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the same as those used in modified milk production. Imitation milk powder production is used in a manner similar to modified milk powder and has multiple
advantages:
1. It has low productions costs (as the price of vegetable fat and protein is much
lower than for the corresponding milk components).
2. It serves well those parts of the world where there are no cattle and no milk
production.
3. It has a longer shelf life compared to milk powder.
4. It has a wide variation in composition, depending on the availability of ingredients.
Other dry dairy products include anhydrous milkfat, dried dairy beverages, dietetic dry products, coffee whiteners, dry fermented milk products, dry cream, dry
cheese products, dry ice cream mix, dry buttermilk, and single cell protein.
CHCCSC
MILK
CHCCSC PRODUCTO
IN
RV
l CR
FB DRYING
SCfARATO
lN
PROCESSN
IG
ICAtACTOSO
l ASC
URCA CACTOSVL URCA
RCACTOR
GLUCOSC-GALACTOSC
PCRMCATC
WMCV
FG
lS
ULTRA FILTRATION
FC
l LO
FROTCN
I
LACTOSC
FCRMCNTATO
lN
CRYSTALLIZATION
CVAFORATN
tC
FAT
SCPARATO
I N OISTILLATION
VCAST
SCFARATO
IN
MOTMCR LQ
I UOR
CLCCTROOIALVSS
i
ALCOHOL
FAT
SPRAY
DRYING
RCCONSTtTUTO
lN
MOTHCR LIQUOR
POWDER
CHCCSC
SKIM MILK
NON-HVCROSCOFC
I
WHCV
FAT CNRC
t HCO
WHCY
CLCCTROOA
I LVSCO
WHCV
SCF
FROTCN
l
WHCV
FCRMCATC
Figure 4.15 Dry dairy products derived from whey. (Courtesy of A/S NIRO Atomizer.)
SCP = Single cell protein
ORDINARY
WHEY POWDER
PRECRYSTALLIZED
WHEY POWDER
Pretreatment
WHEY POWDER
(STRAIGHT THROUGH)
NON-CAKING
NON-CAKING
WHEY POWDER
(BELTPROCESS)
Pretreatment
Pretreatment
Pretreatment
Evaporation
Evaporation
Evaporation
Evaporation
42-45% TS
about 40% TS
about 40% TS
50% TS
Highconcentration
50-60% TS
Highconcentration
50-60% TS
Precrystallization
Precrystallization
Precrystallization
4-16 h
16-24 h
16-24 h
Spray drying
Spray drying
Spray drying
I 1 = 18O0C
ti = 2000C
tj= 1850C
Spray drying
q= 15O0C
Postcrystallization
Fluid-bed
drying
Fluid-bed
drying
Fluid-bed
cooling
Pneumatic
transport/cooling
Pneumatic
transport/cooling
Fluid-bed
cooling
[a]
[b]
[C]
a)
c)
b)
Figure 4.17 Dead-end (a) versus cross-flow (b) ultrafiltration. (c) Cross section of asymmetric membrane of hollow fiber type.
and is not hygroscopic, with no caking tendencies. It is used extensively in food
processing.
In all four procedures, reverse osmosis may be used for partial whey concentration
(up to 25% total solids), prior to evaporation. This is an energy saving measure. It
must be emphasized that the two concentrating plants may be located in different
places.
whereas proteins are concentrated in the retentate. This permits a WPC with 20 to
60% protein in total solids and low quantities of lactose and mineral matter to be
obtained. Permeate, a by-product of this processing, is used for producing lactose,
alcohol, single cell protein, yeast, galactose, glucose, cattle feed, and various pharmaceuticals.
As ultrafiltration proceeds, an increased protein content of up to 98% may be
achieved by adding water to the feed.28 This proceure is called diafiltration. The
optimal moment to start diafiltration is when the total solids content has been reached
at which the ultrafiltration flux is still relatively high. That level of total solids must
be kept constant during diafiltration in order to minimize the water quantity needed.
To obtain 80% protein in total solids, the latter should reach a level of approximately
22 to 25%. The scheme of continuous WPC production is shown in Fig. 4.18.28
Sweet whey is first subjected to clarification (removal of casein fines, fat separation, and pasteurization). After pasteurization, the whey is cooled to 60 to 65C
and held at this temperature for 30 to 60 min before cooling to 500C for ultrafiltration.
This heat-and-hold treatment has the function of stabilizing the calcium phosphate
complex, and thus reduces the fouling of the membranes during ultrafiltration. Further reduction of the mineral content in WPC is achieved by adjusting pH of the
whey to pH 5.7 to 6.0 with HCl. In this way, the solubility of calcium is increased,
followed by its greater portion in the permeate. After ultrafiltration, the retentate is
pasteurized, evaporated, and dried. Although in Fig. 4.18 evaporation is included in
the process, a better solution is to directly dry the product. Depending on the protein
content, total solids may be increased from 22 to 25% up to 44% during ultrafiltration, and WPC may be dried directly as obtained from the ultrafiltration plant. This
provides a better quality of high protein product. To reduce or avoid protein denaturation, lower temperatures than those for drying milk are used: 160 to 1800C for
the inlet temperature and less than 800C for the outlet air temperature (Fig. 4.18).
4.6.3.1 Casein
Casein is the major milk protein. In addition to the protein moiety, it also contains
phosphorus, calcium, and citrate in the structure of its micelles.29"31
As the initial pH value of milk is decreased from 6.5, casein starts losing its
colloidal dispersibility and stability and begins to precipitate at pH 5.3. Maximum
precipitation takes place at pH 4.6, which is the isoelectric point of casein. Casein
may also be precipitated by proteolytic enzymes. Depending on the reagent used,
the following kinds of casein are produced.32"35
1. Acid casein is obtained by precipitating milk with an acid such as hydrochloric,
sulfuric, or lactic acid.
2. Sweet casein results from the action of chymosin.
3. Low-viscosity casein is produced by treating milk simultaneously with proteolytic enzymes and an acid.
Bag Filter
Powder So
li s
Evaporato
in
Spray Dryn
ig
Fluid Bod]
Dyctone,
Beggn
ig
Pasteurziato
in
Clarification
Storage
SET
Separao
tin< !Wh.yCr.am
Heat
-transported
Pasteurziato
in
Retentate Storage
Hod
ln
ig lank
U
T
tR
O
tiFN
DU
IAR
FA
IUFR
AA
TT
IC
*.
Figure 4.18 Processing plant for production of WPC from sweet whey.
The basic operations in the production of casein are the same irrespective of the
type of casein produced. The flow chart of acid casein production, together with
sodium casemate production, is shown in Fig. 4.19.
The precipitation of casein in skim milk is initiated by changing the pH value of
the milk using hydrochloric, sulfuric, or lactic acid. The nature of the coagulum
(curd) obtained by direct precipitation of skim milk depends on the temperature of
precipitation, the intensity of agitation, and the final pH value of the precipitate. The
best results are obtained by atomizing a diluted acid solution such as 1.3 to IA N
HCl in a countercurrent direction to the flow of the milk maintained at 30 to 35C.
Skim milk
Rennet
treatment
Casein curd
Casein curd
Draining, washing
pressing, milling
drying
Draining, washing
pressing, milling
drying
Acid casein
pH6-7
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Rennet casein
Spray drying
Caseinate
Figure 4.19 Production of commercial casein and caseinate products.
In the next step, steam is injected into the mixture in order to rapidly increase its
temperature to cause coagulation, that is, 40 to 45C. The mixture is subsequently
directed into an inclined tube where it coagulates.
Skim milk may also be coagulated in a two-section plate heat exchanger. Acid is
injected into the skim milk after it passed through the first section of the heat exchanger, where it was heated to 300C by heat recuperated from whey processing.
The acidified skim milk is then heated to 45C by hot water in another section of
the heat exchanger. The yield of casein may be as high as 99%.
The procedure is the same regardless of the type of the acid used. Hydrochloric
and sulfuric acids are most commonly used. The selection of a particular acid depends on economic factors. Preference has been given to hydrochloric acid because
it is usually available at a lower cost than sulfuric acid.
An economical, high-capacity production of casein is based on the use of lactic
acid as a precipitating agent. Lactic acid can be produced inexpensively by the
fermentation of lactose. In New Zealand, almost all acid casein is produced in this
way, using cultures of Streptococcus lactis and/or Streptococcus cremoris.
Initially, this process, as well as all subsequent wet operations, were carried out
in cheese vats. The skim milk was inoculated at 25 to 27C with 0.5 to 1.5% of a
mixed lactic acid bacteria starter culture. The coagulation of the skim milk was
Sodium
Caseinate
Calcium
Caseinate
Acid
Casein
Rennet
Casein
94.0
4.0
1.3
0.1
0.8
0.2
1.5
4.0
6.6
93.5
4.5
0.05
1.5
0.8
0.2
1.5
4.0
6.8
95.0
2.2
0.1
0.08
0.9
0.2
1.5
10.0
89.0
7.5
0.02
3.0
1.5
1.5
12.0
7.0
Coprecipitate
89-94
4.5
1.5
1.5
5.0
6.8
Grinding produces uniform dimensions of the casein particles. They range from
300 to 600 /im in diameter. Particles obtained by attrition drying are considerably
smaller, that is, to 150 //,in in diameter.33
Ground casein is classified according to particle dimensions. It is sifted through
a series of gradually increasing mesh number sieves. Classified casein is packaged
in bags that are of the same kind as those used for milk powder packaging.
The approximate composition of commercial casein and casein products is presented in Table 4.4.
Casein is used in many industries such as the paper industry, the manufacture of
water-based paints, the production of adhesives, the food industry, the manufacture
of plastics, the production of casein fibres, the tanning industry, and the manufacture
of animal feeds and pet foods.
also added in order to maintain the total solids content of the caseinate solution
below the 20 to 22% level. The total solids content of the solution destined for spray
drying is 25 to 31% lower than that of milk, which is usually in the 45 to 55% range.
The low dry matter content, dictated by the requirement to maintain a low viscosity
of the sodium casemate solution, increases the production costs. The viscosity of
sodium caseinate solutions is a logarithmic function of the total solids concentration.
In order to increase the solids concentration to a maximum, a relatively high solubilization temperature of 90 to 95C is applied. The viscosity is lowest in the pH
range of 6.6 to 7.0. The raw acid casein must be completely free of lactose; otherwise
conditions favorable to the induction of Maillard reactions leading to the discoloration of the product would develop.
The homogeneous sodium caseinate solution obtained in the preceding operation
is usually spray dried in a stream of hot air. Only rarely is sodium caseinate dried
by roller drying. The total solids content of the solution destined for spray drying
ranges from 20 and 22% and may be exceptionally as high as 25%. The highest
permissible caseinate concentration is determined experimentally for every individual spray dryer.
All sodium caseinate produced commercially is used in the food industry. The
following foods are examples of products containing sodium caseinate: various kinds
of sausages, meat-based instant breakfast and milk-based instant breakfast, modified
milk, whipped cream, coffee whiteners, ice cream, desserts, sauces, soups, casein
bread, doughs, crackers, biscuits, dietetic products, and various protein-enriched
products. The two main reasons for using sodium caseinate as an ingredient in foods
are its functional properties and nutritive value.
4.6.3.3 Coprecipitates
In coprecipitate processing, high-temperature treatment of skim milk leads to the
interaction of the /3-lactoglobulin fraction of the whey proteins with K-casein. The
heat-induced K-casein/3-lactoglobulin complex is then coprecipitated with casein
by an acid, or another chemical agent such as CaCl2, or a mix of the two.32"35 Other
milk proteins are coprecipitated together with the casein-lactoglobulin complex.
Coprecipitates were patented in the 1950s and became more popular in the 1970s.
Their advantage over casein and its compounds is that they also consist of whey
proteins that contain relatively high concentrations of sulfur-containing amino acids.
This factor contributes to the biological value of coprecipitates. In addition, the
coprecipitate procedure increases the recovery of milk proteins.
In order to produce coprecipitates, skim milk is preheated and the final heating
of up to 900C in the second stage is obtained by steam injection into the milk. CaCl2
or acid is also injected through spray countercurrent to the direction of milk flow to
provide full mixing. The mixture is transformed into curd in a holding tube (20 to
25s). The curd is separated from the whey and the coprecipitate is washed, pressed,
and dried. At optimal process conditions it is possible to recover 95 to 97% of the
milk proteins. There are three basic varieties of coprecipitates, each having different
amounts of calcium33: low-calcium coprecipitate (LCC, 0.1 to 0.5% Ca), medium-
calcium coprecipitate (MCC, 1.0 to 1.5% Ca), and high-calcium coprecipitate (HCC,
2.5 to 3.0% Ca). The calcium concentration in coprecipitates can be changed by
changing basic parameters in the production process. A higher pH value at precipitation results in a higher calcium concentration in the product, whereas longer retention time at high temperature decreases calcium concentration.
Coprecipitates with different concentrations of calcium and polyphosphate and
different ratios of serum protein and casein have various uses in the food industry.
They each serve the same purpose as caseinates. The production process of coprecipitates has been developed in order to recover not only casein, which is about 80%
of all milk protein, but other proteins as well. This increases the recovered protein
to nearly 96%.
4.6.4 Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of D-glucose and D-galactose. In the chemical
nomenclature, lactose is called 4-O-/3-D-galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose. It is the
major component of total milk solids and can be isolated on a commercial scale
from whole whey or from deproteinized whey.37"39 More recently, as the use of
membrane methods for the concentration and fractionation (ultrafiltration, hyperfiltration, etc.) of milk in the dairy industry is being expanded, the permeate obtained
by the ultrafiltration of whey is being used as the starting material in the production
of lactose.
Technological processes used to produce lactose may be divided into two basic
groups:
1. Crystallization of lactose from whey in the presence of whey proteins.
2. Crystallization of lactose from deproteinized whey after the removal of whey
proteins. Crude or refined lactose can be produced by either of these processes.
Lactose manufacture is shown in Fig. 4.20.37
The raw material for lactose production is evaporated in multistage vacuum
evaporators or may be subjected to preliminary concentration by reverse osmosis,
as well. The final concentration of lactose depends on whether proteins are present
in the syrup. If lactose is produced from protein-containing whey, the syrup is evaporated to increase its dry matter content to 60 to 65%. In the production of lactose
from deproteinized whey, the dry matter content of the syrup may be increased as
high as 70%.
Lactose crystallization is initiated in the hot syrup that had been concentrated to
oversaturation. The crystallization is initiated either spontaneously in oversaturated
syrups that are in an unstable crystallization state, or following the introduction of
seed crystals into syrups that are in the metastable crystallization state. The objective
of crystallization is to produce a large number of similar sized crystals (0.2 mm
average diameter) which would be easy to separate from the molasses.
A crystallizer is a double-walled closed tank having a conical bottom. It is
equipped with slow-motion agitators and scrapers which prevent the formed lactose
crystals from sticking to each other and from sedimenting.
Whey
Protein removal
Crystallization nuclei
Evaporation
60-65-70% TS
Water
Crystallization of lactose
^30 0 Ct 2 : 15-200C, 30h
Water
Filtration
Evaporation
65-70% TS
Water
Crystallization nuclei
Drying
70C
Grinding
Packages
Sifting
Packaging
Crude or refined lactose
Refining
- Sediment
Technical
Row
Edible Grade
Pharmaceutical Grade
98.0
0.35
1.0
0.45
0.2
0.4
94.0
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.1
0.4
99.0
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.06
99.4-99.85
0 . 1 - 0.5
0.01- 0.05
0.03- 0.09
0.001- 0.01
0.04- 0.03
From ref. 4.
4.7 References
1. Hall, C. W., and T. I. Hedrick. 1975. Drying of Milk and Milk Products. AVI, Westport, CT. 338
pp.
2. Wiegand B. 1985. Evaporation. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane Filtration and Spray
Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production. North European Dairy Journal, Vanl0se, Denmark,
pp. 91-178.
3. Masters, K. 1984. Spray Drying Handbook, 4th edit. George Godwin, London. 696 pp.
4. Caric\ M. 1990. Technology of Concentrated and Dried Dairy Products, 3rd edit. Naucna Knjiga,
Beograd, Yugoslavia, 293 pp. (in Serbian).
5. Kiermeier, F., and E. Lechner. 1973. Milch und Milcherzeugnisse. Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany,
443 pp.
6. Food and Drug Administration. 1978. Standards, Food and Drugs: Evaporated Milk, 131.130, 153
pp.
7. Swaisgood, H. E. 1986. Chemistry of milk protein. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-1. Proteins, pp. 1 -60. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
8. Holt, C. 1985. The milk salts: their secretion, concentrations and physical chemistry. In P. F. Fox
(ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-3. !Lactose and Minor Constituents, pp. 143-182. Elsevier
Applied Science, London.
9. Kessler, H. G. 1988. Lebensmittel- und Bioverfahrenstechnik. Molkereitechnologie, 3rd edit.
A. Kessler, Freising, Germany, 582 pp.
10. Knipschildt, M. E. 1986. Drying of milk and milk products. In R. K. Robinson (ed.), Modern Dairy
Technology Advances in Milk Processing, Vol. 1, pp. 131-234. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
11. Westergaard, V. 1983. Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, 3rd edit. Niro
Atomizer, Copenhagen, Denmark, 147 pp.
12. Hallstr0m, B. 1985. Evaporation versus hyperfiltration. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane
Filtration and Spray Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production, pp. 289-298. North European
Dairy Journal, Vanl0se, Denmark.
13. Walstra, P. 1983. Physical chemistry of milk fat globules. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-2. Lipids, pp. 119-158. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
14. Caric", M. 1988. Nonenzymic browning of dairy products. In Reactions of Nonenzymic Browning of
Food Products, pp. 105-141. Naudna Knjiga, Beograd, Yugoslavia (in Serbian).
15. Morrissey, P. A. 1985. Lactose: chemical and physiochemical properties. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-3. Lactose and Minor Constituents, pp. 1 -34. Elsevier Applied Science,
London.
16. Masters, K. 1985. Spray drying. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane Filtration and Spray
Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production, pp. 299346. North European Dairy Journal, VanI0se, Denmark.
17. Pisecky, J. 1983. New generation of spray dryers for milk products, Dairy Indust. Int 48: 21-24.
18. Caric*, M., and M. Kalb, 1987. Effects of drying techniques on milk powders quality and microstructure: a review. Food Microstructure 6: 171-180.
19. Peebles, D. D. 1936. U.S. Patent 2,054,441.
20. Peebles, D. D., and D. D. Clary, Jr. 1955. U.S. Patent 2,710,808.