MECH 594

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Fluid Properties

Our fluid of interest is atmospheric air. The state of the air is fundamental to both the design and
the operation of aircraft since it provides the lift force, control forces, and oxygen to the powerplant.
It is essential in the estimation and measurement of the aircrafts performance to know the state of
the atmosphere and to be able to measure the relative motion between the aircraft and the
atmospheric air mass.
We already know what a fluid is (liquids and gases) from previous fluid courses. Lets lay out the
assumptions of the fluid we will use for the remainder of this course.

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Concept of a continuum
A fluid is composed of a large number of molecules that are in constant motion.

mean free path = the average distance a molecule can

travel between collisions with other molecules.
Lets take a volume filled with fluid and count the number of molecules (n) in the volume.
Define m mass of each molecule.
Then the density of the fluid in the volume is

= lim

n m

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Define L characteristic length for the fluid volume so that =L3

Using and L define a dimensionless parameter
Kn

Knudsen number
L

If Kn <<1 the fluid in the volume can be treated as an infinitely divisible continuum
rather than a collection of individual molecules. To be more precise, with a Kn >1
the free mean path is such that only a few fluid molecules impact a surface per unit time
and the reflecting molecules don't collide with the incoming ones. This is the
free molecular flow regime. As a result we have to use statistics to describe
the flow (Boltzmann equation) and there is slip along the body surface.
The continuum assumption holds for 0.03 < Kn < 1 but there is still slip between the
fluid and body surface. This course will only look at fluids with Kn < 0.03

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

In the continuum regime is a point function where the density at a "point" is

defined as

nm
m
=
where > 3.7 104 3

If measurements are taken simulaneously at an infinite number of points in the

actual fluid we would have = (x, y, z,t).
Density is a field property.

As long as our point volume is 3.7 104 larger than 3 we can use the
continuum assumption, which will be very convenient because we will be able to
use calculus later in the form of the Navier-Stokes equations.

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Ideal Gas Law

The atmospheric air can be taken to behave as a neutral gas that obeys the equation of state
p = p( , T )
More specifically, the equation of state for an ideal gas p = RT
where p = pressure, T= absolute temperature and R = gas constant
The specific heats at constant pressure and volume (c p and cv respectively) give
c p cv = R
R=

, universal gas constant and M gas molecular weight of the gas

M gas

cp
cv

specific heat ratio

For an isothermal process (T = constant) then

p
= constant

For an adiabatic (no heat transfer) and frictionless process (known as isentropic) then
p
= constant

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Example

From what we know, how small is the point volume in real life?
Using molecular theory of gases, the free mean path can be derived,
m
kg
= 0.225 2 where m is measured in kg, in 3 and
d
m

d the diameter of the molecule of mass m

For air, m = 4.8 1026 kg and d = 3.7 1010 m
At standard atmospheric conditions

p0 = 101.3 kPa and T0 = 15 C = 273.15 + 15 K = 288.15 K

Using the ideal gas equation with Rair = 0.287

0 =

kJ
we can write
kg-K

p0
101.3
kg
=
= 1.23 3
Rair T0
m
0.287 288.15

)(

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Example

( 4.8 10 )
(1.23) (3.7 10 )
26

Therefore, 0 = 0.225

10

= 6.4 108 m

However, at an elevation of 50 km
patm = 0.0798 kPa, Tatm = 270.7 K, and atm = 1.03 103
and so

50 km = 0.225

kg
m3

1.23

m
= 0 0 = 6.4 108
= 7.6 105 m
atm
atm d 2
1.03 103

We see that 50 km 103 0 and will continue to increase with altitude.

As a matter of fact, at 104 km we will find 104 km 0.3 m or 1 ft!
This gets into the region of rarefied gas dynamics - satellites in low Earth orbit.

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Bulk Modulus

Since air is a gas we would like to know how much does the volume (or density)
of a fluid change when the pressure changes.
In other words, how compressible is the fluid?
We use the bulk modulus E v as a measure.
Ev =

dp
where the original volume
d

d infinitesimal change in volume
dp infinitesimal change in pressure

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

d
is dimensionless, E v has units of pressure.

The higher te value of E v the less compressible the fluid.

Since

If we say the mass of a fluid element is constant (conservation of mass) then

m = so dm = 0 = d + d and
Ev =

d d
=
so we can also write

dp
d

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Unlike liquids, gases are highly compressible.

We can use the equation of state for an ideal gas to relate and p.
If compressing or expanding the gas isothermally
p
= constant = C and dp = C d

Ev =

C d p
=p
d C

If the compression or expansion is isentropic then

p
= constant = C and dp = C 1d

and E v =

(C

= C

and so E v = p

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Speed of Sound

The velocity at which these acoustic disturbances propagate is called

the acoustic velocity or the speed of sound.
The speed of sound (a) is related to isentropic changes in pressure and density of
the fluid medium through the equation
dp
a2 =
d
or in terms of the bulk modulus a 2 =

Ev

For gases undergoing an isentropic process, E v = p so that a =

Making use of the ideal gas law gives,

a = RT

So for an ideal gas the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of
the absolute temperature, T .

MECH 594

Fluid Properties

Viscosity

For a solid consider a large slab

If we apply a shear force along the upper surface, the solid slab will resist the shear stress
through static deformation.

where shear strain

For a Hookian solid
Hook's Law for shear is given by = G where G modulus of rigidity
So G act as a proportionality constant.

MECH 594

Fluid Properties

d
d
= 0 for solids. But for fluids can't be supported, so
0.
dt
dt
Let's assume we have a fixed surface and a large movable plate. The fluid is originally
stagnant.
By definition

Assume the fluid velocity with respect to the surfaces is zero (no-slip condition - empirical).
The fluid moves as the upper plate moves.
Looking at a fluid volume of some intermediate size

Assume no other forces act on the fluid volume and there is no rotation or acceleration.
y = y+ y , y = x+ x , and x = y = .

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

in common fluids like, air, water, and oil are directly proportional
t

to the shear stress or

t
u t
but we see from the fluid volume figure that tan =
y

The strain rate

( )

If we let the fluid element shrink to an infinitesimal size so that d then

dudt
d du
tan d d =
so
=
dy
dt dy
du
and we find that
.
dy

( )

MECH 594

Fluid Properties

Like the Hookian solid we can use a constant of proportionality such that
du
=
dy
du
absolute or dynamic viscosity for fluids that obey .
dy
This is a Newtonian fluid, which is analogous to a Hookian solid.

is written in SI units as

N-sec
lb-sec
and in BG units as
.
m2
ft 2

A fluid in shear can be thought of as having many "layers" of fluid

sliding against one another. We can think of a solid as having .

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Kinematic Viscosity

The most important parameter in fluid mechanics is the Reynolds number,

Re

VL VL

=
where
= kinematic viscosity.

can also be thought of as relative to .

In SI has units of

m2
ft 2
and
in BG units.
sec
sec

The term "kinematic" is used because there are no units of mass present.

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Viscosity as a Thermodynamic Variable

The dynamic viscosity of a newtonian fluid is directly related to molecular interaction and
so may be considered as a thermodynamic property in the macroscopic sense, varying with

temperature and pressure, T, p .

1. The viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly with temperature.
2. The viscosity of low-pressure (dilute) gases increases with temperature.
3. The viscosity always increases with pressure.

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

It is common in aerodynamics to ignore the pressure dependence of gas viscosity

( )

and consider only the temperature variations. So we can write T using the
Sutherland formula:
T

0
T0

3/ 2

T0 + S
T +S

where S is the Sutherland constant which is characteristic of the gas,

T0 is the reference temperature of 273K, and 0 is the dynamic viscosity at T0 .
We'll talk more about modeling viscosity's dependence on T when we discuss
compressible flow.

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

Pressure at a Point

Let's consider the previous fluid element and cut it into a wedge. Looking in the

x - y plane and assuming unit depth, let's say it undergoes acceleration a = ax i + a y j

y = s sin
x = s cos
xy
=
1
2

()

xy
ax
2
xy
xy
Fy = ma y , p y x ps cos 2 g = 2 a y

= max , px y ps sin =

10

Fluid Properties

MECH 594

x
a
2 x
y
py p =
a +g
2 y
As the element shrinks x 0 and y 0. So at a "point" px = p and p y = p px = p y = p.
px p =

Since is arbitrary then the relationship holds for all angles at a point. Therefore,

pressure at a point is the same in every direction. In other words p is a scalar, p x, y, z,t .
Note also that for hydrostatics ax = a y = 0 with finite x and y
y
g
2
This seems to indicate that: (a) there is no pressure change in the horizontal direction and
p = px and p y p =

(b) there is a vertical change proportional to gy.

This leads us to a discussion on the variation of p and of air with altitude and the definition
of the standard atmosphere.

MECH 594

Questions?

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MECH 594

Notes

MECH 594

See you next time.

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