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chemical combinations. Dalton had no experience or training in chemistry. Still, he plowed

confidently into his studies.
By this time almost 50 chemical elements had been discoveredmetals, gasses, and
nonmetals. But scientists studying chemistry were blocked by a fundamental question they
couldnt answer: How did elements actually combine to form the thousands of compounds
that could be found on Earth? For example, how did hydrogen (a gas) combine with oxygen
(another gas) to form water (a liquid)? Further, why did exactly one gram of hydrogen always combine with exactly eight grams of oxygen to make waternever more, never less?
Dalton studied all of the chemical reactions he could find (or create), trying to develop
a general theory for how the fundamental particle of each element behaved. He compared
the weights of each chemical and the likely atomic structure of each element in each compound. After a year of study, Dalton decided that these compounds were defined by simple
numerical ratios by weight. This decision allowed him to deduce the number of particles of
each element in various well-known compounds (water, ether, etc.).
Dalton theorized that each element consisted of tiny, indestructible particles that were
what combined with other elements to form compounds. He used the old Greek word, atom,
for these particles. But now it had a specific chemical meaning.
Dalton showed that all atoms of any one element were identical so that any of them
could combine with the atoms of some other element to form the known chemical compounds. Each compound had to have a fixed number of atoms of each element. Those fixed
ratios never changed. He deduced that compounds would be made of the minimum number
possible of atoms of each element. Thus water wouldnt be H4O2 because H2O was simpler
and had the same ratio of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Dalton was the first to use letter symbols (H, O, etc.) to represent the various elements.
Scientists readily accepted Daltons theories and discoveries, and his concepts quickly
spread across all Western science. We still use his concept of an atom today.
Fun Facts: The smallest atom is the hydrogen atom, with just one electron circling a single proton. The largest naturally occurring atom is the
uranium atom, with 92 electrons circling a nucleus stuffed with 92 protons and 92 neutrons. Larger atoms have been artificially created in the
lab but do not occur naturally on earth.

More to Explore
Greenway, Frank. John Dalton and the Atom. Ithaca, NY: Cornel University Press,
1997.
Lewis, Spencer. The Mystery of John Dalton and His Alchemy Laws. Whitefish, MT:
Kessinger, 2005.
Millington, J. John Dalton. London: AMS Press, 1996.
Patterson, Elizabeth. John Dalton and the Atomic Theory: The Biography of a Natural
Philosopher. New York: Doubleday, 1996.
Smith, Robert. Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory Up to His
Time. Dover, DE: Adamant Media, 2005.
Smyth, A. L. John Dalton: 17661844. New York: Dover, 1998.

Electrochemical Bonding
Year of Discovery: 1806
What Is It? Molecular bonds between chemical elements are electrical in
nature.
Who Discovered It? Humphry Davy

Why Is This One of the 100 Greatest?

Davy discovered that the chemical bonds between individual atoms in a molecule are
electrical in nature. We now know that chemical bonds are created by the sharing or transfer
of electrically charged particleselectronsbetween atoms. In 1800, the idea that chemistry somehow involved electricity was a radical discovery.
Davys discovery started the modern field of electrochemistry and redefined sciences
view of chemical reactions and how chemicals bond together. Finally, Davy used this new
concept to discover two new (and important) elements: sodium and potassium.

How Was It Discovered?

Humphry Davy was born in 1778 along the rugged coast of Cornwall, England. He received only minimal schooling and was mostly self-taught. As a young teenager, he was apprenticed to a surgeon and apothecary. But the early writings of famed French scientist
Antoine Lavoisier sparked his interest in science.
In 1798 Davy was offered a chance by wealthy amateur chemist Thomas Beddoes to
work in Bristol, England, at a new lab Beddoes built and funded. Davy was free to pursue
chemistry-related science whims. He experimented with gases in 1799, thinking that the
best way to test these colorless creations was to breathe them. He sniffed nitrous oxide
(N2O) and passed out, remembering nothing but feeling happy and powerful. After he reported its effect, the gas quickly became a popular party drug under the name laughing
gas. Davy used nitrous oxide for a wisdom tooth extraction and felt no pain. Even though
he reported this in an article, it was another 45 years before the medical profession finally
used nitrous oxide as its first anesthetic.
Davy also experimented with carbon dioxide. He breathed it and almost died from carbon dioxide poisoning. A born showman, movie-star handsome, and always fashionably
dressed, Davy delighted in staging grand demonstrations of each experiment and discovery
for thrilled audiences of public admirers.

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