time response for PD controller
Fig 9 : Time response for ideal PID

From the responses shown for various
parameters of PID controller, it can be
observed that the rise time which means the
starting torque of the motor reduces to a
minimum value giving a sharp rise at the
beginning. When P only controller is
applied, the rise time reduces and
simultaneously the overshoot of the system
increases to 30% from the reference
line(Fig.6)
.The variations settles at
1.8seconds. That means the armature voltage
of the system rises to a very high extent. This
rise of armature voltage can harm the dc
motor by burning of coils.[2]
So,a differential controller was needed to be
adjusted along with the proportional
controller which would suppress the exces of
voltage applied to the dc motor. This enables
to successfully chop the extra overshoot of
the system. Although, the overshoot and rise
time have been improved(Fig.7) to almost
10% of the desired value and settling time is
1.2 seconds, yet there are many
displacements while settling down to the
constant line.
Fig 8 : Time response for PID controller
An integral controller to the system is applied

which leads to a subtle time response of the
system with desired output. In (Fig.8), it can
be seen that the response of the system is
accurate to almost at the reference line.The
overshoot is less than 5% and settling time
reduces to 0.8 seconds. Physically, there can
be some difference in the output of the
system as compared to the theoretical values
165
evolved, but they can be neglected as the

differnce will be quite small and would not
be visible with physical observance.
parameters to a value resulting in

a perfect solution is an important
step and may require a number of
iterations before achieving the
desired outcome.
Fig.9, shows the ideal response of the DC

Motor through PID. There is no overshoot for
the system and the settling time is 0.2
seconds. The parameters need to be
calculated for every system to achieve the
desired response from the control system.
The values of the prameters are adjusted as
per the specification of the system to be
controlled. The system can achieve its desired
result as specified.
A further study needs to be done

for incorporation of optimization
techniques in deriving the
parameters of PID that will help
in achieving the desired value of
speed of DC Motor in real time.
References:
Parameters
Symbol Values
Remark
Proportional
Kp
300
Improves
time
Integral
Ki
300
Improves
settling time
Derivative
Kd
200
Improves
overshoot
Table 2: Properties of PID parameters

IV. CONCLUSION
The performance of DC motor

has been studied and parameters
for PID controller are obtained.
The open loop response gave the

factors that needed to be
improved through feedback loop.
Application of on/off controller

encourages to reach to a much
closer value as it is not found to
be satisfactory solution to the
process.
The PID controller added to the

system can estimate the error and
control the input of the system
preventing from delay and
wastage simultaneously.
It is observed that for any system

to be stable, PID can be a good
solution. However, it should be
noted that setting the P,I and D
Rise
[1] Anguluri Rajshekhar,et.al.2013.

Design of intelligent speed controller for
chopper fed DC Motor drive using
opposition based artificial bee colony
algorithm, Engineering aplication of
artificial intelligence, Elsevier.
[2] Subhramanyam, k, 2000.
Electric drive concepts and application.
Tata Mcgraw hill, New Delhi.
[3]Das,
et.al.2012.A
novel
fractional order fuzzy PID controller and
its optimal time domain tuning based on
integral
performance
indices.Eng
appl.Artificial Intelligence.
[4]Zhihuan
Chen,et.al.2014.
Design of a fractional order PID controller
for hydraulic turbine regulating system
using chaotic non-dominated sorting
genetic algorithm II, energy conversion
and management. Elsevier.
[5]Guo-qiang
Zeng,
et.al.2014.Design of multivariable PID
controllers using real coded population
based external ops,timization.Elsevier.
[6]SergeiS.Mikhalevich,
et.al.2014.Development of a tunable
method for PID controller to achieve the
desired phase margin.
166
28. EFFECT OF SUBCOOLING IN

VCRS AS COMPARED TO SIMPLE
VCRS SYSTEM
Taliv Hussain1,Arjun Sharma 2,Navin3,Rahul
Wandra4,Gaurav Roy5
Phone no: 08283836492
Abstract:-Decreasing the consumption of power

in a vapour compression air conditioning system
with increase in refrigeration effect and
reduction of compressor work is a major concern
and challenging problem especially in the area
where extreme weather conditions of about 50C
exists. This extreme weather condition not only
decreases the performance of an air condenser
but also increases the electrical power
consumption. In this paper we have analysed
subcooling by heat exchanger, air cooled
condenser and formulate the performance of
each on VCRS system. A set-up of vapour
compression air conditioning has been built and
is paired with the heat exchanger and normal air
condenser. Both the Heat exchanger and air
condenser are connected in series.The effect of
these two on the cycle performance at different
ambient conditions have been measured.
Experimental results show that the use of
subcooling by heat exchanger compared with
simple vapour compression system will improve
the COP. The COP of subcooled VCRS is 3.99
where as the COP of simple VCRS is 3.Thus the
COP increase is about 33.3% in subcooled
vapour compression refrigeration system as
compare to simple vapour compression
refrigeration system.
Keywords: Vapour compression refrigeration
system, COP, subcooling.
energy(wind) sources but during last few

decade, there has been rapid increase in demand
of energy consumption because of increasing
population .The resulting impact of Such energy
consumption trend on the local environment has
been massive with far-reaching consequences
which can be seen in the form of rising global
temperature and sea level .India became the
world's third largest producer of electricity in the
year 2013 with 4.8% global share in electricity
generation which means more burning of fossil
fuels as 70% of Indias energy generation is
from fossil fuel with coal accounting for 40%
followed by crude oil and natural gas. So it has
become indispensable thing for todays
government to find energy efficient systems
which will consume less power for the same
amount of work. In this project we have
concentrated our study on subcooling by heat
exchanger (HX) ,and simple air conditioning
systems(VCRS) using R134a(tetraflouro ethane)
as refrigerant and found out experimentally the
performance improvement in COP and power
consumption using comparison between
subcooled by heat exchanger(HX) and air cooled
air conditioning systems .Typically Air cooled
condenser are commonly used in almost all
residential buildings and commercial offices.
Increase in average temperature due to global
warming is also increasing the demand of these
air conditioners. With the increase in ambient air
temperature (~30-46C) there is a drop in COP
of most of air cooled air conditioners units by
about 35-45% which further increases the
electricity consumption. Further the use of heat
exchangers is widespread in commercial
refrigeration. The heat exchangers are often
employed as a means for protecting system
components, by helping to ensure single-phase
liquid to the expansion device and single-phase
vapour to the compressor. As a result of
employing this intra-cycle heat exchange, the
high pressure refrigerant is subcooled at the
expense of superheating the vapour entering the
compressor.
I INTRODUCTION
II LITERATURE REVIEW
Until the beginning of the nineteen century,

mans energy sources were mainly human
muscle power and some other non-conventional
Groseclose et al. [1954] showed that the cost of

the water-cooled condensers with cooling towers
and the evaporative cooling condensers were
167
almost the same. Nevertheless, the conventional

water-cooled condensers involved a cooling
tower, which also imply a larger installation
space and extra power for fan and pump .Gosney
[1982] dimensionless equations for COP and
volumetric-capacity effectiveness of the internal
heat exchange. A thorough" discussion of liquidsubcooling and vapor-superheating effects
.Webb [1984] developed a unified theoretical
treatment of evaporative systems: cooling
towers, evaporative coolers and evaporative
condensers. His model considered the effect of
the variation in temperature of the deluge water
in an evaporative cooler, but stated that for an
evaporative condenser the film temperature
remains essentially constant due to the fact that
the variation in the refrigerant temperature is
negligibly small. McLinden [1990] performed
analysis of llsl-hx cycles employing a semitheoretical cycle simulation model, which
included representation for the evaporator and
condenser, and temperature profile of the sink
and source heat transfer fluids. He concluded
that fluids having a high vapour heat capacity
can simultaneously achieve high capacity and
efficiency. presented simulation results showing
different relative rankings of refrigerants studied
depending on the cycle used for performance
comparison (llsl-hx or reversed Rankine
cycle).P.A. Domanski and D.A. Didion [1992]
paper presents a theoretical evaluation of the
performance effects resulting from the
installation of a liquid line/ suction line heat
exchanger (llslhx). It examines cycle the
parameters and refrigerant thermodynamic
properties that determine whether the installation
results in improvement of COP and volumetric
capacity. The study showed that the benefit of
application of the Jlsl-hx depends on a
combination of operating conditions and fluid
properties , heat capacity, latent heat, and
coefficient of thermal expansion with heat
capacity being the most influential property.
Fluids that perform well in the basic cycle are
marginally affected by the llsl-hx, and the
impact on the Coefficient of Performance and
volumetric capacity may be either positive or
negative. Fluids performing poorly in the basic
cycle benefit from the llslhx installation through
increase of the Coefficient of Performance and
volumetric capacity .Linton et al. [1992]
experimentally investigated the effect of

condenser liquid subcooling on a refrigeration
system performance. Results showed that the
cooling COP and refrigeration capacity of all
three refrigerants benefited from subcooling
increase (from 6C to 18C): R134a (12.5%),
R12 (10.5%) and R152a (10%), while
condensing temperature was kept artificially
constant. Subcooling has also been subject of
publications related to automotive air
conditioners. These systems are usually
equipped with either a high-side liquid receiver
or a low-side accumulator in order to absorb
fluctuations in refrigerant charge.
III EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
In this project we have concentrated our study
on the domestic air conditioner ie. subcooled
VCRS by employing heat exchanger and Simple
VCRS. The performance of the subcooled
system is elevated by installing heat exchanger
between suction and discharge line. In case of
simple VCRS system air cooled condenser has
been used .The experimental setup (figure 1 and
figure 2) consists of a single stage vapour
compression system with the basic components
i.e. evaporator, compressor, expansion device ,
condensers and a coil heat exchanger. The coil
type heat exchanger has been attached in series
after condenser and parallel to the suction line
before compressor. The shifting of air cooled air
conditioning system to the subcooled i.e.(system
with heat exchanger) air conditioning system is
done with the help of the system of hand set
valve attached. The whole experiment is carried
out on R134a (tetra flouroethane) which is used
as refrigerant in setup.
After taking the reading with subcooled system
i.e.(system with heat exchanger) ,we perform the
same experiment with air cooled condenser
VCRS .Ammeter and voltmeter are used to
measure the electrical current and voltage of
input power respectively. The bourdon pressure
gauges are used to measure the suction (inlet)
and discharge (outlet) pressure of compressor.
Temperatures of refrigerant and the ambient air
at different points are measured by use of RTD
PT100 type thermocouples. Before temperature
measurement, the surface of the tubes are
polished for removing any type of dust or rust
168
and then the thermocouples are laid own onto

the surface. Insulation tapes are wrapped around
the copper tubes to prevent any heat losses to
ambient air.
conditions. Data are recorded after a steady state

condition is achieved in the system and the
properties of refrigerant (R134a) and air
remained constant (after 15 min). Experimental
tests are performed at three ambient
temperatures i.e. 29C, 33C and 39C in order
to have better understanding of the system
behaviour under different climatic conditions.
Table 1: Result obtained at 29C ambient
temperature
Parameter
Symbo
l
Unit
Ambient air Temperature at

DBT-29C , WBT - 21C , RH
- 50%
Subcooled
VCRS
Figure 1: Experimental set-up with subcooled

VCRS with heat exchanger and air cooled
condenser
Figure:2 Experimental set-up of coil heat

exchanger
IV
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND
DISCUSSIONS
In order to estimate the effect of subcooled
VCRS system i.e.(system with heat exchanger)
and air cooled conditioning system i.e.(simple
VCRS) and also comparing the results of both
subcooled VCRS system and air cooled
condenser, experimental tests are performed in
two subsequent stages. In the first stage of the
experiment, air-cooled condenser is used. After
getting the data, in the second stage subcooled
VCRS system is used under the same ambient
Air Cooled
Condenser
Evaporator
Absolute
pressure
Peva
Condenser
Absolute
pressure
pcon
bar
10.75
18.49
Evaporator
exit
temperature
T1
-15
15
Compressor
exit
temperature
T2
25
71
Condenser
exit
temperature
T3
19
52
Evaporator
inlet
temperatur
e
T4
1.4
2.12
225
225
Total
electric
current
Total
electric
voltage
3.98
bar
2.91
I
Amp
Volt
169
Parameter
Symbol
Unit

DBT-33C , WBT - 26C ,
RH - 57%
Subcooled
VCRS
Evaporator
Absolute
pressure
Peva
bar
Condenser
Absolute
pressure
pcon
T1
T2
Compressor
exit
temperature
21.42
-7
18
35
T3
75
Volt
Evaporator
Absolute
pressure
Peva
Condenser
Absolute
pressure
pcon
Evaporator
exit
temperature
T1
Compressor
exit
temperature
T2
Condenser
exit
temperature
T3
Total
electric
current
225
Air Cooled
Condenser
bar
4.33
5.52
bar
12.44
26
-2
20
55
81
51
71
11
15
2.31
225
225
C
T4
2.24
Total
electric
voltage
V
Subcooled
VCRS
Evaporator
inlet
temperature
1.87
Unit
13
Amp
Sym
bol

DBT-39C , WBT - 32C , RH 61%
62
5
T4
5.1
10.97
40
Evaporator
inlet
temperature
Total
electric
current
3.41
Parameter
Air Cooled
Condenser
bar
Evaporator
exit
temperature
Condenser
exit
temperature
225
Table 2: Result obtained at 33C ambient temperature
Total
electric
voltage
I
Amp
Volt
Table 3: Result obtained at 39C ambient temperature
170
d. COP =
Qr
Wc
where,
compressor
in
kj/kg
h2 = enthalpy of refrigerant at exit of compressor
in
kj/kg
condenser
in
kj/kg
evaporator in kj/kg.
Figure 3: Pressure-enthalpy (P-h) diagram for

subcooled
VCRS and air cooled air
conditioning system at 29 C ambient air
temperature.
The voltage meter and ampere meter attached in the

experimental set-up . Using this voltage and ampere
reading, work done of the compressor is obtained
Table 4, 5 and 6 shows the results obtained from the
observations recorded at three different ambient air
temperature i.e. 29C, 33C and 39C.
TABLE 4: RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT

AT AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE OF 29
C
V CALCULATION AND RESULTS

Based on the experimental results, thermodynamic
properties of the refrigerant at different points in the
cycle are obtained using the P-H chart of refrigerant
R-134a and the parameters such as mass flow rate,
cooling capacity and COP of the system are calculated
from the equations:
In case of subcooled VCRS total compressor work reduces

about 34%. There is an increase of 26% in the COP of
subcooled VCRS as compare to aircooled VCRS
a. Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref* (h2 h1)

b. Mass flow rate of refrigerant mref =
Wc
(h2 h1)
Parameter
Compressor Work , Wc
Unit
Wat
t
Variation(
%)
Air Cooled
Subcooled
VCRS
VCRS
447
315
- 34%
3.9
26%
Coefficient of
performance
COP
TABLE 5:
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT

AT AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE OF 33C
171
At 33C ambient air temperature, Subcooled

Performance Results of Air Conditioner (Tamb 33oC)
Parameter
Air
Uni
Cooled Subcoole Variation(
t
VCRS d VCRS %)
Compressor
Work , Wc
Wat
504
t
420.75
-18%
Coefficient of
performance
2.62
2.8
6%
COP
VCRS total shows a reduction of 18% in
compressor work. There is an increase of 6% in
the COP of Subcooled VCRS as compare to air
cooled condenser which is less by 32% than at
29C.
Performance Results of Air Conditioner (Tamb 39oC)
Parameter
Air
Uni Coole
t
d Subcoole
VCRS d VCRS
Variati
on(%)
Compressor
Work , Wc
Wa 519.75
tt
450
-14%
2.5
3%
Effect of ambient temperature on Compressor

work
Figure 4 shows the variation of compressor
work for subcooled and air cooled VCRS in
terms of ambient air temperature. As seen
from the graph, with increase in air
temperature compressor work is increased
and there is considerable difference between
performance of two systems . The
compressor work for the subcooled VCRS is
significantly low as compare to air cooled
VCRS. In air cooled system, condenser
rejects heat to the external fluid i.e. air, while
in subcooled system the high pressure
refrigerant is subcooled at the expense of
superheating the vapour entering the
compressor. Therefore the saturation pressure
is decreased in case of subcooled VCRS
which in turn lowers the compressor power
for same cooling capacity. Also with the
increase in ambient air temperature the heat
rejection rate from the condenser decreases
which puts an excessive load on to the
compressor.
Coefficient of
performance
2.43
COP
TABLE 6: RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT
AT AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE OF 39 oC
At 39C ambient air temperature, Subcooled
VCRS total shows a reduction of 14% in
compressor work.There is an increase of 3% in
the COP of Subcooled VCRS as compare to air
cooled condenser.
Figure 4: compressor work variation at different

ambient air temperature
172
EFFECT OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURE ON

COP
whereas in case of air cooled VCRS the increase

in Compressor work and COP decrease by 26%.
The experimental investigation also verifies that
condensing temperature and pressure decreases in
case of subcooled VCRS system which decreases
the compressor work. The subcooled VCRS
system thus results in increasing cooling load and
decreasing power consumption of the compressor
which consequently save enough amount of
energy .Thus the use of subcooled system with
heat exchanger will reduce the peak load
conditions of power network in extreme hot
weather conditions because vapour compression
air conditioners are the main cause of peak loads.
Figure 5 shows the variation of COP with ambient

air temperature for subcooled VCRS and air cooled
VCRS. As the experimental results show that there
is decrease in COP with the increase in ambient air
temperature. Also the COP of subcooled VCRS is
more then the air cooled VCRS because of high
cooling effect and low compressor work. The
difference between two curves is very large at 29C
and it decreases as ambient air temperature
increases. This decrease in COP is due to the
reduction in cooling load with increase in ambient
air temperature.
_______________________________________________
REFERENCE
[1] C.E. Groseclose, Cost comparison of air
conditioning refrigerant condensing systems.
Refrigeration Engineering, June (1954) 5458.
[2] Gosney, W.B., "Principles of Refrigeration",
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
U.K.,1982.
[3] R.L. Webb, A unified theoretical treatment
for thermal analysis of cooling towers,
evaporative condensers, and fluid coolers
ASHRAE Trans 90 (Part 2B) (1984) 398415.
FIGURE 5: Cop variation at different ambient

air temperature
VI CONCLUSION
In this experiment a subcooled VCRS with heat
exchanger and air simple air cooled VCRS is
experimentally investigated. Experimental results
show that there is considerable increase in the
COP of the subcooled VCRS as compare to air
cooled VCRS and further there is significant
decrease in compressor work for subcooled vcrs
system as compared air cooled vcrs. In case of
subcooled VCRS there is an increase in the steady
state COP from 3 to 3.9 under the following
conditions: the wet-bulb temperature is 21C, drybulb temperature is 29C, air velocity is 2.4 m/s
and power consumption is decreased by 34%
[4] McLinden, M.O., "Optimum Refrigerants for

Non-Ideal Cycles: An Analysis. Employing
Corresponding
States,
Proceedings
of
ASHRAE-Purdue
CFC
&
IIR-Purdue
Refrigeration Conferences, pp. 69-79, W.
Lafayette, IN, July 1990.
[5] Domanski, P.A., Didion, D.A., 1994.
Evaluation of suction-line/liquid-line heat
exchange in the refrigeration cycle, International
Journal of Refrigeration 17, 487-493.
[6] Linton, J.W., Snelson, W.K., Hearty, P. F.,
1992. Effect of condenser liquid subcooling on
system performance for refrigerants CFC-12,
HFC-134a
and
HFC-152a.
ASHRAE
Transactions 98, 160-146
[7] Arora C.P., (2001), Refrigeration and Air
conditioning, book.
173
29. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT

FAILURE
THEORIES
OF
COMPOSITE
MATERIAL:
A
REVIEW
Supriya Kabra
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology
Bhopal, India
supriyakabra91@gmail.com,
N.D.Mittal
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology
Bhopal, India
ndmittal1956@gmail.com
Abstract Different failure theories are used to

assess failure analysis of composite materials as
Failure criteria is important step of failure
analysis. As composites material are orthotropic
or anisotropic by nature so shows complex
failure .There are many modes of failure such as
basically fibre failure, matrix failure, inter fibre
failure crack propagation, delaminations. In this
we compare five theory such as Tsai , Puck,
Rotem, Zinoviev and Edge there failure mode
and approach used.In this we reviewed paper of
WWFE by Hinton in 2002 for comparing the
theories. This paper aims to solve basic problem
associated with use of failure criterion for
composite material.
KeywordsFibre Reinforced composites
(FRC); Failure Theories; Modes of Failure;
Fibre Failure; Matrix Failure
I.
INTRODUCTION
Fibre reinforced polymer composites are an

extremely broad and versatile class of material.
There high strength coupled with lightweight
leads to there use wherever structural efficiency
is at a premium. Applications can be found in
aircraft, process plants, sporting goods and

military equipment[8].
In recent scenario, fibre-reinforced polymer
(FRP) composites are finding increasing
application in aerospace, marine and many other
industries due to the advantages they provide
performance, structural efficiency and cost. The
main reasons for composite material is
mechanical properties of composites such as
high strength/stiffness to weight ratio, excellent
corrosion resistance and low co-efficient of
thermal expansion.There structural properties
according to requirements which add versatility
for sensitive applications[13].
The process of damage development and failure
in composite materials is very complicated. The
effective properties of the composite usually
depend on the average stresses or strains in the
phases. However, an analytical micromechanical
damage analysis should properly take into
account the detailed microstructure, the spatial
deformation fields, existing defects, criteria for
microfailure and its evolution, and the way
different defects and modes of failure interact as
loading progresses [1].
This paper draws together the results from the
World-Wide Failure Exercise (WWFE), coordinated by Hinton et.al. in which the
predictions were provided by the originators of
the theories . These included fibre type (carbon,
glass), matrix type (various epoxies), lay-up
configuration (unidirectional, multidirectional)
and a variety of load states (uniaxial, biaxial)
[2].
II.
FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
The carbon fibre reinforced polymer matrix

composites has been used more and more
progressively in various fields including the
airplane, fuel cell vehicle, electricity generation
and communication power systems due to their
advance benefit such as high strength/stiffnessto-weight ratio, excellent resistance to fatigue
and corrosion as well as acceptable durability[8].
The metal currently being used is either
aluminium, magnesium or titanium, and the
fibre-reinforced layer is either glass-reinforced,
carbon reinforced or kevlar- reinforced
174
composite[10]. The carbon fibre composites are

used to manufacture the laminated composites
which utilizes the carbon fibres having same
orientation in each layer, and these layers are
packed in angled orientations to get high
stiffness and strength in different directions. [8].
Fibre reinforced polymers have gathered
remarkable market as material is used in a wide
variety of structural applications around the
world. But have low impact resistance due to
which mechanical properties are affected [9].The
light weight of the composites brings down the
fuel consumption considerably therefore
increase the overall engine efficiency. So
composite materials have gain popularity in
roads in aero and auto industries.
failure
3
Puck
Fibre failure in
compressive, Fibre
failure
in
compressive, Interfibre failure Mode A
(for
transverse
tension), Inter-fibre
failure Mode B (for
moderate transverse
compression), Interfibre failure Mode C
(for large transverse
[11]
compression),
4
Rotem[1
1]
III.
MODES OF FAILURE OF COMPOSITE

LAMINATE
Modes of failure of composite laminate are

basically fibre
failure
(shear, tensile,
compressive) , matrix failure (transverse tension,
transverse compression, shear), delamination
,etc. Different theories of failure have different
modes of failure and different mechanism
involved which represented different approaches
for failure analysis[2].
Edge[11]
Table 1
Different Failure theories there failure mode and
approach. [11]
S.
N
o
Failure
Tsai [11]
Failure mode
Approach
represented
Fibre
tension/
compression
and
matrix tension and
compression
and
shear
Interactive
progressive
quadratic
failure
criterion
Longitudinal tension
failure, Longitudinal
compressive failure,
Transverse
In-plane
shear
Developme
nt
of
Maximum
stress
theory
Physically
based 3-D
phenomeno
logical
models
Matrix failure.
Interactive
matrix and
fibre failure
theory
Transverse tensile
failure, Transverse
In-plane
shear
failure, Combined
transverse tension
and
shear,
Combined
longitudinal
compression
and
shear, Delamination
British
Aerospace,
In-house
design
method
Theory
Zinovie
v [11]
IV.
DIFFERENT FAILURE THEORIES
a. Tsai failure theory:

From W.Tsai et.al. (1998) Failure criteria of
composite laminate was based on progressive
quadratic failure criterion, it has been noted that
the theory predicts enhancement of strength
under
compression-compression
biaxial
loading[1].
In WWFE Tsai theory work on different
composite material with different layups and
175
different loading condition and there after the

stress-strain curve was plot.
A ply in a laminate may fail by micro-cracking
when the transverse strain on the ply axis is
positive (tensile). If micro-cracking takes place
in a ply, we assume that it happens
instantaneously within a limited region of high
stress in a ply. Having other plies at the same
point in a laminate, the laminate as a whole may
be capable of continuing to carry the prevailing
load[3].
According to WWFE conducted by Hinton et. al.
(1998) the comparison of different theories with
different test resulted to some positive and
negative points about this theory [2]. This theory
broadly fits shape of the experimental data.
Predictions are very conservative (i.e. safe) for
both quadrants. Negative effect of the theory is
as overall the predictions are approx 50% too
conservative suggesting that there is some
weakness in the theory or its application.
b. Zinoviev Theory:
Peter A.Zinoviev et.al. (1998) considered the
deformation
and
failure
processes
of
multilayered hybrid composites in a state of
plane stress which can be considered as a
structural phenomenological one, is a coupled
deformation failure model (DFM).[4]
Hinton et. al. (1998) The Zinoviev failure theory
was based on he maximum stress failure theory,
which embodies a very simple, but carefully
structured, set of non-interactive criteria to
identify failure mechanisms and to take
appropriate post-initial failure action [2].
In WWFE Hinton et.al. gave reasonably good
descriptions of the unidirectional lamina failure
envelopes though, as expected for a noninteractive failure theory. This theory was one of
the best at predicting initial as well final failure
events for multi-directional laminates. The
theory
assumed
linear-elastic
material
properties, it also gave reasonably good
descriptions of nearly all of the stress/strain
curves and only failed to predict the observed
large deformations[2].

c. Pucks Theory:
In 2002 Puck et.al. failure of different laminates
because of non-linearity is due to microdamage,
matrix cracking, and changes in fibre angle with
increasing strains. Puck performed experimental
study of laminate to
Pre-IFF non-linear
stress/strain analysis and residual stress analysis.
[5]
The strength of a reasonably well designed
laminate depends to a very high degree on the
load carrying capacity of its fibres, because
normally most of the load is concentrated in the
fibres. Therefore, the FF-criteria have the
highest importance for the design of laminates.
Puck used the new IFF criteria are based on a
modified Mohr hypothesis which has been
adapted to transversally isotropic material.[5]
The results show that the Puck theory captures
most features of the experimental results appears
to be one of the best available currently.[2]
According to Hinton et.al. there are weakness in
Pucks theory like The theory has a unique open
envelope Which needs to be reconciled with
experimental evidence, no leakage prediction,
theory was unable to predict large deformation,
Un-conservative strength prediction, not
capturing strain deviations and the initial and
intermediate failure strengths are some 50%
lower than those recorded in experiments[2].
d. Rotem Theory:
Rotem in 2002 gives the criterion that
distinguishes fibre failure and matrix failure.
Only in-plane loads are considered, neglecting
the possibility of interlaminar failure. This
criterion separates the failure to fibre and matrix
failure [6]
The criterion
assumptions:
is
based
on
three
basic
1. The failure of a FRC material laminate will

occur either in the fibres or in the matrix. The
onset of the failure is a localized phenomenon.
2. The laminate has no free edges, i.e. the
laminate is wide enough and clamped on its
outer contour and
176
has no holes. Therefore only in-plane stresses

are effective. There are no interlaminar stresses
which
lower final failure strength values than the other

theories [12]
may cause failure.
Acknowledgment
3. The matrix material is weaker and softer than
the fibres.[6]
Hinton et. al. the stress/strain curves by this
criteria were truncated at much lower strains
than the final
strains observed. As
post failure analysis
prediction does not fit the experimental data in
shape or magnitude and very conservative in two
quadrants are the fundamental weakness of this
theory .[2]
e. Edge theory:
E.C. Edge postulated that In-plane shear failure
is regarded as a final failure and transverse
tension failure has been regarded as initial
failure. Final failure means that the laminate is
either considered incapable of taking further
load or a fibre failure has occurred. The stressbased Grant Sanders method employed for
failure analysis of laminate for predicting initial
and final failure [7] and consider the effects of
matrix degradation on the stress/strain curves
[2].
Hinton et.al. postulated fundamental weakness
of this theory are Slightly un-conservative under
tensioncompression
and
doubt
about
compressioncompression quadrant very low
initial strength prediction. The theory does not
fit the experimental curves at large strains.
Fundamental problem in post failure analysis[2].
V. CONCLUSION:
From all the above theory we can see the result
for ranking the accordingly as the theories have
some fundamental weaknesses. According to
Hinton et. al. Zinoviev is the best theory for
composite material which consider both post and
pre failure of laminate and gave descriptions of
nearly all of the stress/strain curves[2] and has
minimum weakness and type of post failure
modeling utilized by Rotem produced much
The research have been supported by Maulana

Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal
for providing proper environment and resource
for successfull completion of this research so is
gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Hakan Kilic, Rami Haj-Ali Progressive
damage and nonlinear analysis of pultruded
composite structures, Composites: Part B 34
2003; 235250.
[2] M.J. Hinton, A.S. Kaddour, P.D. Soden, A
comparison of the predictive capabilities of
current failure theories for composite laminates,
judged against experimental evidence, Compos
Sci Technol 2002; 62 :17251797.
[3]. Liu K-S, Tsai SW. A progressive quadratic
failure criterion of a laminate, Compos Sci
Tech 1998;58:102332.
[4] Zinoviev P, Grigoriev SV, Labedeva OV,
Tairova LR. Strength of multilayered
composites under plane stress state, Compos
Sci Technol 1998;58:120924.
[5] Puck A, Schu rmann A. Failure analysis of
FRPlaminates by means of physically based
phenomenological modelspart , Compos Sci
Technol 2002;62:163362
[6] Rotem A. The rotem failure criterion theory
and practice,
Compos Sci Technol
2002;62:166371
[7] Edge EC, Theory V. Experiment
comparison for stress based Grant-Sanders
method, Compos Sci Technol 2002;62:1571
89.
177
[8]. Liu P.F(2010), Zheng J.Y. Recent

developments on damage modeling and finite
element analysis
for composite laminates: A review, Materials
and Design 2010; 31: 38253834.
[9]. M.H. Malik, A.F.M. Arif , F.A. AlSulaiman, Z. Khan. Impact resistance of
composite laminate flat plates A parametric
sensitivity analysis approach, 2013; 102 : 138
147.
[10]. F.D. Morinire, R.C. Alderliesten, R.
Benedictus . Modelling of impact damage and
dynamics in fibre-metal laminates A review,
2014 ;67:27e38.
[11] P. D. Soden, M. J. Hinton , A. S. Kaddour.
A Comparison of the Predictive Capabilities of
Current Failure Theories for Composite
Laminates. Compos
Sci Technol
1998;
58:1225-1254.
[12] A.S. Kaddour, M.J. Hinton, P.D. Soden. A
comparison of the predictive capabilities of
current failure
theories for composite laminates: additional
contributions. Compos Sci Technol 2004; 64 :
449476
[13] Panda S.K.(2011), Singh B.N. Large
amplitude free vibration analysis of thermally
post-buckled composite doubly curved panel
using nonlinear FEM . Finite Elements in
Analysis and Design 2011; 47:378386.
178
30. USE OF POLYMER MATRIX

COMPOSITES FOR
CONVENTIONAL STEEL DRIVE
SHAFTS: A STUDY
Yusuf Abdulfatah Abdu1*, Tijjani M Shfii1*,
Salisu Umar Musa1, Umar Shasu1, Hamza
Alhassan1, Prof. U.K. Gupta1
1
Dept. of Mechanical & Automobile
Engineering,
Sharda University,Greater Noida, India
*
abdulfatahabduyusuf@gmail.com
*
tijjanimshafii@gmail.com
Abstract: - The present study throws light on

the idea of replacement of conventional steel
material with composite material for drive shaft.
There are several advantages of design due to its
high specific stiffness and strength. Automotive
drive shaft is usually manufactured in two pieces
in order to increase the fundamental bending
natural frequency because it is inversely
proportional to the square of beam length and
proportional to the square root of specific
modulus. This composite can be made as singlepiece shafts, in other to reduce the overall
weight. Carbon/Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy
composites were designed and analyzed for their
appropriateness in terms of torsional strength,
bending natural frequency and torsional
buckling by comparing them with the
conventional steel drive shaft with the same
design constraints and the best-suited composite
was recommended. The achievement of weight
reduction with adequate improvement of
mechanical properties has made composite a
very good replacement material for conventional
steel without increase in cost or decrease in
vehicle quality and reliability.
KeywordsComposite Material, Drive Shaft,
Carbon/Epoxy,
Kevlar/Epoxy,
Torsional
strength, Bending natural frequency, Torsional
buckling
I.
INTRODUCTION
An automotive driveshaft is a rotating

shaft that transmits power from the engine to the
differential gear of rear wheel drive vehicles.
Composites have high specific modulus,

strength and less weight. The fundamental
natural frequency of carbon fiber drive shaft can
be twice as that of the steel or aluminum,
because the carbon fiber composite material has
more than four times the specific stiffness,
which makes it possible to manufacture the drive
shaft of passenger cars in one piece. A one piece
composite shaft can be manufactured so as to
satisfy the vibration requirements. This
eliminates all the assembly, connecting the two
piece steel shaft and thus minimizes the overall
weight, vibrations and cost. Due to weight
reduction, fuel consumption will be reduced.
They have high damping capacity and hence
they produce less vibrations and noise. They
have good corrosion resistance, greater torque
capacity, longer fatigue life than steel and
aluminum [1].
A typical composite material is a system
of materials composing of two or more materials
(mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale.
Composite drive shafts have solved many
automotive and industrial problems accompany
the usage of the conventional metal ones
because the performance is limited due to lower
critical speed, weight, fatigue and vibration.
Numerous solutions such as flywheels, harmonic
dampers, vibration shock absorbers and multiple
shafts with bearings, couplings, and heavy
associated hardware have shown limited success
in overcoming the problems. Advanced
composites utilize a combination of resins and
fibers, customarily carbon/graphite, Kevlar, or
fiberglass with an epoxy resin. The fibers
provide higher stiffness, while the surrounding
polymer resin matrix holds the structure together
[2].
Carbon-fiber
composites
are
an
alternative to glass-fiber composites because
they are stiffer and therefore have better
potential for structural applications. They can
also be made lighter than their glass-reinforced
counterparts, providing a significantly higher
weight-savings potential. Generally composite
materials have very high specific strength and
specific modulus. This translates into reduced
material and energy costs. Though the material
cost is 10-15 times that of steel, manufacturing
179
techniques such as SMC (Sheet Moulding

Compound) and SRIM (Structural Reaction
Injection Moulding) are substantially lowering
the cost and production time in manufacturing
automobile parts [3].
A. Basic Concepts of Composite Materials
Composite materials are basically hybrid
materials formed of multiple materials in order
to utilize their individual structural advantages in
a single structural material. The constituents are
combined at a macroscopic level and are not
soluble in each other. Composite materials have
been used in aircraft and space vehicles as they
have high specific strength (Strength/Density),
high specific stiffness (Stiffness/Density) and
very good fatigue properties. With the composite
material the designer can vary structural
parameters, such as geometry and at the same
time vary the material properties by changing
the fiber orientation, fiber content.
Classification of Composite Materials
i.
Polymer matrix composites
ii.
Metal matrix Composites
iii.
Ceramic Matrix
B. Advantages of Composites over Conventional
Materials
i.
ii.
High strength to weight ratio.

High stiffness to weight ratio.
iii.
iv.
High impact resistance.

Better fatigue resistance.
v.
vi.
Improved corrosion resistance.

Good thermal conductivity.
vii.
High damping capacity.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
II. DRIVE SHAFT

A drive shaft, propeller shaft or prop
shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting
torque and rotation, usually used to connect
other components of a drive train that cannot be
connected directly because of distance or the
need to allow for relative movement between
them.
A. Functions of the Drive Shaft
i.
ii.
iii.
viii.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
C. Applications of Composite Materials

The common applications of composites
are extending day by day. Nowadays they are
used in medical applications too. Some other
fields of applications are,
Automotive : Drive shafts, clutch plates,

fibre Glass/Epoxy leaf springs for heavy
trucks and trailers, rocker arm covers,
suspension arms and bearings for
steering system, bumpers, body panels
and doors.
Aerospace: Drive shafts, rudders,
elevators, bearings, landing gear doors,
panels and floorings of airplanes,
payload bay doors, remote manipulator
arm, high gain antenna, antenna ribs and
struts etc.
Marine: Propeller vanes, fans &
blowers, gear cases, valves & strainers,
condenser shells.
Chemical Industries: Composite vessels
for liquid natural gas for alternative fuel
vehicle, racked bottles for fire service,
mountain climbing, underground storage
tanks, ducts and stacks etc.
Electrical & Electronics: Structures for
overhead
transmission
lines
for
railways, Power line insulators, Lighting
poles, Fibre optics tensile members etc.
iv.
It must transmit torque from the

transmission to the differential gear box.
The drive shaft must also be capable of
rotating at very fast speed required by
the vehicle.
The length of the drive shaft must also
be capable of changing while
transmitting torque. Length changes are
caused by axle movement due to torque
reaction, road deflection, braking load,
and so on.
The drives shaft must also operate
through constantly changing the angles
180
v.
vi.
between
the
transmissions
the
differential and the axels.
A slip joint is used to composite for this
motion. The slip joint is made of an
internal and external spline.
The dive shaft should provide a smooth
flow of power to the axles.
Fig 2.1 Schematic Diagram of the two Piece

Drive Shaft for a Rear Wheel Driving System
[4]
This construction increases the weight of
the assembly due to the additional centre support
bearings and other mountings. Together these
parts need to be maintained and serviced
regularly which adds for the maintenance cost.
The problem can however be solved by
replacing the conventional two piece steel drive
shaft with single composite drive shaft which
can full-fill the functionality of an automotive
drive shaft without any weight penalty, but for a
composite driveshaft the prominent failure mode
is shear buckling rather than material failure,
which needs to be analyzed.
DRIVE SHAFT
The fundamental natural bending
frequency for passenger cars, small trucks and
vans of the propeller shaft should be higher than
6,500 rpm to avoid whirling vibration and the
torque transmission capacity of the drive shaft
should be larger than 3,500 Nm [5]. The
conventional steel shaft was designed to
facilitate comparison in terms of mass savings.
But the conventional driveshaft or the composite
one, the design should be based on the following
criteria:
i.
Torsional strength
ii.
Torsional buckling and
iii.
Bending natural frequency.
The SM45C steel was selected, since it is widely
being used for the design of conventional steel
shaft.
Table 4.1 Properties of SM45C steel
Properties
Steel
of
Value
Unit
Symbol
Youngs
Modulus
207
GPa
Shear
Modulus
80
GPa
Poissons
Ratio
0.3
---
Density
7600
kg/m2
Shear Strength
Ss
370
MPa
III. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

The following specifications were assumed
suitably, based on the literature and available
standards of automobile drive shafts:
Table 3.1: Design requirements and
specifications [3]
Parameter
Shaft
of
Value
Unit
Symbol
Torque
Transmitted
3500
N-m
Outer Diameter
Inner Diameter
do
di
120
112.74
Length of Shaft
1800
mm
mm
mm
IV. DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL STEEL
A. Torsional Strength
Since the shear stress is small near the middle,
then if there is no other stress considerations
other than torsion, a hollow shaft may be used to
reduce the weight. The torque transmission
capacity of a steel shaft; the shear strength (Ss) at
the outer diameter (do) of the shaft is given by
(1)
Where,
181
T is maximum torque applied in N-m
= 816.875 N/mm2
Ss is the shear strength in MPa
= 63.117
d0 and di are outer and inner diameters of the

shaft in mm.
106 N-mm
Therefore,
Hence,
The wall thickness of the hollow steel shaft:
t= r0- r1
(2)
t =3.63 mm
C. Bending Natural Frequency

Natural frequency can be found using the
following two theories:
A shaft is considered as a long shaft, if [6];
i.
Timoshenko Beam Theory
ii.
Bernoulli Euler Theory
According to Bernoulli-Euler beam theory, by
neglecting shear deformation and rotational
inertia effects, the bending natural frequency of
a rotating shaft is given by [3];
(3)
(7)
Where,
Where,
m is mass per unit length in kg/m
Ix is area moment of inertia in x-direction
(longitudinal)
in m4.
T = 13.868
10 N-mm
B. Torsional buckling
r is the mean radius, such that;
(4)
(8)
=58.184 mm
(9)
Substituting,
Substituting,
For a long shaft, the torsional buckling capacity:
Thus the designed SMC45 steel driveshaft meets

all the requirements.
The total mass of the shaft is:
m
=
mL
(10)
(5)
m = 18.157 kg
Where,
Critical stress
V. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE DRIVE SHAFT

) is given by;
A. Why Carbon Epoxy Composite?

Following are the features of carbon epoxy
composite, the reason for which it is chosen.
(6)
i.
Carbon epoxy composite gives high

tensile strength, high modulus of rigidity
as compared to other composites.
Substituting,
182
ii.
Carbon epoxy composite has unique

damping characteristic.
Carbon epoxy composite has positive
coefficient of thermal expansion i.e.
tensile strength of this composite
increases with temperature.
Carbon epoxy composite is fatigue, wear
and corrosion resistant.
iii.
iv.
Table 5.1 Mechanical properties of Carbon

Fiber Composite [7].
Mechanic
al
Properties
shaft.
C. Bending natural frequency
(12)
From the Table 5.1, the density of
Carbon/Epoxy
The mass of Carbon/Epoxy composite driveshaft
is,
(13)
Units
Carbon/Epo
xy
Kevlar/Epo
xy
E11
GPa
175
75
E22
GPa
G12
GPa
---
0.3
0.34
1600
1400
850
280
40
30
Kg/m
3
St1=Sc1
MPa
St2=Sc2
S12
MPa
60
60
MPa
B. Design of Carbon/Epoxy Driveshaft

60% fibre volume fraction Carbon/Epoxy shaft
(Vf = 60%) with standard ply thickness of 0.13
mm was selected. Considering the hollow
composite shaft as an isotropic cylindrical shell,
the buckling torque is given by:
(11)
Where,
m = 3.82 kg
VI. DESIGN ANALYSIS
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a
computer-based numerical technique for
calculating the strength and behavior of
engineering structures. It can be used to
calculate deflection, stress, vibration, buckling
behavior and many other phenomena. It also can
be used to analyse either small or large scale
deflection
under
loading
or
applied
displacement.
In this review the FEA is carried out by
using the ANSYS. Firstly, we dont know the
displacement and other quantities like strains,
stresses which are then calculated from nodal
displacement.
a. Static Analysis
A static analysis calculates the effects of
steady loading conditions on a structure, while
ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as
those carried by time varying loads. A static
analysis is used to determine the displacements,
stresses, strains and forces in structures or
components caused by loads that do not induce
significant inertia and damping effects. A static
analysis can however include steady inertia
loads such as gravity, spinning and time varying
loads. If these values exceeds above the
allowable values then component is going to fail.
Hence static analysis is necessary.
Ex and Ey are the Youngs moduli in x

and y
directions respectively.
r and t are the mean radius and thickness
of composite
183
together with
capabilities.
improved
torque
carrying
VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig 6.1 Deformation of Composite

drive shaft
b. Modal analysis
The modal analysis is one of the
important analyses for drive shaft as we are
eliminating two piece drive shafts with single
piece. The modal analysis is required as the first
mode frequency of vibration must be less than
shaft operating frequency to avoid failure of
drive shaft.
Fig. 6.2 Boundary Condition for the

model analysis
c. Buckling analysis
Buckling analysis is a technique used to
determine buckling loads (critical loads) at
which a structure becomes unstable, and buckled
mode shapes. For thin walled shafts, the failure
mode under an applied torque is torsional
buckling rather than material failure. For a
realistic driveshaft system, improved lateral
stability characteristics must be achieved
From the analysis, the key results of wall

thickness, torsional buckling capacity, bending
natural frequency, and total mass for SM45C
steel (as applicable) and Carbon/Epoxy drive
shafts were extracted and summarized in a table
7.1 below.
Table 7.1 Comparison of SM45C Steel,
Carbon/Epoxy and Kevlar/Epoxy drive shaft
Material
t
Tb (N- fnb
m
(mm m)
(Hz)
(kg)
)
SM45C
63117.3 104.14 18.15
Steel
3.63 5
8
7
101.90 3.82
Carbon/Epo 1.82 2272.49 3
xy
241861 101.90 7.42
Kevlar/Epox 5.72
3
y
Table 7.1 reveals that use of
Carbon/Epoxy results in a mass saving of
87.01% and Kevlar/Epoxy were equal to 74.76%
when compared to the conventional SM45C
steel driveshaft. Moreover, the torsional
buckling capacity and bending natural frequency
are adequate enough to meet the design
requirements in the case of Carbon/Epoxy
driveshaft.
Conclusion
Based on the specifications a comparison
of conventional drive shaft with composite drive
shaft based on design and analysis has been
done. The study reveals that use of
Carbon/Epoxy result in a weight saving of
87.01% when compared to conventional steel,
whereas a Kevlar/Epoxy result is 74.76%.
Though the mass saving is substantial in both
the polymer matrix composites considered,
making either of the composites a better choice
for the conventional high quality SM45C steel.
These specifications are adequate enough to
meet the design requirements in the case of
Carbon/Epoxy.
184
Acknowledgement
I express my deep sense of gratitude
and indebtedness to my external guide Prof.
(Dr.) Vikas Dhawan, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, ITS Engineering
College, for providing precious guidance and
inspiring discussion throughout the course of
this paper. I am very much thankful to Prof.
U.K Gupta for giving guidance to my project
work in Sharda University, Greater Noida.
References
[1] Deepti kushwaha, Gaurav Saxena, Optimal
Design and Analysis of Composite Drive Shaft
for a Light Commercial Vehicle International
Journal of Advance Engineering and Research
Development, ISSN (Print): 2348-6406 ISSN
(Online): 2348-4470.
[2] Parshuram D and Sunil Mangsetty, Design
and Analysis of Composite/Hybrid Drive shaft
for Automotives International Journal of
Engineering and science, 2(01) (2013) pp. 160171.
[3] R. Srinivasa Moorthy, Yonas Mitiku and K.
Sridhar, Design of Automobile Driveshaft
using
Carbon/Epoxy
and
Kevlar/Epoxy
Composites, American Journal of Engineering
Research (AJER) e-ISSN : 2320-0847 pISSN:2320-0936 Volume-02, Issue-10, pp-173179.
[4] Madhu K. S, Darshan B.H and Manjunath K,
Buckling Analysis of Composite Drive Shaft
for Automotive Application, Journal of
Innovative Research and Solution, 1A (02)
(2013) pp63-70.
[5] Sagar R Dharmadhikari, Sachin G
Mahakalkar, Jayant P Giri,& Nilesh D
Khutafale, Design and Analysis of composite
Drive shaft using ANSYS and Genetic
algorithm A Critical Review, International
Journal of Modern Engineering Research, 3 (1)
(2013) pp. 490-496.
[6] Gummadi Sanjay & Co., Optimum Design
and Analysis of a Composite Driveshaft for an
Automobile, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Blekinge Institute of Technology,
Karlskrona, Sweden, 2007, ISRN: BTH AMTEX--2007/D-09--SE.

[7]
www.acpsales.com/upload/MechanicalProperties-of-Carbon-Fiber-CompositeMaterials.pdf
[8] M.A.K. Chowdhuri, R.A. Hossain, Design
Analysis of an Automotive Composite
DriveShaft, International Journal of Engineering
and Technology Vol.2 (2), 2010, 45-48.
[9] V. S. BhajantrI, S. C. Bajantri, and A. M.
Shindolkar, S. S. Amarapure Design and
Analysis of Composite Drive Shaft Ijret:
International
Journal of Research in
Engineering and Technology, eISSN: 2319-1163
| pISSN: 2321-7308.
[10] D. Dinesh and F. Anand Raju, Optimum
Design and Analysis of A Composite Drive
Shaft For An Automobile By Using Genetic
Algorithm And Ansys, International Journal of
Engineering Research and Applications, 2 (04)
(2012) pp. 1874-1880.
[11] Mohammad Reza Khoshravan et al.,
Design and Modal Analysis of Composite
Driveshaft
for
Automotive
Application,
International Journal of Engineering Science
and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 4, April 2011,
ISSN : 0975-5462.
[12] Mr. V. l. Narayana, Mr. D. Mojeswararao
and Mr. M.N.V.R.L. Kumar Optimization of
composite drive shaft assembly and comparison
with conventional steel drive shaft, Vol. 1 Issue
6, August 2012.
[13] Bhushan K. Suryawanshi, Prajitsen G.
Damle Review of Design of Hybrid
Aluminum/Composite
Drive
Shaft
for
Automobile, Volume-2, Issue-4, March 2013.
[14] Bhirud Pankaj Prakash, Bimlesh Kumar
Sinha. Analysis of Drive Shaft International
Journal of Mechanical and Production
Engineering, Volume- 2, Issue- 2, Feb.-2014,
ISSN: 2320-2092.
[15] K.V.N. Parvathi, CH. Prabhakara Rao,
Structural Design of Composite Drive Shaft for
Rear-Wheel Drive Engine Parvathi et al,
185
International Journal of Advanced Engineering

Research and Studies, E-ISSN22498974.
[16] S V Gopals Krishna, B V Subrahmanyam,
and R Srinivasulu, Finite Element Analysis and
optimization of Automotive Composite Drive
Shaft International Journal of Engineering
Trends and Technology (IJETT) Volume 5
Number 7- Nov 2013.
[17] Chirag B. Gandhi 1 Manthan Patel, A
Study Paper On Analysis And Comparison Of
Composite Drive Shaft With Conventional Steel
Drive Shaft International Journal for Scientific
Research & Development, Vol. 2, Issue 03,
2014, ISSN (online): 2321-0613.
[18]
T.Rangaswamy,
S.Vijayarangan,
R.A.Chandrashekar,
T.K.Venkatesh
and
K.Anantharaman, Optimal Design and Analysis
of Automotive Composite Drive Shaft
International Symposium of Research Students
on
Materials Science and Engineering
December 2002-04.
[19] Belawagi Gireesh, Sollapur Shrishail B, V.
N. Satwik, Finite Element & Experimental
Investigation of Composite Torsion Shaft
International Journal of Engineering Research
and Applications, Vol. 3, Issue 2, March -April
2013, pp.1510-1517, ISSN: 2248-9622.
186
31. EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION OF
COMPARISON OF VCRS WITH
PHASE CHANGE MATERIAL AS
SODIUM SULPHATE (NA2SO4)
AND SIMPLE VCRS SYSTEM
Rahul Wandra1,Taliv Hussain2,Gaurav Singh
Jaggi3, Sourabh4,Gourav Roy5
Phone no: 08283836492
ABSTRACT-A phase-change material (PCM) is
a substance with a high heat of fusion which
melts and solidifies at a certain temperature, is
capable of storing and releasing large amount of
energy. Heat is absorbed or released when the
material changes from solid to liquid and vice
versa; thus, PCMs are classified as latent
heat storage (LHS) units. A PCM material helps
in extracting heat from the evaporator by
absorbing latent heat of vaporization from the
compartment which is to be cooled which is the
Evaporator. We will use a Na2SO4 (sodium
sulphate) compound as a phase change material.
It is an inorganic compound used to store energy
within itself and release when required. It can
efficiently absorb heat from the evaporator and
release it outside the evaporative chamber. The
Refrigeration system we used here is a simple
vapour compression refrigeration system using
R-134a as a refrigerant. On installing the
Na2SO4 phase change material on the
evaporator we observed a significant change in
the COP of the system. The COP gets increased
due to additional heat extracted by the inorganic
compound by 22-26%. We observed this change
for different ambient air temperatures. By using
PCM we can also save the compressor work
required by the refrigeration system.
Keywords: Phase change material, Na2SO4,
vapour compression refrigeration system, COP
INTRODUCTION
Electrical energy consumption has become a
worldwide research topic because refrigeration
and air-conditioning systems consuming
electrical energy approximately 15%. By using
PCM we can save the compressor work required
by the refrigeration system. An extensive review
of the literature has been done on different
refrigeration and heat pump systems in this
paper. In vapour compression system there are
four major components: evaporator, compressor,
condenser and expansion device. Power is
supplied to the compressor and heat is added to
the system in the evaporator, where as in the
condenser heat rejection occurs.. A standard
vapour compression cycle consists of four
processes viz. reversible adiabatic compression
from the saturated vapour to the compressor
pressure followed by a reversible heat rejection
at constant pressure causing de-superheating and
condensation. A PCM material helps in
extracting heat from the evaporator by absorbing
latent heat of vapourization from the
compartment which is to be cooled.
A phase-change
material (PCM)
is
a
substance with a high heat of fusion which melts
and solidifies at a certain temperature, is capable
of storing and releasing large amount of energy.
Heat is absorbed or released when the material
changes from solid to liquid and vice versa; thus,
PCMs are classified as latent heat storage (LHS)
units.PCM can be used in evaporater to store
enery at daytime and can provide additional
cooling effect along with the refrigerator. It can
absorb heat from the evaporator which is left by
the refrigerant.
LITERATURE SURVEY
A.S. Dalkilic and S. Wongwises [1], have
studied
the
performance
on
a
vapourcompression refrigeration system with
refrigerant mixtures based on R134a, R152a,
R32, R290, R1270, R600 and R600a was done
for various ratios and their results are compared
with R12, R22 and R134a as possible alternative
replacements. The results showed that all of the
alternative refrigerants investigated in the
analysis have a slightly lower COP than R12,
R22, and R134a for the condensation
temperature of 50 C and evaporating
187

temperatures ranging between 30 C and 10
C. Refrigerant blends of R290/R600a (40/60 by
wt. %) instead of R12 and R290/R1270 (20/80
by wt. %) instead of R22 are found to be
replacement
refrigerants
among
other
alternatives.Vincenzo La Rocca and Giuseppe
Panno [2], have analyzed and compared the
performance of a vapour compression
refrigerating unit operating with R22, and with
three new HFC fluids, substituting the former
according to Regulation No 2037/2000. Here the
plant working efficiency was first tested with
R22 and then with three new HFC fluids:R417a,
R422a and R422d. It is analyzed that the
performance with the new tested fluids did not
result as efficient as when using R22.Yunho
Hwang,
Dae-Hyun
Jin,
Reinhard
Radermacher [3], compared the performance of
R290 with two other refrigerant mixtures
(R404A and R410A) for a refrigeration system.
They compared the environmental impact of
these refrigerants, power consumption and life
cycle climate performance. They found that the
LCCP of R-290 is always lower than that of R404A. The LCCP of R-410A is lower than that
of R-290 as long as the annual emission is kept
below 10%. It was concluded that R-410A has
less or equivalent environmental impact as
compared to R-290 when safety (toxicity and
flammability), environmental impact (climate
change), cost and performance (capacity and
COP) are considered. Ciro Aprea, Angelo
Maiorino, Rita Mastrullo [4], compared the
performance of R22 and its retrofit R422D. They
compared the performance of vapour
compression refrigeration system at different
working conditions and compared the
performance with AHRI standard. They
observed cooling capacity, the electrical power
absorbed, the COP and other variables
characterizing the working of the plant. They
showed that the cooling capacity for R422D was
lower than for R22, while the electrical power
absorbed with R422D was higher than that with
R22 and the COP of R422D was lower than R22
used to measure the inlet and outlet pressure of

compressor. Temperatures of refrigerant and
circulation air at different points are recorded
with RTD PT100 type thermocouples.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 1: Result obtained by using PCM (Na2So4)
and simple VCRS
Parameter
s
Unit
and
Symbo
l
Simple
VCRS
system
VCRS with (
Na2So4) PCM
At
At
At
At
27
C
30
C
27 C
30 C
Suction
Pressure
Bar
0.16
0.46
0.40
0.31
Discharge
Pressure
Bar
8.71
8.52
9.13
10.11
Evaporato
r Outlet
Temperat
ure
Degre
e
Celsiu
s(C)
10.8
8
11.1
5
13.88
14.11
Compress
or Outlet
Temperat
ure
Degre
e
Celsiu
s
43.1
0
49.1
4
42.51
44.20
30.4
5
30.6
6
33.1
30.1
1.9
1.25
0.9
1.8
200
200
200
200
(C)
Condense
r Outlet
Temperat
ure
Degre
e
Celsiu
s
(C)
Current
Amper
e
(A)
MEASURING DEVICES
Voltage
Volt(V
)
188
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

temperature 27C
The Experimental setup used in this procedure is

a simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration
system. The components are evaporator,
compressor, expansion device and condenser.
An Air cooled condenser is used in the
condensation process of the condenser. The
copper tubes are well insulated to prevent any
convection effect from the tubes. Shell and tube
type evaporator is used where copper tubes has
been used in it. A 220 V reciprocating
compressor is used. The refrigerant used in this
system is a Freon R134-a. Expansion device
used here is a capillary tube of very less
diameter. Apart from the components used in a
simple vapour compression refrigeration system,
we have installed a phase change material in the
evaporator of the refrigeration system. The
Phase change material used is an inorganic
compound Na2SO4. This Phase change material
is installed in the evaporator section where it
absorbs the heat from within the evaporator. The
refrigerant starts from the compressor where it is
compressed and then fed to the condenser where
the refrigerant gets converted into liquid state.
Then the liquid refrigerant is passed over into
the evaporator through a capillary tube for
expansion purpose
CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS
A. Compressor Work Wc = V * I = mref* (h2 h1)
Performance result of Air Conditioner (Tamb27C)

Simple
VCRS VCRS
Parameter
Unit
system with
(Na2So4)
PCM
Compressor
work Wc
COP
380
192
3.42
4.76
Watt
------------

temperature 30C
Performance result of Air Conditioner (Tamb30C)
Simple
VCRS
VCRS
Parameter
Unit
system with
(Na2So4)
PCM
376
250
Compressor
Watt
work Wc
3.73
4.53
COP
------------

C. Cooling effect produced Qr = mref* (h1 h4)
D. COP =
Where,
condenser kj/kg (3)
REFERENCES
of
of
the
of
[1]
Cengel, Y., and Boles, M., 1994.
Thermodynamics:
An
Engineering
Approach,McGraw-Hill, New York.
[2] Pouraghaie, M., Atashkari, K., Besarati, S.,
and Nariman-Zadeh, N., 2010,Thermodynamic
Performance Optimization of a Combined
Power/Cooling Cycle, Energy Convers.
Manage., 51(1), pp. 204211.
189
[3] A.S. Dalkilic, and S. Wongwises, A

performance comparison of vapour-compression
refrigeration system usingvarious alternative
refrigerants,International Communications in
Heat and Mass Transfer, 37, pp. 13401349,
2010.
[4] James M. Calm, Emissions and
environmental impacts from air-conditioning
and refrigeration systems, International Journal
of Refrigeration, 25, pp. 293305, 2002.
[5]
Refrigeration and Air-conditioning by
R.S.Kurmi
[6] T. Chikahisa, H. Matsuo, T. Murayama,
Investigations on compact and high-performance
heat pumps for cold regions (2nd report,
estimation of performance improvement by
combining
heat
storage
system
with
conventional GHP), Transactions of the Japan
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Part B 62
(596) (1996) 1591-1598 (in Japanese).
190
32. BEHAVIOUR
OF
POLYMER
MATRIX COMPOSITE UNDER
DIFFERENT
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
Saurabh
Pathak,
Shubendra
Nath
Shukla,Vikas Chaudhary, Kaushalendra Kr
Dubey
Department of Mechanical & Automobile
Engineering, Sharda University, Greater Noida,
U.P. I
Email: vikas24693@gmail.com
Abstract
Polymer-matrix composites (PMC) have been
used for a variety of structural memberships for
chemical
plants
and airplanes, since they have outstanding
performances, such as lightweight and good
fatigue properties. To hold the long-term
durability and to estimate the residual life of the
composites under some hostile environments, it
is an important issue to clarify the facture
and/or the failure mechanism in each service
conditions. The main concern of this paper will
be to examine the causes of degradation of
polymeric
components
under
different
environment.
Keywords-PMC, Tensile Loading Freezing
Point.,
area of discussion in this guide. Also known as

FRP- Fibre Reinforced Polymers- these
materials use a polymer-based resin as the
matrix, and a variety of fibres such as glass,
carbon and aramid as the reinforcement.
1.2 FRP Composites - A generic FRP system
will constitute a matrix and reinforcement in a
fibrous form. The use of fibre as high
performance engineering materials is based on
three important characteristics;
(i) A small diameter with respect to its grain size
or other micro structural unit. This allows a
higher fraction of the theoretical strength to be
attained than is possible in a bulk form. This is a
direct result of the so-called size-effect, which
is , the smaller the grain size, the lower the
probability of having the impurities in the
material. It has been shown, that the strength of
the carbon fibre decreases as its diameter
increases. The general trend may be linear or
non-linear.
(ii) A high aspect ratio (length/diameter), which
allow a very large fraction of the applied load to
be transferred via the matrix to the strong and
stiff fibres.
(iii) A very high degree of flexibility, which is
really a characteristic of a material that has a
high modulus and a small diameter. This
flexibility permits use of variety of techniques
for making composites with these fibers [2].
1. Introduction
1.3 Reinforcement material
Composite material, as the name suggest, is a
combination of two or more materials which are
combined on a macroscopic scale to form a
useful material. The constituent materials have
significantly different physical and chemical
properties and remain separate in the final
structure. These materials are ideal for structural
applications where high strength-to-weight and
stiffness-to-weight
ratio
are
required.
Composites are hybrid materials made of a
polymer resin reinforced by fibres, combining
the high mechanical and physical performance
of the fibres and the appearance, bonding and
physical properties of polymers [1].
1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) These are the most common and will the main
The primary function of fibres or reinforcements

is to carry load along the length of the fibre to
provide strength and stiffness in one direction.
Reinforcements can be oriented to provide
tailored properties in the direction of the loads
imparted on the end product. Reinforcements
can be both natural and man-made[3]. Many
materials are capable of reinforcing polymers.
Some materials, such as the cellulose in wood,
are naturally occurring products. Most
commercial reinforcements, however, are manmade. Of these, by far the largest volume
reinforcement measured either in quantity
consumed or in product sales, is glass fibre.
Other composite reinforcing materials include
carbon, aramid, UHMW (ultra high molecular
weight) polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester
191
and nylon. Carbon fibre is sometimes referred to

as
graphite
fibre.
More
specialized
reinforcements for high strength and high
temperature use include metals and metal oxides
such as those used in aircraft or aerospace
applications.
2. Methodology
There are a wide variety of processes available
to the composites manufacturer to produce FRP
products. Each of the fabrication processes has
characteristics that define the type of products to
be produced FRP laminates can be made by a
number of primary manufacturing processes for
composite
materials.[4]
Hand
lay-up,
compression molding, pultrusion, Resin Transfer
Molding (RTM), Vacuum Assisted Resin
Transfer Molding (VARTM) etc. can be used to
make laminates. A survey of the facilities
available was carried out and it was decided to
make the laminate using the hand lay-up
technique. [5]
Volume fraction is an important parameter

that gives a fair amount of idea about the
degree of reinforcement that has been done
by the addition of fibres. The mechanical
properties of the FRP composites strongly
depend on the fibre-volume fraction. Burnout
test was performed to find out the value of
fibre-volume fraction. The burning process
was accomplished in the Muffle furnace.
The weighing of the specimen was carried
out on digital weighing machine having an
accuracy of 0.001gm. [7]
The samples to test by burnout were taken
from different section of the GFRP
composite laminate to randomize any sort of
error. Volume fraction of GFRP is carried on
muffle furnace. This procedure is known as
burn out operation or ignition loss method.
According to (American society of testing
material) ASTM D2584 standard test method
for ignition loss method cured reinforced resin.
Three samples GFRP are taken according to
standard and then heated at a temperature of
650C for ten minutes and it was then cooled to
room temperature and its mass was
determined. [8]
After burn out operation volume fraction of the
ranged from 34.75 to 36.12 so the average glass
fibre volume fraction comes 35.71% .[9]
4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND
IMPACT
Fig. 1 Hand Lay Up Process
a). Effect of NaOH
The material selected for the fabrication of

flat plate mold was mild steel. The flat
plate mold was fabricated using the
standard processes of shaping, drilling and
welding. Grinding of the faces of both the
plates was done in order to attain high
degree of surface finish. Surface finish of
the faces becomes important to impart a
smooth surface on the laminates. The
matching of the two flat plates of the mold
was done using the dowels and nut-bolt
arrangement was used to apply. [6]
and NaoH
Photo 2.1Effect of H2SO4
3. Testing and Result
192
Fig 2.2 Percentage variation of tensile strength

with
decrease in weight while dipping in NaoH
Fig.2 6. Effect of freezer environment on tensile
strength
d).Effect of brine solution
Fig2.3Effect of NaoH on tensile strength with

respect to time
b).Effect of H2SO4
Fig2.7 Effect of brine solution on tensile

strength
5. CONCLUSIONS
Fig 2.4Effect of H2SO4 on tensile strength with
respect to time
c). Effect of freezer conditions
Fig.2.5 Variation of tensile strength with

increase in weight in freezing condition
The effect of various environmental conditions

on tensile strength of glass fibre reinforced
composite were investigated.
(i) The tensile strength decreases and percentage
reduction increases after every time interval
because of attack of NaOH on epoxy resin.
(ii) The effect of acid will increase the
percentage reduction because inter phase
deboning, and matrix swelling of PCM material
cause reduction in tensile strength.
(iii) It is observed that the tensile strength in
freezing conditions is almost the same as in
sukhna lake water. Degradation in tensile
strength is low in freezing condition because of
low moisture uptake so Polymer matrix can be
used in low temperature applications.
193

(v)The PMCs material when subjected to NaOH
solution showed the maximum percentage
Reduction in tensile strength whereas minimum
percentage reduction was found for exposure to
freezing environmental condition.

aged fibre glass polyester composite
Materials and Design 30 (2009) 271274
REFERENCES
1. Gu Huang and Hongxia Sun, Effect of
water absorption on the mechanical
properties of glass/polyester composites
Materials and Design 28 (2007) 16471650
2. M. Raghavendra1, C.M. Manjunatha, effect
of moisture on the mechanical properties of
GFRP
composite
fabric
material
International Symposium of Research
Students on Material Science and
Engineering (2004)
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Composite Structures 85 (2008) 5963
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cracking of fibreglass:
Lessons learned from failures in the
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Journal of Hazardous Materials
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Degradation of multiply polymer-matrix
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10. Salar Bagherpour, Effects of concentrated
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194
33. STUDY OF FLOW FIELD OF

RIVER FOR HYDRO KINETIC
TURBINE INSTALLATION
Mishra, A.1
MED, KEC, Ghaziabad.
kecashishmishra@gmail.com
Kumar, A.1
MED, KEC, Ghaziabad
anurag.technologist@gmail.com
Singhal, M.1
MED, KEC, Ghaziabad
singhal.mech@gmail.com
Abstract:An optimized location finding in river,

for efficient power generation through
hydrokinetic turbine, is very important. Power
generation through hydrokinetic turbine is
mainly depend upon the flow velocity of the river
and also flow features and channel morphology
which greatly influence the installation of
hydrokinetic turbine. In the present work, the
flow field of river has been studied through the
fluent software to identify the optimum location
for the installation of hydrokinetic turbine. The
discharge data of a selected river has been
analyzed and discussed. It also has been
investigated the effect of flow field on the power
generation from hydrokinetic turbine.
Index terms: River Flow Field, Hydrokinetic
turbine, CFD
I.
Introduction
The study of flow field of river is very important

to investigate various flow field parameters in
water
resource
system,
river
control
development works for life and works of
humans, analysis of river mechanics problem,
design of hydraulic structure etc. various studied
has been made to analyses the river flow field
with respect to earlier said working fields. In
addition to computation-control parameters,
certain other parameters must be defined. These
principally describe the conveyance properties
of the channels. Although these parameters
cannot be measured directly, they can be derived

from certain measured data. They depend
principally upon the physical properties of the
channels of the rivers. Generally the Mountain
Rivers or glaciers river have very steep flow and
complex bed geology. To study of the flow field
for any geological and artificial structure within
the flow must be analyzed and it is very
important to simulate the flow field for outcome
and results of that particular flow structure and
parameters of river. A paper has been discussed
the flow field of the ice cubes and the boulders
in river through the IR scanner shown in figure 1
[2]. [1]. In figure 1 the temperature field around
the
ice
boulder
has
been
shown.
Fig.1. Flow patterns captured with the IR

camera, using ice cubes as tracers [2]
As it discussed above the flow field of any
flow stream or river gives the compete
knowledge about the flow structure and flow
behavior around any boulders or any bluff body.
The flow field for river has been investigated for
many geological and environmental purposes
but there is a lack of study to estimate the river
field to correlate the energy generation devices
in river such as in stream and free flow
hydrokinetic turbines. A river flow parameters
also needed for water power generation through
hydrokinetic turbines
In present research work, the study of flow field
of selected rivers has been estimated and
analyzed. And require parameters of the
hydrokinetic turbine has been correlated with the
river flow field model. It has been also discussed
the flow pattern of the river field around the any
structure such as the bluff body which is similar
to the hydrokinetic turbine mainly Darrius
195
turbine. A similar flow field study for river and

bluff body assumption as hydrokinetic turbine
has been done.
II.
Literature review
The study of flow field of river is an

important task for various studies related to flow
interaction of the water stream to the boulders,
channel geology, other artificial structure such
as river weirs, bridges etc. various literatures are
available, in which the study of flow field
investigated for river morphology and geology.
However, there is a lack of work has been done
to investigate the flow field of river for energy
generation device such as hydrokinetic turbine.
Here, following literature has been studied in
which the various parameter of the river flow
field are investigated and analyzed.
Khassaf et.al [3] investigated the flooding in
the river could be prevented using the cross
sectional area of river by adjusting its geology.
The results demonstrate that the area at Al
Am'arah city at distance 17.5 Km from upstream
(cross section 30) could be subjected to flooding
at High Flow, therefore, it is recommended to
adjust cross sections to prevent the flooding in
this area. At last, Calibration of the
hydrodynamic model is achieved in a study
reach using the observed data (water stage)
along AL Msharah River and show that a good
agreement.
Birjukova, O. et.al. [4] Studied the confluent
of two flow stream at the same elevation of river
bed. The stagnation zone, which is characterized
by the close-to-zero stream wise and crosswise
velocities, is formed at the upstream junction
corner. The tributary flow acts as an obstacle for
the main channel flow, creating two down- ward
orientated velocity fields that are displaced
towards the center flume as the flow proceeds
downstream. The separation zone, characterized
by the upstream flow motion and, hence, the
flow recirculation, limits the effective lateral
flow cross-section, which results in the added
acceleration of the mainstream flow in the post
confluence channel.
The maximum stream wise velocities in the
central upper region of the accelerated flow are

1.4 times larger than the corresponding
velocities at the undisturbed approach flow
upstream the confluence. The non-dimensional
length and width of the separation zone seem to
be of the order of magnitude of that observed by
Biron et al. (1996)[5], indicating that the main
channel aspect ratio may not influence the
relative size of the stagnation zone. This
conclusion requires future confirmation.
An analytical technique has been discussed
Bhattacharya et. al. [6] to analyses the ground
water stream and surface water stream within
same catchment area. Flow net model is used to
determine the hydrologic interaction in the riveraquifer system along the river. Flow line is an
imaginary line that traces the path that a particle
of groundwater would follow as it flows through
an aquifer (Fetter, 1994). The flow nets were
constructed based on water table and river level
measurements. Two sites were chosen for these
measurements, one was located in the upper
section of Ogun River while two was located at
the lower section. This study revealed an
intricate groundwater flow pattern that is
controlled by lithological and structural factors
that creates zone of surface and ground
water interaction. These zones are often
referred to as ecotone zones within the hypoheic
ecosystems. Surface water - groundwater
interaction can be investigated by using
flow-nets
and
hydrodynamic
methods.
Research that will cover the ecological aspects
can only be carried out through methods of the
measurement that are extremely complex,
resources intensive and also require extensive
technical knowledge.
A non-uniform such as river flow or
approach flows has been studied Lei et.al. [7] to
analyze the flow past the bluff body (rectangular
cylinder). The simplest case of a non-uniform
ow for the investigation of the velocity gradient
effect is the uniform-shear ow, which has a
linear distribution of the longitudinal velocity
component along the transverse direction [8]. A
numerical procedure is applied to lid-driven
ows in square and polar cavities, and a uniform
laminar ow past a circular cylinder. The results
are compared with experimental and/or other
numerical studies. Good agreement is achieved
196
with these benchmark problems. Then, the shear

ow past a circular cylinder with Reynolds
numbers from 80 to 1000, and with shear
parameters up to 0.25, is calculated.
III.
Auxiliary relations
Methodology
A computational methodology has been adopted

in this paper. ANSYS is used for geometry and
meshing. Fluent is used for post processing. The
flow was assumed to be 2-dimensional.
Rivers NANDAKINI and LACHEN have taken.
Computations have done on a two dimensional
domain.Discharge of these rivers for year 2000
have been takenand given in table [9].
IV.
Result Discussion
Pressure, velocity and turbulent intensity for

both rivers are shown below. K-omega model is
used to explore the turbulent intensity.
LACHEN River
Table 1
RIVER
NANDAKINI
LACHEN
Fig. 2
DISCHARGE
2468 CUSEC
2.4 CUMEC
500m
20
m
.
Fig. 4 Residual Plot
Fig. 3Computational Domain

An incompressible SIMPLE finite volume code
was used.The k-omega model was used to
simulate the river flow for considered contour. It
is due to association of turbulence in the river
flow. Following equation has been used to
calculate the river contour flow parameters.
Eddy viscosity
Turbulence kinetic Energy

Fig. 5Static Pressure Plot
Specific dissipation rate
Closure Coefficients
197
Fig. 9 Turbulent Kinetic Energy

River NANDAKINI
Residual Plot
Fig. 6Pressure Contour
According to residual plot all equations

converged in 700 iterations. And the velocity
contour is shown in fig 10.Pressure contour
shows that in the starting of domain dynamic
pressure is large and it will decreases in the
direction of flow.so at the entry of the flow
pressure can be harmful for hydrokinetic
turbine and it can developed the cavitation or
pitting action at some specific region of turbine.
Fig. 7 Velocity Contour
Fig. 10 Residual Plot
Fig. 8Turbulent Intensity
Fig.11 Static Pressure Plot
198
Fig. 15 Turbulent Kinetic Energy

Fig. 12 Pressure Contour
The flow velocity in both river cases it has been
observed that there slight changes in velocity at
80 percent of upper region of river. However,
the turbulence intensity is large enough at entry
of the river.
Fig. 13Velocity Contour
V. Utilization of river
hydrokinetic turbine
flow
field
for
Energy generation through the water resources is

very important to meet the energy requirement
in river side industries and inhabitants. A recent
technology in free flow turbine or hydrokinetic
turbine converts flowing water energy to electric
energy which can tap the energy from open
channel flow. It can be installed in stream
through anchorage system, fixed bed system and
pontoon boat system. However the installation
of hydrokinetic turbine requires the knowledge
of river or stream flow parameters such as
velocity, turbulence and pressure contour.
According to betz law the energy generation
equations for hydrokinetic turbine is given as
follows.
=
Where, is water density, A is swept area of

turbine, V is the velocity and Cp is power
coefficient (Max= 0.59)
Fig. 14Turbulent Intensity
It can be seen that the most influencing

parameter is velocity of the flow for power
generation. It also has been seen in various
literatures that the turbulence in flow also effect
the drag and drift coefficient of turbines wings
which affect the power generation of the turbine(
Hernandez and Crespo) [8]. And many other
parameters such as TSR (Tip speed ratio), thrust
etc. are correlated to the Reynolds number (Re)
of the flow. So it can be say that the installation
of the turbine in river flow requires flow field
data to input of the turbine and hydrokinetic
turbine such as Darrius and Savonius turbine are
behave as bluff body in the river stream.
199
So the hydrokinetic turbine installed where

available stream velocity meets the requirement
of the particular turbine design. In case of
Darrieus turbine the lift and drag forces are
needed to extract the more energy from the
flowing water. However, the Savonius turbine
requires only drag force of stream and lift force
creates instability of the turbine.
It can be used the above discussed result of flow
field of river to estimate the adequate location of
the turbine.
VI.
Conclusion
In development of the river resource system and

utilization of these resources effectively, study
of flow field for of river or open channel natural
streams are necessary. Energy extraction from
the free flow water is one of therenewable
energy harvesting method. Hydrokinetic device
can install at appropriate location of the river
therefore device can tap energy efficiently. A
study of flow field of river has been done and
following conclusions are made as follows.
I. At the entrance of the river or channel device
should not be install.
II. The Depth Rivers (> 5m) the velocity does not
affect the installation and it can be installed
above 1-2 m depth.
III. As turbulence contour the pressure at entry of
stream has increased and could develops the
cavitation in turbine and components
IV. As per the future aspects the detailed study of
the river flow field with appropriate boulders
and cascade turbine analysis are suggested.
in Al-Msharah River." Kufa journal of

Engineering 1.1 (2014).
[4]. Birjukova, Olga, et al. "Three dimensional
flow field at confluent fixed-bed open
channels." Proc. River Flow. 2014.
[5]. Biron, P., J. Best, & A. Roy (1996). Effects
of bed discordance on flow dynamics at
open-channel confluences. J. Hydraulic
Engng 122 (12), 676682.
[6]. Bhattacharya, Amartya Kumar, and G.
AkinBolaji. "Fluid flow interactions in Ogun
River, Nigeria." IJRRAS 2.2 (2010): 173180.
[7]. Lei, Chengwang, Liang Cheng, and Ken
Kavanagh. "A finite difference solution of
the shear flow over a circular cylinder."
Ocean Engineering 27.3 (2000): 271-290.
[8]. Hernandez, J.andA. Crespo, Aerodynamics
CalculationofthePerformance
of
HorizontalAxis
Wind
TurbinesandComparisonwith
ExperimentalResults.1987.
11(4):p.177187.
[9]. Central
Water
Commission
URL
http://www.cwc.nic.
in/main/webpages/publications.html
References:
[1]. Schaffranek, Raymond W. "A Flow Model
for Assessing the Tidal Potomac River."
Applying Research to Hydraulic Practice.
ASCE, 1982.
[2]. Moustakidis,
Iordanis,
Athanasios
Papanicolaou, and AchilleasTsakiris. "The
Effect of Boulder Spacing on Flow Patterns
around
Boulders
under
Partial
Submergence." (2012).
[3]. Khassaf, Saleh I., Jaffar S. Maatooq, and
Shahla A. Nasrallah. "Mathematical
Modeling of water surface at Unsteady Flow
200
34. A REVIEW ON THE

PERFORMANCE OF THE
NANOFLUID BASED SOLAR
COLLECTORS - SOLAR ENERGY
Kapil Sharma1, Satnam Singh1, Manvendra
Yadav2*, Sanjay Yadav2, Naveen Mani Tripathi3
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely

Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab
2*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, ITS
Engineering College, Greater Noida
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BenGurion University of Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
ABSTRACT
Using nanofluids as an innovative kind of liquid
blend with a trivial volume fraction (in percent)
of nanometer-sized solid particles in suspension
is a fairly a novel arena or idea. The objective of
this presented review paper is to inspect the
performance of the nanofluid-based solar
collector (NBSC). In past few years for a
number of experimental and industrial thermal
engineering systems solar energy has proven to
be the best input energy source. The scarcity of
fossil fuels and environmental contemplations
motivated the researchers to utilize alternative
energy sources such as solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy etc. Therefore, it is essential
to boost the performance of the solar thermal
engineering systems. Because of better
rheological properties nanofluids are utilized to
build up the performance of conventional solar
thermal engineering systems. Therefore, major
part of this presented review paper lays a main
emphasis to investigate the effects of nanofluids
on the performance of solar collectors. Some
proposals are also given to use the nanofluids for
future work in different solar thermal
engineering systems such as parabolic trough
systems (PTS), solar thermoelectric cells and
finally, the challenges of using nanofluids in
solar energy devices are reviewed in brief.
Keywords: Solar energy, solar thermal systems,
nanofluids, solar thermometric cells, parabolic
trough system, solar collector.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a tremendous growth in the
energy sector especially in the field of solar
energy is observed due to increased scientific
developments. Several developments and
examinations were carried out in the area of
solar energy. Scientific developments have been
carried out in the area of concentrated solar
power (CSP). Solar collectors converts the solar
radiation into heat and then transfer this heat to a
medium i.e. heat transfer fluid (HTF). The solar
energy is used to carry out the heating or cooling
processes [1]. Generation of Sustainable energy
is identified as the most important challenge
faced by our society today. The demand of
electricity consumption is increased day by day
and the production of electricity has become a
key issue in the industry. Electricity adds a main
segment to the worlds total energy demand and
is growing faster than liquid fuels, natural gas,
and coal, petroleum and natural gas which are
used to produce steam in boilers of power plants
and these power plants stand a majority load in
the electricity power plant in the whole world.
The heat exchangers that are used to transform
the solar radiation energy to internal energy of
the transport medium are known as solar thermal
collectors. Non-concentrating solar collectors
can be used if an excessive amount of solar
radiation is concentrated on a fairly lesser
collecting area [2]. Over the past 1015 years
concentrated solar energy has become the input
for an increasing number of experimental and
commercial thermal systems [3]. For solar
collectors the utilization of nanofluids as a
working fluid is a relatively a novel idea.
Various researchers are interested to develop the
various aspects of solar energy because of it is
readily available in nature [2].
In direction to upsurge the effectiveness or
performance of solar collectors, one of the most
appropriate method is to change the working
fluid like water, ethylene glycol by higher
thermal conductivity fluids like aluminum oxide,
copper oxide. The blend of base fluids like water
or ethylene glycol with suitable nanoparticles
like silicon oxide or aluminium oxide are called
nanofluids. In comparison with conventional
heat transfer fluids nanofluids exhibits
exceptional heat transfer properties [1].Common
type of base fluids such as water, ethylene
201
glycol, therminol VP-1 and heat transfer oil

plays a vital role in several industrial processes
such as power generation, heating or cooling
processes,
chemical
processes,
and
microelectronics. However, the above mentioned
base fluids exhibits low heat transfer properties
and thus cannot reach high level of heat
exchange rates in thermal engineering devices.
A way to solve this problem is to use ultra-fine
powdered nanoparticles as mentioned suspended
in common fluids like water or ethylene glycol
to increase their thermal conductivity. The
suspension of powdered form nano-sized
particles (metallic or non-metallic oxides)
ranging from 1 to 100 nm in a conventional base
fluid as discussed above is known as a nanofluid
[4]. Therefore, we can say that the nanofluids are
the suspensions of metallic or nonmetallic
nanoparticles in a base fluid like water or ethyl
alcohol [5]. Nanofluids exhibits better stability,
rheological properties, and considerably higher
thermal conductivities. In recent years both
experimental and theoretical work was done by
various scientists or researchers to examine the
effects of nanofluids on the enhancement of heat
transfer in thermal engineering devices, [3]. The
remarkable features of nanofluids are increase in
liquid thermal conductivity, liquid viscosity, and
heat transfer coefficient.
nanoparticles in the working fluid, the efficiency

increases remarkably for low values of volume
fraction of nanoparticles However, it was found
that the inclusion of more nanoparticles is not
beneficial because the efficiency remains
approximately constant for a volume fraction
higher than 2%. Investigations were also carried
out regarding the effects of nanoparticles size
and collector geometry on the collector
efficiency. The results also revealed that the
efficiency increases slightly with an increase in
the size of nanoparticles. The collector
efficiency increases as the collectors height
increases and reaches up to the value of 80 %,
and with the length factor the efficiency firstly
increases with length and then gradually falloffs.
It was observed that the rise of collector
efficiency to the rise in attenuation of sunlight
passing through the collector due to the
nanoparticles inclusion leads to the increase of
collector efficiency. On comparison, the DASC
using nanofluid as a working fluid have 10 %
efficiency higher than that of the conventional
flat plate collector using water as a working
fluid. The results revealed that the efficiency
increases slightly with an increase in the size of
nanoparticles. (Figure 2).
II. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

Tyagi et al. [6] worked on theoretical and
numerical observations to study the effects of
different criterion that is nanoparticle size,
volume fraction, collector geometry on the
efficiency of a low-temperature nanofluid based
direct absorption solar collector (DASC).In this
paper water based aluminum nanoparticles
Al2O3 taken as a working fluid (i.e. composition
of water and aluminum nanoparticles).
Numerical modelling of DASC was also done by
using two dimensional heat transfer analysis.
The variation of collector efficiency as a
function of the particle volume fraction (0.1% to
5%), particle size, collector geometry was
studied experimentally. The variation of
collector efficiency as a function of the particle
volume fraction (%), where the volume fraction
varies from 0.1% to 5% shown in Figure1.The
results revealed that by the inclusion of
Fig.1 Effect of particle volume fraction on

collector efficiency [6]
202
Fig.2 Effect of nanoparticles size on collector

efficiency [6]
Otanicar et al. [7] carried out an experimental
and theoretical investigations to study the effects
of different nanofluids such as carbon
nanotubes, graphite, and silver on the
performance of a direct absorption solar
collector (DASC). The investigations were
carried out to check the variation of collector
efficiency as a function of volume fraction for
different nanomaterials mentioned above. The
DASC data are compared with the conventional
collector configuration where the solar energy is
absorbed on a black plate surface. It was
concluded that by the inclusion of small amounts
of nanoparticles leads to the remarkable
improvement of the collector efficiency. The
efficiency increases up to approximately 0.5% of
volume fraction. After a volume fraction of
0.5%, the efficiency begins to level off and even
fall slightly with increasing volume fraction.

Figure 3: Variation of collectors efficiency with
volume fraction [7]
By using graphite nanoparticles of size 30 nm,
the performance of DASC over a conventional
flat surface absorber was increased up to 3%
which was considered to be the maximum
enhancement in its performance. In case of silver
particles, the main difference in the steady-state
efficiency between nanofluids occurred when
the size of these particles is between 20 and 40
nm. It was found that when the size of silver
nanoparticles reduces from 40 nm to 20 nm
efficiency enhancement of 6 % was observed.
The collector efficiency as a function of volume
fraction was plotted for silver graphite and CNT
nanoparticles in figure 3. It was seen that as the
size of nanoparticles increases, the collector
efficiency decreases.
Taylor et al. [8] carried out theoretical &
experimental investigations regarding the
applicability of nanofluids in high flux solar
collectors and to compare the performance of
nanofluid-based concentrating solar thermal
system with a conventional system. The results
indicated that the usage of a nanofluid as the
working fluid in the receiver enhance the
efficiency by 10%. It was seen that Collector
efficiency enhancement of 5%10% is possible
with a nanofluid used as the working fluid in the
receiver. It was concluded that using
graphite/therminol VP-1 nanofluid for 10100
MWe power plants, with volume fractions
approximately up to 0.001% or less could be
advantageous. The authors estimated that in a
solar resource like Tucson, Arizona combining
solar thermal power tower with a nanofluid
receiver with the capacity of 100 MWe
operating, could generate $3.5 million more per
year. It was observed that, nanofluids are not
expected to be appropriate for using as the
working fluid for parabolic dish or trough solar
thermal systems, but further optimization or cost
reductions might increase their range of
applicability.
Taylor et al. [9] carried out theoretical and
experimental investigations to study the optical
property
characterization
of
various
nanoparticles such as graphite, silver, copper,
gold, and aluminum suspended in water and
203
therminol-VP1 as the base fluids to determine

their potential to be utilized in direct absorption
solar collectors (DASC). To determine the
optical property of nanofluids like graphite,
aluminum
measurement
and
modelling
techniques were used. For several concentrations
of aqueous graphite nanofluids extinction
coefficients were studied by using modelling and
experimental methods. The results showed that
approximately 95% of incoming sunlight
coming from the sun can be absorbed by a
nanofluid having thickness greater than equal to
10 cm with very small nanoparticle volume
fractions (less than 0.00001 or 10 ppm). Thus,
nanofluids could be utilized to absorb sunlight
with a small amount of viscosity and/or density.
It was concluded that absorption is generally due
to the nanoparticles at shorter wavelengths and
due to the base fluids at longer wavelengths.
Natarajan & Sathish [10] carried out an
investigation to study the role of nanofluids in
solar water heater. The objective of this study
was to examine and compare the heat transfer
properties of the nanofluids with the
conventional fluids. During this investigation
water based Multiwall carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) were used as nanofluids with
volume fraction in percent taken as 0.2, 0.4, 0.6,
0.8, 1.0, and 1.2. For the preparation of CNTs
sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) was used as a
surfactant. Sodium dodecyl sulphate was used to
obtain stable nanofluids. It was found that for
the stable CNT dispersion SDS surfactant proves
to be a suitable dispersant. Transient hot-wire
method was used to measure the thermal
conductivities of nanofluids. It was concluded
that the thermal conductivity of water-based
MWCNT nanofluid increases as a function of
volume fraction of MWCNTs. At a volume
fraction of 1.0% the thermal conductivity of
nanofluid increased up to 41%. The comparison
between the experimental data for MWCNT in
deionized water was done and the values were
calculated from HamiltonCrosser model. It was
concluded that the measured values of thermal
conductivity is greater than those calculated
from HamiltonCrosser model (HDC). It was
also concluded that if nanofluids are used as a
heat transport medium, it increases the
efficiency of the traditional solar water heater.
Khullar et al. [11] carried out theoretical &

numerical investigation regarding the application
of nanaofluids as the working fluid in
concentrating parabolic solar collectors. In this
paper mathematical modelling of heat transfer
and flow aspects of the linear parabolic solar
collectors had been done. Al-water based
nanofluid was used as the working fluid and to
solve the equations numerically FDM (finite
difference method) technique has been used.
Evaluation and comparison of the two
dimensional temperature field, optical and
thermal
efficiencies,
and
mean-outlet
temperatures had been done for both
conventional parabolic collectors utilizing water
as a working fluid and nanofluid based
collectors using nanofluid as a working fluid. In
order to achieve the desired output temperature
the effect of various operating criterion such as
concentration ratio, receiver length, fluid
velocity, volume fraction of nanoparticles taken
into consideration. The results indicated that in
terms of thermal and optical efficiencies and
higher outlet temperatures under same working
conditions the collector using nanofluid as a
working fluid has a better performance as
compare to the conventional collector. The
results also showed that the inclusion of
aluminium nanoparticles into the base fluid
(water) significantly improves its absorption
characteristics.
Sani et al. [12] carried out an investigation
about the optical and thermal properties of
nanofluids as a function of the nanoparticle
concentration consisting in aqueous suspensions
of single wall carbon nanohorns (SWCNH). The
characteristics of these nanofluids were
evaluated in view of their use as sunlight
absorber fluids in a solar device, hence
characterization of SWCNH was done in
aqueous suspensions as new nanofluids for the
utilization in the field of solar energy. It was
found that the thermal conductivity of the
nanofluids was higher than the water used as the
operating fluid. According to spectral
transmission measurement SWCNHs play an
important role in improving the photonic
properties of the fluid, leading to a major
increase of the light extinction level even at very
204
low concentrations. At the investigated

concentrations up to 10% rise in the thermal
conductivity was observed. For the optimization
of heat transfer efficiency, optical and thermal
properties of the nanofluid provides valuable
information to the sunlight collector designer. It
was concluded that for efficiency enhancement
the usage of SWCNH water nanofluid as
absorber in solar devices appears a very
promising step.
Sani et al. [13] carried out an experimental
investigation to study the potential of carbon
nanohorn (CNH)-based suspensions for solar
thermal collectors. In this paper the optical
characterization of new fluid made up of singlewall carbon nanohorns (SWCNH) and ethylene
glycol as a base fluid for solar energy
applications
were
studied.
In
optical
characterization to measure the potential of
SWCNH-glycol suspension as direct sunlight
absorbers, the optical properties of the nanofluid
were examined as a function of the nanoparticle
concentration.
The
measured
spectral
transmission showed that SWCNHs play an
important role to enhance the photonic
properties of the fluid, leads to a remarkable
growth of the light extinction level even at very
small concentrations. To evaluate the differences
between SWCNHs and conventional commercial
carbon forms, i.e. Carbon-black particles the
obtained results had been compared with glycolbased amorphous carbon suspensions It was
found that Carbon nanohorn (CNH) plays an
vital role to increase the sunlight absorption with
respect to the pure base fluid & SWCNHs
spectral features are far more favourable than
those of amorphous carbon-black particles for
the specific application. It was concluded that,
the use of SWCNH-glycol based nanofluid as
direct absorber or working fluid in solar devices
can be beneficial for increasing the collector
efficiency and compactness of thermal solar
devices, reducing both environmental impact
and costs.
Mercatelli et al. [14] carried out an
investigation to study the scattering and
absorption properties of carbon nanohorn-based
nanofluids consisting in aqueous suspensions of
single wall carbon nanohorns for solar energy

applications. In order to use them as direct
sunlight absorber fluids in solar devices the
characteristics of these nanofluids were assessed.
The investigation was carried out for nanohorns
of different morphologies (dahlia-like, bud-like
and seeds-like) and for suspensions prepared
with different amounts of surfactant, hence
measurements of extinction and absorption
coefficients on Single Wall Carbon Nanohorn
(SWCNH) suspensions as a function of the
nanoparticle morphology was done. The
differences in optical properties induced by
carbon nanoparticles compared to those of pure
water lead to a considerably higher sunlight
absorption with respect to the pure base fluid.
Scattering results indicating that the portion of
light scattered by SWCNH suspensions was
smaller than 5%. This means that approximately
up to 95% of light was directly absorbed.
Therefore, nanohorns suspensions behave as
perfect absorbers for NIR wavelengths (833 nm)
or for longer wavelengths. Finally it was
concluded that for new-generation solar
collectors SWCNHs seems to be very promising
as inventive direct sunlight absorbers in the field
of Solar Energy.
Han et al. [15] carried out an experimental
investigation about the thermal properties of
carbon black aqueous nanofluids for solar
absorption. In this paper carbon black nanofluids
were prepared by dispersing the pre-treated
carbon black powder into distilled water. During
investigation optical properties of carbon black
powder and nanofluids, photo thermal
properties, rheological behaviours, thermal
conductivity of carbon black nanofluids were
measured. The volume concentration of
nanofluids taken as 4.4%, 5.5%, 6.6%, 7.7% and
wavelength ranges from 200-2500 nm. It was
found that with high-volume fraction the
nanofluids have better photo thermal properties
which shows better solar energy adsorption
properties. In the wavelength range from 200 to
2,500 nm both carbon black powder and
nanofluids have good absorption characteristics.
The results showed that the shear viscosity
increases as the volume fraction increases and
decreases as the temperature increases at the
same shear rate and the thermal conductivity of
205
carbon black nanofluids increases as the volume

fraction and temperature increases. Finally it
was concluded that, carbon black nanofluids
have good absorption ability of solar energy and
can effectively increase the solar absorption
efficiency, hence carbon black nanofluids have
high potentials for the utilization in solar
application.
Yousefi et al. [16] carried out an experimental
investigations to study the effects of Al2O3/water
nanofluid on the efficiency of a flat-plate solar
collector. The effect of using water as the
working fluid, Al2O3 nanofluid as the working
fluid without surfactant and with surfactant on
the efficiency of solar collector was investigated.
Triton X-100 was used as a surfactant. Two
different weight fractions i.e.0.2% and 0.4% of
the nanofluid taken into account with diameter
of the particles taken as 15 nm. The effect of
mass flow rate also taken into consideration. The
mass flow rates were taken as 1, 2, 3 lit/min.
their results showed that:
1. With 0.2% weight fraction (wt.) Al2O3
nanofluid the efficiency of the solar collector is
greater as compare with the water by 28.3%.
2. The efficiency of the collector using 0.2%
weight fraction Al2O3 nanofluid is higher as
compared to 0.4 % weight fraction for a wide
range of the reduced temperature parameter.
3. By using Triton X-100 as a surfactant the
maximum enhanced efficiency of the collector is
15.63%.
Yousefi et al. [1] carried out an examination
using the same experimental setup as in their
previous work (Yousefi et al., 2012a), to study
the effects of waterMulti wall carbon nanotubes
(MWCNT)-H2O nanofluid on the efficiency of
the flat plate collector. The effect of using water
as the working fluid, MWCNT nanofluid as the
working fluid without surfactant and with
surfactant on the efficiency of solar collector
was investigated. Triton X-100 used as a
surfactant. The authors examined the effect of
two different weight fractions i.e.0.2% and 0.4%
of the nanofluid with diameter of the particles
taken in the range from 10 to 30 nm. The effect
of mass flow rate also taken into account. The
mass flow rates were taken as 1, 2, and 3 lit/sec.
their results shows that:
1. The efficiency of the collector by using of

MWCNTH2O nanofluid as a working fluid
without surfactant is remarkably increased for
0.4 % weight fraction of nanofluid,
2. With 0.2 % weight fraction of MWCNT
nanofluid with surfactant collector efficiency
increases and without surfactant the efficiency
decreases.
3. For small values of reduced temperature
differences parameter, the efficiency of collector
is increased by increasing the mass flow rate.
Beyond these small values, the efficiency gets a
reversed trend.
Yousefi et al. [17] carried out an experimental
investigation to study the effect of pH variation
of MWCNTH2O nanofluid on the efficiency of
a flat-plate solar collector. The experimental
work carried out by using weight fraction of 0.2
% with different pH values i.e. 3.5, 6.5, 9.5.
Triton X-100 used as additive. The diameter of
MWCNT taken as 10-30 nm. With mass flow
rate of 0.0333 kg/s the efficiency of the flat-plate
solar collector with MWCNT nanofluid as a
working fluid at three pH values (3.5, 6.5, and
9.5.) was compared with water. It was observed
that if the temperature differences higher than
the mean temperature difference, the efficiency
for pH = 3.5 is greater than that for pH = 9.5. On
the other hand, if the temperature differences
lower than the mean temperature difference, the
efficiency of the flat-plate solar collector for pH
= 9.5 is greater than that for pH = 3.5. It was
also observed that, the absorbed energy
parameter for pH=9.5 is higher than that of
pH=3.5 and 6.5. Similarly, the removed energy
parameter for pH=6.5 was higher than pH=9.5
and pH=3.5. Among these values pH values
removed energy parameter of pH =3.5 was
lower. From the experimental results it was
concluded that, more differences between the pH
of nanofluid and pH of isoelectric point leads to
more improvement in the collector efficiency as
the pH of the isoelectric point is 7.4 for
MWCNT.
Saidur et al. [18] carried out an experimental
investigation to study the effect of using
nanofluid as working fluid for direct solar
collector. The objective of this study was:
206
(1) To investigate the appropriateness of

nanofluid as a volumetric absorber.
(2) To discover the radioactive properties of the
base fluid and the nanoparticle.
(3) To determine the effect of nanoparticle sizes
and volume fractions for nanofluid as well as
comparing its transmissivity of light.
The extinction coefficient of aluminum (Al)
nanoparticle suspended in water as a base fluid
was investigated and evaluated by changing
nanoparticle size and volume fraction. It was
seen that the nanoparticle size has negligible
impact on the optical properties of nanofluid. On
the other hand, the extinction coefficient of
water based aluminium nanofluid is linearly
proportional to volume fraction.
The authors observed that direct solar collector
is expected to provide excellent optical
properties and improved thermal transfer by
utilizing nanofluids as a volumetric absorber. At
shorter wavelength aluminum nanoparticle
shows very strong extinction coefficient and
peak at a wavelength of 0.3 m. In spite of a
lower extinction coefficient at longer
wavelength, aluminium nanoparticle can be
utilized to improve the light absorption ability of
water at the visible and shorter wavelength
region. It was observed that the improvement is
promising within 1.0% volume fraction and is
showing suitable enhancement to solar
absorption, aluminium nanofluid is seems to be
good solution for direct solar collector as a
volumetric absorber.
Khullar et al. [19] studied the environmental
impact of nanofluid based concentrating solar
water heating system. This paper examines the
potential of the nanofluid-based concentrating
solar water heating system (NCSWHS) as a
substitute to systems based on fossil fuels.
Therefore, to save fossil fuels which are
presently being widely used for water heating
purposes the concept of NCSWHS and its
potential was examined. It was found that the
proposed water heating system has relatively
better performance characteristics in comparison
with the conventional flat plate collectors. The
NCSWHS system also seems to be the best
solution for fuel savings and it also promises the
reduction of CO2 emission so far as it substitutes
for fossil fuel water heaters. It was seen that:-
1. The common water heating system of

concentrating type would be more
efficient and cost effective than flat plate
collector.
2. The main advantage of NCSWHS is that
it is being energy efficient.
3. Higher output temperatures can be
attained by using NCSWHS hence it
significantly reduces greenhouse gas
emissions and save enormous amount of
fossil fuels.
Khullar et al. [20] carried out theoretical
investigations to study a nanofluid-based
concentrating parabolic solar collector (NCPSC)
and the results obtained were compared with the
experimental
results
of
conventional
concentrating
parabolic
solar
collectors
operating under same conditions. Aluminium
nanoparticle with 0.05 vol. % suspended in
Therminol-VP-1 as the base fluid was used for
the analysis. The results showed that the thermal
efficiency of NCPSC compared to a
conventional parabolic solar collector is about
510% higher under the similar weather
conditions. The theoretical results indicated that
the nanofluid-based concentrating parabolic
solar collector has the potential to harness solar
energy in a more efficient manner as compared
to a conventional parabolic trough. It was
observed that in order to get the desired output
in terms of thermal efficiency and maximum
outlet fluid temperatures, nanoparticle shape,
size, and material need to be optimized and to
transform this new concept of harvesting solar
radiant energy into a commercial reality
mathematical analysis needs to be validated with
experimentation.
Chougule et al. [21] carried out an experimental
investigation to check the performance of
nanofluid charged solar water heater using solar
tracking system. In this investigation two
identical flat plate collectors using heat pipes
were fabricated. The nanoparticles used in the
present study are CNT having diameter 10-12
nm and for the preparation of nanofluid the
concentration of nanoparticles taken as 0.15%
by volume. Experimentations were carried in
two steps i.e. by changing the collectors angle
from Indian Standard i.e. normal angle 3l to
207
maximum performance angle of solar collector

50 with fixed position and other step is keeping
the collectors on tracking mechanism. The effect
of tilt angle, Solar Tracking System, & effect on
average efficiency and on heat loss factor [Tm Ta /It] was observed.
After the observation of CNTs nanofluid used as
working fluid it was concluded that a very low
quantity of nanoparticles results in a better
performance and has remarkable potential as
working
fluid
in
high
performance
thermosyphon heat pipe collectors. It was also
concluded that at 50 tilt angle working fluids
gave better performance as compared to standard
normal angle in both conditions (fixed and
tracking) & average efficiencies are increased
12% and 11 % for water and nano working fluid
at 31.50 tilt angle while 7% and 4%
respectively at 50 tilt angle using tracking
system, hence Solar tracking system adds an
advantage to improve the efficiency in both
water as well as nano working fluid solar heat
pipe collector and also each of tilt angle for solar
heat pipe collector.
De Risi et al. [22] mathematically done the
modelling and optimization of transparent
parabolic trough collector based on gas-phase
nanofluids as a working fluids. To directly
absorb the solar energy a new concept of solar
Transparent Parabolic trough Collector (TPTC)
working with gas-based nanofluid as heat
transfer fluid was suggested and examined. The
model of the geometrical, thermal and fluid
dynamic aspects of the TPTC was developed
mathematically in order to attain global
performance and to describe the main
geometrical and operational criterion of the
TPTC. In inclusion, to optimize the performance
of the solar collector a genetic algorithm
optimization was used.
Numerical results revealed that the gas-based
nanofluids when combine with Transparent
Parabolic trough Collector can be an effective
substitute to conventional systems such as
synthetic oils or molten salts. Simulation of the
gas based nanofluids absorption showed that a
complete absorption of the solar spectrum within
the diameter of the receiver tube is attained by a
correct composition (0.25% CuO and 0.05% Ni).
The results also indicated that the maximum

TPTC solar to thermal efficiency is 62.5%.for a
nanofluid outlet temperature of 650C and a
nanoparticles volume concentration of 0.3%.
Chaji et al. [23] carried out an experimental
investigation to check the Thermal Efficiency of
Flat Plate Solar Collector (FPSC) using
TiO2/Water nanofluid. In this investigation to
study the effects of different nanoparticle
concentrations of TiO2 in water as base fluid a
small flat plate solar collector (FPSC) was
fabricated and tested, hence the effect of
nanofluid on solar collector efficiency was
evaluated for different mass flow rates (36, 72
and 108 lit/m2.hr). Three levels of TiO2 nano
particles concentrations i.e. 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%
(without using surfactants) were examined and
the results were compared with those of water. It
was concluded that the increase of mass flow
rates of base fluid inside the solar collector
enlarged the index of total collector efficiency
area under the curves up to 15.7%. Also, adding
the nano particles to water improved the index of
collector efficiency -area under the curve between 2.6 and 7% relative to base fluid at the
same flow rate.
Tiwari et al. [24] presents a comprehensive
overview on thermal performance and
environmental impact analysis of solar flat plate
collector for water heating using Al2O3 water
based nanofluid. The effect of utilizing the
Al2O3 nanofluid as absorbing medium in a flatplate solar collector was studied. The effect of
mass flow rate and particle volume fraction on
the efficiency of collector was also investigated.
The mass flow rate taken as 30, 60, 90, and 120
in lit/hr and the volume concentration taken as
0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 in percent were taken into
account. It was concluded that using the 1.5%
optimal particle volume fraction of Al2O3
nanofluid increase the thermal efficiency in
comparison with water as working fluid by
31.64%.
Maddah et al. [25] carried out an experimental
investigation to study the effect of silver and
aluminium oxide nanoparticles on thermo
physical properties of nanofluids. Thermal
conductivity, electrical conductivity, and
208
viscosity are the thermo physical properties of

nanofluids. For investigation the nominal
diameters of Al2O3 and Ag nanoparticles taken
as 40 and 20 nm. Nanofluids of various volume
concentrations 0.25% to 5% taken into
consideration at a temperature of 15C. The
nanofluid was prepared by dispersing aluminium
oxide and silver nanoparticles in distilled water
and then sonication process was done. It was
concluded that
1. The viscosity and thermal conductivity
of nanofluids increases as volume
fraction of nanoparticles increases.
2. The electrical conductivity of nanofluids
increases linearly with an increase in the
volume fraction of the aluminium oxide
and silver nanoparticles.
It was observed that higher the concentration of
nanofluids, higher is the viscosity. On the other
hand, electrical conductivity of aluminium oxide
and silver nanofluid is significantly greater than
that of the base fluid.
thermoelectric cells installed on the focal point

of the dish. In this way the effects of different
nanofluids with various mass flow rates on the
efficiency of the solar thermoelectric cell can be
studied [4].
Fig.7 The experimental set-up proposed for

using nanofluids in thermoelectric cells [4]
IV. CHALLENGES
III. FUTURE WORK
Following parameters are the possible

challenges in the application of nanofluids in
solar thermal systems.
Use of nanofluids in solar energy is still an

inventive idea. Based on our survey these
proposals will be helpful for the development
and use of nanofluids in the solar thermal
devices.
1. High cost
Solar thermal devices have high cost of
nanofluids because of difficulties in production.
3.1. Parabolic trough systems [4]

Only a literature work has been done on
parabolic trough collectors using FDM
technique, hence some experimental studies
should perform to check the effects of
nanofluids on the performance this system
3.2. Solar thermoelectric cells
Recently the evolvement of solar thermoelectric
systems
comes
into
existence.
The
thermoelectric cells can be used to transform the
solar energy to electricity due to the temperature
difference between two hot and cold surfaces. A
greater temperature difference between the hot
and cold surfaces of the thermoelectric cell leads
to a bigger electricity production. Experimental
setup to investigate the effects of nanofluids on
the performance of such systems is suggested
[4]. Authors suggested a construction in which a
dish concentrates the solar radiation on the
2. Instability and agglomerating

Instability
and
agglomeration
of
the
nanoparticles is also a big problem. Hence,
nanofluids should not be used with natural
circulation (such as thermosiphons) where there
is no pump to circulate the fluid, in solar systems
with. It should be also noted that for high
temperature gradients the agglomeration of
nanoparticles seems to be more serious [26].
Therefore, exact investigations are needed for an
appropriate selection of a nanofluid for
applications in high temperatures [4].
3. Pumping power and pressure drop
Using a nanofluid with higher viscosity
compared to the base fluid leads to the increase
of pressure drop and consequently the increases
in the required power for pumping. For example,
Researchers found during their experiments that
209
the pressure drop under a turbulent regime

increases with an increase in volume fraction of
TiO2/water nanofluid.
4. Erosion and corrosion of components
Existing of nanoparticles in nanofluid may lead
to corrosion and erosion of thermal devices in a
long time[4]. Researchers recently investigated
the effects of nanofluid flow effects on erosion
and corrosion of metal surfaces. They conducted
their experiments for TiO2, Al2O3, SiC, ZrO2
nanoparticles with water as the base fluid where
the nanofluids flow in pipes with three different
materials, i.e., aluminum, copper and stainless.
They concluded that the nanofluids have no
effect on the erosion of the stainless pipe, while
the aluminum pipe has highest erosion. They
also found that ZrO2 and TiO2 nanoparticles lead
to highest erosion while SiC nanoparticles
results in lowest erosion.
V. CONCLUSION
Nanofluids are foremost fluids containing nanosized particles and have been used to enhance
system performance in many thermal
engineering systems. This paper conferred a
review Performance of the Nanofluid Based
Concentrated Solar Collector - Solar Energy.
The experimental and numerical studies for solar
collectors showed that in some cases, the
efficiency could increase remarkably by using
nanofluids. It was found that using a nanofluid
with higher volume fraction always is not the
best option. Hence, it is suggested that the
nanofluids in different volume fractions should
be examined to find the optimum volume
fraction. It is also seen that the available
literature works give different results on the
effects of particle size on the efficiency of the
collectors. It will be valuable to carry out an
experimental work on the effect of particle size
on the collector efficiency. Modelling and
optimization of transparent parabolic trough
collector based on gas-phase nanofluids was also
carried out and the numerical results have shown
that gas-based nanofluids combined with TPTC
can be an effective alternative to conventional
systems such as synthetic oils or molten salts
that have shown different application problems
in existing plants. Simulations results also show
that that the maximum TPTC solar to thermal
efficiency is 62.5%, for a nanofluid outlet

temperature of 650 C and a nanoparticles
volume concentration of 0.3%.There are many
proposals are conferred to develop the use of
nanofluids in different solar systems such as
parabolic trough systems, solar thermoelectric
cells, etc. The critical challenges on the use of
nanofluids in solar systems arrangements consist
of high costs of production, agglomeration
problems, instability, increased pumping power
and erosion are mentioned. Such type of issues
would be reduced with the development of
nanotechnology in the future.
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212
35. STUDY OF THE HARDNESS &

THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF AISI
1050 MEDIUM CARBON STEEL
AFTER
HEAT
TREATMENT
PROCESSES
Sanjeev Kumar Jaiswal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School
of Engineering & Technology, Sharda
University, Greater Noida (U.P), India
Email ID: - sanjeevjaiswal62@gmail.com
T.Sharma
Department of Fuel & Mineral Engineering,
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad ,India.
Email ID:-hodsmeism@yahoo.co.in
Rajesh M.
Sharda University,
Greater Noida
Email ID:-rajesh.m@sharda.ac.in
Vineet Kumar
Department of
Sharda University, Greater
Noida
Email ID:-vineet.kumar5@sharda.ac.in
Abstract: Main Objective is to Study the Effect

on the Hardness & microstructure of Sample
Grade of AISI 1050 medium carbon steel. Heat
Treatment Processes Such As Annealing,
Normalizing, and Hardening is carried on AISI
1050 medium carbon steel & after treatment
aims to perform hardness testing on the treated
and untreated work samples. Full annealing is
done at 800 C, 825 C & 850 C for soaking
time 10 minutes, 15 minutes & 20 minutes
respectively. Sub critical annealing is done at
675 C & 700 C for soaking time 10 minutes &
15 minutes respectively.
The present work investigates the effect of

cooling on the microstructure and hardness of
AISI 1050 Carbon Steel. Sample size with a

diameter 20 mm were heat treated for soaking
time of 10 minutes, 15 minutes & 20 minutes at
800 C, 825C & 850 C respectively and were
quenched in three different medium- (1) cold
water (2) hot water & (3) vegetable oil to study
the effect of various quenching medium on the
hardness of AISI 1050 medium carbon steel.
Keywords: AISI 1050 Carbon Steel,
Annealing, Hardening, Heat Treatment,
Normalizing and Quenching Medium.
I. INTRODUCTION
Steels have been used since the Iron Age and
their importance in the development of the
industry have been enormous. Steels are the
most important alloys utilized as structural
material. They are straightforwardly related to
engineering. The
Microstructure of most steels is well known by
now as well as the effect of heat treatments in
changing their mechanical properties [1]. For
instance, the hardness of AISI 1050 carbon steel
could vary from approximately 20-58 HRC
depending on its heat treatment [1]. The
differences in mechanical properties of given
steel are the result of different microstructure
formed during cooling. This statement generally
means that the highest hardness in the iron
carbon systems is obtained due to a diffusion
less transformation called marten site formation
and lowest hardness is obtained due to a
diffusion transformation, which causes the
ferrite and /or pearlite formation by a eutectoid
reaction. Both marten site obtained during rapid
cooling and ferrite-pearlite obtained during slow
cooling or near the equilibrium, come from
austenite [1]. Effect of heat treatment on the
mechanical properties for rolled medium carbon
steel studies by [2].Similarly, the effect of
cooling rate on Hardness and Microstructure of
AISI 1020, AISI 1040 and AISI 1060 Steels [3].
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The chemical composition of AISI 1050 Carbon
steel
213
Table 1
Steel
Type
Mn
Si
Fe
AISI
1050
.55
.65
.25
98.55
The material used in this study is 20mm

diameter AISI 1050 Carbon Steel. The AISI
1050 steel cut 20mm length with the help of
power-hexa machine and remove the burr with
the help of grinding machine. The samples were
heated at 800oc for 10 minute to remove the
potential residual stresses before micro hardness
tests.
The samples were heat treated at 800C,825C
& 850C for soaking time 10 minutes,15minutes
& 20 minutes respectively were cooled by three
different quenching mediums cold water, hot
water & vegetable oil.
III. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A.OBJECTIVE
The objective of the present investigation is to
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Hardening the surface of medium

carbon steel.
Evaluate the change in the hardness of
medium carbon steel.
Further harden the medium carbon steel
by quenching.
Explore the effects of tempering on
hardened steel samples.
Explore the effects of soaking time on
hardened steel samples.
Analyzing the micro structure of
medium carbon steel.
Studying and comparing the change in
the hardness after hardening different
compositions of steel by different
quenching medium.
Fig.1 Muffle furnace

B. METHODOLOGY
i.
Take grade AISI 1050 containing C 0.55

{medium carbon steel} for preparation of
sample with diameter 20mm.
ii. Preparation of 25 samples of 20mm length
for heat treatment. {hardening and
tempering}
iii. Hardening in different medium
a)
cold water
b)
hot water
c)
oil
iv. Setup Muffle furnace temperature 800C,
825C & 850 C
v. Measure hardness before quenching
vi. Measure hardness after quenching
vii. Similarly measure the effect of soaking time
in 10, 15 & 20 minutes
C. Preparation of samples for hardness

testing
Take grade AISI 1050 containing C 0.55

{medium carbon steel} for preparation
of sample with diameter 20mm.
Preparation of 25 samples of 20mm
length for heat treatment. {hardening
and tempering}
214
Fig.2 Samples of AISI 1050 Carbon Steel with

diameter 20mm
Fig. 5 The microstructure of AISI 1050 BHT

(10X)
Fig.6 The microstructure of AISI 1050 BHT

(10X)
Fig.3 Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
D.MICROSCOPY STUDY
Fig.7 Microstructure of AISI 1050 BHT on

Rockwell B (10X)
Fig.4 The microstructure of AISI 1050 carbon

steel (10X)
Based on fig.4, fig.5, fig.6 & fig7 shows the

various microstructure of AISI 1050 Carbon
steel before heat treatment
215
Fig.8 The microstructure of hardening samples

at 800 C For cold water for 10 min (10X)
Fig.12The microstructure of AISI 1050 steel at
850 C in hot water for 20 min (10 X)
Fig 9 The microstructure of 800c hardening

temperature for 10 min in cold water (10X)
Fig. 13The microstructure of hardening samples
at 825 C for oil for 15 min RHB(10 X)
Based on fig8, fig.9, fig.10, fig.11, fig.12&
fig.13 shows the microstructure of AISI 1050
Carbon steel heat treatment conditions for
hardening temperature for different soaking time
intervals
Fig.10 The microstructure of 800C hardening
for15 min in cold water (10X)
Fig.11 The microstructure of 850C hardening

for 20 min in cold water (10X)
Fig.14 The microstructure of sub critical

annealing at 675 C for 15 min RHB (4X)
216
Fig.15
The microstructure of sub critical
annealing at 700 C for 20 min RHB(4X)
Fig.16 The microstructure of full annealing at

800 C for 10 min RHB (4X)
Based on fig.14, fig.15& fig.16 shows the
microstructure of AISI 1050 Carbon steel heat
treatment conditions for full annealing & sub
critical annealing
Fig.18 The microstructure of normalizing

samples at 825 C for 15 min RHB (4X)

Based on fig.17, fig.18 & fig.19 shows the
microstructure of AISI 1050 Carbon steel heat
treatment conditions for normalizing
IV Result & discussion
Table 2.Heat Treatment conditions for hardening
of AISI 1050 Carbon steel-

Hardening
Temperature
800C
825C
850C
800C
825C
850C
800C
825C
850C
Quenching
Media
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Cold Water
Soaking
Time
10
10
10
15
15
15
20
20
20
RHB
93.5
95.5
98
91.91
92.91
93.5
89.5
92.58
93.916
217
RHC
58.5
60.86
62.17
51.5
55.46
57.67
41.87
44.95
47.5
Table 4. Hardness Properties For Samples Subjected

hardening temperature
Fig.20 Graph of hardness for different hardening

temperature in cold water for different soaking time
Hardening
Temperature
800C
825C
850C
800C
825C
850C
800C
825C
850C
Quenching
Media
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Soaking
Time
10
10
10
15
15
15
20
20
20
RHB
82.33
83.67
85.5
80.67
81.5
83.67
78.86
80.75
81.5
RHC
20.58
21.23
22.55
18.69
20.03
21.75
14.25
18.45
20.01
Table 3. Hardness Properties For Samples Subjected

hardening temperature
Hardening
Temperature
800C
825C
850C
800C
825C
850C
800C
825C
850C
Quenching
Media
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Hot water
Soaking
Time
10
10
10
15
15
15
20
20
20
RHB
85.25
87.67
89.5
80.56
82.25
84.5
76.5
80.67
82.58
RHC
33.75
35.57
37.25
28.67
30.5
32.75
25.83
27.95
29.83
Fig.22 Graph of hardness for different hardening

temperature in oil for different soaking time
Table 5. Heat treatment conditions for full
annealing process for AISI 1050 Carbon steelFull
annealing
800
Soaking
time
10
Hardness(RHB)
825
15
57.74
850
20
58.02
56.68
Quenching
medium
Furnace
cooling
Furnace
cooling
Furnace
cooling
Table 6. Heat treatment condition for sub critical

annealing process for AISI 1050 Carbon steelFig.21 Graph of hardness for different hardening
temperature in hot water for different soaking
time
Subcritical
Annealing
675
Soaking
time
Hardness(RHB)
Quenching
medium
15
76.44
700
20
69.65
Furnace
cooling
Furnace
cooling
218
Table 7. Heat treatment conditions for

normalizing process for AISI 1050 Carbon
SteelNormalizing
800
Soaking
time
10
Hardness
(RHB)
60.124
825
15
64.828
850
20
67.332
Quenching
medium
Air
cooling
Air
cooling
Air
cooling
Int J of Physics Sciences, vol.4(9),

[4]
Ashish Bhateja, A. V. (2012). Study the

Effect on the Hardness of three Sample
Grades of Tool Steel i.e. EN-31, EN-8,
and D3 after heat treatment Processes
Such As Annealing, Normalizing, and
Hardening
&
Tempering.
The
International Journal of Engineering
and Science (IJES), Vol.1 No.2, 253259.
[5]
Atik, E. Y. (March 2003, Vol.36). The

effects of conventional heat treatment
and boronizing on abrasive wear and
corrosion of SAE 1010, SAE 1040, D2
and 304 steels. Tribology International ,
155-161.
[6]
Demirkol, K. G. (1999). Effect of case

depth on fatigue performance of AISI
8620 carburized steel. International
Journal of Fatigue , Vol. 21, 207212.
[7]
Enver Atk, U. Y. (2003). The effects of

conventional heat treatment and
boronizing on abrasive wear and
corrosion of SAE 1010, SAE 1040, D2
and 304 steels. Tribology International ,
Vol.36, 155161.
[8]
A. (2013). Heat Treatment ofEN-8

Steel
Casting
Samples.
India:
metalworld.
[9]
R.
Balasubramaniam,
(2010).
Callister's Materials Science and
Engineering. India: Wiley India Pvt.
Ltd.
V Conclusions
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
The micro structural characteristics of these

steels were parameterized by the pearlite
volume (dark region) fraction.
The percentage of pearlite changes with
change in carbon content of steels.
The hardness is strongly influenced by the
temperature and time.
The value of hardness decreases with
retention of samples in the furnace for a
longer period.
For AISI 1050 steels higher hardness value
have been obtained when quenched in cold
water and lowest hardness value have been
obtained when quenched in vegetable oil.
The microstructure of AISI 1050 carbon
steel in case of normalizing process is
pearlite.
The microstructure of AISI 1050 Carbon
steel in case of annealing is coarse pearlite.
References
[1]
G.Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and

processing
principles,
ASM
International, OH, USA, 1989.
[10] T. V. Rajan, C. S. (2011). Heat

Treatment Principles and Techniques.
India: PHI.
[2]
OJAY 1st publication PDF- Effect of

Heat Treatment on the mechanical
properties of rolled medium carbon
steel.
[11] Hanbook of Engineering Tool & Alloy

Steel Manual.
[3]
[12] Design
Data
Handbook
by
K.Mahadevan & K.Balaveera Reddy
Adan,Calik.Effect of Cooling rate on

Hardness and Microstructure of AISI
1020,AISI 1040 and AISI 1060 Steels.
219
36. CONDITION BASED PREDICTIVE

MAINTENANCE
ONBOARD
NAVAL SHIPS
S Jaison
Department of Production
College of Engineering
Pune, India
Jaison_82@rediffmail.com
Karajagikar Jayant
Department of Production
College of Engineering
Pune, India
AbstractCondition
Based
Predictive
Maintenance (CBPM) is an effective tool in
monitoring the heartbeats of a machinery.
CBPM is an advanced tool in predicting the
behavioral patterns of machinery components.
The concept of unique natural frequency
pertaining to individual components of
machinery and their baseline signature
monitoring can enable in analyzing the
performance characteristics of machinery. In this
modern era keeping pace with leap in
technologies can yield wonders in upkeep of
modern machinery, reduce maintenance costs
and layoff time. A simple vibration baseline
signature is all that is required to monitor
machinery. Indian Naval ships unlike merchant
ships consist of complex machinery and are
subjected to rigorous exploitation pattern owing
to war deployments. This results in early wear
and tear of machinery. CBPM and its faithful
implementation onboard ships can redefine the
endurance characteristics of machinery, enable
enhanced
exploitation, thereby improve
sustainability in war patrol. CBPM strategy can
be utilized in systematic monitoring of
equipment fitted onboard ships and enable
implementation of E-maintenance strategy.
KeywordsCBPM; Vibration; Oil Analysis; EMaintenance; Ships
II. INTRODUCTION
Condition Based Predictive Maintenance [3]
can be used to schedule maintenance activity in
a timely manner by ships and also prevent
unexpected equipment failures. The key is "the

right information in the right time". By knowing
which
equipment
needs
maintenance,
maintenance work can be better planned (spare
parts, people, etc.) and what would have been
"unplanned stops" are transformed to shorter and
fewer "planned stops", thus increasing
equipment availability. A systematic monitoring
and recording of CBPM tools used for
equipment can improve sustainability at high
seas, thereby improving the fighting efficacy of
a warship.
a. History
Human brain is an inbuilt sensory device with
the ability for sense of touch and hearing. When
the brain is trained to a situation, the sensory
organs aide in fault identification when there is
deviation from the original situation. In the past
efficient machine operators significantly
contributed to identify problems with feel of
touch or by using a simple screwdriver to
conduct sound from the bearing house to ears.
However vibration equipment is required to
obtain consistent results and maintain records.
The origins of industrial vibration measurement
can be attributed to TC Rathbone, Chief
Engineer, Turbine & Machinery Division, New
York division.
Rathbone is credited with
defining the initial guidelines for judging
machine condition from vibration measurement
in his paper Vibration Tolerance published in
1939.The first vibration meters were introduced
in 1950s and measured overall vibration either in
peak to peak mils (thousandths of an inch) of
vibratory displacement or in Inches Per Second
(IPS). In the 1970s with personal computers in
use the advent of digital signal processing led to
FFT analyzers. In the 1980s with use of
microprocessors on a single silicon chips [1] led
to portable digital signal analyzers. From a
simple overall amplitude measurement seventy
years ago to the complex dynamic signatures
utilized today for a detailed analysis of condition
assessment have become an essential element for
the safe operation and effectiveness of todays
modern machinery systems.
b. CBPM Methods:
To evaluate equipment condition,
predictive maintenance utilizes nondestructive
220
testing technologies such as infrared, acoustic

(partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic),
vibration analysis, sound level measurements,
oil analysis, etc. These methods have been
proven to be successful in predicting the
condition of the equipment and decide on further
exploitation accordingly.
III. VIBRATION MONITORING
Vibration measurement [4] used in
monitoring a machinery is akin to the ECG used
in medical field. It can be defined as the pulse of
an machine. Irregularities can cause failures and
can be effectively used as an early indicator or
symptom for an defect. Vibration monitoring
first begins with acquiring an accurate timevarying signal from a vibration transducer, such
as an accelerometer. The raw analog signal is
typically brought into a portable, digital
instrument that processes it for a variety of user
functions. Depending on user requirements for
analysis and the native units of the raw signal, it
can either be processed directly or routed to
mathematical integrators for conversion to other
units of vibration measurement.
a. Narrowband analysis
Narrowband analysis [7] is basically the
analysis of FFT spectrum in a close band of
frequencies (i.e. the frequency range in which
our interest lies). Key element of this analysis is
to determine the vibration frequencies present
and how these vibration frequencies relate to the
rotating speed (rpm) of the various machine
components. To do this we require a vibration
frequency analyser. Since from narrowband
analysis we can determine the component level
vibration, we can understand the health of
machinery better. A narrowband spectrum
analysis requires detailed knowledge of design/
construction of the equipment, its past history,
operating conditions and list of potential
components prone to damage/ failure. In
addition, deviation from laid down operating
instructions results in excessive operational
stresses which changes the balance condition/
component alignment causing high dynamic
loads which may eventually lead to accelerated
wear. Such defects will invariable result in
change in vibration trends of the machine.
Therefore, periodic vibration measurements as

well analysis of change in vibration
characteristics is critical to early identification of
incipient faults as well as uncover the inaccurate
operation practices.
b. Signal Analysis
This is a method of taking a real world,
time-varying signal [5] and splitting it into
components, each with an amplitude, a phase,
and a frequency. By associating the frequencies
with machine characteristics, and looking at the
amplitudes, it is possible to pinpoint troubles
very accurately.
IV. CASE STUDY
a. Vibration Trend
Air-conditioning is the control of
temperature, humidity, air purity and air
movement within a space or group of spaces. It
is a prime requirement in all Naval platforms to
ensure that the ship's staff continue to operate at
high levels of effectiveness and efficiency for
long periods and the environment for essential
equipment always remains satisfactory for
reliable operation. This environmental control
has to be achieved throughout the full spectrum
of ambient conditions for which the ship is to be
designed. Therefore, operational availability of
all AC plants onboard Naval platforms is a
mission critical requirement. One of the AC
plants onboard a ship encountered extended
operational requirements which were optimised
by timely predictive evaluations and progressive
corrective actions.
i.
Running
hour
extension:
The ship had an operational
requirement of extension of running
hours on Air-Conditioning No. 3.
Accordingly, running hours extension
[8] (for 1000hrs on 10000hrlyroutine)
trials were undertaken. The overall
vibration levels recorded were
satisfactory
with
max
overall
vibration of 10.5 mm/sec against the
limit of 18 mm/sec. While all vibration
and
performance
evaluation
parameters were within acceptable
221
limits, an increasing trend was noticed

at 1X and 2X of fundamental running
frequency during Narrow Band
analysis. The increasing trend was
likely as the equipment was due for
major overhaul as per Planned
Preventive Maintenance program.
The ship was advised to exploit the AC
plant under more frequent monitoring of
vibration/ performance parameters [9] with
following observations:1.
Presence
of
high
amplitude peaks at 1X in vertical as
compared to horizontal at compressor
drive end indicative of increased
bearing clearances
2.
Increasing trend in
amplitudes at 1X and 2X in all
directions indicative of incipient
weakness in pedestal structure which
has been observed in past cases of
weak pump stools/ base structures as
shown in Table I.
Measuring
V
A
Direction
10.3
Comp free end
Comp drive end
20.1
13.5
Motor drive end
7.8
Motor free end
vertical direction
1.
Presence
of
high
amplitude peaks at 1X frequency in
vertical (Fig. 2. ) as compared to
horizontal direction indicating
increased bearing clearances.
2.
Presence of peaks at 2X
in
all
directions
indicating
misalignment and weakness of
pedestal structure (Fig .3. below
shows a few spectrums)
H
4.8
6.9
6.9
6.6
11.9
10.8
16.8
16.3
TABLE I. Overall vibrations (mm/sec)

recorded
ii. Considering the past trend,
previous observations made during
running hours extension trials and
narrowband analysis, the following

observations were made.
Fig. 2. High amplitude peak at fundamental
frequency in
Fig. 3. Spectrums
3.
Phase analysis revealed
90o phase difference between
vertical to horizontal at motor drive
end bearing indicative of unbalance
of motor rotor.
iii. Recommendations:
The
following recommendations were
made
1.
Overhaul of compressor
2.
Balancing of motor
shaft with pulley along with
trueness checks of both pulleys
3.
Survey/
repair
of
foundation structure
4.
Renewal of mounts
iv. Repair Actions:10000 hrly
(MOH) of AC Plant along with
222
renewal of SV mounts post testing /

grouping and trueness checks of
compressor & motor pulleys were
carried out.
Recorded overall
vibrations within alarm limits post
aforesaid repair actions. However,
survey/ repair of foundation structure
was not carried out by repair yard view
requirement of three weeks of
maintenance period involving lifting of
AC and extensive de-gutting/ regutting. It was recommended to exploit
the AC plant under observation and
offer for narrowband analysis trials
based on any increase in overall
vibrations.
v. Trials Post MOH: An increasing
trend of vibrations at compressor free
end in vertical direction was noticed
post 77 hrs of exploitation (running hrs
since MOH). Attenuation across six
out of eight new mounts was found to
be unsat. Poor attenuation across new
mounts with higher overall vibrations
recorded below mounts as compared
to readings above mounts at three
locations substantiated indications of
weakness of pedestal structure. Overall
vibrations recorded were shown in
Table II.
Vibration
Monitori
INITIAL
Post MOH
ng Points
(Trials)
&Renewal
of Mounts
V
A
H
V
A H
Compressor
10.3 4.8 11.9
13.9 3.6 0.2
FE
Compressor
5.2 5.1 8.1
20.1 6.9 10.8
DE
Motor DE
13.5 6.9 16.8
7.9 6.0 6.3
Motor FE
7.8 6.6 16.3
7.7 5.3 9.6
TABLE II. Overall vibrations (mm/sec)
recorded
Narrowband analysis once again
revealed high vibrations at 1X and 2X in almost
all directions confirming weakness of pedestal
(Fig .4 shows one such spectrum ).Therefore,
firm
recommendations
for
renewal/
strengthening of base frame / foundation were

made.
Fig. 4. Spectrum depicting high 1X and 2X

amplitudes
vi. Final Trials: The survey of
foundation post lifting of AC
Compressor
revealed
corrosion/
weakness on 05 vertical foundation
stiffeners
and
02
horizontal
baseframes.
Overall
vibrations
recorded by ship post renewal of
corroded vertical stiffeners and
horizontal baseframes are as tabulated
below as in Table III.
Measuring
V
A
H
Direction
7.9
1.9
8.2
Comp free
end
7.1
4.0
8.3
Comp drive
end
7.4
3.4
6.7
Motor drive
end
10.2
2.8
10.0
Motor free
end
TABLE III. Vibrations (mm/sec) post
Repair of Foundation
7) Weakness of Base frame/ Structure: In
general, the first indication of mechanical
looseness related to weakness of structures has
been found to be increased peaks at 2X
fundamental frequency. The presence of both 1X
and 2X of fundamental frequency in a balanced
and aligned rotating machinery is most likely an
223
indication of weakness of pedestal, distortion of

base frame/ rocking motion. If the resulting
looseness due to weakness of pedestal worsens,
it will result in development of impulse/ impact
events. In such a scenario, the FFT spectrum will
show multiple harmonics.
B) Oil Analysis
Oil in machinery [6] is the lifeline and it
runs though to provide lubrication, cooling as
well as clear debris. Similar to a blood report
undertaken on human beings to identify various
suspensions for diagnosis and oil report can also
diagnose the internal health of an machine. Wear
particle concentrations (Fe, Pb & Sn) were
observed in Spectrometric analysis report of HP
Air Compressor (HPAC) (Sulzer) in advanced
oil analysis returns of a ship. Thereafter, ship
reported replacement/ flushing with new oil.
However, wear particle concentrations were
again observed in subsequent analysis. In both
the reports abnormally high Sn concentration
was a cause of concern. In the absence of an
approved promulgated alarm/ alert values,
trending and comparative analysis was
undertaken for severity assessment. The analysis
details of wear particle concentration (ppm) as
given in Table in IV.
TABLE IV. Comparative assessment of wear
particle concentration
Metal
Same Compressors on P-17

class
Metal
Probable sources
Fe
Gears, rolling bearings, cylinder

liners, shafts, rust formation
Pb
A soft metal used for sacrificial

wear surfaces such as journal
bearings, Lead based babbits are
widely used, Journal bearings
grease, roller Bearings and
bushings
Sn
Bronze bushes, washers and

gears, rolling element bearings:
alloyed element in cages, journal
bearings: journal bearing pads
(babbited)
1) Recommendations: In view of the above, the

increased presence of Iron (Fe) along with Lead
(Pb) and Tin (Sn) was indicative of white metal
bearing wear. The scrutiny of Maintops of
HPAC (Sulzer) revealed requirement of
weardown checks of Main/ Con rod bearings as
part of annual routine. It was confirmed from
ship that the annual routine was overdue.
Accordingly, OEM was also approached for
investigation of increased wear particle
concentration. Annual routines on HPAC no. 1
were carried out and investigations revealed
wearing of crankshaft due to insufficient
lubrication of main bearing. The early detection
saved the crankshaft failure and seizure of
engine.
V. CBPM ONBOARD NAVAL
SHIPS
HPAC No 1 (Sulzer)
19 Aug 14
03 Oct 13
Fe
51.31
39.36
Pb
18.62
2.90
Sn
49.18
37.30
In addition to the OEM specifications,

the probable sources of wear metals in lub-oil
are shown in Table V.
TABLE V. Probable sources of wear metals in
Lubricating Oil
A)
Proposed Methodology for Naval ships

The procedure of condition
monitoring [9] involves
trending, which
examines the rate at which condition
indicating parameters change with operating
time. Therefore, it is a continuous process
requiring persistent watch. The three
circumstances which are to be considered
while evaluating the trends and the
recommended actions to be taken by ships are
shown in Fig .5.
224
Case I
Compare
magnitude
vis--vis
alarm levels
and if it
exceeds
alarm level /
very close to
alarm level
Case II
Case III
Magnitude
within
alarm level
but there is
an
increasing
trend with
almost
linear rate
of increase
Magnitude
within alarm
level but there
is
an
abnormal
increase
compared to
past reading
The alarm limits promulgated for

engineering equipment under the ambit of
CBPM will fall in the Zone C.
Carryout
preliminary
change
analysis
Schedule
more
frequent
monitoring
and keep the
equipment
Fig .5 Analysis of parameters and
under
recommended actions
observation.
B) Vibration severity zones
The vibration severity zones can be
broadly considered as follows as shown in
Fig.6 .
Conduct trials
Schedule
more
frequent
monitoring
1) Zone A: Vibrations
commissioned machine
Fig .6 .Vibration Severity Zones
of
newly
2) Zone B (Normal Range): Vibrations

are acceptable for unrestricted long-term
operation
3)
Zone C (Alarm Range):
Vibrations considered unsatisfactory for
long-term continuous operation
4)Zone D: Vibrations may cause damage
to the machinery
This requires analysis and corrective

actions to be taken in the case of CBPM
tool (vibration) levels crossing over to the
alarm zone.
V. E-MAINTENANCE ORIENTED
STRATEGY
ONBOARD
NAVAL
SHIPS
E-Maintenance [9] is the need of the

hour to bring all ships under a single
ambit for effective monitoring. This will
enable
monitoring
thousands
of
equipment fitted onboard hundreds of
ships with the click of a button. This can
be enabled by capturing baseline
signatures of all equipment and
categorizing them as per class of ships.
CBPM
techniques
can
enable
implementation of E-Maintenance in a
desired way. A suitable software should
be developed to incorporate the details of
equipment and just clicking on a
particular equipment will give all the
maintenance activities carried out and also
indicate ships fitted with same equipment.
Computerized maintenance management
systems [2] on ships usually process data
related to the maintenance operations,
entered manually by the appropriate staff.
225
Based on the given information about the

faults
or
failures
characteristics,
measurement results, corrective and
preventive actions taken, etc., the Trial
teams plan appropriate maintenance
strategy, generates work orders and
allocate resources as shown in figure 7.
The maintenance activity onboard a naval
ship can be undertaken by developing
suitable software to integrate the
measurements
undertaken
on
a
mechanical component with electronic
equipments.
The
maintenance
of
equipment fitted onboard hundreds of ship
with each ship accounting for 200
machineries is an humongous task. It also
amounts to huge amount of expenditure to
the exchequer, extended layoff and
elaborative trials. The aim of Emaintenance is to rely on CBPM tools,
Delay maintenance based on reports
generated, Reduce layoffs and monitoring

of all equipment with click of a button.
A) If there is no significant change in

magnitude from previous recording, no
action required and periodic (monthly)
recordings to be continued.
B) If the vibration is increasing at a linear
rate, more frequent monitoring should
be scheduled and implemented by
operators/ maintainers. A preliminary
analysis
of
other
performance
parameters trend, lubrication condition,
and tightness of bolts etc. need to be
undertaken.
C) If rate of change increases suddenly by
approximately 25% or more as
compared to previous reading then first
line
maintenance
and
increased
frequency of monitoring must be
prioritized. In case, the problem persists,
narrowband analysis requirement to be
raised.
It is clearly seen from the above two case studies
that the Vibration monitoring and Oil analysis
based CBPM tools have been effectively utilized
in timely and periodic evaluations of a critical
operational machinery onboard Naval platform.
This systematic approach enables generation of
actionable data to schedule both preventive and
corrective maintenance tasks effectively and
help in easy maintenance. This can lead to
development of E-maintenance strategy where in
the equipment fitted onboard ships can be
monitored effectively through the databases
created using CBPM methodology.
Fig .7 .E-Maintenance Strategy onboard

ships
VI. REFERENCES
VI.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of periodic returns is to establish

a trend and analyze the trending data to preempt/ predict incipient failure. An early
detection of defect enables timely and easier
corrective actions and preventing catastrophic
failures/ downtime. Therefore, the following
guidelines have been proposed for equipment
vibration magnitudes in the normal zone/ within
alarm limit.
[1] Jasmin Celic, Aleksandar Cuculie, eMaintenance for ship electrical propulsion
plants, 36th International Convention on
Information & Communication Technology
Electronics & Microelectronics (MIPRO),
2013 , Opatija ;May 20-24, 2013; pp.12021205.
226
[2] Mahalungkar, S. Ingram, M,Online and

manual (offline) vibration monitoring of
equipment
for
reliability
centered
maintenance, Cement Industry Technical
Conference ; 25-30 April 2004;pp. 245-261.
[3] Gary
G .Yen , Kuo Chung Lin
,Conditional Health Moniotring Using
Vibration Signals Proceedings of the 38th
IEEE Conference on Decision and Control,
;Phoenix,AZ;7-10 Dec 1999;pp. 4493-4498.
[4] Laggan, P.A. , Vibration Monitoring IEE
Colloquium on
Understanding your
Condition
Monitoring
;Chester;April
1999,pp. 301-311.
[5] Agrawal,
K.K,
Pandey,
G.N
,Chandrasekaran, K, Analysis of the
Condition Based Monitoring System for
Heavy Industrial Machineries IEEE
International Conference on Computational
Intelligence and Computing Research

(ICCIC);Enathi;26-28 Dec 2013;pp. 1-4.
[6] Gao Jingwei;Zhang Peilin;Liu Baoyuan;Xie
Zhengjun ,An Integrated Fault Diagnosis
Method of Gearboxes Using Oil Analysis
and Vibration Analysis 8th International
Conference on Electronic Measurement and
Instruments(ICEMI ); Xian ;Aug 2007;pp.
371-374.
[7] Jianjun Shi; Chunping Wu; Jianping Zhang;
Jinlong Dou, Monitoring and analysis of
vibration caused by demolishing of a
chimney with height of 150 meters
International Conference on Remote
Sensing, Environment and Transportation
Engineering (RSETE); Nanjing; 24-26 June
2011 ; pp. 5095-5098.
[8] Journal of Marine Engineering.
[9] Manuals and journals on Navalships
available in public domain
227

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