1.

1
The literature on gender and development confirms an important lesson for development
effectiveness. Failure to address gender issues in project development interventions can lead to inefficient
and unsustainable results, and also exacerbate existing inequities. Gender-biased social and economic
roles, and the division of labor in communities can affect development outcomes in unanticipated and
adverse ways and distort the distribution of benefits and opportunities between men and women.
Addressing gender concerns in economic and social development status promises major payoffs not only
at the individual level but, most importantly, at the societal level, according to a World Bank report,
Engendering Development.
1.2
People in virtually all countries assume gender-differentiated roles and responsibilities both in
the private and public spheres. These roles reflect varying societal values, attitudes, knowledge and
national, regional, and/or local/community realities. Many World Bank client countries, however, share
concerns about men and womens unequal economic and societal development opportunities and status.
1.3
The key underlying causes of gender disparities often include significant inequities in access to
and quality of: social service provision such as in education, health care, safety nets and pensions;
employment and earnings; financial credit; community participation; and political representation. For
example, in many countries, males are the majority wage earner in the family and more likely to work in
the formal sector. In contrast, women tend to have multiple, often competing, family roles. Women
typically assume the major share of community, domestic and child care responsibilities while at the same
time working. Women are likely to work in the informal sector and/or at relatively lower paying jobs.

1.4
Multiple factors exacerbate gender disparities. These include, but are not limited to: the
widespread tendency, especially among the poorest families, to invest more heavily in the education of
male children; the scarcity of child care programs to enable young females to attend and/or succeed in
school, or older females to further their level of educational attainment and/or to compete successfully for
formal sector employment; and gender differentiation in the characteristics of social programs delivered.
For example, regarding the latter, within agricultural extension programs, males often receive training in
cash and export crops, which facilitates their employment in the paid agricultural sector. On the other
hand, females who participate in the agricultural sector are commonly taught subsistence farming. That
limited opportunity locks them into the typically unpaid or low-paid domestic agricultural labor market.
1.5
A sound analysis and understanding of gender issues can help to inform project design through
the incorporation of mitigating mechanisms to redress or reduce inequitable impacts and ensure
sustainability. Without such analysis and integration, differential treatment often results in significant
disparities in male and female access to, and control over, economic and other resources. Also affected
are decision-making power and participation patterns within and outside the household. Development
dialogue, policy formulation, project design and implementation, and investments must therefore be
sensitive to potentially enormous differences in impacts on men and women.
1.6
Put simply, gender is one variable that must be examined to ensure the effectiveness of any
project design, implementation, or development intervention. At a minimum, it is necessary to understand
whether the project design or proposed intervention:
1. Responds to the priority needs of both men and women;
2. Benefits both men and women; and/or
3. Adversely affects either men or women.
1.7
If the project design or development intervention does not respond to the priority needs of men
and women, does not benefit both equitably, or adversely affects one differently from the other, then
measures must be integrated into it to remedy such deficiencies.
1.8
But, this is not as simple as it sounds. Gender is a complex variable. It nestles in social, cultural,
economic, and political contexts within countries, and is often locale-specific within countries.

1.9

Gender, as defined by the World Bank Gender Strategy Paper, refers to:

culturally based expectations of the roles and behaviors of males and females. The term distinguishes
the socially constructed from the biologically determined aspects of being male and female. Unlike the
biology of sex, gender roles and behaviors can change historically, sometimes relatively quickly, even if
aspects of these roles originated in the biological differences between the sexes. Because the religious or
cultural traditions that define and justify the distinct roles and expected behaviors of males and females
are strongly cherished and socially enforced, change in gender systems often is contested. In some
countries, there are groups which seek to impose more stringent divisions between males and females
than currently exist, while feminist movements seek to reduce or eradicate these divisions.[1]
1.10

Sex, as defined by Websters Dictionary, refers to the:

Property or quality by which organisms are classified as female or male on the basis of their reproductive
organs.
These attributes are biologically fixed and cannot be changed.
1.11
To introduce a definition by another organization, the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA) defines sex and gender as follows:
Sex identifies the biological differences between women and men and Gender is the culture-specific set
of characteristics that identifies the social behavior of women and men and the relationship between
them. Gender, therefore, refers not simply to women or men, but to the relationship between them and the
way gender is socially constructed. It is a relational term and must include women and men.

Like concepts of class, race and ethnicity, gender is an analytical tool for understanding social processes.
1.12
Gender changes across time and space. Social, economic, cultural, and political forces determine
gender. Gender also varies between different societies and ethnic groups. For example, gender issues in
Yemen are very different from gender issues in Poland. A one shoe fits all approach will not do. To be
effective and sustainable, solutions to address gender issues need to be home grown and owned by the
majority of the people whom they are intended to influence.
1.13
What is gender equality? Gender equality has been defined in a variety of ways in the context of
development. The World Bank Policy Research Report, Engendering Development, defines gender
equality:
in terms of equality under the law, equality of opportunity (including equality of rewards for work and
equality in access to human capital and other productive resources that enable opportunity), and equality
of voice (the ability to influence and contribute to the development process). It stops short of defining
gender equality as equality of outcomes for two reasons. First, different cultures and societies can follow
different paths in their pursuit of gender equality. Second, equality implies that women and men are free to

choose different (or similar) roles and different (or similar) outcomes in accordance with their preferences
and goals.[2]
1.14
Understanding gender equality is fundamental to the course. Participants need to be convinced of
the importance of and need for pursuing gender equality for the economic, social and political
development of their communities and countries. Participants should also understand that gender equality
is not only about women, but also concerns both women and men. Several trainees may see it as a
donor-imposed concept. Instructors will need to address this concern and allow all participants to voice
and discuss their concerns freely.
1.15
The instructor should also note that approaches to addressing gender issues differ from country
to country. For example, in the Russian Federation, the state places gender equality in the context of a
family. Accordingly, the state supports the rights of individuals within that unit. This is different from an
individual rights approach taken in several other countries, where individual rights of both women and
men are paramount. Some indigenous communities argue that they believe in gender equity based on
complementary roles of men and women, i.e., wherein rights and responsibilities may not be equal or
similar but, rather, are complementary. Hence, gender issues must be discussed with sensitivity to the
social and cultural milieu in which they arise.
1.16
In some contexts (where the module was tested among students) several male and some female
participants argued that the concept of gender equality breaks up families. They suggested that it is
important to ensure in any unit that one person is the head who makes decisions on behalf of the whole
unit. These are legitimate concerns that need to be voiced and discussed in a respectful manner. The
instructor could then counter by asking whether a rule that the head of the household must always be
male is fair and equitable. Could it not be a joint decision as to who would make the decision in case a
conflict arose? In terms of breaking up families, it was stressed that families often disintegrated because
of an inequitable playing ground. As women become more educated and/or skilled, gender differences in
each groups ability to perform tasks or assume responsibilities wither away. In such a context, families
that demonstrate an equity approach and respect for views of both spouses are more likely to be
harmonious. It could be stressed that gender equality is, on the whole, good for sustaining a happy family.
Encouraging the economic and social potential of each spouse would also benefit the family as a whole

1.17
To build consensus, it may be helpful for the instructor to point out differences or significant
commonalities exist on the subject of equality. Discuss the Convention on Elimination of

Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Beijing Conference on Women, and the Millennium
Development Goals(MDGs). All these international instruments have been signed or accepted by a large
majority of governments and all signatories own and are committed to the principles enshrined therein.
Also discuss the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW). Some additional notes on these
international instruments are provided below. Note that the full CEDAW text is available in the UN official
languages athttp://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm.
1.18
CEDAW, adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill
of rights for women. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination
against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.
1.19
CEDAW defines discrimination against women as ...any distinction, exclusion or restriction made
on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or
exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of
human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.
1.20
By accepting CEDAW, States commit themselves to undertake a series of measures to end
discrimination against women in all forms, including to:

incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all
discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate laws prohibiting discrimination against women;

establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against
discrimination; and

ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations or

enterprises.

1.21
CEDAW provides the basis for realizing equality between women and men through ensuring
womens equal access to, and equal opportunities in, political and public lifeincluding the right to vote
and to stand for electionas well as education, health and employment. States parties agree to take all
appropriate measures, including legislation and temporary special measures, so that women can enjoy all
human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Convention is the only human rights treaty which affirms
the reproductive rights of women and targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender
roles and family relations. It affirms womens rights to acquire, change or retain their nationality and the
nationality of their children. States parties also agree to take appropriate measures against all forms of
trafficking in women and exploitation of women.
1.22
Countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention are legally bound to put its provisions
into practice. They are also committed to submit national reports, at least every four years, on measures
they have taken to comply with their treaty obligations.[3]
1.23
In addition to CEDAW, the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women,
established in 1993, further insists that states should condemn violence against women and should not
invoke any customs, traditions or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its

elimination. The World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995 endorsed a similar
commitment that refers to womens human rights.
1.24
Most recently, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of 1995 reaffirmed
commitments to international human rights standards recognizing full implementation of the human rights
of women and of the girl child as an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of all human rights and
fundamental freedoms.
1.25
The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) was established in 1946 as a functional
commission of the United Nations Economic and Social Council to prepare recommendations and reports
on promoting womens rights in political, economic, civil, social and educational fields. The objective of the
Commission is to promote implementation of the principle that men and women shall have equal rights.
Following the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing), the General Assembly mandated the
Commission to integrate into its program a follow-up process to the Conference, to regularly review the
critical areas of concern in the Platform for Action, and to develop its catalytic role in mainstreaming a
gender perspective in United Nations activities. The Commission, which began with 15 members, now
consists of 45 members elected by the Economic and Social Council for a period of four years. The
Commission meets annually for a period of ten working days.
1.26
However, participants may point out that CEDAW (as well as other UN conventions) permits
ratification subject to reservations, provided that the reservations are not incompatible with the object and
purpose of the Convention.[4] Therefore, a number of States enter reservations to particular articles on
the grounds that national law, tradition, religion or culture are not congruent with Convention principles,
and they purport to justify the reservation on that basis. This tends to dilute State obligations on gender
equality. Some States also enter a reservation to Article 2 although their national constitutions or laws
prohibit discrimination.[5] This further deprives CEDAW of the necessary teeth to ensure that the
provisions are implemented. (The trainer should know some reservation examplesparticularly if
participants reside in any of these countries).

1.31
Why Gender equality? [6] After discussing the above instruments reflecting global consensus on
gender equality and/or empowerment of women, talk about the economic rationale. There are different
rationales, but a few of them are provided below. The focus should be on the economic rationale and the
importance of gender equality for poverty reduction and economic growth in any country. As an instructor,
you should generate open and constructive discussion around the subject.

1.32

The different rationales for gender equality are as follows:

The Economic Rationale. Several World Bank reports provide strong empirical evidence that the
gender-biased division of labor, and the inequalities to which it gives rise, tend to slow
development, economic growth, and poverty reduction. Gender inequalities often lower the
productivity of labor, in both the short term and the long term, and create inefficiencies in labor
allocation in households and the general economy. Gender inequalities also contribute to poverty
and reduce human well-being. These findings clearly show that gender issues are an important
dimension of the fight against poverty.

The Human Rights Rationale approaches the goal of equality of opportunity and treatment
between men and women as a matter of human rights and an essential condition for achieving
effective democracy. It considers the fight against discrimination on the grounds of sex a
fundamental issue of protecting human rights. It emphasizes womens legal rights and the
elimination of all kinds of de factoand de jure discrimination in employment on the basis of sex
(International Labor Organization (ILO).

The Social Justice Rationale promotes the belief that gender equality in the world of work is a
matter of social justice and poverty alleviation. It stresses the need for womens access to
employment and training, working conditions and the need for social protection. For instance, ILO
places particular emphasis on low-income women, unemployed women, women in the urban
informal sector and the rural sector, women heads of households, migrant women and women in
vulnerable positions in the labor market.

1.33
Focus on the Economic Rationale. In most parts of the world, women continue to have
systematically poorer command over a range of productive resources, including education, land,
information, and financial resources. In South Asia, women have only about half as many years of
schooling as men, on average, and girls enrolment rates at the secondary level are still only two-thirds
that of boys. Many women cannot own land, and those who do generally command smaller landholdings
than men. And, in most developing regions, female-run enterprises tend to be undercapitalized. Thus, the
female-run enterprises have poorer access to machinery, fertilizer, extension information and credit than
male-run enterprises. Such disparities, whether in education or other productive resources, hurt womens
ability to participate in development and to contribute to higher living standards for their families. These
disparities also translate into greater risk and vulnerability in the face of personal or family crises, in old
age and during economic shocks.
1.34
The World Banks Gender Policy Research Report presents evidence indicating that a reduction
of one percentage point in the gender gap in secondary education in middle-income countries would
increase the rate of growth of per capita income by one percentage point, on average. Moreover, it
estimates that over the period 1960-1992, had there been a reduction in the education gender gap in lowincome African countries at the same pace as occurred in East Asia, the average per capita income
growth would have increased by an annual one percentage pointundoubtedly one of the best possible
investments and higher than the effect of external assistance.

1.35
The report also presents evidence regarding the positive effects that a reduction in the education
gap has on immunization and child mortality. Improving the human capital of women has a positive effect
on development outcomes. Studies show that across the developing world, the mortality of children under
five is lower in households where the mothers have some schooling, and much lower where mothers have
some secondary schooling. The same trend holds for child immunization levels (World Bank, 2001). The
study even shows a significant correlation between a lower gender education gap and a slower spread of
HIV infection. In part, these positive effects can be attributed to the impact of greater female education on
reducing intra-household income inequality. This occurs because women tend to invest more of their
income on childrens health and education, leading to faster growth and improved human development
indicators.
1.36
Hence, poverty reduction strategies must take account of these disparities between women and
men in relation to resources and opportunities, and include measures to address the factors that
particularly constrain either sex. Poverty reduction initiatives that do not pay specific attention to the
situation of women or men (depending on who is disadvantaged in a particular situation) will not
necessarily achieve the intended objectives. Longer-term strategies (including removal of factors that
particularly constrain women) are essential for poverty elimination.

1.37
As previously noted, gender is a complex variable that nestles in social, cultural, economic, and
political contexts across time and space. Gender is also cross-sectoral and serves as a lens through
which any number of themes may be analyzed. While the list is not exhaustive, below are examples of the
links between gender and development in selected sectors.
1.38
Gender and Land/Financial Resources. In many parts of the world, women cannot own land,
and those who do generally command smaller landholdings than men. And, in most developing regions,
female-run enterprises tend to be undercapitalized. Thus, the female-run enterprises have less access to
machinery, fertilizer, extension information, and credit than male-run enterprises. Such disparities,
whether in education or other productive resources, hurt womens ability to participate in development and
to contribute to higher living standards for their families. These disparities also translate into greater risk
and vulnerability in the face of personal or family crises, in old age, and during economic shocks or
downturns.
1.39
Gender and Education. Of the 150 million children aged 6-11 who are not in school, over 90
million are girls. Although there has been a clear trend toward gender equality in education in the last

three decades, the gains have been slow and uneven. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, female gross
primary enrolment is less than 60 percent; and in South Asia, women have, on average, only half as many
years of schooling as men. Evidence from around the world shows that eliminating gender disparities in
education is one of the most effective development actions a country can take. When a country educates
both its girls and boys, economic productivity tends to rise, maternal and infant mortality usually fall,
fertility rates decline and the health and education prospects of the next generation improve. For example,
children of literate mothers in India spend two more hours per day studying than do the children of
illiterate mothers. Furthermore, if the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa had closed the gender gap in
schooling between 1960 and 1992 as quickly as East Asia did, per capita income growth could have
almost doubled.
1.40
Gender and Health. A wealth of evidence from countries around the world demonstrates that
gender equality is crucial to improving maternal and child health and stemming the spread of HIV/AIDS
and other diseases. Every year, approximately 11 million children under five from developing countries
die. Low levels of maternal schooling and high illiteracy rates among mothers contribute to this mortality,
through poorer quality of care for children and higher infant and child malnutrition. A study of 25
developing countries found that, all else being equal, one to three years of maternal schooling would
reduce child mortality by about 15 percent, whereas similar increases in paternal schooling would achieve
only a 6 percent reduction. Greater control of income by women also tends to lower child mortality.
Because of different spending patterns, the marginal impact is substantially greater if the income is in the
hands of the mother rather than in the hands of the father.
1.41
Each year, 500,000 women die in pregnancy or childbirth. While many other health indicators in
developing countries improved over the last two decades, maternal mortality rates showed little change.
Gender inequality in the control of the households economic resources, in the right to make decisions,
and in the freedom of movement outside the household are some factors which contribute to poor
maternal health in many settings. Gender is also a key factor in the spread and prevention of HIV/AIDS. In
Sub-Saharan Africa, 55 percent of those infected are women, and in many African countries, females
aged 15-24 have prevalence rates of up to six times higher than those of males of the same age.
1.42
Gender and Governance. Current governance structures favor men heavily. An unequal sharing
of power leads to an unequal sharing of resources. The family and community should be seen as sites of
governance, since they are places where people interact and power is exercised. Furthermore, these sites
exist interdependently with local, national and international levels of government. And the state of gender
relations between these two spheres of family and government must be recognized.
1.43
Gender equality in governance is necessary to ensure that women have equal economic, social
and political opportunities. Governing institutions must be reformed to ensure there are opportunities for
women to represent and be represented. Governance reforms must secure opportunities for women to
contribute to the public policy process and empower women through increased access to economic
activities, education and legal rights. A systemic governance framework can address the needs for equity
of access to opportunities and assets and provide the enabling environment to rectify gender imbalances
and promote the participation of women.

1.44
A legal and institutional environment that provides equal rights and opportunities for women and
men and policy measures that address persistent inequalities is also needed. Local and national
economic development cannot occur when women are denied equal access to opportunities and assets.
Persistent inequalities ensure that women remain in a cycle of poverty.
1.45
Gender and Information and Communications Technology (ICT). Women usually do not have
equal access to ICT and the new opportunities afforded by advances in technology. These tools can
radically enlarge capacities to gain access to information, exchange views within and among countries,
and mobilize for change. While the new information and communication technologies have enormous
positive potential, the access to and use of them reflect existing inequalities between women and men
and between North and South. Equality advocates emphasize the importance, even at this relatively early
stage of the information revolution, of innovative strategies to overcome barriers restraining womens
access to and use of such technologies. Participation by women in the shaping of the information
revolution is also important.
1.46
Gender and Poverty Reduction. Poverty reduction initiatives that do not pay specific attention to
the situation of women or men (depending on who is disadvantaged in a particular situation) will not
necessarily achieve the intended objectives. Longer-term strategies (including removal of factors that
particularly constrain women) are essential for poverty elimination.

Reform institutions to establish equal rights and opportunities for women and men. Reforming
legal and economic institutions is necessary to establish a foundation of equal rights and equal
opportunities for women and men. Because the law in many countries continues to give unequal
rights to women and men, legal reforms are needed, particularly in family law, protection against
violence, land rights, employment, and political rights.

Foster economic development to strengthen incentives for more equal resources and
participation.Rising income and falling poverty levels tend to reduce gender disparities in
education, health, and nutrition. Higher productivity and new job opportunities often reduce
gender inequalities in employment. And investments in basic water, energy, and transportation
infrastructure help reduce gender disparities in workloads.

Take active measures to redress persistent disparities in command over resources and political
voice. This is because institutional reforms and economic development may not be sufficientor
forthcoming in the short- to medium- term.

1.47
Women in Development (WID) first came to prominence in the early 1970s as an approach to
include women in development. Research and information collected throughout the UN Decade for
Women (1975-85) highlighted the existing poverty and disadvantage of women and their invisibility in the
development process. Different policy responses and interventions focused on women as a separate
group resulting in womens concerns being added on and peripheral to mainstream development efforts.
This frequently resulted in adding components and actions targeted only to women rather than integrating
them fully into the project activities. WID policies and interventions have, in the main, concentrated on
womens productive work. The failure to make an explicit link to womens reproductive work has often
added to womens workload. Gradually, it was recognized that an approach that focused on women in
isolation was inadequate and not sustainable because it did not take into account the overall project
objectives or integrate women fully into their implementation. Moreover, it did not address or change
unequal gender relations in various social and economic settings.
1.48
The Gender and/in Development (GAD or GID) perspective emerged in the late 1980s as
response to the prevailing Women in Development (WID) approach. The Gender and Development (GAD)
approach was developed as a response to the failure of WID projects to effect qualitative and long-lasting
changes in womens social status. GAD focuses on social, economic, political and cultural forces that
determine how men and women participate in, benefit from, and control project resources and activities
differently. This approach shifts the focus from women as a group to the socially determined relations
between women and men.[7]

1.49
The GAD/GID approach promotes a development process that transforms gender relations in
order to enable women to participate on an equal basis with men in determining their common future. The
emphasis has shifted to the more strategic needs of women, leading to a sharpening of the gender focus
of preparatory analysis.[8] Although the approach emphasizes the importance of womens collective
organization for self empowerment, the target groups are still primarily women.
1.50
Gender Equality has become a much more commonly accepted principle and, once the links
between gender and poverty were made explicit, approaches shifted again. Today, gender is about both
men and women. Now, institutions take a much more comprehensive approach to analysis and design of
development interventions, one that takes into account the situation and needs of both women and men.
Several critics feel that dealing with both men and women may dilute the focus on women, who are clearly
the more disadvantaged sex all over the world. The gender equality approach, therefore, calls for gender
analysis to determine the needs of both women and men, followed by interventions targeted to one or the
other sex (or both) as necessary. This approach also recognizes that both women and men must be
targeted to successfully address problems such as HIV/AIDS, family planning, or violence.
1.51
For example, higher incidence of alcoholism and other risky behaviors among men can call for
public education campaigns to address and changes these patterns, while lower school enrolment or
completion rates for girls can call for providing schools that are closer to their homes, sex-specific latrines,
or vouchers for school attendance. In fact, improving school quality has been shown to increase school
attendance and completion among boys as well as girls. Because women are often the most
disadvantaged, the Millennium Development Goals also emphasize gender equality and womens
empowerment.
1.52
Gender equality is now a core element of the Banks strategy to reduce poverty. There is a clear
understanding that unless women and men have equal capacity, opportunity and voice, the povertyreduction agenda set out in the Millennium Declaration, and the resulting MDGs, will not be achieved. In
September 2001, the Bank adopted a strategy to bring gender equality issues into the mainstream of its
country assistance, Integrating Gender into the World Banks WorkA Strategy for Action. The strategy
rests on a country-led, country-specific approach, and recommends three basic steps to integrate gender
equality issues into Bank operations:
1. Conduct periodic assessments of gender-based barriers to economic growth and poverty
reduction in each of the Banks active client countries, through a Country Gender Assessment
(CGA);
2. Use the assessment findings in country dialogue to identify priority gender-responsive
interventions; and
3. Integrate gender analysis and gender-responsive interventions into projects in the priority sectors
identified in the assessment and agreed to in the country dialogue.

2.6
Gender Analysis is a process that assesses the different impact of a proposed policy or an
intervention on women and men. Gender Analysis enables a development intervention to be formulated
with an appreciation of gender differences and the nature of relationships between women and men, as
well as women and mens different social realities, life expectations and economic circumstances. It is a
tool for understanding social processes and responding with informed and equitable options (CIDA).[2]

Generally, the work women do differs from the work men do in many respects: the hours they
work, the type of tasks they carry out, the income they earn, etc. When labour statistics make
these distinctions visible, they enable users to understand and analyse the particular position
and constraints of women workers relative to men workers, and to provide a solid basis for
promoting equality between women and men in the labour market. Endeavouring to reflect as
fully as possible the differences and similarities between men and women in the labour market
will also improve the quality of labour statistics themselves. Not only will the information available
to users, to market analysts and policy decision makers be more complete, but the evaluation,
from a gender perspective, of the datas strengths and shortcomings by producers and users of
the data, will therefore provide indications of how and where improvements to the data are
needed and possible.
International Labour Office, Bureau of Statistics.
Incorporating Gender Issues in Labor Statistics. L. 30. Para.1.

The World Bank defines Gender Analysis as: Gender Analysis focuses on
understanding and documenting the differences in gender roles, activities, needs, and
opportunities in a given context. Gender Analysis involves the disaggregation of
quantitative data by sex. It highlights the different roles and learned behavior of men and
women based on gender attributes. These vary across cultures, class, ethnicity, income,
education, and time; thus, Gender Analysis does not treat women as a homogeneous
group or gender attributes as immutable.[3]

UNDP defines Gender Analysis as: It is a methodology for collecting and processing

CIDA defines Gender Analysis as: Gender Analysis refers to the variety of methods used

information about gender. It provides disaggregated data by sex, and an understanding of

the social construction of gender roles, how labour is divided and valued. Gender
Analysis is the process of analyzing information in order to ensure development benefits
and resources are effectively and equitably targeted to both women and men, and to
successfully anticipate and avoid any negative impacts development may have on women
or on gender relations. Gender Analysis is conducted through a variety of tools and
frameworks.[4]

to understand the relationships between men and women, their access to resources, their
activities, and the constraints they face relative to each other. Gender Analysis provides
information that recognizes that gender, and its relationship with race, ethnicity, culture,
class, age, disability, and/or other status, is important in understanding the different
patterns of involvement, behavior, and activities that women and men have in economic,
social and legal structures.[5]
2.7
Gender Analysis is an essential element of socio-economic analysis. A comprehensive socioeconomic analysis would take into account gender relations, as gender is a factor in all social and
economic relations. An analysis of gender relations provides information on the different conditions that
women and men face. The analysis also shows the different effects that policies and programs may have
on women and men because of their situations. Such information can inform and improve policies and
programs. It ensures that the different needs of both women and men are met. At the local level, Gender
Analysis makes visible the varied roles that women, men, girls and boys play in the family, in the
community, and in economic, legal and political structures. A gender perspective focuses on the reasons
for the current division of responsibilities and benefits, and the effect on the distribution of rewards and
incentives.
2.8
At its simplest, Gender Analysis asks questions about the differences between men and
womens activities, roles and resources. This helps identify men and womens developmental needs.
Assessing these differences makes it possible to determine men and womens constraints and
opportunities. Gender Analysis can help ensure provision of services that are needed by men and
women, and are appropriate to their circumstances. This requires an understanding of men and womens
roles by analyzing quantitative and qualitative information about their activities, resources, preferences,
constraints, and benefits and incentives.
2.9
Gender Analysis recognizes that women and mens lives and, subsequently, their individual
experiences, needs, issues and priorities are all different. Also, Gender Analysis may demonstrate that
different strategies may be necessary to achieve equitable outcomes for women and men, as well as subgroups of women. Ideally, Gender Analysis also recognizes that since there are intra-gender differences,
not all women can be treated equally. In addition to gender, other forms of discrimination may need to be
considered.

2.10

Gender Analysis must be done at all stages of policy formulation or program/project design:

identification, planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. Gender Analysis that is done at a later
stage and added on will not be as effective as analysis conducted at all stages.

2.11
Sound Gender Analysis should lead to integration or inclusion of measures or provisions into
development interventions that would enhance development effectiveness and increase the likelihood that
both men and women benefit. Typically, it consists of the following steps:

Collection of relevant data and information on the different roles, needs, priorities,
and assets of men and women in respect to the sector or intervention proposed
to identify the differential implications of the proposed intervention on men and
women;

Identification of the social, economic, institutional and political constraints that

cause differential impacts on men and women; and

Based on the findings from the analysis, integration of measures or provisions to

ensure that both women and men benefit from the intervention, and/or mitigation
of harm and provision of alternative compensatory measures, in cases where the
harm cannot be mitigated.

2.12
Collection of Relevant Data. What is the current status of gender? The key to Gender
Analysis is to systematically collect and analyze informationsex-disaggregated data about the potential
beneficiaries or groups that the proposed development policy or activity may affectas well as qualitative
information on gender-related aspects. Without the most recent data, gender issues remain invisible.
Anecdotal stories are not adequate.
2.13
There are at least three sets of information that need to be collected in undertaking a
Gender Analysis:

Sex-disaggregated information on the current status of men and women;

Information to understand the institutional, social, and economic contexts

or factors that cause a gender differential; and

Information to understand the needs and priorities of both men and

women affected by the project.

2.14
Sex-disaggregated data can be collected at the country/sub-country, sectoral/program, or
project levels. For detailed and effective planning of development policies or interventions, the closer the
data is available about the targeted populations, the better. Data should provide information by sex on the
roles and responsibilities of the targeted groups. It should help to understand who has access to, who
controls, and/or who owns different types of financial and natural resources. In sectors such as education
and health, sex-disaggregated data are frequently available. In some other sectors such as agriculture,
data may not be available. Another issue the instructor may want to point out is that sex-disaggregated
data are often available at the national and regional level, but not at the sub-regional or lower levels. If
such data are not available, often, one will need to collect the data during project planning and
preparation. The most efficient way to collect data is to ensure that, to the extent possible, information
collected during project design and preparation is sex-disaggregated and sensitive to gender issues.
2.15
A second or simultaneous step in the collection of relevant information is to understand the
institutional, economic, social and political contexts within which targeted populations operate. What are
the underlying institutional, economic, social and political factors that cause the gender differentials? This
may involve reviewing the regulatory or legal framework in a country or in a project area. For example, if
women and men have different property rights, resulting in female control of all or most economic assets,

this needs to be considered in designing the project. Alternatively, for example, if institutions are maledominated and decision-making is always in the control of male actors, this may need to be taken into
consideration during project design. Do men and women both participate in community-related activities?
Who makes the decisions about community-related assets? In designing a community-related project,
such information becomes very important.
2.16
In collecting the information, it is important to understand the priorities, needs and
preferences of both women and men. This will be important in identifying problems and issues
realistically, and in finding appropriate solutions to address women and mens needs. Communicating with
the potential beneficiaries and other stakeholders is, therefore, critical.
2.17
Identification of Relevant Gender Issues. The second step involved analyzing all of the
collected data and information and identifying any differential impacts the intervention will have on men
and women. Understanding and identifying the underlying social, economic and institutional factors that
cause any differences is an important part of this analysis because it is essential to find strategic and
effective solutions.
2.18
Integration of Gender Considerations into Design and Implementation of a Proposed
Intervention. The third step addresses the identified gender issues by integrating necessary measures
into the design and implementation of the policy, program or project. These measures must aim to
address the solution to the problem. It is therefore important to seek as much consultation and
participation of intended beneficiaries (both male and female) in the design and planning stages. A simple
example: a project in India intended to immunize all children in an indigenous community. The project set
every Tuesday as the time when health personnel would be available to provide the services. However, no
children were brought to these clinics on that day. An inquiry indicated that Tuesday morning was market
day for the community and most women were away at a place several miles from the clinic. A simple
inquiry before setting up the facility would have avoided the problem because the intended beneficiaries
would have been able to identify a more convenient time.

2.19
For a basic understanding, the instructor should focus on the following four questions.
[6] Note their similarity to previously discussed Gender Analysis steps and factors.

Who does what? Are the roles, responsibilities, and priorities of men and women, both within and
outside the household, different?

Who owns what? Who controls what? Who has access to what? Are there differences among
women and men?

If there are differentials in the above two areas, what are the institutional, economic, and social
factors that underlie, support, or influence them?

Will failure to consider these differences in formulating development policies or designing

interventions and implementing programs or projects impact negatively in terms of causing
undesirable outcomes for males and/or females? If so, how, and what response is appropriate?