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The Cell

Human Anatomy,

First Edition

McKinley & O'Loughlin

Cells:

Chapter 2 :
The Cell: Basic Unit
of Structure and
Function

structural and functional units of all living

organisms.
building blocks of the human body.
adult human body contains ~ 75 trillion cells.

Each cell type performs specific functions.

~200 cell types in humans

subcategories of most

Common Characteristics of
Cells

Study of Cells

Perform the general functions necessary to

sustain life:

Obtain nutrients and other materials from its

surrounding fluids.

Dispose of wastes products

Maintain shape and integrity

Cell division:

Cytology: study of cells

Microscopic anatomy

Fuel molecules, O2, building blocks, minerals,etc

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Urea (from nitrogen), CO2, metabolic waste

Individual cells observable by light microscopy

Subcellular structures observable by electron
microscopy.

Size and shape are related to function

Unit of measure: micrometer (um)

Mitosis: growth and repair

Meiosis: gamete formation

TEM
SEM

RBC: 7-8um

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Cells

Parts of a cell

Cell Membrane (or plasma membrane)

Cytoplasm

Cytosol
Organelles

Membranous Organelles
Non-membranous Organelles

Inclusions

Nucleus

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Plasma (Cell)
Membrane

Cytoplasm

the outer,
limiting barrier
separates the
internal
contents of the
cell from
external
materials.

general term for all cellular contents

located between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus.

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Nucleus

Plasma membrane: composition

control center of the cell

controls protein synthesis

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Lipids

Phospholipids

directs the functional and structural

characteristics of the cell.

Head: hydrophilic
Tail: hydrophobic
Form lipid bilayer

Cholesterol
Glycolipids

Carbohydrate component
Part of glycocalyx

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Plasma membrane: composition

Protein

Integral membrane proteins

Peripheral membrane proteins
Some serve as enzymes, ion channels or
receptors
Glycoproteins

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Plasma membrane: functions

Selectively permeable barrier

Transport Mechanisms

Nutrient in
Waste out

Communication
Intercellular connections
Physical barrier

Passive Transport
Active Transport
Bulk Transport
Solution= solvent (H2O)+ solute

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Passive Transport

Facilitated Diffusion

Movement of substances along a

concentration gradient

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[Hi] to [Low]

ATP is not required

Types:

Simple Diffusion: solutes

Facilitated Diffusion: solutes
Bulk Filtration: solution
Osmosis: solvent

Requires the participation of specific

transport proteins that help specific
substances or molecules move across
the plasma membrane.
Carrier-mediated

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Bulk Filtration

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Osmosis

Involves the diffusion of both solvents

and solutes together across the
selectively permeable membrane.
Pressure gradients

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Involves the diffusion of a solvent

(H2O), across a selectively permeable
membrane.
Can cause a volume change

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Active Transport

Ion Pumps

Movement of a substance across a plasma membrane

against a concentration gradient.
Materials must be moved from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration.
requires cellular energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate)
uses transport proteins (carrier-mediated)
ATP is continually synthesized by mitochondria

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Active transport processes that move

ions across the membrane are called
ion pumps.

ion pumps allow a cell to maintain its

internal concentrations of small molecules
or ions

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Bulk Transport - Exocytosis

Used by cells that secrete

Usually movement of large molecules
Movement out of the cell.

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Bulk Transport - Endocytosis

process by which the cell acquires materials from the

extracellular fluid: (3 Forms)

Phagocytosis:

Cell forms pseudopodia

engulfs a particle
internalize it into a vacuole

Pinocytosis:

Receptor-mediated endocytosis:

incorporation of droplets of extracellular fluid (solution)

Taken into the cell in small vesicles
receptors in the cell membrane
Bind with specific molecules
Invagination forms around them to create a cytoplasmic vesicle
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Cytoplasm: cytosol

Matrix; intracellular material

Different in different cell
Mostly water

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Cytoplasm: Organelles

Membranous Organelles

Complex, organized structures

Have unique, characteristic shapes.
Each type performs a different function
for the cell.
Are essential for normal cellular
structure and activities.

Include:

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Ribosomes
Make protein for export
Peroxisomes made here

Smooth Endoplamic Reticulum (SER)

Lipids and carbohydrates

Detoxification

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Membranous Organelles

Peroxisomes

Vesicles formed from RER

Use oxygen to detoxify
Mediated by specific enzymes
Most abundant in liver

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Membranous Organelles

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, stores and sorts material from

RER
Receiving region (cis-face)
Shipping region (trans-face)

Produces Lysosomes

Autophagy: removal of old organelles

Autolysis: destruction of the cell
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Mitochondria

Mitochondria are organelles with a

double membrane.
Produce large amounts of ATP.
Are called the powerhouses of the
cell.

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Non-Membranous Organelles

Ribosomes

Not made of a membrane.

Usually made of protein
Include:

Microfilaments
Intermediate fibers
microtubules

Protein
RNA

Site of protein synthesis.

Each ribosome has a small and a large
subunit.

Centrosome

Small, dense granules

Ribosomes: free and fixed

Cytoskeleton

centrioles

small subunit is about one-half the size of

the large subunit.

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The Cytoskeleton

Made of filamentous proteins

Helps give the cell its shape
Coordinates cellular movements.
Three categories:

microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules

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Non-membranous Organelles

Centrioles and the centrosome

Centrosome

Area close to the nucleus

Organization site for microtubules

Centrioles (exist as a pair)

In the centrosome
Perpendicular to each other
9 sets of microtubule triplets
Important in cell division (spindle)

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Microvilli, Cilia and Flagella

Appendages extending from the surface of some

cells.

Microvilli:

Cilia:

short, cytoplasmic extensions

For absorption
usually occur in large numbers
work together to move materials or fluids along the surface of
a cell.

Flagella:

longer than cilia, and usually occur as single appendages.

Move the cell

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The Nucleus

Control center of cellular activities.

Usually, it is the largest structure within
the cell
Appears as a single spherical or oval
structure.

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The Nucleus

Enclosed by a double membrane called

the nuclear envelope.
The nuclear envelope:

controls the entry and exit of materials

between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

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Nucleolus

Chromatin and DNA

The cell nucleus may contain one or

more nucleoli.
Nucleoli:

DNA is the genetic material housed

within the nucleus.

are responsible for making the small and

the large subunits of ribosomes.

DNA is a polymer of nucleotides (sugar,

phosphate, nitrogen base)
Is a double helix.
Chromatin:

Strands of DNA and histone proteins

Euchromatin: uncoiled; active

Heterochromatin: coiled. inactive

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Insert Figure 2.18

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Chromosome

The Cell Cycle

The chromosome is the most organized

level of genetic material.
Each chromosome contains a single,
long molecule of DNA and associated
proteins.
Chromosomes become visible only
when the cell is dividing.

The life cycle of the cell is called the cell

cycle.
New cells must be made continuously in
order for an organism to grow and
replace its damaged cells.

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Mitosis and Meiosis

There are two types of cell division.

Mitosis: is the cell division process that
takes place in somatic cells.
Meiosis: is the cell division process that
takes place in gonads to produce
gametes.

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Mitosis

The Stages of Mitosis

Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis

Prophase the first and longest stage of

mitosis

Early prophase chromatin threads condense

into chromosomes

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Chromosomes are made up of two threads called

chromatids
Chromatids are held together by the centromere
Centriole pairs separate from one another
The mitotic spindle forms

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Early Prophase and Late

Prophase

The Stages of Mitosis

Prophase (continued)

Late prophase centrioles continue moving

away from each other

Nuclear membrane fragments

Figure 2.21

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The Stages of Mitosis

Metaphase and Anaphase

Metaphase the second stage of mitosis

Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell

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Centromeres are aligned along the equator

Anaphase the third and shortest stage of

mitosis

Centromeres of chromosomes split

Figure 2.21

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The Stages of Mitosis

Telephase and Cytokinesis

Telophase begins as chromosomal

movement stops

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Chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell

uncoil
Resume their thread-like extended-chromatin
form
A new nuclear membrane forms

Cytokinesis completes the division of the

cell into two daughter cells
Figure 2.21

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Tumor

Cancer

Normal tissue development exhibits a

balance between cell division and cell
death.
If this balance is upset and cells
multiply faster than they die, abnormal
growth results in a new cell mass that is
called a neoplasm, or tumor.

Benign neoplasms usually grow slowly and are

confined within a connective tissue capsule.
Cells within these tumors dedifferentiatethat is,
they revert to a less specialized state, and cause an
increase in their own vascular supply to support their
growth.
These tumors are usually not lethal, but they have
the potential to become life-threatening if they
compress brain tissue, nerves, blood vessels, or
airways.

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Cancer

Cancer

Cancer is the general term used to describe a

group of diseases characterized by various
types of malignant neoplasms.

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unencapsulated
contain cells that dedifferentiate
increase their vascular supply
grow rapidly
spread easily to other organs by way of the blood
or lymph (metastasis)
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Cancer cells lose control of their cell

cycle.

they divide too frequently and grow out of

control
cancer cells lose contact inhibition

they overgrow one another and lack the ability

to stop growing and dividing when they crowd
other cells

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Cancer Cells

Exhibit dedifferentiation and revert to an earlier, less

specialized developmental state.
Produce chemicals that cause local blood vessel
formation resulting in increased blood vessels in the
developing tumor (angiogenesis).
Have the ability to squeeze into any space
(invasiveness) permitting them to leave their place of
origin and travel elsewhere in the body.
Acquire the ability to metastasizethat is, spread to
other organs in the body.

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