cs.

MICROSCOPY
THEORY

CONSTRUCTION,

THE

OF

USE

AND

THE

MICROSCOPE

EDMUND

BY
L.R.C.P.
PAST

CLUB,

LOND., M.R.C.S.

PRKSIDENT

OF

of

Author
of

With

J.
THE

SPITTA

ENG., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S.

QUEKETT

MICROSCOPICAL

and Joint Author

Photomicrograph)',

"Jln Atlas of

Bacteriology

from OriginalNegatives
83 Half-tone
Reproductions
and

255

Text Illustrations

LONDON

JOHN

MURRAY,

ALBEMARLE
1920

STREET,

W.

FIRST

SECOND

EDITION

EDITION

August

1907

January

1909

....

THIRD

February

EDITION

Al.L

Ullillls

Kt"EKVBD

1920

DEDICATED

MEMBERS
AND

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TO

THE

THE

OF

MICROSCOPICAL,

QUEKETT

CLUB

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THIRD

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viii

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PREFACE

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xiii

EDITION

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xiv
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"

and

the

same

Optical

Aperture
Numerical

the
Abbe
"

and

Depth

by

described

Cheshire

"

of Focus

defined

ments
Arrange-

The

and

Care

their

between
of

of

tions
Correc-

cussed,
dis-

the

Objectives

"Dry"
.

57

Objective

an

by

and

Constructions

fully discussed

and
of

and

Fine

Passage

"

Difference

the

Systems

Aperture

"

various

Portion

Objectives

"

CHAPTER

Numerical

The

described

Substage

Apochromatic

of

Description

Homogeneous"

30

the

and

Semi-apochromatic

IV

(continued)
through

Portion

and

Stages,

CHAPTER

Rays

Opticians

different

Microscope

of

Varieties

"

discussed"

Models

Stages,

Magnitude

III

the

Continental

Adjustments,

Compound

Focal

Opticians

CHAPTER

English

"

Series

the

founded

are

The

II

Methods

Microscopes

Simple

of

of

Microscope

Simple

consists

Lens

CHAPTER

The

kinds

explained

ascertaining

for

Action

different

them

Lens

Methods

"

Their

"

The

"

through
A

"

defined

Law

Light-rays

Deviation

Conjugate

"

Length

of

Path

Minimum

of

Angle

The

explained"

the

and

enumerated

Lenses

Light

of

Rays

upon

of

Method

explained

by

How
"

to

Apertometers

suggested

by

Mr.

ascertain
after

Conrady
79

CONTENTS
VI

CHAPTER

PAGE

icnian
of

Path

Construction

the

and

Kamsden

of the

Diameter

ascertain

the

Eyepiece

when

with

employed

Evaluation

The

Methods,

Abbe

and

104

VII

of

Objectives and

and

the

Oculars

by the
usefulMagnification

limits of

19

VIII

CHAPTER

their

the

CHAPTER

".ionaland

and

Simple
Compento
explained" How
Beam
Emergent
issuingthrough an
different
of
Objectives
Aperture

ys through
Circle discussed

the

Magnification"

their

both

The

:ig"

Kamsden

and

Varieties

and

the

Special Properties ot
Conversion
of
each
Obtaining their Numerical
Aperture
F
The
Cone
ratio"
and
Numerical
Aplanatic
Aperture into the
Diameter
Focal
of
ascertain
its
The
various
how
to
Length
for different Objectives The
their suitability
and
Condensers
Condensers,

Substage

"

"

"

"

"

"

its Abuse

Diaphragm,

Substage

and

Use

IX

CHAITKK
Methods

of

Illumination:
lectric

the

Lamps by

Monochromatic

142

Bull's-eyeMicroscopist's
ordinary

(".onion. Barnard,

Light, its Uses

and

and

Oil

how

obtained

-Various

of

for Low
Powers
Dark-ground Illumination
and
Mr.
"Differential
Colour
Illumination
""The
Khcinberg's
N
of Dark-ground
tension
for use
Illumination
with High
Powers
Method"
'entopf's
Oblique Light, its Theory and UseIllumination
of Opaque
Objects" Theory and Use of Polarised
ht,its varieties and how they are employed
.160
ins

[AFTER
On

the

Use

of the

Microscope"
issed

:.d

thods
terns

Corre"

relative

Illumination

and

Merits
the

of

the

Lon,

Adjustment

of

the

Removing

the

th

lomogeneous"
:.ser-Obtaining Critical Lighting

of doii

-Centring

"

The

Objective
"

Focussin.

"

^s

"

Find::
tive-

positions on

scopical
Micro-

CONTENTS

xx

XVII

H.MTKK

"

PAGE

Microscopical Accessories,and

how

to

"

correcting several

upon

delations

API"

Concerning

of the

of

Fiel4

the

Area

any

specialocular

and

Object

between

with

View

any

to ascertain

How

"

Faults

common

its Accessories"

and

roscope

449

.....

XVIII

LPTER
Hints

them

use

with in

met

using the

Plates

the

472

to ascertain
Image" How
given objective used with

Distance

Working

the

of

an

484

objective

ADDENDA

489

ngements

On

Binocular

Attachment

Wave-length

Screens

Watson-Conrady

The

the

of Short

use

of

Depth

How

Index

Illuminants

by

the

use

of Denser

Media

493

in the

:mens

Mountii
The

Powerful

is increased

Focus

492
with

of

Visibility

Annul
Rhein'

498

Usin^

the

ffl over

Colour

of the

Summary

erning

the

improve the- Definition

required in Different Objectives

Ocular

Corrections

to

r'ferent Colours

in

Microscopical

Objectives

502

lengths in

Convert!:
"sd

into

Tenth-metres
.

nberg's Kyepiecc Micrometers,

Waves

per

Inch

and

502

....

Stage

Micrometers, Crosslines,

licroscope

et"

503

Eyepieces.

New

501

503
504

;ip for the

Objectives

New

Some
Abbe-

Traviss

Microscope by

505

.....

505

Mr

Immersion

Oil

506

Jame"

itistmcnt

On'

506
507

....

Index

508
of

the

Different

i.

ecus

the
i

of

Coir

n.ttc

the
.........

Number

in

Tenth

of

Waves

with

tl

met:

to

the

509

CONTENTS

xxi

PAGE

Some

Specially

Good

for

Substances

the

Polariscope
.

Crystalline

for

Objects

use

with

Convergent

Polarised

.510

Light

.510

Two

Table

New

of

Natural

LIST

ADDRESS

which

of

Methods

most

Adjusting

Tube-Length

510

Sines

OF

of

511

VARIOUS
their

OPTICIANS,

objectives

are

with

the

corrected
.

INDEX

for

tube-length
.

.512
.

513

OF

LIST

TEXT

ILLUSTRATIONS

List

For

of

Plates

536.

page

see

PAGE

FIGURE

1.

Different

2.

Snell's

kinds

of

Lenses
"

of

3.

Path

4.

Various

5.
6.

Oblique

an

of

kinds

of
Path

"

Law

through

Ray
Prisms,

Glass

with

Parallel

Sides

6
.

Refractive

Summit,

showing

and

Angle,

Base

each

of

consists

Lens

7.

Collective

8.

9.

Radiant

11.

Owvergent

12.

Different

the

Rays

8
....

form

Focus

....

the

of

Focus

forms

Lens

an

Image

side

opposite

causes

away

Prisms

Length

on

...

to

Focal

Length

further

Deviation"

of

"Angle

Superimposed

the

twice

Focal

the

10

approach

to

Lens

the

on

side

opposite
Parallel

of

series

at

moved

10.

and

converging

placed

twice

at

of

Lens

Radiant

Prism

through

Rays

II

forming

Rays

True

how

Light:

of

Focus

dealt

with

Lens

by

II

Convex

Lens

12
...

Points

dealt

with

by

Ascertaining

14.

Ascertaining

the

Object

from

Light

situated

not

the

on

Axis

how

Lens

Focal

True

Object

an

Collective

the

13.

15.

of

14
of

Length

Lens

making

by

Image

and

size

same

15

Length,

the

Focal

the

Magnification

in

approximately,
of

with

Object

an

Apartment.

an

15

19

19

Magnifier

Hand

,,

!6.
,,

,,

17.

Looking

18.

The

the

at

within

Object

19.

Magnification

20.

The

Eye

21.

The

Case
their

of

to

Concerning

23.

Dissecting

Simple

the

Lens

Objects

Two

Convex

of

Lens

Object

an

20

Focus

Object

an

Diameter

Apparent

22.

of

,,

by

Focus

the

applied

formed

Image

the

beyond

placed

,,

Aerial

used

as

Microscope

to

the

Beam

Emergent

21

the

to

22

Magnifier
distance

same

similar

which

in

Eye

Simple

the

at

seen

placed

Eye
Unaided

the

to

exactly

position

best

the

and

that

Eye

of
should

22
...

their

the

of

Ratio

Magnification
be

placed

24

with
24

Microscopes

26
26

24-

25-

"

"

,*

,,

27

26.

28
"

27.

Zeiss's

28.

Mr.

,,

Hand
Nelson's

Magnifier
Hand

..........

Magnifier

29
29

The

through

same

and

Ocular,

; m

61

ILLUSTRATIONS

TKXT

OF

LIST

an

Condenser

Achromatic

Apochromatic Objective,

"

or

59

...

.;,MT

Ocular,
59

.........

62

..........

icction

63.

tkm

62

..........

63

...........

63

........

66.

Sine-Law

.........

...

ilfilment of the

Sinc-I.

.........

I--w
........

69.

70.

.....

.66
"

67
nine

74.

an

-mitcd

Colour- part of Apochr"

of

"s

the

of

cause

the

outside

Aeneous

Objectives

....

the

Colours

Focus

...

pcrccivc-dwhen

70

72

ILLUSTRATIONS

TEXT

OF

LIST

xxv

PACE

FIGURE

77.

After

compared.
78.

SnelPs

Passage of the
Abbe's
"

B.

in

Light

84.

and

Dry

of

Use

Objectives;

Homogeneous

89
94

Apertometer

Cheshire's

99

....,...*"

IO2

of Focus

Eyepiece ;

Huyghenian

Ordinary

97"

Apertometers

B.

of

Path

Monochromatic

Ray

of

Light

JOS

85. Passage of Red

Holoscopic

Blue

and

Path

87.

Passage

of

Rays

through Compensating Huyghenian and

io5

Oculars

of Monochromatic

86.

Ray

and

Red

Blue

through
Rays

ordinary Ramsden

an

through

Compensating

loS

Ocular

Ramsden

Eyepiece
88.

Colours

at

HO

explainedin

Edges of the Diaphragm

ordinaryUn-achromatic

Ocular

112

89.

Colours

90.

Over-corrected

91.

Ramsden

at

of the

Edges

,,

,..

"

"

113
.

115
115

...

Il6
"

"

95.

Magnification

96.

"

"

.119

"

120

97.

Abbe's

98.

Aplanatic Condenser

99.

Over-corrected

Imaginary

added

Lens

to

the

Microscope: Explanation

Uncorrected

101.

Under-corrected

102.

Iris Frame

148
148

ditto

148

ditto

158
163

Bull's-eyeIlluminators

104.

105.

164

"

"

and

Bull's-eyeIlluminator
Electric Lamp

107.

Gordon's

108.

Watson's

Argus

Lamp

Electric

166

Lamp

Johnstone Stoney's Heliostat

no.

The

111.

Traviss's

112.

Wenham's

113.

Leitz's reflecting
Condenser

114.

Zeiss's Condenser

115.

Beck's

116.

Diffraction

117.

Set of Appliances for

Monochromatic

Expanding

165

combined

............

109.

Author's

Central

.167

168

Light Arrangement.
Stop

After

Baiter

.170
174

178

Paraboloid
for

Dark-ground

Illumination

with

High

183

Powers

184
184

"

of

132

148

ditto

100.

8.

113

"6

94-

1 1

Ocular.

Achromatic

Circle

93-

106.

Diaphragm

explained in

Eye-lens

92.

103 "

83

Fluid

Depth of Focus
830. Magnificationin Depth

83A "

Objectiveequalsthe Semi-Diameter
Length
by the equivalentFocal

an

Law

Immersion
81.

tive
Objec-

2-mm.

89

79.
80.

82A

1-40 N.A.

77
of

divided

Pencil

Emerging

of the

1-30 and

Zeiss

that N.A.

Proof

Mathematical

of

Lens

Construction of the Front

Light

with
the

an

Ultra-microscopicparticle

190

Investigationof Ultra-microscopicparticlesin

Fluids, as proposed by Siedentopf and

Zsigmondy
Passage of Rays of Light through a High-power Condenser
Light is used

190

....

when

Oblique
193

xxvi

OF

LIST

ILLUSTRATIONS

TEXT

PAGZ

FIGURE

119.

Diagrammatic Representation
the

at

Back

angulatum
120.

on

I^ens

of

the

Stage

Direct

of
N.A.

an

and

seen
as
Spectral Beams
Objective, with Pleurosigma

1*40

194

196

Oblique Light

196

121.
,,

197

122.
"

"

197
124.

,,

198
126.
127.

Diagrammatic Representationof Oblique Light

Method
of IlluminatingOpaque
Arrangement (in plan) of One

200

Objects

203

Secoi
"

205

,,

,,

Third
,,

"

,,

130.

,,

,,

131.

132.

133.

206

ical

ical

134

\\.f-on

135.

"

136.

Nicol's

137.

Polarised

207

.,

207

Illuminator

Vertical

New

,,

Illuminator

Conrady
i.ight

Sons

208

.....

(Full Size)
Vertical

New

"

by Watson

Illuminator

208

Illuminator

209
21

Prism

Light;
of

ngement

Parallel

Crossed

and

for

Microscope

"Rings" and "Brushes"

Zeiss's Objective-changers
"Facility" Changer by Watson

Planes

214

using Convergent

Polarised

Light

to

show

139.
140.
141.

Kye-.shade
Betting a Circular

.219
240

"

Sons

243
244

Stage

in

Alignment

with

the

Optical

Axis

",

Use

247

""

"

,.

248

of Vernier

^50
"

Binocular

151.

Abbe's

15^.

Puwell's

After

Microscope.

Swift

of Binocular

Form

150.

Stereo-

P.inocular

251

"

....

Microscope
258

;ece

Prism

260

After

ter.

154.

247

"

,"

146.

The

Watson
n,

their relative
155.

Botanical

1 60.

Microscope

values

.201

Double

Mu,

graphicallyexplained

and

the

Tenth-Metre:
268

...

Microscope

"oj.e

....

272

^
.

icy

163I'

'!"

211

and

Histology
"

,,

280
2i)I

LIST

xxviii

241.

TEXT

........

Uinocular

Beck's

A.

lath

Glass

246.

ILLUSTRATIONS

.,

,,

2.JJ.
244

OF

of

:iocular

in

Rays

......

increasing

247.

of

Path

.nociilar

'

Rays

.......

Attachment

493

rent

Colours
...

249.

How

250.

Annul

251.

Rhei:

255.

Depth

of

l-'ocus

is

the

i:

use

"
.

........

'

496

MICROSCOPE

THE

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTORY

word

THE

(small)

and

magnifies
A

rather

intended
small

an

ordinary

of

two

the

instrument

an

The

that

be

examined,

to

second

of

ends

form

the

ocular

consists

"

lenses,"

further

eyepiece
in

its

magnified
For

is

venience
con-

held

are

turn,

of

image

eyepiece.

or

of

one

inverted

an

and

which,

tube

of

being

image

objective

the

use

opposite

this

possessing

microscope

sets

or

and

images

erect

everybody

to

to

handle,

magnified

"

lenses

"

suitable

"

serves

called

set,

in

compound.

or

several

or

compound

lenses

"

objective,

lens

familiar

lens."

the

"

obtaining

way

separated

in
the

words

simple

"

"

other

for

the
"

kinds

two

each

to

in

pocket

called

the

of

name

single

used

objects

object

by

be

widely

which,

of

of

close

to

of

be

may

consists

simple

mounted

the

is

Greek

two

object.

an

microscope

The

is

(to see),

o-fcoTreco

from

derived

Microscope,

at

attached

to

stand."

"

The

word
hence

several
A

it

the

explain

the

of

for

calls

immediate

an

before

advisable

be

meaning

used

and

term

tion,
explana-further

proceeding

to

and

name

to

describe

the

varieties.

lens

ground

is the

and

property

passing
curves

above

will

medium"

the

"

lens

"

in

polished
of

these

causing
to

to

rays

may

of

piece

glass
"

which

from

together

or

having

manner,

light

be

of

form

in

specific

converge

faces

circular

usually

through
on

given

name

or

distant

diverge

spherical,

other
its

parent
trans-

two

faces

imparts

to

after

point

The

apart.

cylindrical,
I

it

or

of

that

on

is

'.

rise

plane.
shown
the

because

"lano-convcx,
:
a

the

third, having

concave

other

is called

"

The

the

on

fourth, with
:icavc

meniscus

or

the

on

first is

each

and

of

sides

which

is

concave,

plano-concave;

concave

both

; the

one

surfaces

the

eighth
although of

arc

all thinner.

arc

!
"it

ither

object to form

be received

on

conca\

real

or

convi

should
at

:id the

properties pe

although

curvature

their

former

is

be

concave

that

centres, whereas

arc

collective

all

termed

lc:

in

they
bt from

"

the

and

noticed

object,/V.
latter

one

which

collectively

arc

images.

is

curve

because

1
!

diverging

surface

image of the

; whereas

screen

or

each
It

The

and

nounced
pro-

double

ruling

different

as

live,

gc:

will

can

and

of

are

all thicker

are

more

sixth

convex,

curvature.

and

I.

concave,

dissimilar
3 and

4, 5, 6

they

convex

crossed

convex

crossed

numh

seventh

termed

the

5
Fig.

second

side

one

is the

the

because

the

converging meniscus.

or

concavo-convex,

on

lenses,

bi-convex,

the other

surface

convex

face

of

or

is similar

the

spherical

with

kinds

double

that

other, or

side

convexo-concave

both

of

different

eight

the former

"

the

being plane

fifth is

the

combination

on

side

one

The

The

curve

convex

first type

with

to

F'ig.I

in

LENSES

only

another

with

side

one

it is

but

parabolic nature,
microscoj

surface

OF

FORMS

DIFFERENT

In

the

description that

and

follows

so

the

do

not

double

clou!

the

by

these

two

tyj

es

apply

equally

to

REMARKS

INTRODUCTORY

defects

certain

of

nature

of the

the thickness

that
The

of

curves

the

called

being

circle,of

lenses

is

of

curve

from

each

of

such

is

is called

arc,

its

the

centres

the

axis,or

assumed

given centres,

and

an

and

negligible.

be

to

as

curvature,"

joining such

line

It is also

small

described

are

centre

the

The

aberrations.

the lens is called

of

body

"

which

curvature."

lens

called

so

only by the degree

them

differ from

which

remainder,

the

LIGHT

ON

radius
the

passing through

the

of

the

principalaxis

"

of

radius

"

lens."

explaining the

Before

how

lenses,showing
those

from

in

in

another,

light-rays through different

bent differently
the beams
are
of

passage
case

one

be

it will

the

for

necessary

context

to

few
followed
to make
a
introductory remarks
intelligibly
in
the subject of light in general, and
refraction
upon
upon
not
particular; but the reader must
expect in what immediately
be

follows

simple

as

the

for that

manner,

in

find

to

The

is

given

in another

issuing from
size,naturallydiverge in
the

from
is

very

consistingof

that

obtained

of

beam

any

or

this
in

ray

it will

again

path, until

it will be

Change

will

given

medium

with

another

is called

in

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medium

fresh

be

held

in

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be

vessel

The

on.

be

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containing

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of

cause

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water

and

entrance

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advantage
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alteration
and

its

be different.

medium

is the

of this
point out briefly the nature
brought about
by the change of medium,
descriptionto have to resort to Fig. 2.
ABCD

by

extent

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it

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only

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propagation along

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to

Let

light as
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medium,

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a

it

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such

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rigidly mathematical
part of this work, but rather

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with

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to

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the

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by the density of the glassemployed

the normal

than

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become

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piece of glass having parallel sides,

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ray

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can

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position of the line ^E.

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of

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4

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But
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the

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beam

emerging

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LENS

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exact

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little prism may
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also be said to possess
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so

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dicular
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ture.

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LENGTH

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focal length of a negative
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phrase

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lective
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property

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we

say

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positive one.1
positive be placed in juxtaposition,and
through them, it is neither magnified nor
if they
lenses
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as
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of

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"

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screen

2-in.

2-in.

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Negative lenses, we

LENS

OF

This

parallelsides.
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by the practicaloptician.

fact

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an

is taken

unknown

PLANE
OF

Focus

Fig. 7,

negative lens, and he desires to ascertain its focal length, he

it until, when
keeps trying several
positives with
looking
both
lenses
at an
through
to
object,such object ceases
shake,"
it is called, when
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the
When
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lenses.
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is

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knows

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focal lengtJiof the positive lens

called
with
focal
In

the

lens

The

set

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this

the
is

purpose
be

can

negatives of

done
known

lengths.

describingthe
to

positive by using

negative, and
for

necessary

focal length of the negative.

unknown

an

the

know
called

are

rays

which

are

incident

venient
entering and leaving a lens it is conbeing spoken of. Rays fallingupon
or

while
affluent,

those

quitting it

definition covers
foci of positive as
well
Really, the same
if
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virtual
be
lenses,
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accepted for the concave.
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explained

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as

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negative
The

term

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together
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that

"diverging." Kays
With

pencil further
they

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than

But

lens

it

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a

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ing

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lens

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from

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"

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as

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luminant, as

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image

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passed through
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the case

in

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lens

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:on

rays

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designated
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rays

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side

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principal focus

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closer

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away

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called

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converging

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DISTANCES

IMAGE

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OBJECT

io

most

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Fig. 8.
called

it will

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of

radiant

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image

object

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let it be

to

will

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the

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to

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focal

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lens.

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not

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for convenience

"

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in

io.

as

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further

relation

first instance

the

in

times

distance

given

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equals that

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ted

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lens

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said

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'h.

in detail

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to

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it

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FOCUS

PRINCIPAL
R

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as
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Seeing
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sensibly parallel:

called

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for

distance

OF

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Fig. 9.
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side.

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rule

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it

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image

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But

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on

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That

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8

seeing that the

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to

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preceding diagrams, Figs.

the

interchangeable, the

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if

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rays

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be

may

increases

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the

RAYS

PARALLEL

PRINCIPAL

FOCAL

LENGTH

Fig.

diminishes, and

other
of

conjugate

as

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Although
at

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foci,by which
the

lens

This

on

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within
to

is meant,

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is effected

; hence

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foci.1

hardly
desirable

vice

10.

the

If

of

scope

ascertain

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object

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work

microscopy, stillit may

positions of the conjugate
on

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"

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LIGHT

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12

have

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that
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beams

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It

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ion

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the

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entirely brought
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that
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auxiliary lens

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at

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shown

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rays

Fig.
would

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where

Fig.

but

nature,

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convex

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upon
Such

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object

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following example which

:"S

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Hence
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might

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microscopical

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conjugate focus is easily found

will

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the

lens

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ot;

mentioned

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when

is
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to

50

diameters.

in

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hence

in

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rase

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is
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LIGHT

CONVERGENT
the

recollect,

to

of

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fall upon

rays

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It

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such

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rule

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with

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that

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forth

set

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moreover

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to

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manu-

careful

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all

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com-

distance

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by

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said

rays

the

by

lens-systems,the optician has

shall
precisely
components
occupy

positionone

of

manner,

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on

been

path

this

in

obtain

has

of

the

as

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would

what

in

associated

lenses

components

from

effected

be

can

can

inferred

be

readily

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13

be

been

Hence

question.

of parallel,
as
"/2vergentinstead
placed at F, the principalfocus.

would

LENS

focus?
plane which lies within its principal
the reader, if a radiant
further
were
just remind
(within the true focus) the rays issuing from

focusses them
We

in

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beams

the

POSITIVE

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computer's

formula.
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1.

in

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following five principlesmay
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Let

MICROSCOPE

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24

represent this distance, f the

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MICROSCOPE

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lenses of any focal length if the eye be placed at the posteriorfocal plane.
See Appendix.

The

THE

SIMPLE

Fig. 23.
focal

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Fig. 24.-

DissectingStage.

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As

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Figs. 25

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have
approximately the same
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focal

27

place of the object,to be

the

find

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"

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MICROSCOPE

SIMPLE

THE

The

Figs. 23
next

this type of

two

and

24

trations,
illus-

microscope

SIMPLE

THE

because
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Zeiss,

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29

erecting eyepieces.

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MICROSCOPE

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Fig.

27.

extensive

III

CHAPTER

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MICROSCOPE

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32

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Microscopical Society

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Royal

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MICROSCOPE

COMPOUND

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34

"

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.c

later

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STAGE

THE

possessing

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MICROSCOPE

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men,
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finger,

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into
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for

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the

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it is usual

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To

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microscopisthas

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STAGE

COMPOUND

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absolute
to
or
can
immediately
centralityby means
in question,the
of the screws
present readings taken, as well
all the old ones
other slides,
will always be correct
on
and
as
be

"

"

correspondinglyuseful.1
Whether
or

of

the

stage is better in its round

rectangular shape

facilitates the

form

stages,

square

the

answers

The

size

specialuse

best suited
In
up

many

the

stage

wear

and

some

How

as

opinion.

circular

best

the

square

The

round

motion

about

English stands,
is

means

the

even

usually provided

the

microscope is

it should

later
for

somewhat

stage varies

the

with
which

on

according

to

what

be

applied ; for instance, in

exceedingly large, but this matter
considering the class of microscope

be
when

to

special purposes.

instruments
and

also

tear

the

arrangements
in

the

loss of

the different movements.

1

of

or

purpose.
of

bacteriology
is discussed

in

of

matter

recording

opticalaxis, although
their

is

form

to set

the stage

different

If not
"

in

way

central

are

slides

the

screws

abused, these
"

is

provided
of

the

to

mechanical

which
are

take

produce

very

fullyexplainedlater

on.

useful,

AUXILIARY
BY

rectangular

Both
effected
vertical

(fixed

which

against
by

the

points

which

grip

fixed bar, 'when

; the

is rotated
on

small

two

either

of

end

which

pinion

and

; the

upon

in

the

raised
bar

the

slip

order

to

it

move

slide

the

pressed

upon

cork

slide, and

the

the
bar

movement

press

tipped with

are

the

horizontal

the

is

slide

rack

the

BAKER.

movement)

spring clip, and

is mounted
for

carries

horizontal

to

CHARLES

37

are

pinion,

which

of

one
as

movements

and

rack

by

STAGES

along

milled

actually
surfaces
to

head
rests
at

minimise

friction.

Fig.

but
to

many

have

manufacturers
been

have

unfairly or

so

By

31.

found

adjustments of
ignorantly employed,

BAUSCH

"

that

injury

LOMB.

rectangular

The
rack
a

this nature

pinion, as

and

in time.
surface

the

the

microscope

adjustable,permitting
various

60

not

wear

rests

upon
and

stage,
with

contact

stop against which

The

will

that

by

make

to

the

if desired.

condenser

long

impossible

in immersion

both

are

object slide

The

of

used

be

may

it is

movement

worm-screw

loose

movements

The

sizes.
the

range,

the

the

slide

rests

object carrier has

extra

being 35

movements

is

of slides of

use

and

respectively.

mm.

The

is held

stage

by

in

solid metal

place

on

the microscope

clamp.

Fig. 32.
to

the

slides of

almost

they now

no

permanent

nature

longer add them

to

has

resulted

sequently
con-

their instruments,

STAGES

AUXILIARY
BY

OTTO

HIMMLER.

BERLIN.

this arrangement

In

ment
move-

one

is
endless
whilst

by

an

screw,

is

other

the

by rack and

pinion.
clamped
the microscope
to
quite easily.
It

All

stages

stand, in other

hitherto
words

considered
are

fixtures

Bv

have

been

be

can

built

the

into

forming part of

the

instru-

This
and

arrangement

the

preceding

are

: ;

shape of

nt

milled

heads
:

by

some

is

the
the

pre-

micro-

scop

ihcir

circular

stage, make

the

Continental

top plate to

firms

how-

lift off to

STAGES

AUXILIARY

40

In

of

(made

attached

the

to

down"

diameter
without

or

unclcrsurface

the

on

further

from

the

into

of

the

of

sleeve,

or

receive

iris

which

"

microscope

It is

grips

The

wl

be

to

what

in

be

may

called

special

any

tlv
placed upon
the edges like

it

position by
It

in

movement

vertical

the

is

an

then
of

means

has

long

both

zontal
hori-

direction*.

is crude,

arrangement

with
a

fixed

without

general

scope

primitive form

somewhat

it.1
.1

rather

better

class

of

microscope, however,

\\;

beneath,

but

of

means

turned

which

':""(! with

down

the

convention

reader
"

who

motions

always

not

the

sleeve

.chcd

it

the

is

kind

of

thumbscrew

by
when

thumb

and

cs

commencing

the

ot

the

in

or

lowers

the

and

that

construction

con

of thr
means

to

in

it

fittingcontaining
The

is

incd

"

whole

accordance

stage

immediately

upon

in

and

mechanism

of

sliding bar;

of

range

and

specimen

this

thumbscrew.

the

be

can

clamped

of

bringing

special feature

ry

of i

and

SONS.

fitting.

Up

the

and

of

"

meant

slip containing

to

is sufficient

and

diaphragm)

is

it

but

Abbe

an

instead.

stage

The

any

English

microscope, or carrying it away

further
performed by pushing the condenser
.ut again by hand, unassisted
by pul

stage

it,is

the

to

nearer

by

the

"

substage proper is
representative being
to

an

i"y

condenser

placed

only

all, its

correct

with

the

type

moti"

the

grand classes

two

either

at

the

condenser

her

up

evidence

in

not

sleeve

of

make

the

really

into

Continental.

the

and

kinds

all

!c

direction

substage.

confuse
The

the
former

up

by

STAGES

AUXILIARY

fittingis

of the
be

to

in

its

to

whole

aside

out

the

when

that

the

use

turned

and

such

of

the

original position

rotated
The

way.

is

notified

By

CARL

is not

condenser

be

fittingcan

41

by

this

upon
of

return

required
the

screw

fitting

click, by which

the

ZEISS.

Fig. 37.
The

milled

this pattern of
movement

The
the

be

peculiar

applied

to

effected

with

mechanism

of
the

the

cause

traversing stage and

may

movement

which

heads

the

purposes

of

either the
this stage

sliding pieces
of

"

right

or

are

positionsin turning.

co-axial
The

in

lateral

left hand.

guarantees
fulfils all

sliding pieces

the

their relative

considerably greater security

requirements

of

movable

in

stage when

finder."

microscopistunderstands
in

and

of

movement

retain

the

condenser

the

optical axis of the instrument.

fittingnot being usually provided with

centringthe condenser,

such

as

we

is

once

more

replaced

Owing, however,
the

shall

means

shortly

of

to

the

accurately

this
explain,

"

"

regarded
is somewhat
of

this

Hard

rough.
that

design, so

is apt

wear

when

microscope

the

arrangement

spoil

to

only be

must

whole

the

effort,as

approximate

an

as

optical axis

the

with

centrality

to

return

SUBSTAGES

ENGLISH

THE

42

efficiency

the

is intended

to

be

Fig. 38.

employed

in

rough

laboratorywhere
t"" be
expected,we
a

known

We

have

and

shaky,

it

that

so

more

than

when

the

frequent
do

sometimes

recommend

not

once

and

become

fittingwas

its

adoption.

troublesome

very
"

rather

clicked

"

home

the

ATSON.

ything but central,a condition

condenser
sufficient

to

objective.

lessen

The

"

.cnt

may
and

"od

be

40.

seen

of

things quite

performance
in

of

the

Fig. 38, other

ENGLISH
To

be

then, is
how

SUBSTAGE

able
a

such

process

excellence

It is shown

Fig.
A

handy
in

stage

In

the

contrivance

ordinary

and

by SWIFT,
tube

best

mechanism

of

stands,

Son, recognising
a

for the

little

neat

special object

differentlymounted.

42

41.

arranged

fitting beneath

Arranged

to

the

of

cheap microscopes.

the

"

cheap

introduced

just suitable

Figs. 41

43

these

Swift

is,have

and

in

in

Messrs.

and

fittingof great

fit into

condenser

desideratum,

important

in view.

the

centre

to

ARRANGEMENTS

better

form
the

the

of

body

of

the

instrument

what

is

technically called

is

"

BY

type.

slipped into

understage
Also

the

sleeve

fitting of

by SWIFT.

the

however,

The
complicated.
(Fig. 43) to be prolonged into
is provided with
which
tailpiece,"

is

seen

cheap

be

instruments,

English

substage

to

far

more

WATSON.

Fig. 43The

Substage

fitted to

as

rack, the

carefully cut

illuminating apparatus
to

raise

or

lower

precision. In

some

the

the

Edinburgh

engaging

itself,which
whole

instances

Microscope.

pinion being fixed

thus

substage
an

Student's

with

enables
ease,

the

in

the

operator

delicacy, and

auxiliaryarrangement

called

SUBSTAGE

CONTINENTAL

THE

44

adjustment to the substage is also

microscopist to perform these up and down
speaking
greater delicacy. Later, when

added

fine

taken

iment
our

opinion of recent
fine adjustment,

own

this

extra

which

ring
they

into
serve

the

with

for the

purpose

of

of

the

the

handle
how

to

and

open

they are
suitable position.1
the

English

fixed

into

cannot

be

care
:

the

the

actual

model

when

iris

desired

so

the

by

iris,\\lun

the

to

different in this respect.

The
mirror
(concave and

ring placed

which

is made

The

iris dia-

be

is

little

show

to

found

in

usually rigidly

which

it

mean

we

tJic optical axis, special

when

instrument.

illuminatingapparatus,

coloured

microscope

pinpoint,shall

in

condenser

or

often

that

so

in the

drops

provided with
graduations

by

of

xactly opposite
of

the

vogue,

cut)

may

out

found

condenser

diaphragm

maker,

reduced

of

be

purpose.

It is

shut

or

this

optical axis

form

the

the

ring.

quite
(two

screws

additional

leaves, whilst

opened

exercised
the

.tout

the

in

the
in

it

Special diaphragms

be

to

illuminatingapparatus,

shifted

being

this

close

much

In

used

especially for

out

placed beneath

is

and

the

instrument.

dropped into
(not shown

condenser

in

turn

be

can

headed

of

in

recommend

to

to

the

change

accurately centring

which

design

out

still

of

use

believe

now

usually

arc

the

used

we

milled

optical portion

optical axis

beneath

Eig. 43)

of

the

with

motions

point

we

small,

the

pieces of glass

for

whereas

which

rticular

to

in

shown

are

shall

we

years

Three

expense-.

unnecessary
of

whole,

as

enable

to

But
the

we

of

case

which

is

plane surfaces)in

indicate

shall

show

the

made

nental
Conti-

entirely

English type
"ub^tagc is usually held to the tailpiecefixed in the body of
the instrument, by a double-jointed arm
permitting movement
the

of

substai

.illyadopted type

y different

is that

original:

has advanced

in favour

so

ufacturcrs
h in

rmu

de
1

by Carl

"

all Coir

in

but

(Fig.

by

45

it is
It
.

rrc

adopting the
cc

design

article

(notably V

upon

the

use

and

the

"n

abuse

of

"

Sons)

with

SubstagcCondenser.

arc

new

CONTINENTAL

THE
models

SUBSTAGE

45

microscopes that they have brought

of short-tube

out

; at

these
that they are
so
immediately
they have constructed
desired.
After
capable of receiving this class of substage when
of close acquaintance, we
bound
several
in common
are
years
least

justiceto

of

it has

certain

is

of

the

the

is

It

the

by

of

this

we

Abbe

firm, have

same

to

make

always
the

to

screws

achromatic

each

their

densers,
con-

self-

own

for this

up

are

bound

are

have

we

centring

the

is true

arrangement.

design, we

in its construction

centring arrangements

contained

of

neatness

absence

condenser.

made

as

omission

one

that

regretted,and
sleeve

and

workmanship

this

superior ; but whilst saying

no

there

admit

satisfied with

than

more

are

excellence

For

to

we

say

deficiency

Fig. 44.
Centring appliance

of which
to

this

have

the

on

one

complain,

we

substage

Objective as

to

would

an

for, with

pay

for all.

do

Condenser

it is

surely

but

addition

in

for

To

(fullsize).

expense

unnecessary
each

condenser, when
this

remedy

omission

drops into the sleeve of

centring fittingwhich
the
primarily designed for using
condenser, which, though
(and so in consequence
supplied with
objectives as condensers
the nosepiece),will take an
the same
the
universal fitting,"
as
firm

the

sell

"

just as

English condenser
R.
used

J.

"

for

Neither

years
of

great

Centred

with

these
Abbe

chromatic
too

make

Beck

with

well

as

similar

pleasure ;
self-centring devices
great

sold

condensers
diameter.

The

the Continental

Messrs.

objective(Fig.44).
class of fittingwhich
an

can

by Zeiss,

consequence

better.

nothing

want

we

have

we

be

used

because
is

microscope, which

they
seems

with

they

are

cannot
a

the
of
be

serious

ight and

to

one

Continental

of the

SUBSTAGE

CONTINENTAL

THE

46

which

we

very

earnestly call

the

attention

opticians.1

lowered
is raised
or
by
illuminating apparatus
which
actuates
a
turning a neatly milled handle (S in Fig. 45),
rack let into the tailpiece,easily seen
i a
pinion that c;
whole

The

in the

figure.

collectivelybe said to consist of

iris diaphragm,
hold the condenser,8(ii)
an

substagc may
three parts:

to

and
1

\\V

a
(iii)

in

Continental

th.it most

admit

mounted

mi;

simple tubes, but

"ranxcmcnt*
1

It

is

useful

^cope,

to

36*8 mm.
;

whilst

we

know

condensers
the

can

illuminators

be

purchased

forbids

their

mentioned.

have
the

chromatic

ti

.cter

"

; Rcichert

anil the

Lcitz is lets than

of

this sleeve
r"

is,in

the

similar,viz. 387^

either,being 50*5

mm.

Zeiss

ADJUSTMENT

FINE

THE

48

of

difficultyin obtaining a consensus

should
have
a
fairlyrapid screw
would
are

is

not

for

that

seem

what

(probably)

yet

the

on

other

C.

BAKER,

in the

micrometer

nulled

head

works

through

fiftythreads
socket

which

threads

two

of

The

with

the

different

pitch

fixed
the

is

socket

inch

the

works

attached

inch, and

the

to

other

through
the

to

the

nearest

screw

forty threads

to

and

LONDON.

screw.

has

screw

size

commensurate

are

consists of

This

the

where

hand

HOLBORN,

HIGH

244,

slow

high, too

very

depth of objects

BY

one

purposes

the

it

whether

to

as

exceptionallyfine. It
where
the magnifications

or

microscopist calls

the

troublesome

certain

opinion

of

screw

movable

body

of

the

microscope.
tfect of
raise

lower

or

inch,

whilst

revolving the
the

the

other

carrying the

body

to

the

inch,

the

turns

to

being iJ0 of
the

Fig. 46."

THE

milled

CAMPBELL

too

slow

difficultyis

same

met

pitch

an

milled

forty

screw

thread

the

at

of

speed

for

fine

possible to

I'scrs

"

have

fine

ment
adjust-

objectivesdo

"":

the

on

finer the

they

ground-

H.whcn

;nifi-

tu
.

the

of

SCREW.

is

or

fifty

-tphy the

ct:

"ul

the

ment
adjust-

rotation

every

to

socket
of

rate

felt

is
to

the

the

""i

with.

turns

causes

travel

inch

head

head.

DIFFERENTIAL

"uld be
with

first

Jters,

or

a-

it

by which

both

requirements

are

satisfied in

FINE

THE
that

by

quick

of

means

several

firms

Whatever

the

by

head

double

of

motion

slow

or

ADJUSTMENT

the

(one

49

is effected.

screw

adopted,

arrangement

of the

one

supplied

of I1ine

"

LOMB.

38, Hatton

yj,

section

Cross

leading pomts

BAUSCH

English Agent"

section

It is

large),

nowadays.

BY

Vertical

the other

and

small

of Fine

Garden, E.C.i.

Adjustment.

Adjustment.

Fig- 47The

micrometer

the

weight

the

screw

of

the

body,

limit

of

with

set

plus

subjected

motion.

spring
Lateral

is smoothness
when

at

it should
of

this

rapped.

of

rest."
not

By
go

book),
To

is

or

make

strain

equal only

between

the

tension

compressed

when

the

motion

action.

even

the

of

the

friction

spring

the

adjustment

is

resistance

or

and

brought

Another

of

focus
when

trial,Van

great

that when

by
the

feature
an

itself

(see

tube

is

Heurck's

is

nearer

does

"

in

the

of

weight

the

by an original device, which

liabilityto relaxation and wear.

this is meant
out

to

is eliminated
their

springs, with

and

screws

to

difference

the

the

as

the

of

body

is thus

adjustment,

the
fixed triangularportion of the arm,
directlyupon
by a spiral spring, and
microscope being balanced

acts

screw

the

to

its

away

stability

object is focussed,
hints

at

the

end

tapped or the table

test-objectis a good

ADJUSTMENTS

FIXE

VARIOUS

CORNHILL,

CK,

made

upon

method

patented

new

invented

Ashe.

Mr.

by

which

II

cradle

the

moves

lever

strong
carries

body

the

of the

microscope

which

is

with

slides

"

the

".h milled

through
with

by

outer

an

of "

distance

The

the

moving
complete
milled

or

,'" in.

me

the

or

other

the

fine

head

milled

adjustments

the

to

be

may

put

can

B has

limb

for

fine

adjusti

of

"

supporting

ally
|

tuali)

Is of
the

base

scope,
micro-

of the

the

upon

of

micrometer

rrn

of

the

the

upright

microscope.
ir
'ii

it

with

sup-

accurately

so

il

column

filtc"i
of

minimum
the

ment
move-

bcini;
at

screw

the

top

this

"

such

as

way

"

com-

"ugh ii.
of
.

the

tube

through

'_

mm.,

and

B, read

scarcely

moderately
as

powers

for

be

head

screwing

of
overstated.

A
it

to

either

moment

giving

it,
in

inch

an

volution.
re-

and

with

of

convenience

by

body

complete

movement

of

coarse

fine thread,

any

such

fine

provided

head

screw

sJ0

steel

works

is

the

only

milled

the

in

to

on

MC

inch

an

The

lenses.

out

of

used,

very

by
screw

comparatively

be

may

it

revol-

screu

this

which

At

;;ping

has

body

"nt

by clamping

revolution.

head

^ in.,

or

is moved

carries

adjustment

line

B,

screw

revolved

when

head

lever

E,
side

upper

head

when

cradle.
limb

the

drives

which

screw,

screw

.md

48.

in

the

the

upon

bl

the
of

milled
a
large graduated
F.
at
folding indicator

The

fitting

D,

on

The

C.

lever

in

acting

spring

of

means

projecting portion

cradle

The

by

the

$ in.
A

or

in.

such

or
an

Hy
milled

tightly down,

BY

ADJUSTMENTS

FINE

VARIOUS

(SpecialForm.}

LEITZ, WETZLAR

E.

Fig. 51.
The

milled

two

wheel
mounted
the

d.

gear

prevents

gear-wheel

with

heads

drum

are

mounted

on

provided with a worm

spiralspring pressing against

portion is enlarged

and

any

is

lost

in

motion

heart-shaped

cam

the

On

this

The

the

cam

in

(Fig.50),which
latter

in

on

rests

the

the

drives
the

roller

the

axle is

shaft

same

steel

central

its turn

journals into which

Mounted

gear.

worm

/.

axle

an

gear.
of
one

with

g, fitted

the support kt which

in its turn
carries the microscope tube.
a
By its weight and
spiralspring the latter presses on the cam
f, and effects a direct vertical movement.
The
periphery of the heart-shaped cam
/ is exactly symmetrical and mathematically
The
distance
traveled
the lowest
sides from
to the highest point,
correct.
by its curved
and vice versa, is 3 mm.
Sixty teeth are cut in the entire periphery of the gear-wheel d,
the number
elevation
or
being
corresponding to one side of the heart-shaped cam
3 mm.
of "
tooth
movement
o'i
or
mm.
30, therefore
i
means
a
mm.
Owing to the drum
divided
being attached to the axle a and its head
into 100
divisions,each of these equals

on

*ooi

mm.

This adjustment (seealso Fig. 51) is

claims the following advantages :

By
no

virtue of its unique construction

limit to the motion
of the micrometer

as

the work

The
of

the

movement

screw,

which

and

accurate

reliable, and

is continuous
may

be turned

; there

forward

is

besides, it

absolutely
backward

or

requires.

movement
mm.

exceedingly

As

extends
another

in

an

exact

advantage we
specimen, for should

ratio
may
the

to

the

mention

revolution
it is almost

of

the

cam

for

impossibleto

distance
break

the

with the cover-glass

in contact
cover-glassof the
objectivecome
and assuming the knob
and
is of aluminium
is turned
the tube, which
still further, then
very light,would
simply rest on the specimen without breaking the cover-glass,as the
latter will easilystand
the small pressure of the tube and the fine spiralspring.

VARIOUS

"SRS.

POWELL

ADJUSTMENTS

FINE
"

GREENIIAM

EMSDALE,

LEALAND,

'.on

Road,

London,

N.

LONDON,

ROAD,

N.\V.}

1
Fig. 52some
adjustment, although devised
of the
modern
necessities
microscopist of

This

;is

itself, the

construction

being
Hv

KKK

so

siill seems
forty years
ago,
most
exacting nature.

to

the

exceedingly
HART,

the

meet

The

diagram

simple.

This

fine
of

means

adjustment
a

which

following
the

milled

:"

head

\\hich

of

which

spindle

cut

actuates

rotation

the
roller

In

this

of
and

ment
adjust-

feature

it-licacy

obtained.
the

The

micrometer

endless

an
a

fine
.

durabilityis

or

it the tube.

the

is

is raised

with

manner

the

By turning

is

screw

!, and

by

in

operates

manner

on

is

micrometer

new

\\hich

one,

of

nee,

as

the

only

required.
downward

!:ght weight
of

is

the

aluminium

tube,

the

i, and

excet

re-

injury
.ilmost

impose

should
e

Ail

the

into

come

bearing

surfaces

are

of

iianism
is

pro:
cope.
i

"

SWIFT

By

Model

(Fig.54) the opticaltube, which

vee"
gun-metal bar, sliding in
grooves
screw

with

first order

of the

engages

the

is

that

side-shake

slow

to

with

lever

with

stud

inner

the

top of the
and

is

the

near

of time

are

free
the

it

to

meter
microlever

running
box

hard

which

B,

sliding

The

taking

so

wear,

up

impossible in

the

at

vertical

fulcrum.

for

adjustments

loss

of

surface

on

LONDON.

ROAD,

box

horizontal

acting

head

D.

provided

bar

of

pulley fixed

steel

is fitted below

milled

is

53

used.)

soldered

; B

"

body, in which

still

has

A, A

of the

COURT

TOTTENHAM

SON,

(Old

back

ADJUSTMENTS

FINE

VARIOUS

this form

motion.

SWIFT'S

NEW

MODEL.

Fig- 54-

Fig-

(The

55

attachment
delicate

to

screw

hardened
to

that

raise

Fig. 55-

or

affords

devoid

by

steel

head

most

of all lateral

of
of

means

acts

depress
the

Model)." By

New

the

by
the

tube

fine

in

an

pillar, a

series

refined

shake.

the

point
of

of

levers

manner

movements

"

WATSON

BY

ADJUSTMENTS

FINE

VARIOUS

LONDON.

HOLBORN,

"

(Standard Pattern.)

Ixxly is raised

ft

of

milled

point, acting

Etecl
of

fixed

head

which

2^

in.

the

the

of

that

fulcrum

of

the

movement

the

weight carried

the

to

of

screw

trolling
con-

bear

to

instrument.

of

to

which

size

the
is

of

placed

body takes
by the n.

the

(5ft"*"/

The

ordinary
point

ts

at C,
fittings

and

the

touching
thread

coarse

of

parted

and
Icvrr

by
to

each

by

This

the

to

low

"

stand

-ml

severe

plete
com-

additional
one

F,

at

touching

the

"

"

rotation

is

about

arrangement

powers
threaded

each

ordinary
.

U-sr

of

spcr

An

-ad

for it will be observed

eoaru

for

250*1

"

"

liy the

:':"or
of

bead

dhc.ulA.

70*.

ingenious,

use

it* in.

complete

about

mi,
e

milled

attached

G.

at

microscope

the

controlling

the

U actoated

will.

with

1-

about

arm

is shown

this

;' fast and

"

contact

with

to

revoluti

lever

lever
of

is

t\0

that rapid

brought about
screw
(the thrca

offers every reason

and tear.
wear

in.

cxc

is

for

showing

construction

Adjustment.

Fine

"

\"y

the

slow

the
as

sliding fitting in which

place,

\\

ably
ia consider-

56.
Standard

the

hardened

reduced.

Microscope,

the

This,

turning

The
a

the

had

h.-ngth according

.xjssiblc

perfect dovetailed

the

case.

actuates

screw

in

:ying

in

movement

body

of the

milled-head

surfaces

contact

polished)against a point

appear

important

not

(the

means

hardened

long.

sight it would

weight

by
a

lever

body-s'i lc,

tin-

to

this
entire

s"

and

about
fitting,
first

on

attached

At

to

lowered

or

motion.)

of

Watson's

FINE

VARIOUS

56

is

mechanism

the

This
the

will

always
be

be

to

best

ADJUSTMENTS

BY

figures

the

follow

that

ment.
instru-

the

of

body

by examining

seen

microscopes

ii.

in the

found

senting
repre-

the

towards

end

(Latest Pattern.)

/KISS.

wheel,

worm

of

means

situated

the

at

serves

in

head.

The

with

the

endless

is

and
all

the

both

depressing

and

in

the
for

convenient

of the

coarse

parallel, and

turn

to

movement

As
heads

and

direction, the change

most

side
in-

outside.

are

elevating

tube

the

carrier,

milled

fine

the

adjustments

the

two

protected against
from

of

in

in

the

is enclosed

thus

axes

used

of

crane-shaped

damage

the

screw

acting upon

screw,

the

and

mechanism,

exception

heads

milled

as

whole

is
of

end

screw,

sense

by

screw,

lower

micrometer

the

as

movable

endless

an

the

same

from

one

other
the

is

hand

operator.

Fig- 59of

this

book, but the details

m*k"

of

the

fine

inclusive,a short

'-59

bcin;:
t

with

fine

Addenda.

each

adjustments by different

illus!

adjustment by

Swift

The
"

Son

description

closer iwill

be

found

the

in

the

CHAPTER
PORTION

OPTICAL

THE

WHATEVER

part

its different

of

of

the

of

dependent
do

we

wish

not

the

of

the

objectives

effect

the

scantily filled,expense

should

student

he

the
the

part
ing
build-

its

good,

can

ever

It

is

if his

that

be stinted

the

come
over-

important
be

pocket

the

on

in

is but

part

objective,

purchase of

stand.

Objective

The

in

together
the

mount

fit the

to

in

speaking

of

the

mechanical

adoption

by

all

opticians

of

necessity

this

of

of each

special requirements
matter
The

is 7644
number

complete

of

fact,

diameter

in., the
of

of

the

effective

threads

to

specification
Soc.,

application to

p.
the

230,

the

inch
limits

1915.

Secretaries

case,

which

structed
con-

7822

is

36"

see

in.,

in

57

the

the
as

objective, by

is

the

in.

The
For

screw.

Royal
be

thread

core

'0277

of

form

may

to

without

days,

The

pitch
of

Dies

suit

to

olden

is '8 in.
the

Whitworth

Society.

The

microscopist

The

Transactions
and

when

constitutes

adapters

screw-thread
is

size
the

unavoidable.1

Sizing Taps
of the

so

Continental,

or

supplemental

objective

being

microscope.

it enables

English

diameter

and

the

regulation

that

frequently

was

of

portion

employing

day

present

of

nosepiece

fitting already described

interchange objectives, whether

the

the

upon

placed

"

seeing

convenience,

great

very

the

lenses

numerous

is screwed

universal

"

for

term

"

combinations

all

tube,

collective

"

brass

as

and

has, especially with

sacrifice

to

and

cally,
emphati-

so

with

objective.

not

compelled

be

may

do

that

this, so

the

rest

ignore

we

it

bad

recollect

the

whatever
the

by

produced

this

to

however

eyepiece,

no

that

merely

to

for

then
but

for

one,

but

ance
perform-

seeing that

saying

course

the

object, all

nothing

of

effect, for

final

In

complete

magnification,

the

of

thought

if it had

as

the

refinement

the

in

true

of

image

be

it to

ocular,

apochromatic
secondary

the

perfection.

its

upon

played by
up

of

utilityof

course

part

construction

and

beauty

finally rest

is of

greater

details

real

must

This

the

power,

beauteous

are

whole

objective.

separating
the

as

perfect

the

or

still the

MICROSCOPE

the

by

played

given stand,

THE

OF

adjustments,

taken

instrument

be

may

workmanship

and

IV

scopical
Micro-

obtained

on

THE

58

condenser

ige

in

diagrammatically
represent
and
K

simple

compound

field

lens

through it,fall

upon

the

or

cl

and

of

speak

it

as

in

to

threads

work

lens, called

furnish

to

to

The

least

two,

but

usually of

affixed

here

need

at

the

the

history

The

of the

of

is cut
is

called his

with

the

instrument

this

and

"

polished

English

; but

Fluorite,
of

of

out

it should

curious

be

mineral

being
an

inch

recoil'

in

by

in

now

often

found

itivelylow
hat

that, in

stated

the

the

very

construction
late Professor

modern

objective

of

hundrcdths,

the

alum

interior
in
index

of

any

is almost

refraction
as

the

greatest

ro

to

objective,as

he

semi-apochromats.
of

of

somctini"

"

:th the
are

which

scii

terms

; hen.

differing

possessing

interposed in

objectives invented

apochromatic

of

characteristics

vith

dispersic

for

or

lenses them-

glasses

order

lenses

the

as

arrangement

individual

various

and

urns

Of

is

thirty-six

screw

collectivelyknown

the

objective

di!

Fluorite

instrument.

already explained,

fitting. By

unique properties,are

incc

small

have

we

combination

of the
to

make, whether

any

possessing certain
be only mentioned

peculiar type

highest

tube

lenses

more,

the

attached

purpose

Universal

or

ground

definite and

Abbe,

this

several

enables

of the

end

Constructivelyit

will.

addition, lenses
the

to the

objectivesof

are

ties

brass, which

nosepiccc, which,

components
"

of

mount

nosepicce

used

be

present day.

the inch, furnishing what

bvious
can

the

definite diameter, and

ersal

having

of the observer.

eye

it in

fittingfor
the

called

bored

be

to

actual

The

at

suitable

whole

of

this

last

the

enter

eyepiece, and,
and

the

they

seen

find

we

of

composed

held

is

the

next

to

of

scope

be

illuminator.

etiology,together with a descriptionof the first conceptions

subsequent developments of the objective,but merely to

and

as

the

within

not

them

transmits

'(^ns,which

of

dry condenser,

immersion

and
will

objective,it

the

from

with

combination

apochromatic objective

an

merging

is

60

Figs.

achromatic

an

passed through the

through the object, as shown
and
61, which
respectively

and

to

on

off

that, reflected

rays

have

illuminant,

the

from

mirror

the

lens, gathers the

front

its

of

means

OBJECTIVE

and

efficacious.

This
an

peculiar

extremely

59

APOCHROMATIC.

ACHROMATIC.

(HUYGHENIAN
OCULAR)
N
Axis*.

'

ACHROMATIC
CONDEN5E.R

(COMPLNSATING
V

OCULAR

)
'

Axia^l

HOLOS

OIL

CONDENSER

Fig.62,

THE

60

afterwards
of

user

the

always,

highest

as

that

be

"

is

any

nearly

sometimes

"

treated

rudely

or

upon

cannot

should

careful

front, which

the

pressed

not

he

manner

said, hemispherical

already

have

we

Especially

be

powers

-hemispherical

himself.

for

correct

in

adjustments

its

easily upset

very

may

OBJECTIVE

break
it, is quite an
it, or
even
matter,
easy
damage
and occurs
surprisinglyquickly with but the slightestblow.
of magnification in
in their respectivepowers
Object!
for

to

direct

be

to

ibet,

adopt

far better

last-named
as

plan,that of affixingto
method
is decidedly the
magnifying

vision

distinct

of

be

course

for each

The

but

iblc
f

ry

for the

at

of

the

if the

catalogue

has

objective,which
is too

what

with

quantity even
objectivehas

high

is set

combination

(see end

of this

;ilthickness

"d

of

immediately
distance

focal

down

length

in

this

matter

and

and
and

be

later

search

unscientific.
how

to

it is

entered

of similar

perimentally
ex-

into

in this work,

on

distance," which

is

focal

length.
adjusted by the maker

and

to

be

lenses

(a

should

be

used

with

and

explained

term

exercised

nally about

the

contrary

be

can

it,with

that

the

.v-tubc
inch

being used,
or

in

to

ocular

being

To
i:

millimetres, so

be

and, if the

'!/ mm.,

made

the

direction

;!lythin.

cover

:i

be taken

"working

cover-

thereby by pushing

specimen,

venient,
con-

objective'smagnification be

objective

care

length.

the performance of the

exactly correct, otherwise
1 it may
be entirelyruined
icrably ir
for a
chapter). Each
objective is also corrected

be thicker, the draw-tube

cover

its

the

nomenclatures

it is intended

length later),great

some

former

especiallyif "dry"

powers,

be

the

by

of

and

conventional

"

be corrected

to

more

rational

then

use.

others

their focal

explained

those

draw-tube

of

length

and

letters
; whilst

is troublesome
an

in

them

the

to

long

fullydiscussed
is meant
by

it is

draw-tube

the

mm.

precise magnification of

11 as

with

250

done, and

obtained
here

or

means

kinds

on

so

can

power

either

using

desired, the maker's

made

in.

10

"

question. When
cannot

different

I, 2, 3, and

numerals

approximately, by dividing

known
of

the

suitable

some

objectives by definite

their

the

by

or

length,so

distinguish the

to

opticians call

Some

This

adopted

focal

their

with

accordance

the

correct

error

/;/ sr'/i/,
nearer

employed
of

certain
il to

find

that

it

can

it

the

to

if the
exact

graduated
be

set

to

OF

USE

THE

DRAW-TUBE

61

of the
objective may
require
length that the correction
will be then
the microscopist thereby knowing the combination
conditions
for its performance.
placed under the most favourable
the image not appear
clear and
After this is done, should
sharply
the
be
from
arises
it
a
objective
good one)
probably (if
defined,
thickness
for which
the
the cover-glass not
being of the same
any

combination

pulled

out

should

at

corrected

was

in,

pushed

or

the

render

once

and,

in

the

alter

to

to

is

just described, which

good as possibleunder

manner

performance

existingcircumstances.
Objectives are computed

this,the draw-tube

as

fulfil three

orders

of

condition,

derived
are
distinguishing names
the apochromaticl The
and
first
achromatic, semi-apochromatic
in the present day, excepting
be obsolete
to
be said now
may

which, indeed,

from

for

perhaps

the

power

placed in
they now

that

of

of

the Schott

invented
of

consummation

the

indeed,

like

one

inches

two

or

glass (often collectively

opticians,recognising the new

their hands, have
recomputed their lens systems
approximately fulfil the requirements of the
The
merit, called
semi-apochromatism.
apo-

series

chromatic

powers

glass")

"Jena

order

next

"

introduction

called

so

low

very

the

for since

their

most

the

by

theoretical

late
and

Professor

Abbe

constructive

represents

skill,all

lengths
wave-

focus, but owing to their necessarily

coming to one
used
for everyday work,
enhanced
price are not as commonly
for special occasions
the greatest possible
when
being reserved
definition
is required, or
resolution
when
or
an
object has to
be photographed.2
See
Corrections
Addenda,
required for
"

different
1

types,"etc.

It will

be

observed

for

is because

This

no

introduced

objectiverecently
chromat.

that

mention

by

the

the

is here
firm

of

combination

made
Carl

is not

of yet another

Zeiss,called
for

use

the

lightrays

of

employed

with

275
use
2

their
light,

may

objectivebe
the

to

/i/i, all lenses

with the same

We

camera,

only
Rohr

only)

for

of correction
for
at will,the lack
wave-length chosen
because
be
to
being obviously
they are solely meant
monochromatic
light. Such
objectivesare at present only

aberration

violet

Von

definite

chromatic

manufactured

Mono-

but
visually,

The
photographic purposes.
specialfeature of this system by
described
union
of rays (sphericalcorrection
as
a
very perfect

is

type of

be

employed

correction

being

for

being

appliancesarranged
made

constructed

as

out

of

matter

molten

for the

of fact for

use
a

quartz, the

of ultra

wave-length
oculars

for

being of the same

material,but out of the crystalform.
in
what
we
explain passing
by saying,that if an ordinary
mean,
used, and the objectsharply focussed on the ground glass of
in the
the resulting image on
the
negative,taken
ordinary

Then,

too, in

secondary

the

comment

bound

are

all

have

that

admit

Ilimmler,
recently

manufactured

images,

and

excellent

image

too

which,

the

at

of

moment

objectives is

of

orders

is

however,

Icntial

the

not

address

subject by

the

to

in

easy

do

to

attempt

an

difference

theoretical

the

demonstrate

beautiful

to

the

\ve

being

so,

the

Quekctt

elect,

very

of

production

way
the

furnish

focus, exhibit

between

simple

"

Watson,

that

semi-apochromats

deceive
to
secondary colour as almost
the
and
\ve
heartily congratulate them
upon
excellent
of such
combinations
performance.

To

of

and

Swift, Reichert,

little

so

colours

all the

our

mention

to

not

of

its

saying this,however,
Zciss, Lcitz, Koristka, Bausch

Notwithstanding

to

and

Lomb,

the

renders

holds

apochromat

absence

entire

the

spectrum

upon.

the

study of diatoms,

the

for
perfection,

to

OBJECTIVES

OF

CORRECTIONS

62

these
what

three

follows,

substance

of

Club

Microscopical

upon

Author.

should
master
commencing, however, the reader
(if
the
the
with
few
troducto
inhe be not
subject)
already acquainted
and
spherical aberration, coma,
r.iphs upon
chromatic
aberration, for by so doing the subsequent remarks
Before

far better

will be

Aberration

Spherical
inherent

understood.

in

every

is

uncorrcctcd

term

refers

which

which

lens, by

'"n

rays

is

condition

that

meant

63.

Fi"
the

to

focus
j-ortion,

tl.

than

through

T
,

lore

will
.,

eye

central
be

found

in

foo:

ig.62.
distinrilyout

of

focus, because

the

chemical

rays

;, loved,
""- on

the

If

the

:ined.

belt of

narrow

of

zones

for the

the

that

/91;

makes

angles

of the

the

a1

angle

II

SINE-

same

the

as

ratios

be

follows

more

measures

Here

58'

22"

and

"390

the

the

the

the

and

"195

11"

just

"

been

of

the

to

is

and

a2

the

as

to

of

the

To

"2, let

what

ratio

"fulfilment

that

out

points

of

of

the

is

that

said

\i"il

foints

///

of

the

of

tJic

'120.

the

mination
exa-

they

suppose

respectively

arc

viz,

"

sine-law."

It

outside

the

beauty

axis

of

the

fulfilled

object,it

and

.'nict

lation

'ti-fulfilmcnt
call

to

the

sue).

how

coma.

To

the

cau-cs

begin

with,
i

"

dt

I-

it should
it

has

confined

defect

lying

image

be

to

before

coma

the

further

which

as

55', is

Extending

us

of

sines

same

it remains

strictlyn

\vc

be

sine-

"

make

at

is

good image of

be)

the

ratio

y92. If, then,

of

speak

I.

sine-!

axis,

the

angle ft1shall

sine

/91, assumed

15',the

pointed

lens, but

"

$2 respectively

being fulfilled.

as

ratio

angles

from
of

bears

"

sine

"ailed

"ly

"**

sine-law

it is evident
to

are

of

let us, for example, say

the angle "!
intelligible,
ascertained
13" 54', the sine of which
by the tables

whilst

10 ;

"

left hand

that

of the

sine

angle

being designated

and

equally proportionate, we

the

condition," or

The

Fig. 66.

of

sine

a2

of

two

LAW

the

only

"

the

side

number

great

very

on

this

is

the

to

AA'

lens

clear, a

considered.

called

are

extremely

an

is made

right

sine-law

bears

lens

axis
the

on

for ray

Now

side.

ich

a1, that

of

up

being

the

to

the meaning

made

are

refer

to

make

lighthouse

with

call

we

the

whilst

sine

being

as

present purpose

ray

the diagram

simply

that, to

so

like,in fact,

"

which

glass ;

considered

be

should

#*,but

ol and

between

included

CORRECTION

SINE-LAW

THE

64

muv

ted, and
r

be
!

hen,

it may

mentioned

the
V

the

THE

SINE-LAW

magnificationof

circumstances,

the

with

dealing
the

ray

II, does

ray

the

magnify

the

outside

the

the

ray

in

question

particular lens
magnify the object twice ;

the

same,

lens

this

strip of

narrow

magnifies twice,
likewise.
If,however,
of

65

of

the

the

and

hence

the

object
to

that
will

be

ing
contain-

observed

not

these

do

zones

from

coming

rays

focus

not

more

o2, containing

is that

focus, say,

lens

zone

the

been

be

to

or,

sine-law

lens, the effect

come

may

and

have

we

the

under

the

on

same

F', whilst

at

ray

F".

II is at
In

that

with

I"

points

point; for

object

ol" that

zone

computer

not

so

would

the

accurate,

by

the

CORRECTION

Fig. 67, the sine-law

being supposed

to have

been

fulfilled,

Fig. 67.
it is

are
quite evident that the two zones
yielding exactly the
same
both focussing at
to be
magnification,for they are seen
the same
point F' ; whilst in the next illustration (Fig. 68),the
are
having neglected the sine-condition, the zones
computer
shown
F'
the
and
other
at
coming to different foci one
"

F".

at

It is obvious

would

be

for

how

definition ; and

the

^^

disastrous

such

if bad

of

state

for two

zones

things
only

L
Fig. 68.
it

be if all the zones

easilyimagined how bad it would
of the object-glasswere
have
We
should
being considered.
line extending from
F' to F"
instead
of two
points. But even
can

be

yet

the

not

ever

trouble
occur

is

not

quite

rendering
making
just spoken about

"

at

alone

confusion

their
to

end.

an

evil

of

class

genii

apparent

spread

out

more

defect

associate

confounded,"

worse

presence
be

other

This

their

by causing
and

does
selves,
them-

fluences
evil inthe

line
into

more

ABERRATION

CHROMATIC

66

like

something

wJmt

constitutes
due

Coma.

comefs

tail
effect

curious

the non-fulfilment

to

or

photomicrographs,Fig. 3,

Aberration.

Chromatic

of

Plate

appearance
probably

the sine-law

III.,and

Fig.

i,

is another

This

"

for the

name

errors

performance of lenses, in this case being due

the different paths pursued by lightof differingwave-lengths.
simplifywhat follows, let us take first quite a simple lens, of

which

To

called

this

I V.

Plate

to

tail

is

in two

is shown

comet's

astigmatism

either

to

"

in

it is mounted

presume

us

such, indeed,

length

focal

short
Let

in the

occur

with

met

as

cell,so

nosepiece of the microscope, and

the eye-end
ground glass is placed over
the

to

having

ocular

focussed

and

colour

one

then

that

we

that

can

piece

of

an

the

eyepiece.
attach
of

it

finely

draw-tube, the

well-defined

object being

using different apertures of the

employing mono-chromatic
light first of

glass screen

succession, and

in

lens

this

on

first removed.

been

in

"

of another

sphericalunder-correction,

discloses

"

the

fact that, owing

to

only get reasonably sharp images

with a small aperture of the lens, and
generally owing to coma,
of the field.
If,with a small opening,
only in or near the centre
we

try other

now

that

and

colour

focus

with

also
a

of

colours
of

alteration

an

the

the

in

spectrum

focal

the

that

we

adjustment

different

is

required

coloured

tube-length, differ

constant

other

colours

largestimage;
by examining Fig. 69.

size, for

in

is the

each
in

the

red

smallest
it

yields

is better

stood
under-

simple uncorrected

lens

in between.

for

images, when

the
reallyrequires a longer focal length and furnishes
image, the violet having the shortest focal length,whilst
the

find

succession, we

This

If*
UNACHROMATIC
SPCCTRDM

HCVERSLD
"T

OVCRCORRCCTION

Fig. 69.
E
the

is

beam

of

white

lens,acting as
colours.

at

V,

some

of the

Fig. 70.

light entering it ;
prism, breaks

Red

focusses

other

on

colours

up
the

the

and

K1

white

axis

A A'

being omitted

the

point where

lightinto
at

R, and

its

ponent
com-

violet

for clearness

of

CHROMATIC

CORRECTION
This

diagrammatic representation.
A

lens.
simple uncorrected
effected by combining a convex
the

radii and

four

the

glassesenable
at the

for

To

correct

fulfilthe

demands

(2)

the

(3) To cause
nearly upon

the

words,

concave

two

to

of

rays

colour

one

focus

to

sphericalaberration

remove

is chosen

being spoken of

for

coma

of

once

flint ;

"

preferred colour

"

with

at

the

"

wave-length that

colour, any

one

the

as

"

lens

marginal

in other

point

same

is

of

dispersive properties of the

to

and

performance

improvement

crown

computer

central

the

(1) Bring

is the

great

different

the

67

the

sine-law

the

of

rays

for

other

point

same

colour

same

this

"

the

"vords, to

preferred colour

colours

on

in other

to

axis

; and

concentrate

those

as

of

very
the

ferred
pre-

colour.
The
the

of
the

lens

is

word.

colour,

Fig. 70, where

in

violet

the

red

so

have

call

If

we

the

has

shortest

this

total

examine

ordinary

sense

over-corrected

in

of

things shown
focal length and

state

the

assumed
we

in

computer

shall

has

longest ;

achromatic

the

we

aberration.

chromatic

be

to

If, however,
of

matter

said

now

over-correction

Figs. 71, 72,

and

for
73

we

.,

ACHROMAT.SEBrcpQREEN
VISUAL

"oMBERCORRECrED*

SUOHTtY

ACHROMATISM

ORDINARY/ACHROMATIC

Fig

Fig. 72.

71-

shall

quickly notice that the focal length

always the shortest ; so the spectrum
be

folded

yellow-green

which

"

objectives
and

point, for

and

orange

violet.1

blue

will
are

Achromatisation

be

have

the

green

what

"

said

colour

has

been

be

focal

shortest
further

to

visual

for

taken

together,and

folded

be

selected

usually
to

seen

for

the

is

preferredcolour
justly

may

should

is, in fact, that

yellow-green

"

length ;

that

at

over

of the

on

red

termed

we
see
slightlyunder-corrected
depicted
ordinary achromatic
in Fig. 72.
the preferred colour
has
Here
again the shortest
focal length,a blending of yellow and blue coming next, whilst
a

"

red
1

and
The

violet

are

reader

Objectives

"

which

is

seen

still further

especially invited
will

make

what

has

on.

to

read

been

lens
the

said

corrected

chapter
of

more

on

for the

"Testing

interest.

ACHROMATISM

68
blue

in
ordinary photographic objective is drawn
focal length, because
the shortest
Blue
is seen
to have
preferred colour; green and violet are joined up next;

ray

an

"

73.
the

"

the

red, outstanding, has

whilst

longest focal length

find

shall

work,

best

foll"

ultra-violet

and

yellow

by

of all.

the

making

the

in

that

BLUE

ACM.OHAT.MO~,

ponents

thin,

very

else

or

by
^YWIT06HAPHICoBJICTIVt

carefully proportioning
comp

also

equalityof

focal

be

in

borne

will

images
corrected

be

the

of

be

their

well

effe

of

of

become

these

on

power

number

which

rent,

If

test

we

angu!

lure,

are

ordinary

an

colour

blue-violet

although
and
the

have

we

marginal
rays

for

from

to

computer,
troubles

lens

of

with

zones

of

It is the

sphci

with

which

the

optician has

moderate

work

the

to

most

in

suitable

curved
soon

powers.

considerable

find

we

"

of
the

lens

the

central

focus,
do

not

This

all

case

corrected

elements

lightof

the
of

the

in
be

is

with

scquc:

.ochromatic

so,

defect

formidable

to

pov

that,

same

do

deal, even

jorrcctcd
and

an

monochromatic

under-corrected.

by comb:
concert

on

aion," but,

of

in

make

his

limit

not

being yellow-green for

for photo-visual purposes,

called
"

of

follows:

blue

be

objective

the

strongly

spherical aberration
to
come
by making them

found

corn-

imperfections

achromatic

.ic

tries to

the

th"

being generally
often

purely photographic

cured

rays,

as

selected

instruments, greenish
and

of other

previously detailed,

as

such

length,say

lines,where

rapidly place

condary aberrations
i

focal

when

aberrations

serious

directlythe computer

necessary,

bccoii

all the

have

relativelylong

but

lenses

combinations,

Such

size.
to

differentlycoloured

Indeed,
approximations.
icar
enough perfection if

first

objectiveof high

approximately,

very

the

that

means

said

and

:/.e

rate

any

different colours, which, it should

same

best, are

in

at

for the

also

mind,

their

at

seen

produce,

length

the

thicknesses,

relative

tlu ir

v^iv"

ic-v

com-

wave-lei

acting

ACHROMATISM
of

that

the

preferred colour, we

different

from

for them

spherical aberration
the

approximation,
correction

for

secondary

aberration

importance

the

of

use

further

pointed

3. If

proceed

we

the

the

that

that

the

of

first

under-

This

been
of

could

out

kind

of

called

in

by the

tion,"
spherical aberrabe

not

properties

from

cured

that

of this remark

outcome

to

tint

focus, light of

of

somewhat

differences

we

find

without

which

the

was

was

starting

curious

have

the

sensible

no

colour

fashion

be

focal

shortest

shows

adjustment
light of nearly

considerably different
If

the

lens

does, and
be

will

for
found

before

have

explained ;
the other colours, focussing at greater distances, blending, and in
curious
pairs,bright red being united with blue, and, at a still

to

length, as

ence
differ-

corrected

preferred colour,

work, yellow-green, the

visual

focal

of

that whilst

preferred colour

the

as

for

test

colours,

different

same

in

even

blue.

has

and

differences

different
The

find

microscopical objectives,next

chromatic

of

for

shall

Jena glass factory.

the

with

over-correction

"

glass

generally

last mentioned,

in existence.

then

in

he

corrected,

being

is, in

Abbe

which

is not

defect
and

the

to

Professor

late

of

red

69

is

the

only

as

This

has

been
defect

most

serious

an

indifferent

objective.
the

old

kinds

the

to

of

spherical zones
for

third

The

these

of
are

the

in

earlier

glass will

correction

in
see
indigo or violet, as we
called
the
secondary spectrum, and
ranks
in telescopic objectives,but

with

greater distance, deep red

Fig. 71.

often

we

be

types

of

this

and

type

particularlywhere
oblique pencils are used.
class

photomicrography

"

at

large
It

these

chromatic
serious

any

rate

of

cone

is needless
lenses

are

the

as

for

scopical
micro-

made

achromats

secondary aberrations.
found
be reasonably
to

the

usefulness

of

with

great offenders

found

the
preferred colour, but
sphericalaberration
are
generally so
the

of

manufacture

In
well

with

regard

these

the

corrected

differences

greatly to
accurate

of

reduce

work,

light is employed or
to
say that for high-

simply

useless.

of the Jena glass

already said, the introduction
has changed the position of all things optical,for now
find
we
the computer
are
can
spherically
produce objectives which
the other
corrected
for two
colours
of only one, whilst
instead
find ouralmost
selves
wave-lengths are
perfectly corrected ; so we
As

we

have

face

to

face

with

an

objective free

from

chromatic

ACHROMATISM

70

defect

no

These

made.

been

of

that

the

"heir

This

diatoms

with

and

spectrum,

is

drum

sccoi

table

of

vcment

modern

makes

aberration," the
"_; only

secondary

the

be

should

It
further

of

"cad

Powell

colour.
best

the

in

secondary

besides

the

This

tyj

the

as

highest

correction

of

spherical
entirely eliminated,

is

|L

un

are

R'Y*B

:niCOLO*

apochromatic objective,photobe

Messrs.

that

can

have

excellent

the

differences

spectrum

the

itest

colours1

three

for

of

most

of

it rank

chromatic

one

;y

as

computation,

as

Messrs.

shows

image

of

photomicrography

because

screen

the

"

of

for

course,

entirely eliminated

and

zones

"

type is reallya

apochromatic objective,which

They

we

"

Holoscopic

"

but, of

:icral purposes,

show

same

Sometimes

achromatic

new

just

achromatic

the

Type," being

the

"

hers.

the

"

makers.

scmi-apochromatics of other
such
as
entirely hew
names,
Modern
" Sons, or the
"n

has

should

made,

names

many

Improved

"

well

mention

secondary spectrum.

pure

under

market

the

which

objectives,if

new

except

in

appear

of

spherical aberration

of

differences

tak"

PART^APOCMtOHATIC

rtfMf

SYTTCM

COLORS

ht
"ut

alter

focus

or

improvement
of

If

glance

we

tmmatically rcprcsci
objectives necessitate

all

As

adjustment.

ocular,

it

may

be

well

here

to

the

certainly improves

better class

ot

the

special

function

its

the

of

use

the

pensating
com-

of

performance

the

omatics.
tic with

Hiiygcnian

of

use

describe

tood),especially as
c

Fig. 74

at

"

an

ordinary

an

object of strong
test-plate. \Vc

find.
of

to

the

fi"

excellent

our
in

immense

is, )""

the

of

amount

marginal

'ruing re

in

primary

parts of

in Apr
colours.
irs

rcrcnt

(irrinition

the

the

centre

colour
field.
nnd

(that
No

Addenda

ACHROMATISM

(6)

Should

be

computed

so

for all colours

The

full

apochromatic
from

(7) Freedom
In

carrying

mind

that

given

entitled

apochromatic,
of the

be

achromatic, from

an

from

and

all

"

it is essential

should

objective must

an

show

secondary spectrum.

corrections

aberrations

the

further

must

the

these

out

when

; whilst

eyepieces

(d)

tions
give equal magnificaused
with compensating

to

as

be

free

corrected

the

from

first five to

the

See Addenda.
apochromatic.
in
Although scarcely
logical connection

the

in

in

order

first three

to

become

semi-

the true

merit

to

seven

bear

to

be

application

term

hand, still it is of interest

add

to

that

with

the

subject in

study of the

ing
follow-

diagrams (Figs. 75A, B, C, and D) will furnish the reader

with
an
a
explanation of the colours perceived when
highsemi-apochromatic is employed upon such minute objects,
power
and
for example, as
diatoms
and
is lowered
beneath
the focus
raised

above

To

deal

with

is the

axis

to

AA'

it.

make
a

meaning more
point of lightas shown

and

the

FIQ.

75A

it is

figure.
colours
apple

OJTSIDC
roc.ua

01

Tuaxy
P-.v

Figs. 75

green

(by

(by the
union
sake.

of

the

the

F, whilst

F', whilst
focus

of
the

and

orange

Yellow-green
at

red

of

rays

the

being the

yellow
focus

and

I;/ comes

yellow
being

blue

beams

purple

green.
into

green)
only

of

red

When

view;

are

and

purple
the

shown,

the

uniting

cleai
and

lens
at

F' ;

so

violet, lies outside

the

therefore
hence

and

for

omitted

coining from

seen

focus

and

violet) arc

and

are

Dtrinco

A, B, c, D.

of

combination

the

admixture

focussing
that

venient
con-

in the

The

lens.

BOTH

clear

our

if

obj"

section

were

AND

DRY

IMMERSION

OBJECTIVES

73

point, the centre, sharplydefined,

with red and violet mixed, with yellow and
be coloured
would
kind
of halo, as shown
outside
union
as
a
diagramgreen in
the objective to
the
Pushing back
matically in Fig. 756.
is still sharply defined, but
the colour
plane of F, the centre
changed

is

in

shown
focus

the

that

at

apple

to

purple as
within

made

be

possibleto

of

green,

in

shown

the

Fig. 750.

halo

is

composed of
lowering further,actually

Fig. 750 ; whilst

the yellow and

(the visual focus

find a fuzzy ill-defined
of apple
centre
fuzzy halo of purple lying outside it

already spoken of),we

surrounded
by a
green
as

whereas

It is obvious

green

in

why the

Fig. 756

centre

is the focussing point

the position selected
sharp, because
is equally sharply
also why the centre
of the purple rays ; and
that plane is the focussing
defined at F in Fig. 75A, because
of both
point of the apple green ; whilst the fuzzy appearance
is

colours, apple
the
in
a

and

green

purple, as

figure),is owing

same

to

within

seen

both

focus

the

images being

focus

of

out

(in

the

experiment really well with

a
on
slipshould be used,
microscope,a faint point of mercury
but the phenomena
better
are
that

situation.

To

witness

with

seen

All

telescopeand

objectives

into two

star.

divided

are

kinds, whether

they be

achromatic, semi-apochromatic
or

apochromatic

and

immersion.

the

called

"

To

dry

understand

explanation that

follows,

the reader, if a

beginner,should

refer back, and

read

what

is said

about

light and its refraction

until the subject of prisms is
This being done,
commenced.
the

the
Fig. 76.
two

be

grasped.
Let

about
an

difference

between

types of lenses

will

of

the

easily

Consider

be

1-5, and

incident

following explanation

ray

Fig. 76.
of
the
#?zw-glass, having a refractive index
AB
L the front lens of the objective; also consider

fallingupon

the

cover-glassat

B.

As

it enters

the
of

air, a
much

bent

DIC, therefore, is of

any

lying

rays

have

cy

of

chance

no

be

DE

along

AB.

to

It will

now

consideration, that

of the

edge

figure)will

the

it in

the

and

DN',

previous normal,

further

much

case

normal

course

parallel to

course

DE

between

the

the

again into

passes

the

its

continuing

without

readily understood,

be

BN,

(as in

at

from

away

towards

lass, thus

the

dry lens) it

bent

is

so

precept already laid

normal
BN, and follow

it arrives

using

been

it has

as

enter!

on

when

medium,

rarer

When

BD.

as

happens

what

as

shown

path

the

to

towards

refracted

be

it must

down,

OBJECTIVES

air,according

than

medium

denser

IMMERSION

AND

DRY

74

lost

objective(where
the

to

microscope,

front

entering the

lens

of

the

objective.
the

index

refractive

same

A'

from

the

as

D'just the
But

D.

the

as

refractive

same

for similar

emerging

index

path uninterruptedlyin
the object glass to gather
its

the

lost when

the

on

//

is

ray

then

obvious

why

the

of

the

immersion

the

the

enables
that

rays

for the

sake

were

of

parison,
com-

of the

instead

system

to

fluid of

F, which

to

diagram)

starting

left,it continues

ivhole of the

(as shown,

the

refracted

it has

air

has

refracted
was

enters

straight line

up

side

other

D'

at

and

ray

be

AB

as

substance

entered

it will

reasons

ray

the

as

at

lens

Following

let the

right hand,

Arriving

and

same

viz. i-5.

"

the

oil, which

cedar

cover-glass

the

at

considered.

be

place between

we

fluid,say

diagram, commencing

the

to

of

drop

"s

if

happens

what

consider

But

much

gives

oil.

more

light.
Theoretically, then, it is
much

so

pass

light
be

must

dry objectives cannot

why

seen

immersion

as

because

ones,

lost without

interpositionof

the

substance
opticallyto join up the
homogeneous
this reason
the objective and
Kor
the cover-g]
"s

often

are

and
arc

or

"homogeneous

as

obviate
vith

pr"
"

correction

milled

brought

nearer

that

out

bending of

it is to

or
a

the

so

often

turning

of

already pointed

have

thickness,

spoken

this
what

BD

immersion

portionof the
together to

vary

that

dry

is

called

collar,"which
mount,

systci

is
the

accommodate

in

cover-glasses vary

as

may

some

between

gap

,-

"

the

all

in

lenses

direct
of

ance,
accord-

high

power

"cover-glass adjustment,"
so

that, by

contrived
lenses

the

are

separated

system

to

the

THICKNESS

CORRECTING

well

for the

and,

to

facilitate his

of

stated

the

best

is advised

he

same,

Plate

4A,

enables

This

him

obtain

to

Carl

Zeiss, consisting

to

slip)

practise getting
of the
definition of the lines of silver deposit on
any
succession, whilst

all in

objective. When

the

collar "to

finest results,he

then

the

figures on
learn

if he

his eye

to

only by

to

he

reading

adjusts his

"

and

turns

thinks

if

sees

process

acquired

art

an

he

the

plate,and

educate

to

he

compares

repeating the
he will

the

learning

thicknesses.

or

the

to

I.) from
cover-glasses (cemented on

several

of

covers

It
is
cover-glass mentioned.1
practise the use of this adjustment,

test-plate(Fig.

Abbe

an

student

75

the

of

thicknesses

different

COVER-GLASS

OF

has

obtained

the

on

collar with

they approximately

is wrong,

which

by

the

spond,
corremeans

ment,
recognise a perfect adjustconstant
practice. Before
"

"

the
draw-tube
should
it is to be recollected,
commencing operations,
the objective
be set exactly correct for the tube-lengthfor which
if the objective
It need
is constructed?
scarcely be added, even

adjustment, he will have valuable

be gained in trying to
much
experience may
practice,and
the best visual
obtain
images of the lines of the plate by
as
already explained.
pushing in or pulling out the draw-tube

provided

be not

with

collar

Unfortunately, however, the student, in this instance, has no

have
we
at his disposal of verifying his results,as
means
just
paring
collar,by comusing a correction
explained obtains when
the

It

be

may

the

figures on

arrangement,

to

interesting to those
learn that moving a

thickness

of

to

the

front

of
oppositedirection,

course,

for
of

extra

the

system

the components,
of under-

by

the

causes

cover

in the

correction

extra

objective with

of

combination

produce
described,serves

serves

pushing in the draw-tube

microscopistsprefer doing

cover.

when

to

the

collar

of the

on

the

the

details

upwards
other

plate.3

to

of

the

correct

components

; whilst

turning in the
separation. Approximating
to

introduce

small

amount

the 0-z/"?r-correction caused

balances

Exactly
no

know

approximation

system, which
a

like to

collar from, say, ten

of the

lens

manner

in the

thickness

an

who

those

same

correction

adjustment

is present.

by

Some

adjustment be perfectly
is introduced,
of rtk-centring
of the components
made, a certain amount
which
interferes with the performance of the objective. See footnote,p. 78.
2
from
the
distance
the nosepiece
By the length of the tube is meant
of the objectiveto the upper
shoulder
end of the draw-tube.
at the milled
3
be recollected
It should
that although usually the figures marked
on
still
small
the
that
collar '' are
a
occasionally
approximately
correct,
very
"

error

may

be

present.

this

because,

unless

the

collar

is caused

One
of

oil forms

cedar

the

small

any
so

point should

more

such

collars,althou

relate to

not

as

which

at

whole,

hence

of the focal

mistake

often

very

inch

an

is the

single lens

of

measurement

from

length,and

the

is

cover-glass

mention

we

the

this because

by beginners,that they think

made

that

at

opticians leads combinations

it should
lerably,hence
the working-distance of
by

works

were

bination
com-

distance

from

the

cover-

Ti^-and -jj^
working-distanceis between
The
computation of objectivesby different

instead

is furnished

the

the

to

real

the

whereas

fact,it

hence

combination

but

component,

if,in

as

twelfth, for example, works

to

in

vary

be

this respect
borne

further

focal

follow

not

that

mind

objectiveof given

an

particular maker, it does

one

in

somewhat

length
all it

at

focal length)made
(although of the same
"1ij)'crcnt
optician. It is a subjectof regret that all firms do
for another

same

by the

is

who

student
.nee

is

handled,

cd

for if such

the moment

by the

making

objective

microscopic

as

shorter

be

owing
because

an

such

unusually

thick
es

"

to

so

"n

when

dealing

of
with

this
"

that

familiar
It may

speak"

the

and

to

use

the

in

possessed
which

accident

an

"

before the

indistinctlyseen,
of

all the

arises

course,

available

come

kind, special directions

How

lens

with

occur

cover-glass. This,

up"

long

carefully

too

with

employed

i"efore it can
accident

not

short

be

of

laboratories, where

often

:itly more

"

long

overlooked

use

perhaps than

one

happen with surprisingrapidity.

before it can
object is focusscd, or even
to

in

very

commonly

more

is

and

tool

free distance
"

The

purchase.

often

matter

particularlynoticeable

mien

at

and

great recommendation,

objectives,for

their

of

give the working-distance

ifl a

the

systems,

objectiveis composed of
length it is said to possess does

lenticular

one

exactly that
i

use

make

an

as

length mentioned;

focal

the
:cc

the

not

cover-glass adjustment
point out occasionallythey

shall

we

lenses,the focal

any

taken

not

cover-glassesdoes

of

in mind

borne

different

many

not

of

presence

it is obvious

so

using homogeneous

on

!d be

of

system,

the

of service.

are

so

As

usually supplied with

not

are

homogeneous

when

difference

much

overlooked.

be

not

in thickness

OBJECTIVES

OF

ING-DISTANCE

KK

;6

to

a
are

free
focus.

given

Microscope,"which

WORKING-DISTANCE
should

in

obvious

is

"

more

such

very

less

or

attempting

to

and

is much

sensitive

more

consequently demands

of lower

one

high-power oil-immersion
front,it
/^//^r-hemispherical

objective

an

shock,"

using, than

in

care

that

by

accident

of

consequence

requiring

systems

before

77

(page 221).

powers

Further,

OBJECTIVES

by the student

carefully read

be

high

use

OF

where

power,

much

the

to

more

front, being

more
only ^mz-spherical,permits of being so much
tightly
This
is very
held in its mount.
seen
readily
by examining
On
the
hand
is
an
Fig. 77 (afterZeiss).
right
objectiveof lower

Fig. 77.
than

power

of the

that
"

shown
"

mount

in

left ; the

the

on

one

from

case

difference

in

the

the other

that of

ness
thickis very

obvious.1
have

We

previouslysaid that, as

objectives
"

Lealand

save

Powell

"

reasons

already given

certain

"

of those

some

made

; but

we

rule, no

with

geneous
high-power homo-

manufactured

correction

feel bound

to

say

"

Messrs.

collars, for

the

that at times,

have

found

on

the

recognising the
rather than
by alterations
adjustments by this means,
length.
in these
elsewhere
this chapter, and
Throughout
1

by

tion
utilityof using the correcPowell
Lealand
"
our
apochromatic, and of
of making
the
it affords
greater convenience

occasions, we

collar with

are

tube-

pages,

it

aperture,"usually written N.A., has not been

refrain from
introducing it in the text ; but we may
explained as yet, we
mention
that the right-hand part of the
of
the mounting
diagram shows
with
an
objective of N.A.
1*30, whilst the left is that of a combination
an

As

the

term

aperture of N.A.

numerical

of

1*40.

CORRECTION

TUBE-LENGTH

78
has

they will
the

(for

of

fear

dry

be

work

in

the

the

upon

of

case

be

when

first instance
lens

front

be

can

nearer

easily done

mount

whereas

length of
the

the

the

cell

than

the

before

wiped
of cambric

from

the

surface-clean,and

absolutelybe avoided, as

in

at

once

the

hemispherical

of

the

system,

further

screw

shall

be

of

the

an
a

which
to

the

increase

in

the

one

greater

system.2
should

Xylol.

with

be
fine

Spirits of

the

contrived

of

mixing

Index

ee
J

of

collar

brings

about

If this

be

alteration
(

from
of

sixth

convert

oil called
"Van

to

with

long

Nelson
"

collar

it may

to

necessary

into

be

the

tube-length

the

short

to

will

the

in the

ration
"i" ular

attention

innately,

in

long
the

book

tube

collar

tube-length

is called

unemled

be

all

to

the

be

from,
that

may
of

circulating amongst
it

to

be

employed

by
the

be
twt

so

moving

to

(which

required

no

more,

Vice

?v

result.

slight

by reversing
23,

to

components
;

required.
18

useful

thereabouts
the

effected

say,

matter

the

combination

is

that
can

times

at

separate

tube

short

sold

'transformer.'"

adjustment,

tube

has

oil.

cedar

Mersol."

Heurck's

it is only

things, viz., turning

m.'ikin

:oi

late, Mr.

from, say, 18 to 10 or
adjustment backwards
a
see
separation,
footnote,p. 75) produces
and
the collar will turn
not
quite satisfactory,

of

hungc

order

for reference

that, seeing

to
sufficiently

Of

lens.

immersion

new

using

When

recollect

the

the

must

cement

fluid

of

piece

wine
the

it dissolves

fully
care-

holding the front in situ, and so do certain forms

The
microscopist had better buy the immersion
maker

that

so

"

removed

systems

instances

in

on

new

gently touched

some

will

bringing

implies

rest

with

(moistened only)

as

correction

cell

it

lens

so

the

necessitating

front

certain

optician

which

that

with, all immersion

finished

When

often

"

that

more

components

second

made

in

can

the

manner,

in

the

been

readily effected
objectives into long-tube

mentioned

other

wise
other-

circumstance

by
be

can

consists

the

mount

bearing

distance

is

by making
in

the

arranged

opposite

merely
to

of

short-tube

it

has

tube-length

one

with

corrected, or

are

mention

no

These

the

in

employed

best, this being especially

text)

and

changing

understood

the

for

other.1

than

combinations

but

the

readjusted

they

their

at

systems

corrected

instances
to

for which

complicating

combinations

be

objectives must

perform

not

with

case

that

draw-tubes

length of

the

stated

been

often

the

subsequently

nere-

lining spiritsof wine,

microscopies

its author

NUMERICAL

80

APERTURE
the

offering explanation, that

and

in

not

to

respect

diameter

throughout,

the

in

versd\ but

of aperture

increase

in the

length of the system, hence

before spoken of has nothing to

lens

question, and

aperture
far

the

for

use

aperture,"but
focal

lens to the

To

ution.

In

it

by

gone

years

that its formation

explanation

the

that

image

with

of

"

the

diameter

to

Thus

the

term

this

why
of

the

the

which

back

formation

same

and

way

by the

the

photographic

the

refraction

after the

fashion

In the

":;^cr hold

been

found

explain the

by
value

of

objectiveby directlycomparing
"

with

the

"aperture
y

good,

that

an

"

without

"

of

the

of

the

and

the

of

the

in the

the
to

have

to

it Ins

science

to

microscopical

th"

iiy

The

in

fications
quali-

compari-

far

function

the

distant

because

of the

so

in

shown

seems

telescope.

understood,

increase

be

error

would,

aperture

it

light,just

could

"

"

details

as

in

by applying

exponents

some

wing

laws

moon

image of
ordinary cam-

it otherwise

was

manner,

of the

an

It

looking through

of

present day this

than

convenient

and

compare

of

or

on

as

same

bee's

dioptric

same

ray

same

of

the eye

of

same

ground glass

lens.

the

image of the sun

image of the minute

displayed to

as

the

telescope.

structure

good in explaining the formation

upon

the

by

formed

upon

geometrically traceable

was

govern

with

delicate

formed

the

delicate diatom,

microscope,

dependent

of the

that

and

image

explainablein

was

was

formation

the

telescope;

hold

front

system.

into

that the

obtains

as

of the

microscope

the
;

the

assumed

microscopical objective was

thought

most

first enter

must

was

of

in

of the

to

and
improves definition,light-grasp,

so

this, we

method

and

lens

microscopicalimage.

of the

the

do

the

upon

offered

been

system

back

effective semi-diameter

of the

length

lens

same

different.

depends

special use
has

is

sufficient

the

lenses, or

(in a sense)

of

or

explanation

no

the ratio

in

increase

restricted

the

"

it

diameter

requirements of the designer of the

the

meet

made

only

is

the

the

of the

do

In

of the

of

part
the

focal

the

system,"

of about

are

semi-diameter

of the

ratio

or

diameter

most

"

front.

of aperture

of

for the

here

the

to

microscopical objective

Increase

back

lenses

increase

increase

the

with

corresponds

"

any

so

applied

speciallens

telescopicobjectivethe

system of

vice

is

term

each

NUMERICAL

APERTURE

81

But to
improves definition,light-grasp,and separating power.
have
the
student, as we
already pointed out, it
commencing
that forms
his first
is justthis comparison, improperly qualified,
stumbling-block.
Having then asserted that the production of the image by
is not

instruments

these two

similar, to what

then

is the formation

Professor
Abbe, whose
microscopical image due?
knowledge was
only equalled by his
profound mathematical
complete acquaintance with practical optics, was
engaged for
in vigorously attacking the problem, and
he found
years
many
that the perfection of the image produced by the microscopical
entirelydependent on the quantity of diffracted
objectivewas
light1emanating from the objectthat was grasped by the objective
of the

transmitted

and

to

the

observer's

He

eye.

his

proved

theory
silvered glass

of artificial rulingson
experimentally by means
that when
the
giving regular diffraction spectra, and showed
of
these
into the objective was
number
spectra admitted
and
diminished
more
more
by the insertion of suitable stops
behind
fell off

and

more

vanished

definition and

the
objective,

the

when

until

more

only

eventually

spectrum,

one

resolution

of the

all traces

the

or

rulings

of structure

direct

light only,

admitted.

was

So

far,then, the only point

fact the
1

diffracted

more

rectilinear

be

to

light that

held
be

can

propagationof light on

is the

by the reader
Emitted

which

and

trans-

geometrical theory
directlyexemplified
of shadows, is only approximately true.
in the formation
So long as objects
and
of
fair
the
size
are
concerned,
departure from rectilinear
apertures
propagationis small ; but when small objectsor apertures are dealt with,and
their size becomes
with the wave-length of
commensurable
especiallywhen
light(equal to about sTrfonrof an inch), it becomes
quite obvious that they
have
the
round
Familiar
a scattering
or
effecton
lightpassing
through them.
flame
of a small
when
seen
examples are the appearances
through a
of
feather or through a piece
material such as a silk-handkerchief.
fine woven
small
thus
which
is
scattered
by
objects or apertures is called
Light
number
of similar objectsor apertures
a considerable
diffracted
light. When
small
intervals
as
to form
at
are
so
a
arranged
equally
regular pattern,
still more
the diffracted
a
striking appearance
light assumes
by being

of

The

optical instruments

broken

up

into

is based, and

series of isolated

which

the

is most

beams, which

when

derived

from

white

prismatic colours and are then called diffraction-spectra.

for by the
are
easily and
completely accounted
appearances
undulatorytheory of light; they are treated t"f in Chapter XV., to which the

light show
All

the

these

reader

is referred

for further

information.

NUMERICAL

82

mitted

the

by

the

the

angle embraced

greater the
olden

in

mistake

then

resolution
of

the

from

Abbe

of
judicious tilting

which

actual

on

led him

the

trial

the
be

to

the

objective the
shall speak of

we

that

was

thought

rays

the

by

made

was

object
showed

to be

not

take

sine

of half that

place

the

definition

and

in

should

be

the

the

do
His

case.

actual

likewise,
studies
did

improvement

angle

of aperture

increased, but

This

sine of half

the

angle.

the
back

the

; but

the

as

angle, called sin U

also conjointly proved, with

angle),he
another
mathematician,
was
equal to the ratio of the semiin the upper
diameter
of the emerging pencil,measured
focal
for simplicity
to the focal length, which
plane of the objective,
be said to be the same
and fairlyclose approximation may
as
(where

the

as

was

obliquity
high-angled
justlyremarked

for he
false,

to

that

This

again

in

objectiveor specimen
found

it

wider

objective in

the

to

was

better.

increase

the

to

definition

the

then, the

improvement

due

further, for he found

not

It is obvious,

resolution.

days, and

objectives. This
a

better

microscopicalobjective,the

and

known

APERTURE

is

ratio of the
lens to

half

the focal

length.

shall see, their numerical

uniting of the front

the
this

specimen by

whose

of

sin U

whether

it be

of

n"

then, it will be further

shown

for numerical

of all

aperture

for it is evident
of what

has

such

been

air is ro, which

whereas

its

whether

dry

places such
1

thos"

For

or

"

will be
In

read

formula

homogeneous,

to

at

concise

be
be

dry

the

in

Fig. 78 let L
Let F
object C.

the

way

into

of

with

no

change

desirous
a

lenses,whether
in

on

once

mathematical
form"

For

dry

convenience,
of

Abbe

homogeneous,

or

their

validity

the index

(as

values

enables

simple and
proof, a

for which

employed,

affects the
ones

the

at

all

of

all),

lenses,

directly compared, and

be
a

into

final formula

not

comparison

argument

oil.

does

introduction

is,we

requires the

of the fluid

index
cedar

concerning

therefore

the

speak later of

we

introduction

this is the

introduction

said

dry lenses

construction

the

glycerine,or

water,

of

aperture

objective to the cover-glassof

refractive index,
fluid of proper

refractive

the

when

; but

demands

special construction

formula

some

for

ratio

complete

of the

lens

means

"

This

aperture

homogeneous systems,

effective

of the

semi-diameter

am

scientific basis.1

consideration
indebted

to

of the following
Mr.

Conrady

interest.
a

lens, or

the

point

system
where

of

lenses,producing an
focal plane
the upper

image
cuts

the

I of

an

axis

APERTURE

NUMERICAL

83

be
not
Referring again to the diffraction spectra, it must
imaginary or theoretical ; they can
easily
thought they are
without
studied
and
special accessories
by focussing
be seen
of N.A.
i'2O
or
a
1-40, on
high-aperturedobjective,say, one

marginal

is the

then, if CD

the

receiving,El

after

ray

same

pencil which the lens

refraction,if a and /3 are

of the

ray

is
the

capable
angles

of

of

Fig. 78.
the refractive index of the medium
n
refraction,
M
the magnificationof the image formed
in which the object C is embedded,
at I, and/ the equivalent focal length of the lens or
system of lenses,we
dioptricformula,
have, by a fundamental

divergence

before

after

and

I. FI

In order

to

demands

be

lens

aplanatic,the

/3is always

equal

sin

sin /3.

angle, and

small

its sine,or

to

FG

Introducingthis

sensibly

FG

II,we

get

"

FG

FG

as

of sin /3 into

value

III.

sin

its tangent

take

may

we

"

sine- condition,which

fulfil Abbe's

must

"

1 1.

Now

Mf.

is the numerical

sin

aperture

of the

emerging penciltaken
proof we require,viz. :

of

in the

our

^rrr

-j-

focal

of the

is the

FG

lens, and

upper

semi-diameter
XT

semi-diameter
the

forms

III

plane, hence

emerging pencil

equivalent focal length

That

/3 is always

objectivecannot
7 in. (with such

than

^
larger
hence
lens),
large

be
a

angle

small

follows

in.; the

this

the

tube-length

lens

back

less

is seldom

of

an

than

"

2"

"

"

from

52'.

For

this angle the cosine

'9987 ;
to

near

remark

"

which

enough unityfor
the above

purposes

proof includes

ratio of sine

is the
of N
any

sort

A.

to

tangent

measurements.

of

objectives.

"

is about

It is needless

DIFFRACTION

84

SPECTRA

Pleurosigma angulatum, and then, after removing the eyepiece

and
the tube
closingthe iris diaphragm a little,
by looking down
a

when

central

six diffraction
occasions

many

whether

the

gratings

as

of the

the

grating

until

used

alone

beam

of

words

image,

"

Dr.

the

Dallinger,

and

to

on

prove

by obtaining

the

tainable
ob(which were
readily recognised that
off from

cut

are

entering

disappear from
central
dioptrically

the lines
the

remains, all detail vanishes.

portion of the book

this

do

so

tried

Abbe

last, when

at

objective has been removed

altogether."
power
In

not,

or

by the late Professor

Carl Zeiss),
when
it was
diffraction phenomena

the formation

the

correct

was

with

surrounded

seen

spectra (Fig. 5, Plate I.). This has been

in pre-war
times, by those anxious

into

formed

lightwill be

used

these

more

of direct

statement

from
the

beam

Indeed,

image appears
the microscope

it would

be out

if

as

has

to

use

the

lost its

of

place to give
referred
these experiments in further detail,although they are
be out of place to give
not
to frequentlyelsewhere, but it may
of these classical experiments more
the accredited
or
summary
less in the Professor's

of the rays

the reunion
of the
"

of

lightemanating

from

different

points

object.

That

the greater part of the

to

the

through

the

is

an

small

words

own

image produced by the microscopicalobjectiveof

objectis not geometrically produced in its entiretyby

That

"

due

diffracted

that

rays

objective,and

the

perfectionof
collected

are

not

by and

much

so

final

the

to

image
passed
direct

ones.

That

"

whole
of

of the

into

if the

is that

smaller
less

the
the

loss of
number

faithful

objectis

with

the

object unless

the

phenomena (which the object is capable

the objective. The
direct
of
consequence

coarse

is the

the

the

these

diffraction

beams

direct

light that

; in

the

not

received

ing
object accord-

other

words,

the

accepted and passed by the objective the

in an
the detail
resulting image. When

compared with
diffracted light lies

of the

be

phenomena

image differs from

the

as

whole

is of sensible

of

whole

then
by the objective,
to

identical

diffraction

yielding)pass

this

is not

image

an

so

wave-length of light,the

close

to

the

corresponding

all that
low-power objectiveswill admit
the correspondence between
brightness. Hence
even

FORMATION

image is

objectand

close.

very
the

with

IMAGE

OF

85

when

But

becomes

perhaps equal to a mere

be closely watched
fraction of it, the diffraction spectra must
ingly.
accordof the image estimated
and the probable verisimilitude

commensurate

or

in

more

image formed
dots separated by
the

lie further

phenomena

the direct

from

the field of view

two

as

diffraction

interval,the

minute

objects, such

small

or

fact that

is the

point,too,

Another
of very

wave-length,

detail

the

rays

in the

than

of

case

in

out

objects

the
separated by larger intervals,hence
a
high
greater importance still that the objectiveshould have

in which

the details

N.A.

as

so

enable

to

possibleof

are

in the

made

details

to

respect

in

as

as

many

adds, speaking

further

"

easily resolved
"

as

as

Pleurosigma angulatum, that until an objectivebe

believe the final image (provided
he cannot
of N.A.
2-o
of

case

of

too,

gather

and

all-important rays." He

these

especially with

more

catch

it to

that

course,

medium

have

regarded

as

immersion

slip, its cover-glass, and

the

be
of refraction)
can
requisiteindex
absolutely faithful reproduction of the original

also
an

the

object.
hoped the

it is

But

by

reader

the

why

will understand

now

possessed by a lens (within limits to be

hereafter defined) is of such importance, and see, too, the utility
with
consistent
of giving to every
objective the highest amount
its initial magnification.
The
of thought is so
evolution
rapid that the intelligent
of

increase

reader

N.A.

now

may

If

following question.
objective the

an

light-grasp and
of

image
their

make
to

half-inch

that of the

is

that

of

this

large back

lens

At

of

which

has

example, why not

equal in point of fact

; and

highest

present the

were

indeed

even

largerdiameter

12-mm.

if that

could
were

of tube, the

not

got

be
over

It is

'65.

possibleto
such

demand

description,it would

know

we

Watson's

aperture of about

combination

make

for

; say,

an

to

faithful

manufacturers

lens

First, supposing it
of this

give

we

render

to

aperture of 1*40,

an

lens that the

with

not

the

ask

resolving,the greater its

of

J-in. apochromatic and

ordinary microscope
instruments

aperture

it becomes

do

properly

very

the

higher N.A.

twelfth

Zeiss's

reason.

compute

with

best

holoscopic,each
for

of

powers

and

more

able

more

object, why

the

lower

the

its power

more

the

further

step

go

used

on

an

by using

suiting of aperture

86
to

has

power

highest order

objects" say

two

distance

and

of

which

lines

two

be said

may

be

to

an

such
"

of

of

po\ver

is

200

eyepiece would

an

With

overdoing

this

tion
magnifica-

as

really-^Jozr*n- apart appear to the eye in

of
interval
if separated by an
^l^ in., and

the

lines

of

than

being

these, say

them

by

at

normal

interval

an

of

not

much

as

be

sufficient

be

of

^i^

as

would

closer

but

eye

microscope

so

inch, would

the

to

70,000

magnificationwould

the

because

by

seen

an

not

image "),but

good apochromatic.

for

probably

performance

capable

obtained,

most

the

resolve

to

of usefulness

the limit

rotten

as

be able

to

normal

held at
^J7 in. apart when
objective of i-in. focal length

beyond

(as

is known

what

about

"

Secondly,

supposed

magnifying

ordinary achromatic
cause

is

With

in.

10

eyepiece,

10

APERTURE

NUMERICAL

definite limit of usefulness.1

of the very

eye

TO

LIMIT

be

lines

invisible,

to

separate

inch,

an

the

interestingas well as instructive for the student to consider

him
with the
the following remarks, as
more
conversant
they will make
said.
has
been
Seeing that the N.A. of a dry
practicalutilityof what
the
semi-diameter
is
ratio
of the
the
of
available
practically
objective
is
of
it
find
the
the
back
lens
focal
the
to
N.A.
to
required
length,
Aperture
back
whose
lens
of a given dry objective whose
focal length is \ in. and
1

be

It may

f in.

measures

(1)

N.A.

---

conversely, supposing
of

aperture

an

have

we

=y=i

(i

such

be

must

the

:"

A)

inch

an
2

focal

length

as

must

with

half-inch
be

diameter

would

of '3 N.A.

"). With

objectiveshould

an

used
the

We

".

have

now

"

'6;

\ in. focal

diameter

of

length
the

is said to

have

lens?

Here

back

"

viz. three-tenths
were

N.A.

diameter

Again

then

given objectiveof

'6, what

semi-diameter

(2)

the diameter

Half

across.

of 95,000
a

20

with

raised,we
of its back

10

lines to the

lens

shown,
must

-"$

hence

"

of the ideal lens

about

inch, or

eyepiece its magnifying

eyepiece 10, but to make
have

the

lens g in. diameter

requireaback
(because
eyepiece,the magnifying power being 100,
three-tenths

resolve

|-in.

to

needs

Further, if the half-inch

be

at

would

it resolve

'6.

about

28,500.

power

least

made

But

be

do

i" in.
of N.A.

too

now

200,

50,000

to

of N.A.

If

the

"

inch

the

lines its N.A.

this

by (2) the
large for any

microscope.
1-40 as previously
lens
and
of, at least, ig in. diameter
requireaback
an
spoken of, it would
which
is
in
of
of
service
be
to
equal
meant,
eyepiece
27 to
resolving
any
; by
in. 1*40 with
of
the
in. with
or
a
a
f.2
|
eyepiece,
performance
5
power
the
would
It
then
lines sufficiently
only just separate
a 7 eyepiece.
of
the
view
in
field
of
the
in.
microscope the limit of
"2n
apart
appear
for it
normal
a microscope made
vision,and would
were

the

DRY

OBJECTIVES

of the

formation

microscopical image, opticians, as

previously remarked, basing their belief that wide-

true

have

we

AND

IMMERSION

OIL

88

their superiority in definition

the
to
angled objectives owed
they could receive the rays from
angle of obliquityat which
of the part played by the
the object, and
not
being aware
diffraction* spectra, had
striven for years
to increase
religiously

angle of which
of efficiencywas

this aperture
increase

an

its

refractive

cover-glasses.But
and

and

the

the

was

this

about,

that led to

one

index

why

brought

was

lens

cover-glass of the

interpositionat first of
most
finally and
perfectlyby

glycerine,but
because

front

the

continuity between
specimen by the

speak. They found, too, that

produced by continuing the optical
we

was

remained

only

of

most

ment
improveof

matter

oil,

of

such

of difference

great deal

that

how

and

so,

by

cedar-wood
as

same

then

water,

surmise

opinion.

By

able
patient practice and computation with the glasses then availthey had brought up the receiving angle of the dry
objective to what appeared its final limit, viz. to about 170" ;

and

what

in this direction

they said,

more,

could

be

expected

made?

or

Yet

the fact remained

such

gave

results!

improved
indeed

Here

it due?

time

as

was

went

Why

on
was

situation

that

the oil immersion

it?

And

which

the

about

170"

To

their

as

absurd

mathematical
upon
enable

the

gather
in

environment

reader

of

else

greater

practicalway
must

simple

follow

to

or

the

sion
oil-immer-

angle than

180",

of facts.

we

the

at

rays

the face

this

subject

declared,

computers

on

understand

the

able
insuper-

and

objectivesmust
was

was

another.
thought one
thing
some
dry objective did not, after all,gather the rays at

Either

which

of

seemed

difficulty.Some

what

to

what

digress

refraction
comes

without

and

of

after

for

moment

light
and

subject intelligibly.1
A, B, C, D in Fig. 79 represent the outlines
drawn
at
vessel,AC
being the water
line,and BD

any

so

to

as

understand

the

Let

it

to

passing

This

earlier
the

with

from

portion of
part

annoyance

the

of this
of

present

B
the

to

through E,

subject

work,

having

to

argument.

but

has

it is

refer back

which

of

right angles

direction

really been furnished

interpolated here to
at some
length before

circular

is called
in

before
save

he

the

the
can

continue

LAW

SHELL'S
"

"

perpendicular

"

the

normal," all angles being referred

or

the

into

is incident

beam

the

When

undergoes

is

there

medium,

new

bending

water,

uninterruptedlyfollowing
it is incident

when

But

is refraction

there

"

the

strike

point

the

refraction

"

it passes
of

beam

the
at

will be

it is incident

m'

at

E, for the

at

into

on

position" say

E, for the

at

perpendicularly
the only instance

course

other

any

Suppose

n.

is also

there

then

at

for

"

to

refraction

no

it

no

along

where

line

ED.

along

found

to

along ?;/E,

will be

ray

the

found

"'.

at

Fig.
Snell made
of

the

have

and

discovery, about

day,

the

Now

angles

quotients, in all
viz. 1-333.

This

all

cases
was

to

vi

meeting

and

divided

what

he

were

explained,

of

with

lenses

should

we

which,

not

in the

familiar.

so

line from

from

obtained.

wherever

are

we

measured

were

be

to

grand computations

another

np

investigationconcerning this bending

be
it
their path can
predicted. Were

by which

the

So.

celebrated

first drew

He

and

his

had

present

o,

rays,

for

not

was

to

line.

this

m}L

89

BE

meet

ED
one

at

/.

by the other

discovered

taken, whether

using
called

water

the

and

right angles at
The
lengths om

at

was

the

from

air,came

Refractive

out

Index

quotient
fact

or

m't the

the
of

that

same,
water.

substances

Other

each

glass,for

Flint

1*64, according

to

1*54

OBJECTIVES

tried,and

were

index.

refractive

IMMERSION

AND

DRY

90

substance

instance, is found

its manufacture,

to

substances, complete lists being found

and

between

ratio

the

that

starting from
E

given point in
an
angle mEo,

BC.

the

of

can

sine

45".

It is

draw

nE

is,

good,
now

after
let

example,

of

our

that

4 to 3, holds

For

say,

we

the

the other

from

comes

45", and
multiply that by 3 and

tables
and

is 07,

speaking, it

that

of

sines

quite evident
will strike AD,

ray

so

will at

It is

m.

or

the

of the

out

where

angle "E/,

the

take

We

any
make

to

find

to

from

starts

the

upon

with

one

is about

"/, which

calculate

can

we

strike

om

the ray

whether

light striking E

and

other

that, continuing

definite ratios

certain

incident

the

wherever

with

on

all books

in

so
riEp respectively,

precept, the sines bear

so

;;/, really represent the

lines, vwy

BE;//

angles

and

special

be about

to

mathematically inclined, he

be

reader

these

see

once

the

If

subject.

its

had

;;/

required
correctly.

find, roughly
divide

by

4,

find O'5
Resorting to our book again, we
off from
be marked
D to
that 30" must
is the sine of 30",so
find the line nE.
Although, simply put, this is the maxim
in constructing
which
mainly pervades the optician'smind
which

gives

o-5.

us

lenses, as

new

refracted
lenses
law

The

when

the

the

problem,

pass

One

remark

more

ri

Seeing that
happens
and
if one
of the

to

for it appears

evident, which
called
kinds
Let

the
of
us

A, say

nearer

again
is the

"critical"

with

at

is said
z''.

"

or

at
to

This

is

allows

////////
'ng

ray

angle"

to

and

the

take

cannot

out

is known

air

place
get

reflexion

get

made.

into

angle then,

one

to

;//, what

to

will

ray

suffer "total

the

good

be

to

pass

true, what
~?

But

modifications.

yet

It will

xt

many

passing from

refracted

becomes

There

last, that

has

are

beginning

when

certain

subject

If this be

EC.

all,and

at

water

where

equally holds

course,

then

startingabout

ray

still

starts

to

colours

from

same

into air,and

the

on

passing

along

graze

is the

the water

glass to another, although

one

ingly
exceed-

intensely intricate.

calculations

from

become

details

different

law, reversed, of

same

rays

the

calculations,as
becomes

concerned,

arc

fact

angles, and

different

at

underlying

end.

real

in

operose

of

matter

"

out

at

it is very
; this is

for

all

glass.
now

see

how

these

remarks

apply

to

our

subject.

DRY

Consider

it

follow

be

the

path

shown

again
DN'

normal,
DE

will

be

now

that any

rays

lying between

DE

touches

the

DE'

(where

microscope,
of the

readily understood,
it in

they have

as

away

BN,

the

without

much

the

air

previous
along
AB.

to

It

consideration,

edge of the objective

will

diagram)
of

and

normal

course

parallel

course

our

into

passes

its

B.

(as in the

the

continuing

chance

no

at

to

BN

from

towards

and

objective.

normal

dry lens)it

bent

been

the

air, according
the

bent

refractive

cover-glass at

it arrives

entering the glass,thus

therefore, is of
; DE,

on

to

is

so

of

the

towards

using

"

lens

upon
than

When

when

it had

as

front

ray

BD.

medium

much

as

the

medium

as

91

cover-glass,having

refracted

happens

rarer

"

the

denser

OBJECTIVES

incident

an

must

it

be

1*5, and

AB

of what

case

Let

about

enters

precept

IMMERSION

80.

consider

Also
As

Fig.
of

index

AND

be

lost

the

to

entering the front lens

objective.

But

let

lens and

the

has the

consider

us

what

cover-glass
refractive

happens

if

place between

we

drop of fluid, say,

index

as

the

notice

now

cedar

the

oil, which

viz. 1-5.
cover-glass itself,
Follow
the diagram, commencing
at the right hand, and
sider
conthe ray
A'.
starting from
Arriving at B, it will be
refracted
D' just the same
to
and
for similar reasons
AB
as
same

refracted

was

emerging
as

the

in

up

D.

to

D7

at

ray

substance

air,as

shown

This

from

of

the

rarer

certain

up

they might be

upon

unless
to

up
to

happens.

which

in

the

sense

lightenters

digression for

think, to text-books
in

detail

oil.

be

explain

to

of the

mind

the
so

explicitas
stand
under-

difficult to

from

pared
com-

medium

denser

being
is

the

may

to

entered

ray

moment

not

subject, which

carefullyexplained

index

path uninterruptedly
the object-glassto gather

present themselves

this

the

its

diagram, instead of

when

As

refractive

same

lost when

were

of the rays,

difficulties which
we

enables

of the

side

leads

student, owing,

fluid of the

that

rays

bunching

one,

what

left,it continues

the other

the

F, which

to

gathering
with

enters

it has

straightline
the whole

But

commencement

end.

Startingfrom
of

another

the

the

ether

waves

being that colour

dependent

upon

the number

is their

remarkable

of the most

beginning,one

extreme

effects,as
of such

seen

waves

motion

rapidity of
by

the

eye,

tures
fea-

are

entering the

eye

alone
in

light is caused

Red

of time.

second

APERTURE

OF

ANGLE

92

about

by

lightby about 678 billions of these

strikingthe retina in that interval.

violet
and

miles

180,000

second,

calculate

we

entering the eye

light travels in air

waves

As

wave-length for

the

that

vri^jth of

that of violet about

and

urJwth

light is about

red

so

billions and

400

length. But in denser media, however, such

of waves
oil,light travels slower, and as the number
it
colour is an unchangeable quantity,so the slower
in

inch

shorter

the

is

here

just

become,

waves

that

for text-books
in

colour

instead
in

eye

puzzle often presents

by

produced

Bearing this

why

colour

no

of

when

bunched

in

up

remaining constant,
Seeing that

immersion

velocity of light in air

alteration

actual

medium.

It

of

flint of index

in dense

becomes

now

both

obvious, too,

evident, without

can

Lastly,

more

is

after the

formerly

used

the

"angle"

not

of the

such

or

number

like; or
of

waves

same.

further

ratio of the

the

with

same

with

the

the

relative
would

spoken
nature

The

merits.

one

the

in

It is
the

turn

equally

immersion

that

ones,

them

to

which

by

show

case,
"

the

immersion
"

angle

apply, because,

of in
as

dry

will

of these

not

gives

definition.

the

p.

explanation,why

diffraction

admitted

'35

latter

the

former.

consideration

introduction

to

systems

the

are

rays

possible

small

their

be

seeing and

compete

never

arose

the
as

than

systems

stood
under-

light traverses

shortened

it becomes

r667

"bunching up" in the immersion

much
more
light chiefly due to

improves

be

now

called

this
so

can

in any
given substance, so
in different media
is found

that

to

be

may

se,

by
wave-length
in
index
air by the refractive
of the
wave-length
D
Thus
light is "59 fi wave-length in air,but

dividing the
new

index

refractive

changes

entering the

waves

the

the

the colour continues

beginner,

wave-length per

films of oil

systems,

It

same.

that

when

is caused

alteration

differingrefractive index,

lenses

the

mind, it

in

the

moves

itself to

of

in the number

for each

the

of

glass or

as

remains

understand

to

alteration

any

only by changes
second.

him

frequently lead

are

of

the colour

but

an

as

in

angle in oil"

as

that
difficulty

systems
of
a

of

paring
com"

aperture
matter

air,for

They

as

of

fact,

example,
could

is

never

Continued
for ever
compared.
now
misunderstandings were
arisingin comparing the performance of the different objectives
"the
and
the cedar-oil immersion.
dry, the water, the glycerine,

SIN

refractive

if the

that

whether

"

be

could

index

of

the

with

Calling the

sin U, instead

of sin U

objectivescould

be made

taken

was

cedar

immersion

refractive

Professor

to

fluid

air, glycerine, or

compared

at once

manner.

93

thought, however, occurred

brilliant

oil"

the

n,

into

sideration
con-

dry objectives
in

systems

index

Abbe,

scientific

equation became

the Numerical
only, and this he termed
Aperture of the objective. For air n is only i, for cedar oil 1-52,
and
on.
so
By this ingenious idea, then, comparisons of all
n

example

for

Take

dry lens of 60"

sin

Again,
because
.*.

sin

an

because

each

one

If

wish

to

opposite

the

half

2U

of

30

Once

the
2

-329;

and

19*25

From

therefore
X

what

1*52

1-52
"329

'5 N.A.

dry objectiveof 60" angle is

(where n
1-52)of 38*5"angle,
a

sin

dry

in

the

opposite

*5, therefore

"

of Natural

it must

Sines
be

not

is

has

oil immersion

N.A.

1*52 and

sin

sin

38*5",which
been

"

"

by

'5.

angle
U

is

really

is

required its

'5, sin

"

the

seen

of '5

is found

(which

forgotten that

has

19*25

find its

to

sin

therefore

i,

"

we

manner,

wish

-5 N.A., and

one,

Tables

Here

*5,

angular aperture, hence the aperture

60", the angular aperture required.

angular aperture.
=

oil)

of

N.A.

Because

An

more.

*5 N.A.

of *5.

30". But

19*25"

problems

*5

of cedar

that

compute

'5 in the

30"

"

38-5" angle has

sin

N.A.

objectivebeing

30", hence

index

oil immersion
has

sin

of

1*52

"

"

angular aperture.

Now

dry objectiveto be

suppose

The

"

readily seen

equivalent to

may

sin

of *5, because

oil immersion

it is

we

N.A.

(the refractive

1*52

scientific basis.

and

true

upon

has
I

an

Thus

at once

the

tables),

gives the result required.

said,

it will

be

understood

now

the

essential
1.

qualitiesof an objectivethat depend on its N.A. are :

with a given magnifiBrightness of Image : this increases
cation
the square
of the
other things being equal
as
"

"

aperture.
2.

Resolving and
the N.A.

Defining Power
; whilst

it will be

"

in direct
seen

later

proportion with
on

that

"

APERTOMETER

ABBE'S

94

There

homogeneous

the

thick

glass about

the

above

downwards

a) is

small
the

to

disc

of

be shifted around

are

one

square
view). To

angle of 45".
silvered glasswith

side and
this

use

and

the

of

now

stem

the

with

focusscd

used, and
is

called,

are

then

bevelled

the

the

objective

length

of

ordinarily in

placed

on

the
use.

the

tl

at

other

\ n

(see

b in

stage
the

of

the

of

edges

circular

edge

two

of the

the

the

side

with

the

portion is
towards

little ho!

ired,

draw-tube
The

the

/"/",

micro

piece backwards

to

(marked

in its centre,
which

that

The

hole

placed

the

manner

instrument.

from

is bevelled

platesof metal,

the

upon

or

of

the

on

apparatus,

chord

the

edge

pointed

thick.

inch

an

the centre

small

Two

outer

graduated surface uppermost

(fixedvertically)in such a
forwards,

Near

an

the

piece of

81.

silvering is removed.

can

half

and

segmental

glass becomes

of

consists

This

Abbe,

Professor

by

purpose

diameter,

Fig.

where

for

two

lenses, is by using

of

types

for

in. in

the

part where

objectives,and

dry

(Fig. 81).

Apertometer

called

both

to

devised

special apparatus

The

OBJECTIVE.

AN

OF

systems.

first,applying

The

for

methods

three

are

N.A.

THE

factors),

it.

being inverselyproportionalto
ASCERTAINING

the amount

other

with

present (but in company

of N.A.

with

intimately associated

is

Depth of Focus

3. TJic

an

same

indi"

glass,as

eyepiece
when

as

7"

shown

arc

in

APERTOMETER

CHESHIRE'S

96
the

between

troubles

two

in

actually happened

false N.A.

our

when

case

followingmethods

about
To

obtained.

were

when

being only discovered

mistake

look

the observer

the

of the

one

results

different
low

let

powers,

first focussing,

after the

microscope

'3,

sixth, the

check

first fault with

the

remedy

down

applying as

This
N.A.

achromatic

an

be described, when

to

inch

testingan

apochromatic quarter-inch, and

an

be obtained.

may

the auxiliary lens, using no

regulate the indices without
eyepiece at all ; whilst to avoid the latter trouble it is best by
far to employ an
ocular having no diaphragm on
all occasions.
The
student
should
read some
interesting suggestionsmade
of the apertometer
in
contained
by Dr. Hartridge upon the use
337, Part ^Journal Roy. Mic. Soc.,1918.
page
and

Another

the

use

at

and

method

ascertaining the numerical

aperture is by
of a device
fessor
Prosuggested by Mr. F. J. Cheshire, now
the Imperial Institute,
South
Kensington. This simple

yet efficient contrivance

(1904), to
other

which

details.

of concentric

placed

project

an

observation

directly.

values

of

the

into

small

5O-mm.

The

second

in

Leitz

the

docs

used

and

number

spaced and

so

which

they form

this

plane of

upper

on

The

focal

up

objective,

circles,from

visible,the
circle

so

the eye.

N.A.

corresponds

to

0-9.

is read
to

an

Intermediate

observation

of the

image

is made

cither

by (i)

plane

with
fittingthe top of the draw-tube
(2) by fittinga low-power eyepiece"

and

admirably

projectthe apertometer
circle of the microscope,in
also

smallest

to O'2, and

by

it to

be

of

are

diagram

of which

first and

the

the

focal

upper

number

eyepiece
peep-hole ; or

the aid of

consists

equi-distant,equi-thick concentric

diagram

removing

the

estimated

are

for mathematical

which

paper,

that when

of the

of O'l, the

on

paper

microscope, at a certain distance

object plane of the objective to be tested, the

of

number

is referred

stage of the

usual

N.A.

in

Briefly,the apertometer

the

as

off

reader

circles,drawn

on

the

circles

the

in thickness

graduated
below

is described

ventor
by the int\\t Journal of the Quekett Microscopical
Club, Vol. IX.

in

is

of

"

with

image
which

in the

circle

stop and

2-mm.

it

high-powerpocket magnifier.

eye-ring
can

The

be

or

using

Kamsdcn

observed
draw-tube

with
may

Abbe
auxiliary microscope (as in the
apertometer) by fittingits lower end with an objective suitably
stopped to give a tclcccntric system.
as

an

CHESHIRE'S
The
sold

simple

circles

the

Holborn

drawn

are

97

this apertometer, shown

of

form

of

by Baker

APERTOMETERS

on

the

modification
lower

in

Fig. 82A,

is

(Fig. 82B), in which

of

surface

thick

disc

highly refractive glass adapted for use with dry and immersion
of Cornhill, London.
is sold by R. " J. Beck
objectives,
another
method
With
only, there yet remains
dry powers
which is also exceedingly simple and effective.1
Lay upon the table two pieces of white paper, using a black
of

Fig. 82A.

Fig. 82B.

background,

with

their

straight inner edges parallelto one

another
and
definite distance (say 20 cm.
for lenses of N.A.
a
rule
hold
over
a
O'5O, less for low-angled ones) apart, then
the table about midway
the two
between
vertically
pieces
upon
of paper.
tested
Next
hold
the objective to be
vertically
1

Although

this

idea

may

have

occurred

to

others

angular aperture
microscopical objectives,we
suggested to obtain their numerical
aperture by Mr.
of

at the

South
Imperial Institute,

from
Photomicrography^

which

for

believe

Conrady,

obtaining
it
now

was

the

first

Professor

publishedin the Author's

Kensington, being
paragraph is abstracted.

the

CONRADY'S

98

against the rule and

METHOD

look

down

the

at

back

will be seen
pieces of paper
objective downwards
along the edge

the

there

two

these

watching
apart

until

flicker
of

pieces of
which

rays

of

lens,which,

the

between

in the

intersect

To

aperture.

these

determine

distance
Then

by half the

pieces of paper

is the cotangent

the

therefore,be

latter may,

the

ratios,and

margin

inner

off the

edges
oblique

most

which

that

the

directions
the

angle of

distance

subtract
from

distance

of the

the

from

working

table to focus.

between

the

two

semi-angle of aperture

obtained

from

sine of the

the

is
objective,

angle,read
and
objective,

divided

this distance

directions,

farther

slightbluish

of the

to get the distance

as

and

receiving,or

this

lens,1so

of the

of

rule, always

extreme

that

direction

of the

principalfocus

table to the front of the

the

the

the

of

slide the

now

the

only

in

indicates

in

are

side

Images

farther

where

objectiveis capable

enclosed

angle

either

on

course,

paper

the

is reached

point

visible

remains

the

of

last

at

of

will separate

They

images.

lens.

table

angle

same

of

is the

metrical
trigonoN.A.

of

the

objective.
Example :
Distance

between

Distance

of front lens of

Working

distance

piecesof

the two

0*2
objective,

of

33'Q

paper,

objectivefrom
mm.

of angle

cotan.

100

71" 49',as

two

or

great

care

units

of

this method
the

second

33-0

mm.

find from

we

tables,the sine of which

With

paper,

200/2
=

mm.

32-8

Q'2

0*328

200

will

0^95

the
=

trigonometrical

N.A.

give results

decimal.

In

accurate

looking at

to

the

one

back

about
be at a distance
equal
objective the eye should
the objective is designed, but the
the tube-length for which

of the
to
error

caused

by

considerable

even

requireddistance, is

very

DEPTH

from

this theoretically

small.

OF

Focus

chapter, seeing that the amount

(sometimes called
penetrating power ")
depth of focus
entirely
ssed by an objectiveis largelythough by no means
Before

"

deviations

concluding

this

"

How

to

ascertain

"

the

working distance,see

Index.

DEPTH
with

associated

its numerical

following remarks

dimension

that

"

moment

same

not

very

easy

to

with

the

by

object

an

FOCUS

aperture

read

meant

of

superficial
part

be

may

is

First, what

OF

99
the

at

of use,

time

the

interest.
It is this.

term?

focus, how

is in

When
of

much

the

its third

well defined
at the
depth is sharp and
difficult one,
and
The
subject is a somewhat

of

"

explain, for

it

being up to that
and
inherent
time
distinctly mysterious
thought to be an
that
and
above
property possessed by certain objectives over
Abbe

Professor

to

be found

took

the

question

in

obscurity until

in

wrapped

was

hand,

combinations.

in other

Fig. SSB.

Fig. 83A.

just said, to explain the whole subject intelligibly

is not at all easy, and
feel a pleasure in acknowledging very
we
Mr. A. E. Conrady, who
has given
considerable
assistance from
To
follows
attention
to the matter.
simplify what
very much
As

let
a

we

have

an
Fig. 83A, where
plane containing F.
Supposing
us

consider

to be

reduced

of

lower

through
this

this

to

AB,

part of

point

then

object

and

the
point ; hence
of the object being out

the

it is obvious

the
F

objective OO

aperture of the

confusion

of focus

be

light from

that

A'

between

would

is focussed

with

mixed

owing
will be

to

the

equal

objective
all

B' would

and

to

the
lower

the

on

points
pass

image of
portion
distance

OF

DEPTH

TOO

A' to B'.

from

objective

Suppose
then

CD,

to

portions of the lower

will

be

now

the

the

of

aperture

find
reasoning we
part of the object extending from C'
it is easy
sharply focussed

the

focus

of

our

that

same

and

diffusion

the

plane,

increase

now

by

confused

between

distance

we

FOCUS

for

the

to

that

for

and

some

see

plane
latter

given

other

be

must

D'

to

directly

of the object-glassand
ficient
with sufproportionalto the diameter
But
approximation to the numerical
aperture employed.
the above
figurealso makes it clear that with the largeraperture
much
CD
there is a plane GH
the sharp focus F where
nearer
the diffusion C"D", corresponding to the large aperture, is the
that (A'B') produced by the small aperture at a greater
as
same
from

distance

of diffusion

allowance

the

to

will

N.A.,

into

enter

we

also

may

the

depth of

focus

in

this form

the

and

that

say
is

for

given

inversely

tional
propor-

influence

of the

N.A.

The

dimensions

formula.

our

effect of

The

Hence

F.

magnification

A'B', C'D', etc., are

is obvious.

of

magnified by the microscope ; hence

the greater the magnification,
the less the size of the diffusion
A'B'
in the objectwhich
in the magnified
be tolerated
can
therefore be inverselyproporimage ; the depth of focus must
tional
to the magnificationM.
arises
from
the
Finally,the effect of the mounting medium
same

"

cause

as

i.e.from

the

dense

at

MM

The

the

air

would

of

F, the

at

lengthen

entering surface

so

as

to

entering the
Fig. 831* had

in

of

have

media

denser

medium

its apex

at

F'.1

of the
the underside
(i.e.
the reasoning applied in determining the value
cover-glass),
of a given angle in a dense
medium
as
compared with the value
of

the

index
which

angle

same

is

very

of

the

has

air, applies with

medium)
which

at

The

F.
these

the

result that

the

cone

(n being the refractive

that corresponding to air

times

high

as

at

apex

flat

being

approximately

its

respectively

in

MM

objective OO

cone

dense

when

rays

introduction

the

in

possible
of

cones

if the

Thus,

in

N.A.

greater

refraction

medium.

its focus

seen

cones

as

distances

attain

from
a

certain

and

diameter

evidently in the same

proportion ;
given diffusion)are
consequently the depth of focus is proportionalto the refractive
(=

index

of the

mounting
1

See

medium.

Addenda

for

further

explanation.

OF

DEPTH
has

what

From
of focus

we

expressed by

be

can

said

been

FOCUS

may

depends

Constant

assumed

the

be

to

first figure we

our

the

on

usual

"

N.A/

thus

Let

N.A.

the

If this be

allowed.

diffusion

with

quantity TJ^ in.,then

reason

depth

The

the

that

state

now

the formula

Constant

101

the

aid

(see page

82)

of
be

orTV; then the diameter of the object-glasswill be one-fifth its

at F, will
focal length;1 in other words, the cone, having its apex
"i

of

with

should

had

have

keep within
M

means

NA.

and

within

T\j-in.

no

in the
into

obtain

"f

gives

of

of

Tinr

incn

an

TV

TV

depth of focus

is allowed

the

object

in

we

order

mathematically
D

I,

iV

constant

our

in

air

r"
i

the value

the

us

is

cone

"

Constant

Constant

which

either

on

the

This, therefore,is the

formula

our

10

we

which

image), which

obtain

TV" we
"

whence

F, but

^ on an object in
magnification (as otherwise

less diffusion

limit

yj^ from

range

Introducing

i.

is

allow

our

will, therefore, attain

objective of N.A.

an

to

of

will be

i) provided there

total

It

5.

distance

the

; hence

depth of focus

to

in. at

in

in. in diameter
j-^-jj

below

(n

of

rate

of TJ^

diameter
side

the

at

converge

in the

"

rU,

inches

in

image,

when

diffusion

as"

D
100

So

far

have

we

assumed

absolutely fixed, which

fixed

distance

from

plate or
When
term

must

for the
1

implies

the
the

be added

uses

of

Because

the
to

N.A.

of

its focal

TV) equalling\ the

point

an

the

that

for

eye

in

at

As
various

sharp

image
devoid

focus

is formed

instance,

his accommodation

the formula.

to

eyepiece, as,
retina

the observer

N.A.

the

abilityof seeing sharply

its diameter
twice

on

on

to

be

at

graphic
photo-

of accommodation.
a

further visual

accommodation

stands

distances, it therefore

single lens may be said to be the ratio of half

in this case
becomes
length ; so the full diameter
focal length,or a ratio of i in 5.
a

DEPTH

102

formation

the

involves

of

the

below

distances

of

square

implies shifting

is

the

in

Dv

term

found

the

short

in the usual

Fig. 830.
"

sense

similar

by

line shows

the dotted

figure(Fig. 830) by

to
triangles,

in depth equal
magnification

The

that

find the

the

to

the

the

"-,

focus

of

depth

"

The

that

magnificationin

focal length, and /

long conjugate,F
With
reference
to
magnification in depth, being
is from
magnification in diameter, the following,which
mathematical
be
will
welcome
as
a
proof.
Conrady,
L

Where

various

at

the
differentiating

By

(^^f-^j1^

visual

the

hence

image

in turn

object.

is the

magnification in depth
diameter;2

which

the

in

magnification formula

usual

final visual

the

eyepoint,

conjugate points

of the

FOCUS

OF

conjugate.
of

square

the

of Prof.

pen

is the

the

magnification

magnificationin depth,

square

of the

magnification

in diameter.

apply

we

wili

the

formula

its

have

determined.

image
Our

to

point

at

distance

formula

distant

more

from

less than

by

the
a

lens

by dl, which
quantity dL. to be

gives
"

l+dl~"

L-//L

Subtracting this from the originalformula, and

a
quantityequal to unity, brings the two sides
denominator, which after transposing becomes
L*

dL

multiplying each
equation to

of the

with

term
a

common

"

dl~

I*

This
we

is

rigorous but inconvenient

imagine dl" and consequently dL"
is that

L1
Then

"

and
we

the

in the

term

//L

limit,"when

dl

has

and

is the desired
the

more

1?

and

differcnti.il,
smaller

the

mon-

infinitesimally
small, vanishes.

/L\f
"=

magnificationin depth,

equation proves

smaller

the

"

L'
=

and

become

get the differential coefficient

obtain

To

become

to

becomes

dL

"rr

formula.

(l)

is the usual linear

that the first is the square

magnification,

of the second.

CHAPTER

VI

EYEPIECES

EYEPIECES,

will

but

kinds,

several
here

the

on

The

Huyghenian

See

may

be

that

it

eye

being

is

in

object

for

of

that

strict

philosophical
in

eyepiece,
for

best, both

of
focal

but

both

for

telescope

by

is

three
a

or

other,

as

well

best

times

distance

be

for

the

fulfilled

that

of

(d) equal

to

of

any

it

as

may,

the

of

one

microscope,

the

the

dition
con-

field-lens

the

the

cyc-lcns,

half

the

microscope.

when

the

of

was

be

the

literature

result

to

the

as

of

the

that

seems

ground

much

the

than

bination
com-

celebrated

good

from

anyhow,

combination

achromatism

length

lengths

form

///""//power

the

rather

but

inquiry,

the

invention

actual

the

this

of

ocular

gathered

termed

towards

seems

an

fact
the

is

other
turned

there

with,

nearer

invention

devised

inspiration

some

the

but

the

seem

one

Huyghens,

be

can

the

Son.

"

the

by

(the

being

to

also

what

happy

lenses

and

met

Ramsden

The

it bears,

Campani

From

of

nature

In

ascribed

name

commonly

the

each

the

Ordinary

by Swift

type

new

whilst

of

in

microscope.

more

microscope.

subject, it would

the

the

the

form

^-lens,

convexity

usually

type.

same

two

the

on

believing

the

is

single

whose

astronomer

for

of

called

is

Addenda

"

explained

are

the

Ramsden

varieties, the

two

from

composed

use

of

distinguished

the
yfc/c/-lens),

the

for

apparatus

which

readily

forms

of

really

are

and

Huyghenian

special

be

called,

often

are

the

"

as

may

Ordinary,

The

two

auxiliary

Compensating.

the

only

they

as

mentioned,

be

chapter

oculars,

or

two

of

sum

their

has

being
focal

"

Aw-powcr

these

proportion,

focal
whereas

magnification
lengths,
for

medium

to

is

there
r$

being

power

usually

found

about

about
i

to

2.

change
the

of

right

ORDINARY
The

HUYGHENIAN

of

passage

the

OCULAR

through

rays

the

lenses

105

should

be

now

is the
O
consulting Fig. 84, where
objective,
E
F the field-lens,and
the eye-lens. Dealing with those
rays
which
from
emanate
a
point about the arrow-head, and presuming

xplained by

for the
focus

at

them

however, that

again

once

P, where

at

rendered

to

this

image

the

rays

the

eye

see

with.

the

plane

image

is in the

placed.

But

is the

It should

be

they

the field-

is formed.

Seeing,

focus of the

mentioned

eye-lens,

towards

the

the

at

are

condition

HUYGHENIAN

they would

of
interposition

refracted, being bent

are

is

the

A', where

which
parallel,

to

eye

monochromatic,

are

if left undisturbed, but

refracts

lens F

they

moment

axis

time

same

best

suited

here

that

for

the

mistake

E.YLPIECC

Fig. 84.
is often

made

the

to

lens

parallelwith

another.

one

the

evident.1

This

in

the

ordinary

causes

which

would

is upon

shown, the
but
beams

"

it

hence

the

passage

we

must

the

In

red

serving to illustrate the point

would
are

focus

at

refracted

to

ascertain the diameter

pupil, and

not

at
as

focus

of this

chromatic
mono-

how

the

Fig. 85, upper

and

blue

before, but

see
pencil,

at

A'.

page

"

ceding
pre-

is alone
sively
exten-

very

The

piece
eye-

part
the

rays

issue.

again

be

monochromatic

larger scale than

of the

could

eye

for

rays

show

now

sideration,
con-

will hereafter

depicted being exaggerated

condition

to

parallel

little

axis, the

through

the

necessarily much

the field-lens F
How

the

path of the
but lightfrom an object is

if left alone

into

perfect achromatism.
a

issue

with

inevitably result, as
is

way,

such

diagram

with

they

is obvious

with
parallel

beam

then

beam

This

were

entire

incomplete vision

that

meant

leave

rays

erroneously understood, but that they issue

often

for,if they
get

is not

parallel."It

the axis, as

never

the

concerning the expression "that

incoming
meeting
If there

14.

io6

HUYGHENIAN

ORDINARY

produce

would

eye-lens,and

no

were

red

the blue

than

extent

drawn

as

eye

the

of the glass
dispersive power
be bent
less
to a
by the object would

out

sent

rays

107

single lens,it
colour fringes in the outer

image with

part of the field,for owing

the

by the

used

were

virtual

OCULAR

to

and

ones,

into

each

point

of

the virtual

image

the red end

towards
spectrum with
the opticalaxis (seeFig. 85, lower part). But in the Huyghenian
in
shown
an
eye-lens is used, the rays
combination, where
be

would

"

"

As

lens

any

of

seen

this

bent

reason

with

as

to

to

the

than

blue

than

than

meets

ray

the

red

one.

by the
(about

greatly predominates,
rays

with

sensibly parallelone

It is true
difference

of

the

1*52),

field-lens

and

such

to

some

is to

1-51

as

eye-

and

prism

of blue, and

companion

separation between
blue

meets

ray

its fellow.

colours

two

red

its

counteracted

the red and

cause

optical axis

that

more

for the

sufficient

first effect

the

is

advantage

refractive indices
but

the

separated

regarded as a prism with a refractingangle

becomes
the optical axis, it further
apparent

greater refractingangle

is for this

that

now

the

little consideration

but

of

is

still further

be

may

increasing from
with

become

and

Fig. 85, upper

part cross
E.
It
as
they fall upon
the eye-lens sensibly nearer

extent

an

from
the eye-lens
emerge
// is this that proanother.
duces
to

is placed at the
image. A diaphragm
focus of the eye-lens.
The
Compensating
Huyghenian ocular is only an extension
the

of ideas

wish

image

such

things to

extent

an

to compensate
companion, and to just the right extent
other highof the apochromatic or
the opposite error
objective.

is effected

(as

in

the

formerly made,

again

in

the
seen

at

by using

now

half

exaggeration.

of

lens for

well

separated

or

It shows

now

as

the

The

tion
separa-

similar

one

by substituting
the simple eye-lens. On
or

is well

Fig. 85 this

holoscopic eyepiece.

greater

of Watson

discarded, by Swift);

achromatic

the lower

glass and

denser

holoscopic ocular
but

over-corrected

looking

are

of

condition

to

its blue

This

with

the

being in this instance

computer

of the virtual
crossing of these rays in the formation
seen
by the eye, the red image shall be made
larger

as

power

an

the

of

accentuate

by

than

the

"

further

that

achromatic

seen,

that

condition

rays

of

they arrive

the
at

although

the

two
crown

obtains

colours
lens

by

interval

sensibly greater

speak

the

becomes

colour, for the

which

purpose

is this state

diaphragm

manner

placed in

have

we

by

the

companion

used

be

cannot

as

which

too) the
been

furnishes

Huyghenian
compensating

said, it is evident

its focus

inside

between

hand-magnifier

work

for micrometer

or

edge of the

rapidly distinguishing in

lenses, it

Ramsden,1

red
"

the

The

compensation
eye-lens ; and it

eye-lens

that

virtual

if the

good

(and usually in the Ramsden

what
has
the ordinary. From
the Huyghenian
as
eyepiece has

where

the

like

the

have

to

threads

simultaneously with the object.2

be focussed

Ocular

Ramsden

of two

each

RAMSDEM

distinguishedfrom

once

it consists

as

towards

turned

being

be at

may

type of eyepiece

surfaces

red

already stated.

oculars

former

the

formed

focus of the

the

for

method

ready

The

that

by over-correcting
compound
of things that gives rise to the

"

simple

red
separation causes
if we
virtual image
so
may
parallel with the blue, but

the

is effected

from

former

the

explanation practicallyholds

same

the

"

not

eye,

in

of

crossing in such a
larger than that

diverging and
image

the

OCULAR

than

increase

form

to

by

seen

as

"

forth

issue

to

rays

This

ocular.

achromatic

HUYGHENIAN

COMPENSATING

io8

lenses,the

other.

The

the

convex

general path

EYEPIECE.

REAL

focus

or

man

OBJECT

GLASS

IrtAoe.
ut5

OCULAR

THE.

Fig. 86.
monochromatic

of

is shown

rays

theoreticallyis where
length of

focal
the

to

focal

lens

length of

It should

different

each

be noted

in the

case

"

is

either.

that

of

if turned

combination

as

"

But

d, that

as

the selection

86.

Fig.

is

the

equal,and

Huyghenian
upside-down can
the

in

to

The

best

say

where

distance

of the focal

for

ocular
be used

for

the

equal

apart
would

this condition

form

lengths is

///

throw
somewhat
that

such

indifferent

somewhat

hand-magnifier.
1

This

is

the
be

Huyghenian
is,it

can

ordinarily speaking,
entirely removed, and the
case,

then

be

used.

but

if the

eye-lens

in

the

focus

the

field-lens
made

to

RAMSDEN
focal

the lower

plane of

focal

upper

lens, the

the

would

field-lens,or
the

when

dust

ocular

and

The

of this

consequence

deprive the eyepiece of its freedom

"#dfcr-corrections
(taken in the sense
whilst

close

by the

overcome

flint

the

to

the

of

These

lenses.

Ramsden

eyepieces look the

eyepieces

may

single lens) become

remain

drawbacks

in

lenses
in

veniently
incon-

only

can

combinations

the

glass; hence, although

of

arrangement

colour, for chromatic

planes still

focal

of achromatic

use

eye-

annoyingly visible to the

focal lengths are
the two
usually
the
that
separation less than

is to

painfullyapparent,

of the

substance

be

it to

in use,

theoreticallydemanded.

the

avoid
strictly fulfilled. To
imperfections in the glass of the

upon

was

and

be

all

slightly different

made

eye-lens into the field-lens

cannot

cause

any

109

field-lens into the

the

arrangement

this, which

eye

of

plane

OCULAR

of

the

and

crown

best

be

form

of

the

cheaper type, they

are
reallydifferent,for in point of fact each lens is compound,
the components
being cemented
together. Cheap Ramsden
therefore

same

be

as

with

regarded

suspicion.

is
idea of manufacture
compensating form the same
carried out, but to a higher order, by introducing a sufficiently
flint element
to produce a
chromatically overstrong concave
In

the

combination.

corrected
shown
is

in

Fig. 87.

The

Here

Zeiss

form

of

arrangement

is

of the rays
appearance
how
the extremely
it suffices to show

again the whole

greatly exaggerated, but

that
glass separates the blue and red rays so much
the
in the
is larger than
virtual
image the red component
in
blue which
is required to
the
correct
opposite condition
the objective. On
show
to
the other hand
the figure serves
dense

flint

that if the flint

form
be

not

were

be

might

eyepiece.

for
As

eyepieces manufactured

being for
form

those

up

to

the

by

the

ocular

matter

the nominal

to

be

used

the
x

as

the

lar
particu-

image would
an
ordinary

virtual

of fact,with

Zeiss

of this

combination

where

computed

purely achromatic,

Ramsden

dense

so

compensating

Huyghenian

6, after which

type

is in

the Ramsden

place. This selection is found to be the more

convenient
because
of arranging a suitably distanced
eye-point
lower
the
for enabling the
and
that
adjustment to be such
focal planes of the entire series shall lie in the same
position
when
the
into the draw-tube
oculars
inserted
change
are
; a
of

takes

their

eyepieces therefore

necessitates

scarcely

any

change

of

no

11

II
I,
I:

OCULARS

COMPENSATING

ii2

sizes

those

are

of the Council
Size

(
(

with a resolution
mostly in use, being in accordance
1889:
of the Royal MicroscopicalSociety,December

"

2,26-3

"

3,32'2

"

4,35*8

"

"

"

"

",

Sizes

Of

these

the

is

second

and

third, the

; the

whilst

last is that

other

are

odd

ro4

"

"

1-27

"

i'4i

"

dropping

are

of

out

23-300

for

"

32-258
35-8I4

"

"

long-tube

or

binoculars

There

binoculars.
largest-sized

of the

the

diameter;

for medium-sized

mean

use.

English

the

mm.

26-416

Continental

usual

diameter

mean

microscope
the

first is the

the

"

,"

"

'9173 inch,or

fitdraw-tube

to

i, 23-2 mm.,

sizes.
of

Compensating oculars, both

Ramsden,

and

Huyghenian

may

,.-',B
^..-""
Blue

"

ray

DIAPHRAGM

6lt"E

OF

Fig. 88.

EYE

THE.

Ordinary

"

Unochroniatic

Eye-lens. Blue
margin to field.

ray

outside,hence

blue

usually be distinguishedfrom
ordinary eyepieces by looking
held up to the light: the former
through them when
showing
red
the
to
the
whereas
latter
a
yellowish
margin
diaphragm,
produces
how

the

blue

difference

able

is not

fringe to

are

meant

point
not

bear

to

due

they

cither

to
are

not

lenses,the

is

to

field and

has

to

found

or

asked
writer

scientific

; hence

the

of the

few

ghenian
Huy-

ordinary ocular, the

coloured
as

the

any

Speaking

in

rays

whole

conjoint action
the
eye-lens,but

often

wherein

be

the

taken

been

explained, and

interest.

is that

eyepiece
due

be

compensating

in mind

the

It

text-book

any

point
of
maybe

of

form

to

field.

is to

this

upon

followingremarks
first

colour

point

to

information

in

the

by

of

the

to

the

question
which

two

is

ponent
com-

action

of

COMPENSATING

the
former
be considered
entirely. Indeed
may
and the effect is
a
condenser, for it may be removed

latter

the

merely

OCULARS

as

unaltered

Blue

ray

Red

r-~--*J

SIDE

OF

EVE

THE

Fig. 89." Achromatic

If
are

Blue and red rays remain

colourless margin to field.

Fig. 88 be consulted,the red and

taken) from

seen

Eye-lens.

in the

the

edge of the diaphragm

But the
separated at A.

and

splitup

blue rays

of B, where

direction

the blue

together,hence

(only two

to

eye

the

lens will be
them

sees

lies outside

ray

colours

as

the

if

red

Blue ray
Red
"

SIDE

OF

EYE

THE

Fig. 90.

"

(or rather,owing

hence
the

the blue
case

of

Eye-lens. Red outside,blue inside,hence red

yellow) margin to field.
brilliancy,

Over-corrected

margin
the

to

its greater

to

the field.

achromatic

In

Fig. 89, which

eye-lens, the

blue

represents
red

and

keep

be furnished
to the
together,and so a colourless margin would
corrected
in Fig. 90, of the overBut
edge of the diaphragm.
eye-lens(as in all Zeiss compensating Huyghenian oculars),the
red

is bent

image, as
thus

seen

so

much

by

more

the

explaining the

eye,

reddish

than

the

it lies outside

blue
at

that
the

in

virtual

the

arrow-points A,

yellow fringeto the field.

8

DIAMETER

ii4

Curiously these
do

PUPIL

distinguishing characteristics

obtain

not

OF

cither

the

with

of

holoscopicocular

dering
colour-ren-

when

adjusted

ordinary or a compensating ocular.

explained by consulting the lower part of Fig. 85, when
become

to

is

eye ; hence

eyepiece is

the

when

do

rays

take

not

image until at least

blue
a
margin is seen

virtual

the

the

how

observable

This

an

adjusted

it is

up their final position in

sensible distance from
tJie

some

either

in

that

case,

for the

ordinary or

the

diaphragm

is to

say,

compensating

effects.
The

the

as

red

edge

to

compensating ocular
explains itself by

Ramsden

the

the

of

cause

matter

needs

the

in the

further

no

study of

of

case

comment,

the

previous

figures.
leaving the subjectof eyepieces,seeing the importance
should always be the required diameter
that the emerging beam
Before

and

pass

the

show

how

to

enter

to
not

to

the

philosophy by

Of

the

course

different

individuals, but

according

the

to

To

variation

from

Taking

others.

the

under

whilst
with
any
to

the

formuke

diameter

point

beam

is affected
and

be

how

out

from

that

can

is not

ocular.

These

by

far from

of

the

primitive

of

with

that

mind

times

the

pupil,or

be
the

the
be

presumed

been

that,

the
microscopist,

one-tenth

of

an

be

must

discussion

Before

has

its

physiologists and

many

the

and

should

inch; but
understood

that

follows,

actually commencing
of

diameter

that

stated

the

emerging

such

diameter

(i) the

the

focal

same

lens

of

in

different

at

diameter

hold

ascertain

factors:

(2) the N.A.

on

varies

pupil

different circumstances,

given

t\vo

at, for

handbooks

borne

empirically it

by

out

intensityof the light impinging

with

eyepiece, it

simple

the

interpolated.
to

point

is arrived

diameter

which

are

to

most

be

it may

the

lens of the
another

also

somewhat

omission

an

and

the

of evidence

circumstances

stating this

it should

consideration

working diameter

usual

of

under

mass

diameter

fix the actual

under

be

for different foci of oculars.

and

the normal

desideratum

subject in

its normal

direction

the eye.

on

from

varies

pupil

any

Addenda

normal

diameter

computation

the

to

it would

eye,

such

such

which

See

microscope.

the

ascertain

is made

little reference
the

pupil of

same

forms

magnification of the eyepiece,

In
Fig. 91 let OL
objective, (i)
length

as

the

objective

equivalent
are

taken

focal

and

length as
for simplicity^

EL
the

DIAMETER
in

and

objectiveOL
being

affect

way

no

focus

115

general reasoning. Rays from

Fx and oblique pencils at F2, all other

the

the

be formed

would

PUPIL

for purposes

excluded

arrow

at

OF

of

Half

description.

this situation.

at

The

the

Fb the

at

rays

rays

inverted

OL

Fig. 91.

focus, pass
side

F2

and

one

the other, and

F!

the

as

Ramsden

the
the

on

to the

on

pass

to

on

eye-lens EL
other

of

and
axis

the

periphery of EL,

In

circle.

Fig. 92

the

same

one
parallel,

Those

on

argument

is

at

with
from

act,meeting those
union

one

focussing

one
parallel

rendered

point of

This

shows.

diagram

ad '.

the axis

towards

bent

are

are

issue

the

called

holds, but

as

Fig. 92.
the

eye-lens

power)

is

smaller

of

shorter

focal
circle

Ramsden

length (a higher magnifying

is formed.

It is obvious

then

that the
needs

where

(2)
as

Ramsden
circle,
higher magnification,with its smaller
smaller
in Fig. 91,
a
pupil than the larger circle shown
the magnification was
Hence
the greater the magless.
nification
the smaller
the
pupil be.
may

In

before.

Fig. 93 let OL
Let

the

rays

be

AA

an

objectiveand
be

alone

EL

the

considered.

Apiece
This

lens

repre-

DIAMETER
sents

the

of

lens

low

pupil is small

aperture

BB

OF

numerical
as

by A'A7.

lens of

"

the

aperture, and

indicated

be considered

PUPIL
beam

Now

to

let the

largernumerical

enter

full

aperture

Fig. 93-

corresponding pupil B'B' is larger: hence the higher the

N.A. of the objectivethe larger the pupil required.
with
constant
As, however, the N.A. remains
a
given objective
whilst the magnificationis raised or
lowered, so it is only with
have
the first statement
we
This, for convenience
principallyto deal.
the

of

description and

better what
of the

is lessened.

the lowest

The

becomes

the

larger and
is to

then

problem

magnificationwith

mind

be put another

follows, may

issuingbeam

clear

to

so

The

way.

largeras
show

the

how

is

stand
under-

diameter

tion
magnifica-

to

given objectivethat

to

as

ascertain

permissible
^EYE

94.

to

allow

the

beam

from

pupil of tl
,

state

The

for convenience

for pr"
first be borne

argument
It must

at

the
eyepiece completely to enter
in. diameter.
This
magnification \ve

the

once

to
be

in mind

be
taken

equal
as

that the

to

200

times

the N.A.

folio

compound

microscope,

RAMSDEN

would

as

be

shown

and

lens

which

has

has

what

aperture, the
i

optically perfect

an

In

rule

general
the

the

in what

the

in

the

focus

follows

chapter

be

same

of

let

the

f1 be

numerical

upon

understood

this

aperture divided

that

follows

by the focal length.

"

magnification (at

this formula
diameter

at

is necessary

is

'

posed
Trans-

;^="

magnification under

into

(i) we

get

"

or-NJL-2.

N.A.

the

required

to

magnification.

given

to

find

we

get

we

lens

any

being the

"

NJL--

by

in.)of

10

Introducing this latter

consideration.

(a)

f1

becomes

this

Then

94

of

N-A-=^'

The

N.A.

let/* be

P. ; and

will

(i)

given

lens

effect

same

Transposing

In

Fig.

said

been

half
^rj-or

image, produces the

clear diameter

117

length.

From

N.A.

by

the

magnification.

N.A.

its focal

of

inversion

the

apart from

CIRCLE

fill,
say, | in. pupil at

find

pupil

Example

of

What

magnification of

200

"

|oi2oo
=

20

so

N.A.

1*25 is

If, however,

pencil with

required.
desire

we

given N.A.

know

to

and

the

of

diameter

given magnification,

the
we

emerging
have

"

P=2oxN-A-.

(*)....

say,

650

objective with

An

Example:

; what

is the

N.A.
of the

diameter
20

-65

given
that

on

diameter

the

other

the

pencil

of
may

hand,

pupil,what
pass

the

emerging

magnification of,
pencil ?

i.

presuming
is the

pupil

^m'

-6^-

Again,

'65 and

given N.A.

and

magnification required
Then

"

a
so

RAMSDEN

ii8

Example

the

Let

CIRCLE

pupil

be fixed

-^ in.,and

at

the

N.A.,

say,

"65 ; then"
m

"

diameters.

130

"

iff

If

put this another

we

now

then

way,

20x^A;

"

200x

TV

shows

which

furnishes

and

that

shows

when

proof that

of this discussion

the commencement
also

the

the

made

assertion

the

is correct

at

formula

This

pencil is only -^ in. in diameter,

useful magnification (viz.1000
times the N.A.)

the limit of

emerging

employed.1

is

to

is

This

subject may be put

the direct question,What
really the image formed
and

is the

Semi-diameter

appeals better, perhaps,

circle?

eyepiece, of

focal plane.

the focal length of the

on

which

Ramsden

the

by

in the upper

measured
objective,

N.A.

different way

the

This

objectivein

Ramsden

The

circle
of

full aperture

image depends

the well-known

the

the

on

manner

of the full aperture

_
~~

Equivalent focal length of

whence

obtain

we

in its upper

measured

the
to

of

power
the

we

number

of the

'

objective

emerging

of

cone

objective,

any

plane

"

N.A.

forms

Focal

of the

length

objective.

image of this ; the diminution

equalling
the eyepiece (according to Abbe
nomenclature), i.e. equal
M,
engraved on a compensating ocular. Calling this number

therefore

have

focal

yepicce

diameter

the

the

diminished

diameter

the

of the

N.A.

"

length of objective

Focal

circle

Ramsden

This

be

may

modified
2;o

objective

focal

mm.

whence
|ength ;
Focal

and

introducingthis
Diameter

(i) we

get

circle

=
.

denominator

rule

of

the

nTitialTa^Tfication
'"

"

is,obviously,the

mm.

N.A.

Eyepiece number

Initial

The

magnification

by transposing"

500

of Ramsden

initial

obtain

we

length of objective
in

the

introducing

by

magnification

magnification;

total

"

hence

the

"

simple

"

The

diameter

of

the

Ramsden

circle

SOP
Total

of the

Imposition
re

the

the

focal

upper

depends entirely
anyhow

Ramsden

eyepiece forms

without

on

the

circle (or
the

plane

image
eyepiece.

of

construction

somewhat

eye-ring,as

of the

detailed

of

aperture
Its

mm.

N.A.

magnification
it is sometimes
of the

distance

the ocular, and

computation.

called)

objective,slightly

from
cannot

the
be

top lens
foretold

MAGNIFICATION

120

EF

and

twice

dotted
and

and

equal

the other
there

four

GH

and

AB

to

be

to

EF

is

; GP

little

PH

four

"

ABCD

direction

from

above

to

Hence, when

side.

the

object is

said

attention

times

so

this

so

are

with

on

in what

is called

But

twice

twice

in

holds

magnification,

is

diameters

each

side

This

any

in

linear measure,

the

Fig. 96

square

is

it is

from

"diameters"

good for

that

object

"areas."

and

and

LG

it is evident

only enlarged

amplified two

be

and
and

downwards,

speaking

to

and

four

or

is

that

twice

EL

equal BC,

"

the

equally, dividing EG

equallingABCD

equally obvious
"

each

more

each

magnified

drawn

are

understand

to

respectively. Then
and

squares,

difficult

not

OKP

and

sides.

are

said

It

lines ; LKM

FH

each

AD.

little

magnified five
the

in

its

picture by
as

the

in

it, so

be

twenty-five

enlarged
side

but

largerdiagram has
twenty-five little squares
it

in

large
This

that used

terms

of

in
"

is

diameters

times

simply

however,

it has

magnifying

died

of

out

of

powers
in

the

oculars

in

of

refer to
straight. We
magnifies "times
so
much";
times
eight ocular
(written x
set

with

had

an

mistake
"times

which

some

the

initial
that

has

eight"
this
.vhich

been

meant

has

Used

made
not

arisen
to

for

8)

power

of

in

the

attached

had

we

used

was

what
the

is

in

different
in

spoke

years,

of

led

the
to

better

at

conjunction

stood
universally under-

eyepiece

in

eight diameters',
minds

diameters, but

simply
be

as

expression that an eyepiece

read
"that
a
example, we

the

that

is

day
magnifying

present

has

that

manner

quarter-inch objective." Now

in

two

comparatively recent
in daily use
to speak

In

use.

the fashion

minds

times

expressed
passed along, this expression of

time

as

become

little confusion
once

the

to

hence,

to

"

simple explanation

be in vogue.
But the scientist never
at all,for his magnifications
were
always

areas

"

"

said

area.

of
terms

be

can

from

the
to

the

of

the
that

instead.

Of

unfortunate
word

but
was,

some

areas

question

mcan-

"times"

as

MAGNIFICATION
with

synonymous

whereas

areas,

it is meant

now

be

to

the

diameters.1

as

same

121

the introduction

by Professor Abbe of his system

of apochromatics,he very rigorously reviewed
the methods
in
time
for
at the
evaluating objectives and oculars.
The
vogue
Previous

to

of

made

to

apparent

of

eye

end

this

careful

object at the

an

in

inconveniences

difficultiesand

the

what

world

his

; and

has

method,

real

different

magnification

microscope, which

observer, led

subject from quite

result that he originated and
the whole

obtainingthe

been

called

reconsider

to

standpoint, with

the

to

gave

him

thus

were

scientific

his

"

and

facturing
manu-

idea

new

the

"

upon

which

little attention
requires some
been
to follow, has
slowly but surely adopted by all,or nearly
all,the leading opticians both in England and on the Continent.
the Abbe
evaluation
Before proceeding to explain
method,"
evaluation

"

however,

first show

must

we

the

older

methods

which

obtained

now
are
question,and which even
employed
with
when
and
oculars not
dealing
objectives
by microscopists
arranged upon his specialsystem of nomenclature.

the

to

up

end

of

the

has

been

magnification of

the

obtain

To

in

time

object

an

in the easiest

microscope

is

way,

system.'"'It

called the "rational

as

seen

by

the

is based

the

at

of

use

eye

what
direct

upon

experiment, which, although tedious to carry out, is easilymade

observer
in the following manner
by any intelligent
:
Place
inch
the
on
objective say an
microscope, and
any
"

first what

use

"

is called

"

an

"

No.

or

eyepiece. Having
for a
only the name
I

procured a stage micrometer

(which is
definite distance
cover-glassruled with lines of some
apart and
fixed on
and
an
having focussed any two
slip),2
ordinary 3x1
lines which
venient
are
separated by an interval thought to be of condimensions, a piece of ground glassis placed at a distance
of

10

in. from

5 to

10

used

to

above

mm.

This

short

of

and

times"

microscopistsof the

"diameters"

ever

seen.

See

dies

be

on

into

the

the
terms

found
is

now

ground
of

the

originaldistinction

hard

in the

minds

of

old school.

as
Micrometers, or graticules,
they
Co., 51-60, Holborn
Viaduct, by a new

have

because

will

compasses

seen

as

converted

(having been

pair of

here
explanationis interpolated

"number

between
certain

interval

which

ocular"

interval of the lines

the

measure

glass,which
1

eyepoint of the
its eye-lens.

the

Addenda.

are

now

process,

called,made
are

by Rheinberg

certainlythe

finest

we

MAGNIFICATION

ASCERTAINING

122

order

same

of

much

those

as

inch, or

an

known

the distance

so

to

between

those

obtained

is the

exist

approximately.1

required very

eyepiece

must

by

meter.
micro-

stage

magnification
be repeated

change
that when
of

length

draws

To

accuracy.

give

their

appendix

an

his

again

magnificationsfor

objectives with

own

has

he

to

every

of

this is,

the

correct

tion
aberra-

magnification
recalculate

to

values

them

for

in

meet

table of

and

with

consequence

his tube

out

made

question if he desires any approach to

this difficulty,
opticians frequentlynot only

special"draw"

the

The

cover-glass,all

thin

extra

be

must

draw-tube.

observer

an
an

of

immediately upset,

are

each

that fresh measurements

it is obvious
in

with

the

linear

"so

say,

divided

then

on

process

to

objectivein succession, and a

made.
table of reference
Although this constitutes, perhaps,
of obtaining the existing magnification
the simplest method
of objectiveand
afforded
ocular, still
by a given combination
for every

and

This

is

that

"

millimetres")is

many

quotient thus

The

micrometer

the

on

show

to

much

of certain

combination

different

their

how

the

oculars, but
of

increase

also

of

add

amplificationis

by additional

For
tions
approximalengthsof the draw-tube.
this tabular system amply suffices,
but it is not
sufficiently
minds.
to pleasesome
accurate
it is really much
better for the
Practicallyand theoretically

caused

and

microscopist to ascertain, once

actual

values

for

objectiveand

each

normal
these

that magnificationat
eyepiece separately
', so
tube-lengthsis immediately found by multiplyingtogether

factors, any

two

increasing the
meant,

that if such

be,
objective
out

for all,the

one-sixth

initial value
extent

the
is

we

say

it

will

the

magnificationof
value

60, and

say,

in

increase

entire

at

tube

distance

increased

from

be

necessary

is

ascertained

this

is

objectiveto eyepiece, its

thereby approximately
because

required. Having

objective. By

tube-length of any given

has been
additionallydrawn

approximately
shown,

the

normal

the

ately
tube-length proportion-

this

new

hereafter
if

great

to

the

same

cation,
slightmodifiaccuracy

quantity, the

be

amount

in. apart in the micrometer,

known
to be ruled
i J,-,
Suppose the lines were
and
they appeared on the ground glass to be separated
M.
I). KwelPs
See
Index for Mr.
magnificationwould be ten-written X 10.
American
results (past President
Microscopical Soc.) of testingvarious stage
micrometers
not
ones
includingthe new
by Rheinberg. See Addenda,
1

RATIONAL

only

has

in the usual
How

to

manner

these

ascertain

to

of

Abbe

entire

the

proceed

to

the

put

its very

from

reader

objective consists
the object in that
computer

But

it is here

asked

such

of

of

as

this

located ? And

what

obtaining the
the

his

so

down

or

up

within

the

involves

whole

matter

power

of

If the

always

optician were

times
image plane,"as it is someits situation
as
being at such

the

which

draw-tube,

millimetres

above

distant

But

objective to be found

is the distance

lie.

"

objective (see Appendix).

an

shall

where

without

explanationsmight be cumbersome

many

an

amplification of
draw-tube

image

arise.

once

describe

not

of

amount

focussed

position of the

the

plane of

focal

upper

piece
eye-

operation.

possession of the

in

elected

distance

plane

values, however,

that difficulties at

but
unscientific,
focal

separate

particular plane

and
qualifications

certain

the

measuring

called,he would
and

complete

process

in

has

furnish

to

of the

power

commencement.

Theoretically, the

the

123

seeing that such very

introduction
to and
an
explains the reason
why
introduced
his elegant and originalmodification
will at once
subject from beginning to end, we

forms
fittingly

Professor

PLANE

explanation, and

littlethought and

some

IMAGE

multiplied by the magnifying

be

to

METHOD:

it that is

above

the

where

How

and
upper
is this
it be

can

usually selected

image plane to lie in ? None of these details are ever

by the best of
though manufactured
given with objectives,even
with an
recollect having met
cannot
English
opticians,and we
for the

text-book
Abbe
were
one

that

took
in
set

of
of

the

this

state

whilst

data
was

his

into

matter

chaotic

the

mentions

even

that

of
a

question.

confusion, for

much

chose

had

to

Professor

all these

consideration

second

When

one

chose

computer

another.
be

positions

The

presumed,

quence
conse-

and

the

that many
thought
objectives were
was
secondary consequence
less than
to
others, although of the same
or
magnify more
added
focal length ! To this confusion
was
yet another, which
from the fact that opticiansinsisted on callingtheir oculars
arose
by either letters of the alphabet A, B, C, D, or by numerals
of their relative
giving any hint whatever
adopted by convention
magnifications. It is usually now
Abbe's
influence of Professor
owing largely to, the masterful
writingsand teachings that the distance of the image plane of
focus from
the upper
focal plane of the objective,called "the
i, 2, 3, 4, without

"

"

OPTICAL

124

MECHANICAL

AND

shall
opticaltube-length,"
of

form

be

TUBE-LENGTHS

180

microscope, and

for the

mm.

270

short

for the

mm.

long

nental
Conti-

or

English

or

definite

position has been

decided, \ve
believe, for the positionof the upper focal plane of the objective.1
But

form.

"

shown

be

It will

such

no

and
proposals,"
all

accepted by

real

the

that

that

hereafter
such

that

English

that

proposal

one

is

getting

Continental

and

magnification

of

of Professor

is

and

more

manufacturers.

objectivecan

any

Abbe's
more

Seeing
be

at

once

by dividing its optical tube-length by its real focal

length,without the trouble of actuallymeasuring the amplification
other screen
at the image plane of focus, so
a ground glass or
on
calculated

student

able

be

to

of

situation

exact

it is of

that

evident

than

more

accurately
this

interest

determine

to

with

plane

academic

and

for the

locate

the

given objective under

any

examination.
has

what

been

said, the

practicalmicroscopist will
readily admit that the magnification at the image plane will
largely depend upon the length of this opticaltube ; but it may
it is also largelyaffected by
not be immediately
apparent how
From

length of

focal

the

combination.

the

This

will be

better understood

followingexplanation dealing with, say, a 2-mm.

possible to place a piece of ground glass
objective. If it were
focal plane,it would
be found
that there
at its upper
was
no
If
the
removed
all.
from
screen
were
magnificationat
4 mm.
would
be found
the same
startingpoint,then the amplification
the

by

to

be

; if removed

rule

the

of

image plane

from

then

that

obvious
be

kind

the

yard

allowed

be

must

of

if 270

90;

this,that

135, and

mm.,

two

"

so

real

focal
remain

The

varies,as

matter

"

the

plane of
in

the

which

mechanical

interval
'when

plane) by the focal length. It is

length of the objectivemaybe said to
of the amplification.
to speak
so

describe

tube-lengths,of

given to the
the
objective
It

focal

to

the

focal

measure

to

jtoken.

the

of this upper

"jn

of

is

upper

proceeding

Before

name

then

mm.,

simply
magnification
by dividing tJic
given objective is always to be found
any
'iof the adopted opticaltube (that is to say, the distance
of
Hence

on.

to

180

that

reader's
shall
standard

is included
on

for

the

fact,very

discovering the

no
objective,

any

\vc
or

/;/ situ
of actual

method

mind

confusion

with

respect

speak and of which

tube-length is the

betwc-en

the

microscope)

sensiblyin

some

shoulder
and
cases.

the

LOCATING

UPPER
the

of

eyepiece end
Continental

when

it should

the

and

the

distance
170

or

250

125

for the

mm.

by

now

short

or

in.,for the English

10

or

mm.,

being

the

mean

distance

in

millimetres

plane of the objective and

the

of

the

where

; such
mm.

to

focal

upper

PLANE

expression opticaltube-lengthis employed,

understood

be

between

160

at

instrument,

But

model.

draw-tube

fixed

consent

common

FOCAL

the

would

be

for the

long

image

found
the
image
object
the
draw-tube
after focussing and
were
eyepiece removed
amount.
tube-length to its proper
adjusting the mechanical
have
for the short or
This length, we
just stated, is 180 mm.

plane

Continental

It will be

form.
20

Abbe

the focal

ascertain

two

measurements

two

L0
tube-lengths

plane

differ from
therefore

of

and

magnification

and

The

Lj.

we

do

this

taken

are

with

the

eyepiece

upper

will

then

quantity

-h

-x

**"

"

focal

length

see

(Ln

-f.

ri

focal

x)

"

m\

mQ

"

length

"

LI

reducing which

obtain

we

L0

"

focal

"*'

length

Focal

length

being interpretedmeans
T FMPTTT
J-iiLJN
\j J. rl

of

tube-lengthsemployed

"

,^

"

of

practiceto carry this out, two

with
divisions
obtained, one
'Oi

with

divisions

"ruling" should

the

on

stage

"

magnification experimentally

In actual

slip to place

......

"

r~z.

_-

difference

are

that the

difference
FOPAT
L/VxAJL*
J.

Lf),

;;/!

which

"""

"

"

L'

(i)

To

constant

ld

length

L,
or

first step

the

between

the

in

L,

x
~

we

ml

distance

placed

tion
sugges-

"

Ln

this

plane

and

mQ

tube-length by
have, theoretically

should

the

combination.

the mechanical

focal

From

the

was

type of instrument.

focal

upper

length of

micrometer

least,that
of each

case

the

English

or

opticaltube-lengthis usually

at

"

in the

"

mm.

that the

locating the positionof

is to

focal

270

the mechanical

of Professor
In

then

seen

than

more

mm.

and

instrument,

in

of

the

rulings on
apart

mm.

of

*i

mm.

"

cover-glasses
mounted

microscope, and

separated by intervals

-"-

found

the
This

on

other
latter

glass of such a
diameter
that it can
be slipped into a Ramsden
eyepiece,which
be arranged so
must
to
as
permit the rulings being indebe

mounted

on

disc

of

THE

FINDING

126

FOCAL

LENGTH

ACCURATELY

pendently focussed before the ocular is placed in the microscope.

A Huyghenian
form
be used for this purpose
by removing
may
lens and
but
the fieldthe
here, too, arrangeeye-lens only,
using
ments
be

must

the

on

made

focussing the

for

rulings before

microscope.1

The

between

distance

exact

(remembering

that

the

in

most

is

micrometers

the

eyepiece

cover-glass ruling
balsamed

cases

micrometer

these

in

beneath

follows, this distance

the

placed

objective

measurements

that

must

follows)and
of the

divisions

of the

be

to

their

tested

be

now

eyepiece

so

us

example
Having

an

mm.

the

to ascertain

these

of

be very

must

in

as

equal,

say

disc

microscope, several

four

as

micrometer

Let

13*5

the

(say

taken,

be

to

on

made

mean

stage micrometer.

found

was

eyepiece-

the

supporting glass)and the upper end of the draw-tube

In
accurately ascertained with the eyepiece /;/ situ.
which

using

follows

as

many

five divisions

say,

are

example

how

mm.

mm.

'05

(say)is found

'05

Ditto

53'!

Ditto

"05

Ditto

52'5

Ditto

'05

Ditto

52-8

Ditto

be contained

to

in

52*8

divisions

of the

eyepiece

micrometer, which

equals

5'28

....

5-31

5*25

....

5*28

'20

21'

Therefore

I mm.

repeated on another part of

furnish
the
figures I mm.
mm.,
1047
shows
that the adopted magnificationis
draw-tube
is now
pulled out, say, 60 mm.

The

the

observations

mean

The

for

length of

entire

happens, an
objective to

the

end

magnificationare

In

this

case

we

of

the

again

will suppose

260

mm.

from

draw-tube)

scale

hence

say

1 2

105*6 mm.

will

we

final

the
dia)".

105*15

(making,

the

shoulder

it

as

of

the

five observations

and

made.
"

mm.

mm.

'04

is found

"04

Ditto

'04

Ditto

"04

Ditto

"04

Ditto

54*0

divisions

....

54'3

!-""tto

54.3

Ditto

....

54'i

5*41

54'o

Ditto

54'o

Ditto

to

be contained

in

of the

eyepiece of

micrometer,which

....

....

If

any

difficultyari^-s
red

Chafer

XII.

to

the

in

the

section

on

the

equals

.....

iind

ascertaining

conccrnir.
the

size of given

5*40

5'4o

MAGNIFICATION

128

the

in., by

10

diameters,
the
be

found

by

length

"

them

using

in. away

from

eye-lens) and
amounts

the

sum

as

initial of
the

on

be

to

amounts

to

300,

responsiblefor
60

and

ground

final

the

know

we

may

which

the

at

magnifying

to

on

10

screen

above

mm.

the

final

magnification
objectivewe divide

the

the

by

class

of

power

and

amount,

the

If

ocular.

of the

objectivehas been
the screen
on
amplification
that

once

of

power

the

is

eyepiece

5, .because

divided

300

5.

This

method

furnishes
the

by

60,

power

with

previouslyaccurately determined)

of the stage micrometer

the

shown

dealing

are

objective (of

eyepoint (about 5 to
much
the
measuring how

Knowing

ascertained

we

magnifies five

magnifying

any

quotient gives the magnifying

example the magnificationpower

for

by

If

the

to.

final

the

forth.

upon

been

2-in.

oculars, their

magnificationvalue has
and
projectingthe image
10

so

OCULAR

hence

"

ten, and

lettered

"

simply

focal

inch

an

OF

of

testing the

results

true

optician who

he would

have

tube

correct

magnifying

provided
made

the

them

arranged

the

eyepieces

so

oculars

constructed

are

for

objectives;
that

of

power

it is

presumed

all fall in the

they

draw-

planes shall
coincide with the image plane of the objective. Unfortunately
until Professor
Abbe
position for all
stronglyurged a uniform
the

manufacturers

always

the

that

an

is
more
or

than
that

magnify
same

have

distance.

adopt,

to

eyepiece by
that

this

of another

more

If

one

were

would
magnification

of

have

course

be

of

the

designation),

same

ocular

to

the

drop

two

in the

dropped
too

small,

too

to

appear

may

of

objectivealthough

because

to

now,

even

uniformity
apparently magnify

may

another

arranged for their oculars

is not

of the lack of

certain

length ; obviously

and

not,

maker

focal

their lower

(although

less than

or

was

bne

objective with

an

that

so

the consequence

and

case;

focal
not

distance

the

manufacturers
similar

tube

far,

the

because

final

really the

being unconsciously shortened, \vl

if the ocular
did not drop in far enough, the optical tube
being
be immediately
thus
lengthened by the error, the magnification would
that all
add
increased.
It is scarcely necessary
to
in this
of confusion
manner
was
frequentlybeing introduced
for sending out
and
makers
blamed
an
sometimes
were
way,
objectivewhich did not apparently magnify enough, or perhaps

optical tube

was

thus

again we

to

stop
Abbe

Professor

and

introducing

footing by

apochromatic

series of

which

with

set

matters

on

quite different
their

objectivesand
fault

OCULAR

129

Once

discrepanciesurged

to

system

OF

should.
theoretically

these

for all

such

no

it

how

point out
once

PLANE

than

amplified more

that

one

FOCAL

LOWER

LOCATING

his

new

compensating

pieces,
eye-

found.

be

can

distinct

for

upon

microscopist wish to ascertain the position of the

lower focal plane of any eyepiece (see Appendix) he must
proceed
the
end
of
the
follows
draw-tube
across
as
: Lay
any sort of glass
the objective,
that is towards
scale with the divisions downwards,
well-defined
and
object of any kind.
place on the stage some
of hand-magnifier let him
Aided
focus the
sort
now
by some
the

Should

the

object on

lines of the

equally
by
the

the

stage in

divisions

well

draw-tube

upon

This

plane

the

as

lines

ruled

he

the

sees

object on the stage

the image projected

that

same

the

which

the

sees

means

the

on

when

that

manner

correctlyhe

focussed.

objective lies

such

have

of

end

upper
been

resting.

ocular to
rulings,the Huyghenian
and
be tested is gently slid into the draw-tube
a
positionfound
(without disturbing either the focus or the draw-tube) where
the eyepiece shows
the object on
the stage distinctlyfocussed.
removed

Having

The

tube

top of

the

of

the

the

latter

ocular

must

draw-tube, for that

now

is the

level with

marked

be

position of

the

lower

the

focal

plane of the eyepiece in question. If the ocular be a Ramsden,

owing to its focus being outside the lenses in contradistinction
the
them
obtains
to between
with
as
Huyghenian, a piece
of tubing must
be employed which, while holding the eyepiece
at

one

end, will slip into

obtainingthe position

the

draw-tube

at

the

After

other.

(as before) a line

be drawn
the
on
auxiliary tube corresponding with the
of the draw-tube.
This
marks
the positionof the lower
plane of the eyepiece in use.
of

best

Strictlyspeaking, all these

into before
the

measurements

were

focus

matters

made

should

have

been

must

end

focal

gone

by projecting the image

due regard
magnification,

ground glass to obtain the final

then the final amplification
observations
being paid to such
:
of the
the ground glass divided
on
by the magnifying power
objective gives the true and not approximate magnificationof
the
have
been
these
magnifying powers
eyepiece. When
obtained
of the
for objectivesand
eyepieces
eyepieces, any
on

NOMENCLATURE

ABBE

130

be used
of the objectives(tested),and
(tested)can
upon
any
multiplyingthe values together will give the true magnification
values required. Increase
of the mechanical
tube-length simply
alters the length of the opticaltube
and
so
proportionately
results
increases
the magnification of the objective. The
of
of

increase

an

the
we

before

earlier

stages

approximations
in

matter

the

difference

of

draw-tube

as

stated, when
of

the

and

true

not

considered

we

tube-lengths

the

before

and

argument

mechanical

optical and

really

now

are

the

pointed

was

out.

This

concludes

the
the

points concerning
values

of

before

adopted

explanation and

objectivesand

Professor

nomenclature.

new

of

methods

In

under

came

of

consequence

the

the

upon

his

leading

real

the

ascertaining

oculars

Abbe

of the

discussion

old

fication
magni-

methods

scene

with

his

in

the

researches

subject of microscopy in general, and his great and

many
in
revolution
all
in
things optical
investigations
particular,a
has
of
in the
minds
been
slowly but steadily brought about
most
especiallyevident since the introduction
computers, more
of his apochromatic series with the accompanying compensating
eyepieces. The

ingenuity of the suggestions embodied

conception and

carrying

the

practical utilityfound

use

of his
have

adopt

to

of

methods

induced

his

of

To

an

nomenclature.

have

length

of

160

mm.

270

mm.

explanation of this

decided
at

the
to

the

12

their

of

construction
be

such

end

that
of

position.

the

This

for

tube-

position

within

inni.

Professor

that

the

length

their

was

of

the

Abbe

should

his

turn.

It

180

did

for both

is obvious

when

excellent

slipped

this

into

12

their

he

models
involved

for both
lie

and

mm.

mention

not

plane

compensating oculars
lower
focal planes should

the

microscope of

his

an

of

proposed

be

we

image

draw-tubes.

draw-tube

opticians

now

Continental

; but

English model

fix the

to

will

we

pieces,
eye-

NOMENCLATURE

ABHE

mechanical

objectives and

leading features

the

and

thought

optical tube

for the

of

up-to-date manufacturing

already stated
the

apochromatic system and

in the
general everyday

both

evaluation

THE

We

this
exist

to

most

lines

of

out

in the

mm.

models
from

working

idea, for interchange of oculars

ABBE

practicallyno

change

call the initial value

of every

what

it would

involved
to

NOMENCLATURE

tube

the

or

long

close to the

magnifier held
him

by

"

have

to

used

(250-7-2)whether
that

seen

once

he

here

convention, for it
the

long opticaltube

the

same

To

amount

made

of 270
a

on

the

of

if

that

180

he

magnified

his

to

gave

125

on

tious
ficti-

oculars
such

magnification values

not

all

from

not

mm.,

anomaly

It is at

possibly magnify
the
two-thirds
length.

it could

mm.,

tube.

departure

2-mm.

said

be

diameters

125

long

pronounced

singlesimple

would

2-mm.

or

as

method
of dividing
by the hitherto orthodox
focal lengths. He consequently called his fictitious

be obtained

would

their

by

250

short

words

values, in other

hence

as

magnification

tube

this apparent

correct

obvious

was

"

be if treated

elected

for the short

objective whether

the

on

Further, he

focus.1

of

eye

initial

an

131

figuresby

new

that

name,

of

"

angular magnifications,"the

quantities being obtained

actual

the

by employing

following

ingenious though absolutely arbitrary method.

have
He
already said, that the objective
considered, as we
was
corresponding
nothing but a simple magnifier,of a power
its focal

to

length, producing

object. Thus

the

reallyto

comes

large

distant

and

independent of the length of the draw-tube.

the conventional

this

the

by

on

other

distant
distinct

lO-in.

focal

according
The

of distinct

distance

based

said,was

or

In

the

value, as

vision distance.

25o-mm.

with

accordance

the

vision

length gives the

to

of

image

"

of all his objectives

magnifying power
depend upon their focal lengthonly,and quite
initial

"

initial power

have

we-

Dividing
of

the

jective
ob-

his system.

image produced
object be made

the

by

objective

subtend

can,

like

any

larger angle by
looking at it through a telescope, and according to the power
of such we
should
less
or
cation."
naturally get more
angular magnifiOf course,
microscopes are not made
up of a magnifier
to

"

"

Abbe
telescope ; but Professor
got over
lens
that difficultyby imagining a compound
placed at the
of
lens being composed
focal plane of the objective,such
upper
the objective
to weaken
a concave
portion just the right power

plus

so

as

of

astronomical

an

to

Messrs.

turn

the
"

Bausch

and

Buffalo, N.Y.,
ordinary Huyghenian

real

projected image

Lomb,
some

into

of Rochester, N.Y.,
other

eyepieces

makers

in pre-war

The

adopted
times.

distant

Spencer
the

same

virtual
Lens
for

Co.,
their

ABBE'S

132

formed

the

The

OBJECTIVE

lens which
exactly compensatingconvex
imaginary objectivefor his imaginary telescope.
with

in contact

one,

IMAGINARY

the
mean
compensating oculars
of the imaginary telescope,
with its
angular magnifying power
imaginary but otherwise perfectobjective in the upper focal plane
of

numbers

an

then

the

on

the

microscopicalobjective. Obviously this telescope gets

the tube-length is increased,as on
real telescope,
a
longer when
hence
the same
eyepiece magnifies according to the length of
of these
such
ideally pictures two
telescope. Professor Abbe
with an
focal
imaginary object glass 180 mm.
telescopes,one
the

length and
becomes

evident

times

1*5

instrument,

if he

uses

270

ocular

the

27O-mm.

explains

their

microscope

of

one

the

on

that

and

microscopist
tube

that

much

as

with

other

the

telescope
reason
why

the

as

now

be

the

on

on

180

tells the

he

eyepieces

must

It

length.

apparently magnify

must

short-tube

values

in

mm.

the

long-

1*5

times

considered

greater.1
1

As

the

above

paragraph
it

make

following may
consisting of

be

may
clear

more

objective O,

an

difficult to
Let

Fig.

understand, perhaps

97

field-lens

considered

be

eye-lens E

F, and

the

scope
micro-

is turned

97on

is

object I
intercepted by
an

objective alone

The
the

field-lens

III, which
IV
i

without

seen

the
ai:

upper

by

latter
the

eye.

F and

is

would

rhanged
i

Abb-

form
into
the

by
".

iry

objective
focal length of

the

into
lens

compound
ny

O"

II.

smaller, but

"

focal plane of the

nt

imngc

real

the

and

lens

is

may

This

sharper,

the

virtunl

is
be

supposed

placed
placed
to

be

ABBE

readily

It will be

strict

in

the

be

found

if

correct

explained, neither

appear,

of

powers
of

sense

tube

the

instrument

the

are

in

the

two

(if we

word, for they

on

i6o-mm.

or

on

their

first

speak)

so

all

previously

manner

it at

at

will not

ordinary fashion,
as

may

initial

magnification

in the

But, strange

these

the

eyepieces figured with

obtained

magnifying powers
have
already shown.
when

not

nomenclature

experimentally tested

mechanical

25O-mm.

ordinary

and

133

Abbe's

in

seen

objectivesare

of the

values

NOMENCLATURE

real

as

sight

we

may

fictitious values

the
question are multipliedtogether the result is nevertheless
true
magnification required. On
consideration,however, such
is not to be wondered
at in a different
at, if the subject be looked

in

There

way.

is the

call F,

may

which

we

four

are

third, T, the

evaluation

of

method

E, the

have

Magn-

Magn-

factors

focal

objective;

length of
the

; and

of

distinct

obtain

the

first,which

the

second,

eyepiece ; the

fourth

vision.
final

the

we

and

last,V,

In

old

the

magnification

we

V
x

-^

to

the

of

length

distance

The

employed.

optical tube-length

conventional

the

focal

term

may

factors

whereas

"

in the

Abbe

method

we

By this

if-

it ^s at

once

have

that, after all,the

seen

same
multiplied together in the
fashion, which
For
explains the apparent anomaly.
example, let a 2-mm.
short-tube
Its Abbe
is 125.
If
value
objective be dealt with.
are

tested

on

short-tube

described) of

160

power

is not

length

it will be

say,
in the

usual

an

125

but
135.

8-times
manner

mecJianicaL

mm.

90

(by

microscope
; and

if

Still,if

we

on

the

methods

tube-length, its magnifying

a
use

25o-mm.
on

the

mechanical

short-tube

compensating ocular, the result

is 1000
125 x 8
; a quite correct
"

already

"

tubement,
instru-

obtained

estimate,

each
other.
and a convex
neutralising
By
composed of a concave
component
of suitable focal length (equalto the opticaltube-length)
reckoning the concave
with the objective,
the latter becomes
a
magnifier producing a very distant
with the eyepiece,forms
image of the object. The convex
part of A, taken
astronomical
further
an
"angular5' magnification is
telescope by which
obtained"
lens
the
behind
i.e. whilst the
imaginary concave
placed
eye
would
the object under
it through the imaginary
the angle a, it sees
see
telescope" under the largerangle /3. Tangent a divided by tangent /3 is the
the eyepiece,according to Abbe's
nomenclature,
figure to engrave
on
proper
as

its power.

ABBE

134
because

NOMENCLATURE

the

reallyon

opticaltube the

180

magnification of the
be actually 90 (i80 -4- 2),and
to
the
objectivehas been shown
8 eyepiece having a focal length of 22*5 mm.
in
(which means
old-fashioned
of
language a true
magnifying power
iru)

produces

net

magnificationof

thought will show

little further

"angular magnification" of
focal

length in

that

of

any

correctlyobtained

be

always

can

999'9.

the

figuresfor

tube,

by their

mm.

270

or

the

oculars

compensating

by dividing 180

for the short

millimetres

the

mm.

for the

long.
Further, it will be
of

the

understood

now

objectives(under

this

that

style)are

the

as

initial values

recognised

not

be

to

mechanical
reallythe true values either with the 160 or 250 mm.
are
not
tube-lengths,and that as the figuresfor the oculars
the real magnification quantities in diameters, why the term
has
been
nomenclature
writers
by some
fictitious
applied to
Abbe's
elegant method, to distinguish it from what has been
already explained. But in
designated as the rational system
for its general acceptance, it will be
be
to
seen
justification
of

arrangement

an

calculate

scopistto
the

two

the

two

always
270

mm.

said

of the

draw

of

the

real

the

magnificationat

break

to

without
tube

microscope

down

in

eye

microend

for

is necessary

initial power

final

at

"

If

convenience.

cover-glassadjustment,
at

the

these

under

an

extra

an

altered

once

flies to

once

magnifications

correct

to

glass,the opticaltube-length is
of

ordinary

simply by multiplying
values, that of the objective and the ocular, together ;
either
180
or
provided the optical tube-lengths are
But
it is just here at this point where
the system
4-mm.,

say,

final

ordinary models

be

may

the

for the

convenience

great

winds.

and
To

when

using,

additional
thin
the

cover-

validity

obtain

the

circumstances, it is first

length of

optical tube

by

focal plane of
from
the upper
measuring the distance
objective to the lower focal plane of the ocular, which we

the

to

necessary

stated

is

mouth

of

was

the

180

: 200

out

the

new

the

have

below
the
to be
12
mm.
by Professor Abbe
the
this
tubedraw-tube
(let us say for argument
found
be 200
the
to
mm.), and then, to ascertain
of the
a
ocular, work
proportion sum.
Seeing

fixed

values
that

find

normal
as

the

opticaltube
angular

value

is

180,

of the

v.

eyepiece is

to

the

required figure.

OF

LIMITS

136

USEFUL

shall work

convention

MAGNIFICATION
for

correct

obtaining the

final

tion
magnifica-

values.1

ON

THE

MAGNIFICATION

THE

LIMIT

USEFUL

OF

VARIOUS

\VITH

is

There

IN

GENERAL,

MAGNIFICATION

IN

that

the

to

mind

lay

the

feature of the

in its
microscope lies principally
marvellous
magnification: it naturally seems

of

be

can

thousand

constructed

and

the

unless

value

went

far

objective with
Abbe,

to

as

which

in

be well

attractive

most

wonderful

that

anything

power

ment
instru-

an

enlarged

it is obtained

of

one

his

explain

what

details

observations,

is of

he

panied
accom-

the

laconic

magnification

to

is

render

to

aperture

"Empty

say,

It will

whatever."

PARTICULAR

intelligent
microscopistmagnification
be
of
found
to
little
quickly
very

is

simple

Professor

so

ON

the

to

sufficient numerical

with
evident.

will show

that

But

diameters.
pure

AND

OBJECTIVES

doubt

no

OBJECTS

OF

service

no

To

meant.

do

for a moment
by way of a popular illustration,
presume
have
a
we
picture of a house with windows, front door, and
such
a
chimneys complete; and let it be further understood

so, let us,

picture

formed

was

difficult to

understand

whole-plate size, 8"

shall

see

larger,and

are

about

with

them
This

imparted

to

is Abbe's

objectivemagnifying

the

is the

aperture"
would
1

We

been

same

have

been

should

mention

devised

by

then

that

Professor

chapter devoted

to

if

we

had

found

with

of

draw-tube.
accessory

enable

to

any

It

in

the

chimneys
is shown

more

structure

the

object

time

that

added

other

be examined,

now

nothing

to

or

appearance.
if we
had
inherent

that

it
to

magnifies
"

its numerical

the

whole-plate picture
distinctlyfresh particulars.

littleinstrument

Wright

value

same

have

furnished

experimentally the exact

of
!"-ngth
in the

the

saying

as

should

we

at

stretched, say,

It is true

their

as

3].

magnification." But

"empty

property of adding detail

which

in

4j

was

enlarged ;

If this

; but

detail

to

respect

be

is

details whatever.
the windows

are

so

picture

diameters.

two

further

no

the

support, such

its size

if this

that

6|,

words, it is magnified
we

that

india-rubber, and

piece of sheet
is not

stretchable

some

upon

the

called
the
"n

m;

with

It is described, with

apparatus.

Eikonometer
to

any

object;

the

method

has

obtain

"EMPTY"
The
a

AND
would

windows
and

knocker,
if

Further,

we

be

knocker

could

what

call

may

Abbe's

"

we

cracks

in them.

increased

the

tion
magnifica-

find

the

now

the

the

picture

window
is

pattern

distinctlyas

This

"

full

"

shown

lace, for the

appear

137

curtains,the door

should

still,for

before.

see

never

we

and

requisiteshape, whilst
old ones,
as
they show

very
we

of

would

the door

the

into

up

be

to

have

aperture,

details

more

contain

to

seen

chimneys would
repeated the process

seen

on

MAGNIFICATION

the

provided with
would

been

have

numerical

the

and

"FULL"

curtains

visible, the

serpent coiled

chimney-pots

holes

and

illustrates in

minute

cracks

popular

dently
evi-

are

manner

amplification in contradistinction

to

magnification."

empty

microscope, the relative peculiaritiesof

of amplificationare
the different kinds
perhaps best seen
by
shown
in Figs. 3A and
reproductions
examining the two
3B,
Plate
first illustrates "empty
I. The
jective
magnification," the obWith

the

to

respect

being of insufficient

used
the

diatom

the

objective having
is

actual

magnificationin
aperture,

result, unless
This

has

N. A. of

first

from

that

so

contrary,
their

sence
pre-

understood,

It is evident

such

may

may

be

the

then

amplification

magnification

empty

special cause

some

it

between

exist

the

aperture

is similar.

case

on

resolve

and

never

desired.1

in the chapter devoted

the
to
fully discussed
of the subject,although at
objectives; but an outcome

been

sight it

called

each

should

relation

numerical

second,

numerical

higher

the

in

to

aperture

quite distinctly,although, be

seen

certain

dots ; whilst

into

numerical

the

not

may

converse

immediately apparent, is what may be

of the problem, viz. seeing that the N.A.
be

is
given to an objective is necessarily limited, to what extent
magnification justifiableby eyepiecing, so that fuzziness may
not

; in other

occur

(and

upon

contradistinction

aperture

"

words, what

what
to

Theory

theoretical
"what
shows

is

of useful magnification
is such

grounds
limit

the

of

of

point

obtained)

useful

indisputablythat, owing

wave-length of light,the image

1

is the limit

cannot

in

numerical
to

the finite

possibly be

dealing with objects such as tissues and the like,"empty"

distinctly
magnificationmay be required simply to render the object more
sometimes
of
made
visible by appearing larger. Pathologicalobjectivesare
speciallylow numerical
aperture, for the further advantage of increasing
their depth of focus.
When

rendered
but

by

regarded
the

combination

or

as

star

which

"

in the

this

by the

seen

that the

microscope

for

as

size of

be

shown

or

eye

this

the

in

purpose

disc.

point,

less sensible

or

that
illustration,

point, but

another

as

more

may

is not

"

photographic plate as

it is known

of

of

way

point of light

of lenses

disc

notorious, by

telescope a

CONFUSION

represented by

It is

of

case

lens

any

be

must

diameter.

on

OF

DISC

138

Moreover,
disc

spurious

necessarilya fixed quantity, as its diameter

depends upon
factors:
of the
three
(i) the numerical
objective;
aperture
be
(2) the wave-length of the light used (or perhaps it may
is not

convenient

more

to

lightemployed)

final

(3) the

; and

of

the number

say

magnificationof

of waves
Seeing that twice the number
l
employed
multipliedby the numerical
what

furnishes

is called

the inch

to

waves

to

the

inch

aperture

of

of

the

the

image.
of the light
the objective

its

at once
"resolving power," we
may
of the objectivebe divided by the final
state, if the "resolution
magnificationof the object,the reciprocalof the quotient is the
of the disc required. Take, for example, light having
diameter
"

47,500

the

to

waves

magnificationof
at

thousand

scarcely add

need

lightand
for that

and

its

what

objective N.A.

an

diameters.

circle of confusion

once

inch

of

always be considered

inch

an

said

image produced by

may

Simple

TJ^ of

have

we

1-40, and

arithmetic

final

shows

in diameter.

We

applying to a point of
lens also applies to a line,
as
nothing but a sequential
as

aggregation of juxtaposed points.

It is very readilyunderstood
that by a suitable manipulation
of the factors we
have
as
just mentioned
regulatingthe size of
almost
be kept within
a
spurious disc, its diameter
may
any
limit.
Hence
the
prescribed
question very naturally arises,
is the least
What
is the smallest
permissibledisc (i.e.what
1

the

Although

mentioned

of

in terms
of
the

the

inch.

This

wave-length

measures

in detail

later on,

seeing that wave-lengths

here"

reader

tenth-metres"how
is

to

easilyeffected

in tenth-metres, the

in inches

can

be

at

once

by

it may

convert

such

dividing the

being
changed into
result

convenient

be

usually spoken

are

that

to

into

measures

number

remind

of in the

books
textterms

254,000,000

by

requi;

tenth-metres

quotientis the

by dividing

sought
nine-figuredexpression
what
of
is called
after.
ivc
lengths be expressed in terms
If,howe^
be deprived of one
of its
pp. (double mu), the nine-figuredexpression must
in
of 47,500
Visual light then
waves
ciphers and then treated as before.
double
in
of
terms
inch
is
about
mu.
one
equal to
5347 tenth-metres, or 5347
the

"

same

"

when

the

amount

DISC

of

the diameter
the

always

power,

that

assist him
well

The

of

the

of

be

exercised,

in

then

of

given

47,500

and

N.A.

inch

Example
Then

"

3. If it be
to

obtain

the inch

the

N.A.

47500,

N.A.

95000

Then"

'65 x

to

table

be

placed

following
on

1000,

then

ro;
"

ascertaining the magnification

D with
disc of given diameter
of waves
to the inch, and
an

D.

the

*
=

30875 diameters.

N.A.

47500

arranged

magnificationwith

lightof L

employed
waves

to

employ"

we

is

be

that must

D, with

"005 in.,

then

in.,L

95000

The

aperture,

of

'005

magnificationmt

N.A.

of

inch.

an

means

'65 and

find

to

If D

number

"

2(L)

required

of

given circle of confusion

and

Example

N.A.

furnishes

objectiveof given

To

N.A.

"

produce a
specified number

of

light(L)

lightof

; and

magnification x

and

that will

exceeded.

objective of numerical

95000

formula

increasing

D
ascertainingthe diameter
magnification m ; an objective

1000

This

is not

of

L.

an

the

2.

oculars

of

aperture

with
to

waves

sequently
yj^ of an inch, conpracticalmicroscopist

adding

known

equal to

example,

may

extremely important detail,

problems, the three following

2(L)
For

eye

agreed that

this

out

the method

first shows

the inch

when

has

given numerical
to

exceed

not

cognate

spurious disc with

waves

that the

Convention

disc-diameter

carrying
other

two

are

shall

139

tolerated)so

of the conscientious

this limit

as

formulae
i.

be

can

this disc

care

should

as

CONFUSION

object distinctlydefined

the

see

that

of fuzziness

amount

OF

and

500,

1-32 nearly.

'004
to

show

different

at

glance the limit

numerical

apertures

LIMITS

140
to

as

so

white

OF

ensure

USEFUL
of

disc

MAGNIFICATION

TJ^ of

lightaveraging 47,500

inch

an

the inch

to

waves

being exceeded

not

is

N.A.

employed

"3

285

*5

45"

I'o

1140

i'3Q

1235

i'35

1282

i'4o

1330

mind.

in

which

is very

the

reason

arranging

writer

with

spent
for

the

expected by

then

is

the

time

in

this

delicate

most

and

this

was

perfectingand
monochromatic

especiallyfor photomicrograph

have

practicallyreached

resolving power

its

only be

can

of the
light beyond the violet end
of ultra-violet
usually called by the name

light.
Unfortunately,however,
the
was
insuperable: one
these

in

figures

of

use

which

to

veal
re-

thereabouts.

or

said,

obtaining

be said

may

advance

further

been

much

so

of

magnification must

light for

has

to

seen

array

aperture

ordinary limelight,more

N.A.

Seeing that

spectrum,

what

apparatus

an

illumination

limit,

from

obvious

an

The

numerical

be

soon

such

It is this.

the

times

looo

of

it will

utilityof employing blue-violet

work
the

borne

exceed

never

The

the recollection

law, by
be

carefullystudied

be

If this table

not

limit.

950

I '20

need

Approximate
magnification

when

till latelytwo

difficulties have

manufacture

of

glass that

seemed

would

in

how
to focu.s
was
question, and another
an
image formed by lightof this description,seeing that such is
invisible to the human
The
practically
great ingenuity of
eye.
transmit

the

firm

rays

of Carl

these

quartz, and

difficulties.

we

believe

by

the

use

focus
of
of

constructed

to
a

for

be

made,

character
which

for
length sufficiently

the
the

much
rays

eye

come
overdifficulty,

some

objectivesare

The

corrected

are

being specially
enable

has, however, after

Zeiss

formed

of

molten

wave-length of 275 /z/u, oculars

to
from
crystals; whilst
quartz
a

is

screen

temporarilyemployed"

like that
are

to

for
see

used

for

X-ray

work-

increased

the

moment

the

image, and

hence

in

for

SHORT

USING

this

operation

whilst

the

command
inch

the

gelatine

of

blue-violet

rays

correction

of

needless

is

not

to

point

needed)

designed.

the

is

and

they

able
of

number

waves

the

by

of
and

explained

are

to

films

and

arrangement

an

be

to

screens

the

of

wave-lengths

greater

with

this

all

for

objectives

of
of

being
is

there

the

type

new

aberration,

as

the

microscopist

purpose,

correction)

lenses

out

illumination
is

of

chromatic

single

uncemented

shorter

of

circle

the

as

author

light.

features

(spherical

the

Monochromatic
this

removed

is

course

that

said

with

together

on

special

The

union

later

for

been

light

47,500.

used

are

obtaining

of

has

of

aim

use

than

described
for

what

the

141

taken.1

smaller

employed,

of

which

but

being

from

becomes

confusion

to

is

obvious

is

light

effected

photograph

It

be

to

SCREENS

WAVE-LENGTH

no

this

special

and

of

the

formed

are

light

of

the

of

wave-length

only

be
for

the

at

all

employed
which

very

the

perfect
lack

the

It

(because
with

of

from

system

material.

same

correction

can

selected,

composition
out

chromatic
make

objective

special

the

such

chromatic
mono-

computation

is

VIII

CHAPTER

CONDENSER

SUBSTAGE

THE

light

the

collect

The

object.

said

is

form

to

diaphragm

of

lens

impinging

light

and

chromatic

Several
from

that

devised

lens
upon
than

time

its
and
the
N.A.

simple
a

If

but

form

the
this

front

it

is

back

of

cone

by

sometimes

made

and

are

third

class

have

been

/.

(unfortunately

It

is

142

the

confine

our

fact

this

that

collecting

focus

of

of

its

answers

makers,

this

of

aperture

an

it

of

to

Carl

by
we

composed

including

performance

inferior

condenser.

other

some

made

forms

which

well

of

the

are

hence
;

substage

be

to

and

them

having

deal

disparagingly

cone,

of

aperture,

them

of

system

supplied by

the

the

condensers

Abbe

form

as

"ists
;

of

are

corrections,

many

of

unfortunately
'//

of

illuminated

numerical

their

supplanted

hemispherical

ro.

the

spoken

hollow

they

as

chromatic

of

low-power

specimen,

centre

of

Addenda.

as

Professor

late

special

this

is

base

be

to

base

cone

other

or

apochromatic.

gradually

to

said

and

in

time,

to

then

well

as

forms

the

by

has

remarks
In

called

different

made

which

length

achromatic

dubiously

has

illuminators

or

focal

in

called, vary

376

page

condensers,

These

being

See

through

is

iris

an

the

at

the

object

it, and

upon

light."

"annular

the

the

placed

passing

combination,

the

be

stop

all rays

prevent

to

as

so

If

If

upon

diaphragm

or

lenses, the

diameter,

in

stop

any

the

the

upon

impinging

light."
of

aperture

reduced

one."

narrow

of

cone

the

thereby

"

as

contracts

being

cone

solid

"

which

lenses
it

cone

of

intervention

the

without

of

concentrate

illuminating

the

PHRAGM:
DIA-

USE

system

and

illuminant

of

apex

specimen

the

the

from

of

consists

condenser

SUBSTAGE

ITS

AND

ABUSE

ITS

SUBSTAGE

THE

AND

LIGHT;

OF

CONES

DIFFERENT

THE

AND

not

light
more

but

purpose,

it

has

ourselves;
combination

the

l"

often
led

many

to

; but

of

CONDENSERS

144

must
apochromatic combination
free from
spherical aberration

these

condensers
!

cone

(although

ourselves

we

the first-class

than

instances

leading points

focal

better

be

to

length, numerical

with

one

in

of the

aperture, size

achromatic),
in photomicrograph

condenser

is of

satisfaction.1

considerable

considered

aplanatic

the type

readily admit

we

full

testify,having employed

can

in many

The

capable of giving

this

not

all

things be absolutely
sphericalzones, whilst all

and

even

Notwithstanding

useful kind
as

not

are

before

the

are:

and

aplanatic cone,

the definition.
With
this

with

method

same

similar

those

with

out

as

their

of

account

the

measure

made

made
in the

ordinary

way

; but

by Zeiss

and

other

great
of

size

the

putations,
com-

ordinary microscopic
in England, seeing

with

connection

The

size.

his

but
experimentally save
already given when
dealing

mostly mounted
the

of

result

obtain

of condensers

case

given condenser,

any

"universal

easily performed by screwing them

proceeding in

and

maker

have

we

as

inquiry in

objectives. In the
they are small and
that is

by the

it is difficult to

and1

the

length of

focal

usually furnished

is

by

the

to

respect

this

illuminant

nosepiece,
be

cannot

Continental
method

only

the

to

on

fitting,"

firms
know

we

such

(taking care

carried
on

is to

shall

be

by interposinga diaphragm in front of the same), and

should
focussing and measuring it carefully. This measurement
be compared
with the size of the same
by
aperture as indicated
small

condensers

other

of known

but

the

out

exceedingly carefully,or
1

method

focal

One

forward

point

argument

and

satisfactoryone,

to

why

seeing it has been brought

apochromatic condensers

mention,

so-called

the

of any
trulyapochromatic, is the entire absence
ocular
its
This
first
at
a very
or
sight appears
equivalent.
convincing reproach. On consideration, however, it is not
important part played by the compensating ocular is mostly

only

be

here

the

of

of the

areas

with

refinement

not

is of

no

lea^t
such

consequence

brought about by
of magnification
(the function
to

the

slightestdegree

so

at

might

in the

in detail

appreciable

the ground.

view, and

oblique light

extreme

matter

differences

field of

be obtained.

be

cannot

outer

conditions

requires carrying

false results may

ought perhaps

we

further

as

is not

similar

under

length

the
of
hence

the

centre

because

so

hence

ible.

it would
IJir.

the loss

of comic:.

non-adjustment

for

chromatic

"oe) is

comj"
the

entire

the

effective in the
;

!""

case

the

compel,
formidab!

objection

falls to

FOCAL

LENGTH

regard

With

145

focal

for

length

objectives of different

which

thereon

CONDENSERS

suitable

most

suit

to

as

so

the

to

OF

densers,
con-

limit

powers,

be

immediately apparent.
into the matter
will enter
somewhat
For
that reason
we
fully,
the
attention
of
has
the
most
a
s
subject
more
escaped
especially
writers in the text-books
published.
It will be noticed by looking through the list given on page
152,
made
that the focal lengths of illuminators
by different opticians
defined limits the higher
less and less within somewhat
become
To
their numerical
explain this involves a little close
aperture.
of
Consider
attention.
a
highly apertured condenser, say one
It has to fulfil two
conditions:
N.A.
to furnish
plenty
i'35.
have
of light,and
the
to
a
high numerical
aperture. Now
of light which
is another
of saying the brilliancy
amount
way
in any
of the image of the illuminant
lens is augmented
by
who
decreasing the ratio of focal length to aperture. Readers

placed

is

not

may

"

"

F
familiar with

are

the amount

times

by "j,
This

is

the

as

much.
Now

to

in terms
in the

of

square

obtain

of

what

the

diameter

the

value

we

may

full well

%",where

length ; for example

have
focal length,we

of any
call the

d\s

quantity

numerical
F

the

establish

To

(i)by

and

F ratio

diameter

both

further

dividingby

Then

N.A.

we

N.A.

find

"

we

times

forth

aperture
lens and

of back

lens and

in
the

4 in.

P*
=

4,

called

"

multiply both
quantities,

two

sides by d.

-jx
and

example

our

the

ratio between

divide

in

area

set

reasons

-j,

the

as

is four

of the back

TT

(2) Rapidity or

the

aperture expressed

ratio,for

the diameter

in use.

because

'5 by the numerical

if I in. be

:"

knows,

great, and

as

the

so

divide

must

focal
the

also

reader

is afforded

length of the system

of the lens is twice

footnote,1we

(i) N.A. always

focal

is the

the

diameter

supplies four

"

lightto the sensitive plate that

what

arises, as

available

of

matter

no

will recollect that

photography

obtain"

=";

"

Ni:orNi'
10

sides

of

THE

I46

convenience

of reference

denominator

required ; thus

followingtable

the

1-40

CONDENSER

quotient being the

question, the

For

OF

RATIO

is set

out

:
"

=^F

1-35

=T

f.

roo"

77

this it is

By

that

seen

the

condenser

135

really works,

the

as

photographer would

at

say,

words

; in other

"

brilliant

very

is rendered, one
exceedingly so
image of the illuminant
by a lens, the aperture of which
comparison to that formed

in
is

restricted

to

which

"

only reaches

-0625

of any
aperture. In the manufacture
however, a limit is placed upon

lens, because
"

universal

otherwise

thread/' which

English opticians;
found

to

This

arise with

actual

obtain

combination

high
are

back

lens to the focal

this direction,he
and

must

inch

to

we

find
must

fulfilall the conditions

has

is

not

much

be

the

actual

on

the

the

focal
focal

we

have

to

the

to

than

it

^////-diameter

the

somewhere

of which

scope

lenses

constitutes

imposed

the

the

But

inch.

an

larger indeed

ratio of

necessarilylower

consequently

microscopistthen

far

length that

limit

high-aperturcdcombinations
an

it is the

because

fit into

not

mostly adopted by
this, complications are
centring arrangements.
TV of

is about

necessary,

of its back

diameter

apertures large back

absolutely

as

of the

working

scope,
micro-

size

larger than

numerical

equivalent. Hence,

if

and

for the

would

is the standard

the

might be supposed,

the

numerical

of

terms

condenser

combination

limitingdiameter

these

of the

the

in

numerical

computer

length

in

accord-

length of these
about
J or \ of
spoken.

for selection.

The

It

of

1*35 condenser

the

intense, which
when

be

i8J

times

is about

case

one

question

theoretical

and

the

lightof

inch

an

"3,say

(125

lamp

is

is

hence

(10

40

direct
8). The
really,although

of field

larger area

when

If this

using the "3

ocular

an

; whereas

with

4,

the

rVth of corresponding aperture with

too

magnifications

only

to

amounts

with.

with

unendurable

other.

dull to

be

useful ?

How

higher apertured condenser, we say, passes

more
light? It is due to the difference in

final

relative

the

the

met

objectiveN.A.

in the

the

times

through i8J

is often

condenser,

image

in

is it that

8, the field is sometimes

this be when

can

which

is almost

lamp

the actual

mean

about

passes

low-power

true, how

i'35 condenser, and, say,

ocular

by

brighter than

asked
be

statement

condenser

the

be

is exceedingly
illuminant)

combination

1*35

we

times

i8J

here

may

of the

the

which

'3, by

light issuing through

length (seeing that the

appreciated by the photographer

ratio is so
It
remarkably small.

that

147

the

focal

light transmitted

the

of N.A.

one

the

seen

that

image

better

him

further

will

say

be

can

remind

we

so

CONDENSER

short

the

it is,the smaller

shorter

OF

readily understood

be

can

RATIO

THE

fainter

to

used.

small

eye

in

the

1000

light from

over

piece of which

than

this

case

latter it is

the

apparently,spread

not

the

the

is that

consequence

(only

in

4), whereas

first

the

In

is

the

much

very

and
utilised),

previous

where,

case,

the

smaller, the image,

amplification being so much
though primarily of much less brilliancy,is so much less spread
intense.
out that to the eye it actuallyappears very much
more

owing

to

It is evident
be

to

then

necessarily limited

the

by

length for

of focal

different

objectives of

with

used

the choice

that

numerical

of

demands

condensers
is

aperture

optical construction.

limit the
further, these conditions
pressing the matter
focal length of the illuminators
for high aperture to about \ to \
of an inch ; for those about
with quite
N.A.
to " to f, whereas
ro
Without

low

what

From

stretch

it may

powers

has

apertured systems
afforded
flame
the

bull's eye,

this

with

as

be very
we

have

desirable

end, Mr.

inch

an

necessarily small.

sufficient,but

image would

attended
meet

is

f of

to

at

times

useful.

Usually the

it is often
This

can

already stated, but

results

Conrady

has

as

in

high-

diameter

felt that

larger

by use of
not
always

be effected
its

use

is

respects definition

computed

in.

even

said,the image of the illuminant

been
is

between

and

Messrs.

hence,
Watson

to

APLANATIC

148

have

Sons

"

made

has

of '95 that

" times

condenser

of

CONDENSER

N.A.

with

ro

length and

Of

greater.

its diameter

lens, but

back

OF

trifle longer focal

about

image

CONE

just enables

hence

this

course

it to be used
is

combination,

and

the

be

for

employed
There

several

are

the

by
a

lens.

97, first

page

the N.A.

of

at

we

are

not

then

to

Mr.

proceed

rarely explained

their

of

account

on

"

the

of

the

in

"

point

(as

term,

by
altered
term

of

periphery
This

is

some

it to
so

he

lens

introduced
a

very

"efficient

time

some

happy
cone"

firmly established

100.

one

instead

with

described

Uncorrected

"

101.

ago

indeed,

by

nature

Lens.

Under-corrected.

"

the

Greek,

which

the

all rays,

axis,

Mr.

in

meet

not

may

that

been

thought

have

been

preferable ;

would

meaning

from

whether

shall

Nelson,

means,

optician

it has

in its conventional

but

used

involved

from

its

nearer

or

obtained

often

one

somewhat

word) that

the

uses

the

is

wandering," by

fact, free from

of

This

itself,derived

word

"

understands
the

The

method

of

First,

condenser

the

Fig.

Over-corrected.

reply.

be often

if it be

Fig.

Fig. 98." Aplanatic.

Fig. 99.

performance

Conrady.

explain.1

to

course

explained.

can

use

of

usually classified according to

which
aplanaticcone," a term

more

now

is called

what

once

but

can

ever,
selection,how-

the

be

This

excellent

very

aperture.

test
to

special

remainder

; before

to

aperture.

suggested by

an

large

with

condensers, but

about

manner

It is best

condensers

But

good

student

of the apertometer,

use

numerical

their favourites

its numerical

large back

on

of

for the

the

in

combination

respects

as

well

be

it would

lower

makers

microscopists have

many

the

ordinary substage. It
by removing the top lens

objectivesof

furnishes

demands

fittingin the

centring

aplanatic cone

that

we

be
to

one

sidered
con-

have

but

hesitate

the
to

SIZE

ASCERTAINING

OF

APLANATIC

given plane, as shown

perfectionof the optician'sart.

point in

always suffers from

what

the

is meant

which

in

the axis closer

Fig. 98.

As

marginal

"

to

come

rays

than

those

exaggerated

This

is the

focus

situated

at

centre,

as

seen

peripheralrays
he

if

and

does

it is termed

not

he

"

far

too

of

leaves

uncorrected

an

cone

the

on

and
as

the

usual

it in the

stage

illuminant

an

and

is

"

Remove

situ.

N.A.

the

now

brings

Fig. 99

same

that

as
error

possessed
in

largestaplanatic

ro,

the

is

diatom

the

the

look

the

across

is

obtaining

resulting image
just out of the

slipand

eyepiece, and

'6,

condenser

seen

This
the

light,and

N.A.

objective,using

rack

and

the

we

objectiveof

it with

portion of

in

it,

proceed as
the substage,and
place

on

Shift

image"

critical

field of view, still leaving

in

critical

by

he

the

as

image of the flame

lying in its centre.

diatom

the

position
Focus

technicallycalled

is called

of

one

microscope first an

this

focus

(greatly exaggerated)

edge of the flame,

until
the

with

the size of the

say

diatom.

the

down

field with
what

ascertain

nosepiece of the

on

up

Fix

"

degree,

shown

as

given condenser,

follows

To

"

less

the

under-correction"

"

combination
a

lens,

Fig. 101.
Aplanatic Cone.
of

the
in

outstanding, although
by

enough

on

overdoes

along the axis, as shown

correct

(by

of

art

"

the

lens
"

its axis

to

in

ideal

point

nearer

Fig. 100),so the

opticianreferred to is to try to unite these planes
combining glasseshaving different properties. If he
over-correction"
producing what is technicallycalled

or

149

ordinary uncorrected
spherical aberration

an

is called

to the lens

CONE

its

cover-glass
of

the tube

down

microscope. One ought to see the back lens of the objective

full of light,because
of the condenser
should
the aplanatic cone
be greater than
that of an
objective0*6, such as we are supposed

the

using. Return
objective,substitutingone
to

be

and

here

critical

again obtain

the

now

of

light by

the diatom

until the

edge of the

Once

shift the

diatom

out

back

lens

tube

more
as

before.

the

aplanatic

the

iris

the
remove

The

cone

diaphragm
size

exact

the

0-95, and

opening
place

the

flame

is

seen

across

of the field,and
should

be

equals the numerical

until its edge is just

of the

remove

again focus the diatom,

on
focussing the condenser

N.A.

0*95

and

eyepiece

with

in its stead

look

field.

down

the

quite evenly filled if

aperture.
seen,

pair of
an

the

and

Then

close

carefullynote

compasses.

immersion

Now

objective

ASCERTAINING

ISO
of

Treat

N.A.

1*40

SIZE

centre

and

the

two-thirds

APLANATIC

before, with

as

obtaining critical light,and

the

OF

look

of the

back

the

lens is

focussing and

to

respect

down

CONE

draw-tube.

now

Only

full of

seen

li"rht,
o

slightesttouch

fill the

to

black

lens

to
on

appear

becomes

appearance

side

of

so

to

try

dots

of

as

two

cause

the

the

of
largest aplanatic cone
cautiously close the iris diaphragm

Slowly and
visible,and

the size of the

measure

If the
for

above

will

the

indicates

measure

each

upwards,

amount,

greater

condenser

then
lamp flame, which
last point before the
immediately recognisable. The
of these
black
dots (reallydue to spherical aberration)

to

before.

of the

diameter

little

aplanatic

experience

until

aperture with

and

it is

just

compasses,

than

slightly greater

0^95 lens, the

the

O'95-

is

condenser.

the

as

previous
just

is,of course,

cone

will

thought

render

soon

operations quite easy, and the microscopistwill be able

the largestaplanatic cone
of the condenser
readily to compare
he is testing with its advertised
N.A., and the performance of
these

difference

The
very

which

striking and

often

so

is said

be

to

exists

these

in

mostly due

to

condensers

being more
consequently focussing

aberration,most

(Fig. 101),

another.

with

condenser

one

and

their

in

seen

condenser

It may
condenser

should

of the

much

the

object.

all of those
serve
a

to

broad

be

If

lightof
now

which

The

the

all the
come

to

object of

illuminant
rays

do

another

it

and

corrected

badly

darkness

does

What

asked,

It is this.

cone
as

here

be

frequentlythis

very

as

not
are

is

matter
a

so

is

to

many

commen-

conspicuous
if the

small

condenser

possibleto
come

the

li^ht with

the

natic
apla-

is to
a

bring

focus

same

lost,and

lightinto the field ; and besides this,when

illuminant
(such as is produced after obtaining
scatter

be

be, when

even

possess
a

looking down

on

the
microscope with
eyepiece in situ, should
accurately focussed,intenselybright,whilst the field
; but

at

rays

the

surately dark
by its absence.

spherical

under-corrected

central

If

is

measures

errors

less

or

their peripJieral
than
ones.
greater distance
well corrected, the lamp-flame image, as

two

on

focus

only
i:

critical

edge of the flame, by turning the lamp-flame

broad side on), not only is there an
unequal illumination of the
field which
is immediately
critical light is
apparent, but no
obtainable
the field without
at the
mar
losing it in the

LENGTHS

FOCAL

152
three

lenses

top

to

CONDENSERS

OF
the

of

one

high-angled

condensers

we

use.

With
N.A.

ro

dry condensers, a plan adopted by Mr. Conrady fn his

the top lens being adjustable
type is highly commendable,
by

dry-power
means

The

"The

of

correction

objectives of high

different thicknesses

of

the

performance

of

in

collar

the

same

way

fashioned.

are

power

as

By this

provided for.

slipare

following table, extracted

of

interest

means

from

Carpenter

different

on

condensers

the

scope,
micro-

will be

of

23, and

25

values

of the

first sixteen

and

of

Nos.

22,

THE
have

been

from

the

in

the

actual

of the

makers.

given in the table is for

of light. When,
however,

is the

axis

sensitive,and

lower

given in the table

light is seldom, if
better

deemed

the

it would

of

so

are

in

our

the

in

much

having them
substage is all
of

that

condensers

the

"

similar,for then
effected than

The

else

than

holes

that

The

first

working

To

understand

of

the
the

length.
that

it

of

size
and

numerical

one

was

than

sold

various

so

them

by
that

; but

is

the

that

they

the

great,
with
to be

the

quite

as

the

Continental

speciallyarranged.
different

two

Continental

small

be

cannot

"

could

of

types
made

be much

easier

its Abuse

and

its Use

in olden

which

to

this arrangement
indeed
be

must

of the
it is

of

aperture
semi-diameter

nearest

aperture of

the

is its

of

lens
its

infer that
the

limiting
which

to

remind

mirror

system.

is

importance

powers

upon

it is used.
the

reader

the
practically

back

lens

to

curtailingthe
promptly
"

But,

has

matter.

with

necessary
any

is closed

such

the

to

condenser

only

to

is of

given

mentioned

be

it is easy

Hence

is, the

to

this

available

it

of

days used to be nothing

wheel
different-sized
perforated by many
is nearly always of the
iris or
self-closing

aperture

numerical

that

present.

diameter

point

is

combinations

interchange of condensers

metal

the

that

the

little attention

some

than

condensers

illustrate

to

stage has

far-reaching effect, and

very

more

single point

day

is very

Substage Diaphragm:

The

; whereas

the

English

nowadays

pattern.

as

light

much

microscopy,
practical,rather

than

smaller

that

it is at

be

of

in

present

diameter

substage diaphragm

The

the

is necessary

great pity

will

different

space

design everything beneath

It is

the

English-made

much

so

single point

flame

Continental, which
convenience
thinking uselessly large. The

of

way

the

are

result."

of

smaller

of

edge

But

table

truer

much

too

occupy

are

the

opticians of

feature

main

in

others

aplanatic aperture

obtained.

construction

numerous

the

practicallyused

ever,

; the

condenser

for the

be

will

place
probably

actual

The

value

to

theoretical,and

the

source,

153

measurements

limit

source

as

DIAPHRAGM

from

obtained
estimates

The

"

SUBSTAGE

from

what

the

back
lowers
has

ratio
focal

lens

"

the

been

AFFECTS

154

N.A.

said elsewhere, this is

of the

N.A.

the

objective

in

which

must

we

the

it also.

at

once

refer.

so

as

to, say,

N.A.

the

serious

Here
One

produce

objective

is

"65, no

be

would

it

This, however,

the

matter

matter, for curtailing

curtailment

an

hears

given

numerical

in

question

down

to

to

that, if
to

similar

down

cut

were

the

the

to

in

'crept

aperture

for which

aperture

that of the

it stated

reduced

exactly true, though

is not

has

error

always

cut

of

often

that, if the illuminator

so

designed,

was

to

OBJECTIVE

involves

with

use

condenser,

amount

obviously

condenser

the iris be shut

OF

objective
extent.

same

frequently stated,

so

call attention

it explains
to the fact because
particularly
without
certain little matters
which
otherwise
are
difficulty
any
not
Owing to a certain portion of the light
easy to understand.

and

we

coming from

the condenser

object being diffracted by it

and
scattered, a small quantity of this scattered light falls upon
the objective system
the front lens of the objective. If now
to
that of the
this belongs be one
of higher aperture than
which
condenser

use,

up

by

caught

is

the

in

amount

falling upon

transmitted

through

extra

it and

the back
filling

an

upon

lens to

the

front

lens

entire

than

degree

greater

the

bination,
com-

would

be

first

at

the working aperture

sight anticipated,and so makes
itself at the
objective higher than that of the condenser

of the

feeble

somewhat

point
of

to

aperture

cause,

of

the

lens

any

lower

give

amount

words

the

is that

is furnished

in other

aperture of

mind

to

to

illumination,

in

the

with

comparison

which

cone,

than

ascertain

to

in

in

bear

wider

this increase

Although

moment.

back

direct
lens

be

always able

estimate

to

used

equivalent,it
take

is

illuminator

This

of

The

ro.

is

sum

ivith

mean.

This

mean

of

1-40

2*40,

lens

and

the

this

conda:

to

the

order

working

necessary

required. Take, for example,

and

the

only

the

apertures

rays

higher working

an

two

an

itself. In
by the illuminator
objective is thus increased from

together the
estimate

still the

beam,

is filled with

the combination

of high aperture when

numerical

it is true, is

mean

add
is
with
r2O.

is the

to

used
working aperture of the 1-40 objective when
It is this increase
\\
we
conjunction with a ro condenser.
call attention
using
to, for it immediately explains why, when

1-40

in

better
of the

lens,

say,

resolution
same

with

1*30 condenser

is obtained

reduced

numerical

than

cut

when

aperture

down

to

employing
"

fact

well

an

N.A.

ro,

objective
known

for

EFFECTS

FALSE

the

in
A

question.

in

ro

when

lens

its back

the

admission.

It

far

So

reduced

when

the

of

shape

objectivesare

brass

of

mount

the
its

preventing
the
add,
object must

the

to

brilliant

lens-front

to

at

N.A.

to

the

the

substituted, the

ro

to

rays

by looking

light surrounds

objective oiled

have

we

only pointed

affects the numerical

of

that

use

general effect

of

be

cover-glass in making

upon

the

effect

wide

solid

reduced

to

of

cone

The

magnification.
of

follows

puts the

employing

effects

the

of

image

limit to the

before

the

be
To

the

of

the

infinite

point
be

must

shown,

diffused

an
we

incn
may
is to

diameter

on

eacn

of

speak
show

the

too, that

how

of

disc

whilst

elsewhere
of

possibly

what

sensibly

very

wave-length

the

light

lens

have

for

to

but

of any

We

same

new,

different

increase

cannot

using

attention

number,

aperture

in

objective)and

called

to

light

actually

somewhat

of

employing the

nothing

light,the

be

another

more

or

less

usually accepted
of
T""j-

disc

is

sic^e "f

tne

of this unavoidable

reader

iris increases

still

of course,

between

suitable

confusion."

of
the

to

have

We

argument's sake,

now

perhaps

explain

now

cone

without

times

circle

owing

2,3-0

is

iris

indirectly

so

means,

example

magnification is

diameter

that is to say,

whilst

reducing

point,but

size.

ro

this

mathematical

mathematical
sensible

of

the

that

out

(with

of

in

same
"

for

130

cones

matter

is called

pointed

must

the

aperture of the condenser

practicalmanner

small

using

of the

N.A.

evil

in his

has

danger

what

We

the

one,

N.A.

of, say,

one

Nelson

wide

of

condenser, and

at the time.

lowering

diameter

image of the object. This

produced by using a small solid

contradistinction

One

the

the actual

has

Mr.

how

out

of the

aperture

in
objective

the

the

what

the

easilyseen

155

experiment.

the

for

faint

CONE

additional

condenser

scarcely necessary

is
the

and

focussed

N.A.

different

and

latter

of

the

SMALL

These

entirely lost

is

the

and

changed

be

can

with

use

ring

which

beam,

direct

of

speak

objective we

-40

BY

practicalmicroscopist.

the

to

years

PRODUCED

an

object
"

inch

"

which,

question
point. The
of
lowering the diameter

as

of the disc if the

same

tion
magnifica-

maintained.

ascertain

how

to

calculate

the

diameter

of the

disc, only

find the resolution, and

(2) to
: (i) to
things are necessary
tained
is obthe first. This
multiply such by the magnification. Take
well-known
law, Multiply twice the number
by Abbe's

two

"

156 DIAMETER
of

of the

aperture
has

the

N.A.

if oblique

be

1-40, the

lightbe

used.

the

still

enlarged

if

the

for

apparent,

I00"

of

about

us

light
; and

which

means

inch.

closed

N.A.

to

N.A.

to

of

of

point

the

"

this

the

is

circle

is

immediately

Of

is

light

the circle

ro

'50

distinctly fuzzy.

the

numerical

say

133,000,

an

consequence
is

the

theoreticallybe separated
that the magnification
now

can

finallyclosed

object

circle of confusion

is

DISC

that is 95,000

twice

further

The

more.

inch

apart

be

diaphragm

increased, whereas

by

example, let

an

resolution

Should

SPURIOUS

Presuming
tfrecircle of confusion

diameters, then

is 1,000

is

As

the

to

waves

OF

light employed

lines at this distance

two

any

of

SIZE

objective."

47,500

if the

so,

inch

the

to

waves

used

AFFECTS

this

course

really produced

by diffraction
and

the diaphragm
is more
as
phenomena ; hence
closed with objects of sensible
the image becomes
area

more

all

with

crowded

indeed,

scarcely knows

one

lines

White

may

divisional

markings
extent

between
to

as

To

it

of

especially,perhaps,
phenomena
light,one

between
with

the
in

phase

same

wave-length

"

other.

"

make

diatom

times

may

thicker

than

why

such

different

is very

caused

from

coming
that

in

come

of

additive, and

the

to

the

ances
appearto

effects

say,

(more

interference

same

of

source

contact

simple multiples
seem

they
of

difficult

by

to

grow

structure

are

"

believe

doubled-tipped,

all diffraction

words, those

are

"

to

so,

is false.

true

that

Those

what

appear

cause,

type)

the rays

other

same

this

so,

and

much

the

upon

suffice to add

here

must

may

several

appear

explain why this is

produced by the same

are

but

bacteria

portions of

should, actually encroaching

valve.

effects, so

is real

capsules ; hairs

discrete

an

what

around

appear

they have
such

of diffraction

manner

in

the

of

the

strengthen

one

brightness ; whilst those not in the

phase, being perhaps half,or any portion,of a wave-length
behind
the others, serve
to quench each
other, causing
or

another, causing increased

same

ahead

darkness.

Diffraction
1

To

in tenth-metres.

by

in

number
i
.

inetres

as

whole,

are

charac-

ordinary wave-lengths of different coloured

The

the

then, taken

phenomena

=--

intiiy by the

46,182

waves

in

into

these

convert

tenth-metres"
number
one

terms

rv

in

inch.

lightare usually given

of the inch, divide 254,000,000
if in inches, divide
the same

inches.
See

Addenda.

,ple,say, 5500

lenih-

OF

UTILITY
what

by

terised

they

but

may

be

These

of

star.

It is surrounded

darkness, first one

of
about

would

as

been

thought

one

that

in appearance

in

eye

effect ; in other
at another

dark

words,

of

what

and

the

on

how

other

closing effect

this

the

at

be

in

diaphragm
when

ro

illuminator.

ocular
shut

lens

rush

removed,

use

off

"

of

to

vary

dark

places

some

cause

contrast

other

the

"

mum
mini-

and

bright band,

however, that it

be

due

to

slight

be

both

specimen
and

"

whilst

say

placed

an

Abbe

looking

just appear

objective. The
carefullywatched
light will be seen

refer

We

to

of

becomes

circumstances
the

of

use

the

entering the tube

light from
of higher aperture than the lens
for example, a '65 objective and

say,

the
be

in the

only

may

it has

stray

Let

until its leaves

of

should
a

focussed
be

of

mentioned,

certain

condenser

it is in

Having
be

which

N.A.

place
light,

of

the

out

under

cutting

employing

with

the

of

ment
arrangetakes

from

sees

object,whilst

an

in

and

time

one

greatest possible service.

very

so-called

dangers of closing the iris,

be exercised
in so doing ; it remains
must
now,
hand, to be explained, strange as it may
appear,
pointed

now
care

maxima

point

or

effect

remote

quite possiblethe change of effect

alteration of focal adjustment.
have

star

because

is

We

of

stated

same

assumed,

darkness

is

It should

one.

the

line around

recognises a maximum,

case

one

possiblya

"

been

microscope ; hence
phenomena
appear

white

existent"

unexplained

than

these

reason

be

hitherto

to

bands

"

in the

with

increase

known

has

Now

justly be

very

an

already

what

other.1

object other

the

occasion

from

and

as

the

sometimes

"

another

then

meet

brightness

focussed
on
telescope when
of
rings
brightness and
rings

with

an

"

of

157

the

it may

of

image

such

on

in

and

DIAPHRAGM

being arranged in
around
the
readily seen

be

can

phenomena,

the

bands

"

described

light witnessed

point

IRIS

understood

be

can

also

minima.

and

termed

are

darkness," which

CLOSING

at

the

microscope.

test-plate
"

down

the

on

the

tube

peripheryof

let
the

the

the
iris

back

returned, the

plate
the iris is suddenly opened :
whilst
field,spoiling
flooding the whole
ocular

being

its
sensibly the general definition of the lines. From
submerging effect on the image, this used always to be called
flooding the specimen with light." Repeating the process,
very

"

In

making

placed between

the
the

experiment
eye

and

the

it is well

eyepiece.

to

use

monochromatic

screen,

OF

LIMIT

158
but

this occasion

on

it is looked

when

at, instead

the

of the

iris is

the

light enters

CLOSING

watching what

shall see, when

we

USEFUL

happens

opened,

back
the

through

specimen
that

the

in

quite

tube"

lens

ocular,

quantity of
through the

coming in edgeways
is reflected off its edges into the
lens"
which
ocular, causing
the flooding in question. If now
the iris be shut, so
to
as
fair conditions.
this, the objective performs under
prevent
stray

is

Attention

especially called
be

may
due

simply

have

not

this

to

No

if the
the

as

for

bad

microscopist

of stray
had

condenser

of

handle

can

with

student
is

object. It

an

that will not

one
justifiable,

phenomena;

is not

limit

distinct

any

but

taken

be

that

as

third,by

its outer

the

back

lens

of the combination

the

instrument,

requires

more

the

cutting down

easy

exactly the

the

upon
to

matter

these
rule

true

furnish

closing of the

general

the

iris that

irregulardiffraction
for daily practice,

102.

moderate

ever

be

we

mean

which

say,

of

opinion

an

this

asserted, with

by,
tube

of

might

substage diaphragm
produce effects that may

introduce

objective should

no

was

his

an

to

Fig.

however, it may

which

light,which

been

bination
com-

objective.
then

carelessly,for if he does so he may

lead him
quite astray in forming
structure

otherwise

performance

irregularaddition

occurred

aperture

same

blamed

this fact, as

to

cut

of

amount

down
the

by looking
eyepiece being removed.
as

than

seen

this before

than

more

outer

good

tainty,
cer-

of

third
down

the
If

it

image

is

CHAPTER
METHODS

objects

MOST
the

OF

object, objective,

mirror

away

opinion

in

if fluids

employed
save

double
of

for

but

it is

light, as

off

beams
universal

racked

were

Carpenter

thought

same

The

the

opinion
Lite

prism

possibility of

of

instead

fact

all

double
and

to

the

light

said

in

our

be

cannot

for

objects)
with

away

of

use

the

to

this

ordinary

the

glass
think
"

direct

"

"

reflected

"

does

not

seem

that

images.

in

seen

When

to

focus

; the

; whilst

Sir

held

for

now

always

retk-ction

doing

We

have

ourselves

found

160

student
Brcwstcr

the

on

total

use,

"

Davit!

the

to

always

was

been

particularly pleasant

and
The

have

handle.

use,

focussed

be
been

field

their

Ouekctt

.perience
to

the

within

effect
"

the

condensers

say

was

better

whose

mirror,

is

image

should

is said

and

theory explained

the

has

fashion, it

placed

is

it.

that

reverse

ordinary
be

across

flame

the

the

should

any

the

light

consideration,

pure

cumbersome

in

and

microscopists

image

down,

without

Dallinger,

Dr.

corresponding
angled

and

of

source

do

there

in

flame

before

just the

was

the

declared

racking
it

maintained

light

that

so

school

by

obtained

the

"

the

stretching

up

focus,

the

mirror

that

however,

first used,

and

stated

ocular

the

the

opinion.

lamp

adjusted

of

view

without
"

the

to

the

this

observer.

course

media

the

by

to

as

be

as

Some

denser,
con-

with

mirror, owing

by employing

of

already
so

obtained

; but

mirror

is

thick.1

too

always

called, than

using

condenser

they

the

light

being
is

the

been

were

from

agreement

When

of

the

it is made

definition

better

purpose,

that

the

employ

of

stage

the

horizontal

to

(which
the

on

away

is little to

and

of

reflection

which

has

one

height,

method

used

are

do

instrument

There

lamp.

such

of

to

eye

of

of

rays

through

the

to

the

light, the

mirror

desirable

convenient

the

favour

the

eyepiece

setting

from

transmitted

by

is

it

illuminant

straight

and

however,

altogether, and,

raising the

by

reflected

being

Occasionally,

ILLUMINATION

examined

are

illuminant

IX

object,
time.

some

demands

in favour

but

the

away
the

with

li^ht

arrangement

the
markably
re-

is

In

ILLUMINANT:

OF

FOCUS
later

still,
owing

years

the

to

a
subject; but
Conrady, although arousing
with
hold
microscopists,for

his

believe that

arguments

the

actual

it would

the

as

appear,

back

These
is not

per

in

and

point
in

he

out

commanded

microscope
believed

that,

whilst

importance of fillingthe
best
practical position for

the

just above

the

the

also, in

ourselves

lens

front

past, spent

experiments, photographic
this subject, and
have
come
the

back

lens

definition,and
look

for

is

the

of

to

in

in

numerous

with

connection

filling

(i) that

best

the

obtain

to

is

have

We

use.

making

time

factor

focus

to

to

Conrady
objective,

the

conclusion

the

practical

Mr.

condenser

otherwise,

and

microscopist should always

such
dition
conobjective (to see

the

reason

lens

lens

much

important

that

back

the

at

is

with

objective in

the

of

agreeing
the

Zeiss

respect, used

great
back

the

really

se

Carl

of

the

to

us

objectiveis

tJie

of

sideration,
con-

lead

light. Mr. Poser

(formerly manager
whose
knowledge of the theoretical
London),
of

taken

mature

upon

lens

Mr.

by

filled with

details

re-arisen

has
first,

at

of the illuminant

long

maticians
mathe-

considerations

indisputable.

are

has

controversy

of

161

several

of

opposition

some

focus

actual necessity
', so

an

of

series

this

upon

researches

deal

others, a good

and

LIGHT

CRITICAL

of

the

fulfilled)
before even

examining

Ids

specimen ; (ii)that

ground glass of the Nernst or other electric lamp,

the
or
flame-edge actually in focus is often objectionable,
more
especiallythe former, no injuriouseffectis produced in
the definition by either
raising or
lowering the condenser
small
lens
is not
amount
a
provided the back
emptied in
the
think
that
slightestdegree by so
(iii)we
doing, and
seeing

Mr.

the

Poser

is correct

when

he

states

is

light

more

obtained

by raising the condenser

just above, rather than by lowering
it just beneath
of the
the image
the position where
it forms
illuminant, although theoreticallythere should
really be no
difference.

If

the

doubting

the

flame

use?

it be

mind

desired

consider

is

focussed,is
Presuming it is

if so, what

instead
Likewise

"

should

whilst
what

corresponding

the

the

to

so,

the

very

further, let

matter

the edge
following: When
realitythe actual edge that is

does

centre

in

the

pursue

the

it in

edge

change

to

is

it make

any

portion of the
still presented

definition
furthermost

follows

edge

difference

"

of
in

and

wick

be

focussed

to

the

mirror?

should
of

the

the

wick
II

light
be

162

CRITICAL
instead

employed
allowed

is

there
of focus

range

of

change.

no

exists

"

certain

either

from

play

"

the

preceding?
Seeing this is so,

the

granted, shows

which, being
viz. that

of

LIGHT

front

the
of

being always provided the back

light1
backing out of

filled with
are

It

the

merely

that

of which

of

With

of different
with

focal

thought

in

often

"

term

the

N.A.

as

as

whole, but

focal

lengths

illuminant

anyhow

regulate the

to

of the illuminated

or

largerthe image

sort, but

definition
"

critical illumination

of the

size

all.

at

of

of the

is of
the

same

of different

use

the

Putting

of

image

of the field of view,

area

illuminant

suit

to

less,the

the
well

as

obvious, for the

course

feeblerthe intensityof the

light. Should, however, the image of the

illuminant

be too

small

time, the aperture of the condenser

at any

being correct, it can be

by using the auxiliary or bull's-eyecondenser

readily broadened

fidgeted about

be

better

definition,which

it may

filled

equably with

state

of illumination

is

that

so

light. In doing

so

it had

its

this be the

for unless

will be

lost,and

obtains

as

of

source

position does not spoil

should
do if incorrectly placed. Care
lens
of the objectiveis
that the back

light;
just

ensue,

condenser

this

doing

in

taken

troubles

the

and

the mirror

between

be

the

having them

not

intensityof the light. This

the

as

objective,or
is

we

objectives
already spoken when
dealing
it remains
to
explain the

is obvious, of

which
utility,
the

the

out

specialobjectof having different focal lengths

aside

saying this

stated, for always

of illuminators

have

length we

condensers

//

"

production.
the selection

to

respect

said,

is admissible

broadened

have

have

we

nothing of

by the

actually meant

is

be

mean

researches

recent

its method

and

we

what

of the wick,

of the objectiveis equably

necessity,so

obtaining critical light:

of

be

must

it is obvious

back

condenser

lens

not

must

truth

the

the

to

It

when

the

the

case,

consequent

array

ordinary

an

critical
of

substage

badly placed.

are
ordinary bull's-eyecondensers
poor
the best being not superior
examples of the optician'sart, even
To
condenser.
finest lantern
remedy this, and supply
to the

Most

much-felt

This

years,

Mr.

want,

bears

viz. that

illuminated

all of the

if not

by

out

the

dark

what
back

Conrady
Mr.

Nelson

lens must

spots ; if these

not

took
has

show

the

trouble

maintained
any

so

to

compute,

stoutlyfor many
area
unequally

portion of its

exist,the adjustment is

not

correct.

BULL'S-EYE

aplanat of
one

very

the

the

of these

of

"

Watson

Messrs.

and

time.

some

It

and

lift out

to

makes

the

163

made,
We
be

can

enjoyed

the

use

not

useful

arrangement

our

the

the

only as
light from

employed

in

optical parts
be
placed in

achromatised

an

have

perfect bull's-eye,utilisingall

illuminant, but

made

have

Sons

highest quality.

very
for

CONDENSERS

substage,

where

are

the

of
magnificent low-power condenser
great utilitywith objectivesof suitable focal length.
There
two
one
are
or
mountings for these auxiliarycondensers

aplanat

which

have

very

proved

very

useful

over

and

above

those

Fig. 103.
met

increased

give

One

with.

in

by
Fig.

is

by

leaps

and

103.

The

Fig.
Leitz

"

bounds

lens

firm
in

is

whose
recent

large, the

fame
years
mount

ordinarily

104.

has
"

which
very

justly
we

steady

BULL'S-EYE

164
and

likelyto get

not

is to

lenticular

turn

and

stand

We

-have
the

to

of

for the

much

as

ingly
exceed-

firm

microscopistof

service.
in

one

price

whose

all sorts,

up-to-date as possible,have
convenient
portable and
very

much

had

the

Sons, another

"

articles

out

introduced

ago

ball-and-socket

Fig. 104.
mounting

adjustment,and

Watson

otherwise,

while

some

of

out

Messrs.

moderate.

ambition

CONDENSERS

It

for

use

Conrady condenser, and

are

is

illustrated
time

some

in

the

as

quite satisfied

with

performance.

its

Bausch

Messrs.

"

Lomb

have

also

introduced

modification

Fig. 105.

which

the

arm

its

own

screws

use.

which

hold

to

It is shown

C. Baker
raise

does

it in

it up

has
and

also

and

completing
serviceable

most

one

of

useful

arrangement,

is to
with

away

but

It consists

one.

to

move

turned

combination.

end

of

its

dropping bythe necessity of clampingit requires a little practice

with

being

for the

excellent

bull's-eyeat the other

This

pattern

itself capable
bull's-eye,
a

the

position;
in Fig. 105.
a

down,

to

it.

supports

weight, and

it is, an

as

fittinga counterpoise

in

to

think, simple

we

prevent

lamp complete
it side
aside

to

when

This

rack

side with
not

is indeed

to

the

required,
a

very

is very quickly brought

bull's-eye

BULL'S-EYE
into

and

use,

turned

equally quickly

firm's

this

Like

CONDENSERS

characteristic

carefully thought
without

out

when

aside

perhaps

and

required.

not

has

detail

attribute, every

although

"

165

originated

idea

the

ingly
exceedperfected by
experienced
skilful manipulator, both
as
microscopist and photo-microthe leading spirit
grapher,the late Mr. Lees Curties, who was
from

will

Space

allow

not

to illustrate

firm.

It

is

illustrated

in

Fig. 106.

us

of

more

any

the

and

sers,
bull's-eyeconden-

these

but

should

we

other

that

good

tion
men-

equally

arrangements
Powell

J. Beck,

them,

equal

"

Lea-

"

although

claim

R.

Swift, and

land, Ross,
others

are

Messrs.

by

made

of

of

department

this

in

"

the

been

none

believe,

we

to

be

optically

to

the

Watson-

aplanat

Conrady
which

of

have

we

just

spoken.
The

illuminant

suitable

pends
de-

much

very
the

of

selection

upon
and

requirements

dividuality
in-

of the microscopist,
for
a

like

some

bright light

to

others

whilst
as

soft

as

possible.

prefer

illumination

an

Fig.
For

work, where

ordinary

oil

lamp, as
light most

of

found

associated

price.
with

may
The

be

with

light is

shown

not

the

mantle

its great

available, the

Fig. 106, is, we

in

frequently

procured

Welsbach

several, but

06.

day
everyelectric

source

cut, and

use,

with.

met

details

extra

almost

in

with

used

heat

any

is

coal

It
as

form
gas

drawback,

microscopist's
suppose,

the

is not

always

given

in

and

at

is

the
any

favourite

although

its

it

for

its readiness

dirt and

and

smell

from

freedom

GORDON

AND

BARNARD

BY

ILLUMINANTS

166

decidedly handy form to employ.

electric light is available, the Nernst
Where

make

use

of great service, and

was

in

made

recommend

half

glass,or

illuminants, there

mentioned
Addenda

to

the

which

sing
for focus-

the

Besides

abovein

mentioned

ones

new

lamps,

the

is referred.

reader

introduced

illuminants

more

are

many

transparent

suitable

globe,is not

obtaining critical illumination.

when

these

the

fine sand-blasted, as

the glact variety of

even

Two

be

should

bulb

of the

of

procuring either

In

been

strongly
lamp by

general use.
thirty-candleincandescent

Zigzag.

the

called

Steam

Failing this, we

excellent

an

had

superseded

form, it might have

for

lamps

electric

other

furnace

and

if its filament

durable

more

five-shilling
lamp

few

years

ago

remain

to

Fig. 107.

although

be mentioned,

adaptation by Mr. J. E.

an

for the
a

not

very

delicate

believe.

we

very

handle, and

to

arrangement

will not

and
for

monochromatic
Charles

The

Baker's, 244,
other

W.

of

of about

It
a

an

said to be

apple-green. It
High Holborn, London.
has

been

consists,

Nernst

half

be

the

that

one

Gordon.

Fig. 107,
rod

is

that may

one

lamp
inch

brought
shown

as

close

in

first is

finelyground, whilst the other

that

rays

shall

be

brought

to

focus

transit

through

exceedingly
almost absolutely
an

be

into

obtained

notice

at

by Mr.

diagrammatically in
proximity with a glass

thickness, having the end

filament
the

can

bear

suffer

very

fine illuminant

The

of the

Barnard

then
carefullypacked (and even
may
violent shaking),still it is unquestionably

unless

J.

used

Mercury vapour lamp

microscopist. Although this is,unfortunately,

of the

use

much

is lenticular
upon

the

the

nearest

in

mirror

form
of

so

the

microscope. Approaching the glass to the filament very rapidly

and
the intensity of the illumination, whilst
sensibly increases

HELIOSTAT

168

changed, for they

are

placed

at

upper

rod, which

right angles

and

the

positive or

than

the

negative (instead of thicker

longer of the two, so as to have

It is claimed
by the inventors of
light is obtained
by the
when

by the

this

rnicroscopistis able to manipulate and

taking his eye from the instrument
moment

it

as

duration.

much

carbons
is fed

It
positive element.
attached
have
a
long arm

can

that

system

of the

smallness

desired

life of sufficient

well

but

that

the

so

of

matter

as

by hand,

adjust the carbons

;

more

as

it

to

the

made

usual),being

as

other,

cored, is thinner

is

position of the

new

the

to

one

without

small

no

ness
prevents the glareof the lightspoilingthe sensitive-

of his retina.

The

lamp

and
only takes four amperes,
in
conjunction with a
can,

suitable

resistance

order, be

to

the

switched

the

save

of
box

trouble

any

possible strengthening

the

to

which

fuse

is

when

it is

in winter

seen

its

prevents

is

ordinary
mirror
not

has

means

of the

shift,even
to

be

apparatus,
\\
one

of

Watson

the

"

different

called

used

several

most

do

but

to

which
earth's

ala'ays on
effectuallyso that it

This

believe

the

in the

little that

the

to

sun

parts of the mirror,

convenient, is that

Sons, according

the

reallya good
we

the

save

owing

of

this

Hcliostat.

it be

unless

and

To

for the microscope,

fact, it is impossible with

in

keep the image

microscope.
upon

of

know

to

"

"

desirable

not

however,
difficulty,

is that

use

trouble

is great

there

rotation

in this country.

frequent

more

be desired

to

is

easily removed

sunlight,if utilised

; but

nothing

leaves

manner,

use.

lamp

illuminant

an

as

proper

fuse-

the front of the

Daylight
its diffuse nature

the

in

required.

not

to

whatever,

bull's-eye condenser

fixed

owing

system

for the circuit in

to

on

house

ordinary

without

supplied

is

expensive
use

no

best, and

manufactured

instructions

will

instrument

an

very

is of

one

the

the

at

all.

certainly

by
of the

Messrs.

late Dr.

MONOCHROMATIC

LIGHT

Johnston Stoney (Fig. 109).

designed by

mechanician

was

theories

instructions

Full
need

wait

not

such

to

explain

the

are

how

the

image upon

time

are

without
stained
the

and

of the

quitestationary.

Those

warned
especially

not

using
one

"

of the

mirror

the

set

is used
the

upon

microscope, where
using the
place their

microscope, or

scope.
micro-

instrument, so

arrangement

sun's

it

sun

projects

it remains

mirror

and

parently
ap-

the first

eye to the ocular

"

we

; it must

lightfor

screen

knowledge

optics of the

the

protectivemonochromatic
the
intervening between

too

to

whose

with

once

expected when
ingenuity as

mathematical

with

issued

be

to

one

his

connected

mirror

only

eminence,

therefore,to say that when

suffice,
its

is

only equalled by

subtle

in all the

of

man

This

169

all

at

deeply

of the heliostat

else between

the eye

and

the

ocular.
ARRANGEMENTS

FOR

APPROXIMATE

PRODUCING

CHROMATIC
MONO-

LIGHT
The

object of using lightof

one

colour

(i)the first being to aid resolution, and

providing greater

contrast

so-called

between

is of

the

second

twofold

nature

to assist in
(ii)

different parts of

specimen.

white

light may be said to consist of

all varieties of wave-lengths, say, from
in.
^oi^ in. (red)to ^ro
(violet)
wave-length in air, however, being usually
; its mean
spoken of as about j^Jinr"f an inch.
Seeing that Abbe's Law for ascertainingthe theoretical power
of resolution
with any
objectiveis to multiply twice the number
inch
of the light used
of waves
to the
by the N.A. of the
the resolution, roughly
that twice
objective,it is very obvious
speaking, is obtained
by employing violet light rather than by
blue
blueor
using red (see p. 156). To be able then to use
the desideratum
of the microscopist.
violet light has long been
that
blue
Hitherto
even
no
glass could be made
approached
for
a
monochromaticity. That sold by Zeiss was
great advance
for visual work.
The
to be desired
photography, but left much
Ltd. are
films made
by Kodak
exceedingly
comparatively new
fine,and are spoken of at some
length in the Addenda
; but
illumination
can
perfectlypure monochromatic
only be obtained
of the
blue
by the use
by spectroscopic means,
light formed
shall
which
now
we
speak.
concerning
This method
refer is by employing either a prism
to which
we
(i)Ordinary

or

grating

in

some

form.

The

firm

of

Carl

Zeiss

make

AUTHOR'S
of

train

stage

hear

we

Mr.

prisms

using

it

it well

have

we

sulphate
2

using
of

Ifght absorbed
167)

page

be

these

of, but

have

the

tried

more

the

it ourselves.
but

when

about

3 in. in length,
the great difficulty
of

; but

If the

of

expected. Blue
especiallyammonio-

is the

arrangements

large amount
lamp (see
4-ampere

Argus

the solution

and

part

we

measuring

thereby.

employed,

not

success

in. in thickness

fluid

under

arrangement,

employed,

cells

in

the

to

another

with

also been

copper,

any

spoken
met

in. in breadth, and

of

attached

designed
not

fluid fitters have

of

is

that

has

Nelson

APPARATUS

be concentrated,

fairly

Fig. no.

sulphate
be

can

with

or

so

far

of to obtain

an

copper

(ii)A

copper
for

we

seen.1

ever

absolutely perfect

they nearly always

The

blue

neither

; but

only

lightis

means

by

ment
employ-

the author, and

special arrangement
by
several
Society
Royal Microscopical
years
which
Besides
details of an
can
ordinary nature

following formulae
nitrate 160 grains,chromic
two

saturated

pass
know

we

the

"

The

as

have

ammonio-cupric-

solutions

the

i ID

of

acetate

the

devised

of the
at

the

with

truly monochromatic,

called

reel rays

formed

li^ht-filtcris

favourable

solution

of copper

are

said
acid

acetate.

14

to

furnish

good

grains,with

results

water

to

7|

hibited
ex-

ago
be

(i) Pure
ounces;

SCREENS

MONOCHROMATIC

"

prismatic light
blue

the

which

the

for

although

Soc., December,
The

used, but

still much
films made

lantern-slide

two

56,

and

61,

all
if

but
a

No.

think

None

No.

of

end

44A

to

66,

chromatic,
mono-

spectrum

kind

blue"

of

rather

it wants

in

Nos.

truly

the

"

had

between

are

are

are

gelatine

be

to

are

we

red

but

how

and

screens,

best

the

with

results,

green

Blue

illuminant.

Greens

deepest.

little of

combined

be

perfect

very

the

being

passing

the

eclipsed by

Ltd.

Kodak

this work

of

editions

now

glasses. The

last

are

Pot-green glass 1

the

cheap, only requiring mounting

are

cover

the

and

previous

think

by

varieties,and

many

in

we

sold

and

by Gifford

screen

author

by the

described

employed,

part vi.,p. 727).

1902,
fluid

F-line

be

can

to

lamp, as
five-shillingNernst
sufficient (see Journal Roy. Mic.

figure,is amply

the

in

shown

handy

the

purposes

many

lamp

ment,
arrange-

and

convenient

4-ampere

prism, to

this

replica. By

the

is very

Argus

the

leaving

parallel on

rays

its final form

in

limelight,or

use,

projected on

beam

furnish

to

by

to

green

constructed

is

of Thorpe's
employing one
glass prism speciallydesigned to

colour

any

and

incident

the

of

is attached

replicas,which
keep

machine

figure the

the

in

seen

171

strong

them, will be found

use

in

the Addenda.

(ii)The

second

in different

admit,

more

of

parts
of

of

use

service

several

of

exhaustion

in

for

this

they

are

is

much

so

used

of

but

purpose,

during

it

prevents

using

easilydistinguishable,although
The

softened.

with

is not
to be
particularglass, which
is
signal green,"
very
pot glass called
"

being

244,

often

fluid

will not

and

by Messrs.

screen,

the

after

called

namely,

readilybreak.
monochromatic.

"

Watson
author's

that

Different

it does

with
and

It has

thicknesses

fade
are

; hence

with

may

colours

other

cheap,
Sons, of 313, High
not

screen

green

mentioned

confused

name.

only

not

black

the

general illumination

the

specimens stained

This

detail

appear

glass above

green

materially

suitable
to

to

much

examination

very
this

example,

it is of

hurried

ready

are

; but

recommend

because

red, for

for this purpose

Baker,
the

for

We

eye.

objects stained

causes

employed

contrast

greater

is,we

use

photomicrography

specimens,
the

Such

specimen.

comfort especiallywhen

through

is to create

screens

; but

variety

another

sold

an

age

sold,but

by

Charles

Holborn,
advantage
;

be

moreover,

it is not

E.G.,
over

it
pletely
com-

DARK-GROUND

i;2

ILLUMINATION

especial directions

more

devoted

the

to

and

of the

use

details

microscope

Dark-ground
illumination

Dark-ground
the details of

up

time

same

somewhat

the method
rays

beautiful

is that the

only,and

by

no

of

although

as

the

remarkable
The

manner.

be litup

all.

at

ones

instrument
of

source

somewhat

microscopist to
idea

and

the

at

in

by extremely oblique

All

of

manner

often

are

show

entertained

thereby introduced, which

are

chapter

Bacteriology.1

the

by

object shall

direct

silvery-lookingeffects
demonstrations

in

the

Illumination

is used

object in

an

in

given

are

in

curious

popular

greatly admired,

however,
investigation,

not

much

so

is

gained thereby as might be expected, save

perhaps in learning
the general contour
and
actual configuration of living bacteria

explained later

as

The

usual

on.

method

with

dry objectives
of low magnification
is twofold, either by employing the
Spot Lens
(or its
wheel stop,"placed beneath
the ordinary substage
equivalent,a

adopted

"

by the Paraboloid.
is merely a condenser
Tfie Spot Lens
less permanently attached
more
or
paper
condenser)

the

or

In

centre.

itself

some

rough

ground

and

disadvantage of this
black disc only reallysuits
it is

and

made,

of

method

the

expensive

in

paper,

the

lens

the

several

in
is

glass

situation.

same

diameter

of

objectivefor

individual
to have

its lower

the

is that

piece of black

to

using

painted black

The

was

instead

cases,

with

the

which

condensers,

it

each

being ground and painted to suit a battery of objectives; and it

is equally inconvenient
to have
to cut individual
pieces of black
the

affix to

to

paper

microscope.
like

made

are

rim

is also

"

the
To

"

By having several
of different objectives,one
carrier

beneath

the

whilst still allowing the

this

of
1

can

Mr.

be

illumination

with

the "box

sizes.

the

this trouble

meet

wheels

thin, but

for every

condenser

"

"

depends

almost

equal,if not

used

spokes.

to suit the numerical

rays

to

pass.

this

upon

very

originalmethod
a

that

The

aperture

that, placed
the
The

of

in

direct

light,
peculiarity

fact,

little later,thinks

quite so, to that

in

in different

is made

condenser, stops off

oblique

used

often

thin

usually be found

of his
Rheinberg, by the use
coloured
illumination,described

produced

are

very

of the wheel

wheels
can

stops

three

only
"

combination

the

and

arranging
contrast

ferential
dif-

effects

by the ordinarymethod.

ILLUMINATION

DARK-GROUND
effect

characteristic

thereby

produced

is itself

illuminated,
brilliantly

dark.

wheel

and

of
"

box

which

these

importance, if the
of the
wheel-stop

in

fact

of

point

conditions
best

effect

shall

be

exactly

be

be

to

it is

desired, that

of

both

according

have

fulfilled ; but

are

very

varies

condenser

of the

iris may

substage

object

perfectly

remains

background

the

the

that, whilst

is

raising or lowering

and

little before

more

of

amount

is necessary,

closed

"

certain

the

173

the

size,

correct

the

to

the

numerical

well
the focal length of the
as
objective as
in use.
condenser
Generally speaking, a wheel-stop is supplied
with
for employment
diameter
any
by the optician the correct

aperture of

the

given objective

the

make

to

for the

convenient

for any

combination

will

found

be

with

used

given in any text-book

it
calculation.
As, however,

necessary

microscopist
of

explained

extremely simple.

First, with

about

"

to

"

be

be able

to

condenser,

respect

"

to

N.A.

to

per

cent,

larger than

that

of

example,

if

inch

objective N.A.

occluded

would

the
N.A.

Owing
correct

Traviss

It

an

wheel

use,

at

about

10

itself ; hence, for

combination

the

in

objective

-30

the

amount

to

be

the stop itself"

The
diameter-of
-33.
is then found
by multiplying twice tJie

N.A.

be
the

out

is

"

stopped out, by the equivalentfocal length of the

con-

in use?

denser

that

of

be

to

using

"

box

"

stopped

rule, which

the

the

it

as

expanding

usually reckoned

is

the

also

Traviss

furnish

we

"

and

is

himself

this for

do

to

utilisingthe

when

be

stop

is

objectiveand

of service

and

particularcondenser,

any

little information

but

consequently
how

when

consists

iris,as

trouble

dimension,
that

could
can

the

to

be

he

should

increased

be

used

of

the

the

an

of

an

diminished

any

reverse

is

devise
or

with

handle

procuring wheel-stops
ingenious idea suggested
in

an

expanding
at

of

aperture

itself

stop,

one

the

to

Mr.

in

fact

will of the operator.

the

low-power combination,
With
iris diaphragm.

turned, the

exactly

and

ordinary

an

less

becomes

really

and

less,

to be dropped over
provides a diaphragm of given diameter
illumination.
the low-power objectivewhen
it is to be used for dark-ground
If
Davis
iris.
the
This
the
avoids
a
substage
necessity of altering
Diaphragm" be used it may have to be closed a little to perfectthe definition
1

Carl

Zeiss

"

and
2

to

the

blackness

It should
the

Position

be

of the

background.

understood

that

posterior focal plane

of the

Planes.

See

this rule

of the

Accessory
assumes

condenser.

the

See

Apparatus.
stop

is

Appendix

placed

close

concerning

THE

174
but

TRAVISS

Traviss's

in Mr.

EXPANDING

invention

increasing the diameter

There
One

is mounted

sleeve

stem

is

by the

arranged
wheel,"

"

little handle
the leaves

viz.

shown
and

so

be

to

that

in

in the

most

stop

Mr.

accompanying
under

figure.

part of

long enough,

beneath
both

the

whilst

the

the condenser.
forms

serves

The

to

expand

of

service.

of the stop.

few

with

Traviss's

instead,thereby

ordinary position occupied

the diameter

cases

"

be

in the

figurein

increase

Fig. in.

if such

immediately

using this expanding

Seeing

in the

slip into the

to

used

the leaves

(Fig. 1 1 1).

shown

as

holding the condenser

other

In

on

it opens

of the stop

forms,

two

are

STOP

hints

dark-ground

Expanding

be

may

Central

illumination

Stop.

has
portion of the periphery of the objective in use
generally to be cut off by the substage iris diaphragm or by the
the background
if that be used
shutter
Davis
instead, to make

certain

the
sufficientlydark, it is obvious
in the resolving
less the reduction
Hence

the

leave

to

wide

found

have

we

open

to

iris

ascertainingthe
in

or

the

downwards
best

use

as

with,

with

illumination

Traviss's

and

to

is necessary
the

combination.

stop it is
or

extend

the

the

good

Davis

the

plan

shutter

leaves

of

the

according to the rule for

the stop and
the
diameter.
Moving now
the specimen,
it a little upwards towards

far

correct

away

Mr.

of

power

substage diaphragm

commence

expanding stop
condenser

with

this

less

from
of

necessary

as

it,the positionis sought

the

object coincident

with

that
the

produces
darkest

RHEINBERG'S

76

DIFFERENTIAL

attained, perhaps
confine

shall

subsequent

our

is anxious

who

further

to

well to consult

do

the

than

in

consists

using,

remarks

follow

colour,

other

the

others, \ve

; but

the reader

interestingsubject

will

footnote.1

in the

illuminator

of most
of

centre

this

is fitted

which

be

not

what

exact

be

to

about

it

as

called

one-third

one

with

For

some

example,

hole

is

of its

punched

in

diameter,

in

material.

same

be

might

loose

the

the

crackers)is cut
beneath
the substage

form

interior of

blue

so

may

equal

nounced,
pro-

with

used

microscopes.

modern

covered

whilst

blue,

red.

that
some

condenser,

say

is

well-marked

say,

as,

the

to

colour,

transparent

red

condenser

need

of

one

given

stop

gelatine (such as
fit the ring usually found in
of

the

this

up

central

as

portion of the

remaining

to

this

to

original papers

and

clear,

disc

by either

in the refraction
method
is nothing
principle involved
of ordinary dark-ground illumination, and
modification

The
but

better

even

ILLUMINATION

The

fit

"

imagined is necessary,
does
perfectly well.

"

for
This

denser,
dropped into the ring beneath the consimilar to those that obtain
adjustments made

disc is then

bi-coloured
and

the

ordinary dark-ground illumination is employed.

inch
objective is in use, the result of this
Presuming an
is very
of illumination
method
astonishing,especially when

when

Polycystina, Diatoms,

objects such

as

like Rotifers

are

of

Combinations

discs,but

the

best

the

central

colours
it should
be

portion must

even

livingorganisms

stage, for the background

coloured

the little objects are

whilst

"

the

placed on

or

blue,

red.
brilliantly

having

marked

produce

contrast

always be recollected
less bright\\wc\ that of

Methods

is

the
the

of

colour

peripheral,

of

Microscopical Research, by a
Contrast
between
of Optically Producing Colour
an
Object and its
Way
the
Definite
Parts
of
itself,''
between
/('//;v/"'/
Object
Background, or
al Society,1896, pp. 373-88.
Coloured
"Note
Illumination," Journal Ouckett
Mi"r"\^'""/"ualClub,
on
1

On

Addition

an

to

the

.-,

1897, pp. 34^-7"te

on

New

Modification

of

Double

Microscopical Club, 1897, p.

Colour
Illumination, with
on

Special Reference

"tes

Suitable

pp.

44-50.
the

to

J//"v,'.s-"
,"//"//.

Colours," Journal Royal

Illumination,"Illustrated

Multiple Colour
On

Illumination,
''^Journal

438.

Oitckctt

"

Colour

Percy Lund,

shape

Multiple Colour

of

Humphries

different

Illumination.

screens

See

"

Co..

of

Choice

p. 142-6.

Annual
.

1899,

London.

for obtaining
Adden

the

the

best

effects

with

RHEINBERG'S
a

DIFFERENTIAL

point often
of

process
best

results

overlooked

in the

illumination
be

cannot

coloured

is

out

an

discs

sold

obtained

under
result

177

by opticians for

unfortunate

effects also

beautiful

Very
using a

ILLUMINATION

this

circumstance, for the

these
with

circumstances.
certain

specimens by

only,leavingthe rest of the disc white ; but a

thecoloured
pieces
positivelyremarkablearrangement is onewhere
that when
the disc is used with a piece
are
shaped in such a manner
of silk muslin
the stage, the transverse
fibres are illuminated
on
by
vertical
and
the
Mr.
another
!
one
ones
colour,
by
Rheinberg, in
his contribution
Illustrated
Annual
to The
of Microscopy(1900),
described
how
this particulardisc was
made, but as the publication
centre

of

print,the particularsare inserted in the Addenda.

It is scarcely necessary
offer an
to
explanation of these
different phenomena, for any one
who
has mastered
the simple
them
philosophy of dark-ground illumination will understand
now

quite readily. It
and

blue

the

usual

whilst

is obvious

inside,that
black

the

the

in

blue

the

disc,taking the

central

furnishes

one,

mentioned, red outside

case

the

colour

of

the

place of
background ;

that

usually illuminate the object with

white
coloured
red (in this instance) by their transmission
light are
through the outlying red portion of the gelatinous disc.
The
extension
of illumination
of the application of this method
in the many
directions
explained in the original articles by
Mr. Rheinberg is entirelydue
to his painstaking and
carefully
conducted
think he
do
not
must
experiments, and we
say we
has received
the credit due
of patient
him
for the amount
to
work
necessarilyinvolved in such a class of research.
We
that
been
it has
ought to mention
argued by some
of illumination
microscopiststhat this method
merely furnishes
information
spectacular effects,and does not offer additional
as

to

means

the

oblique

formation

over

and

rays

of structures
above

those

dark-ground illumination
presented to the eye
background of another
is of great service

object,and
from
vivid

one

it is
colour

realisation

different

parts of

by

; but

the

furnishes

organisms
obtained
by the
or

must

we

object
a

in

say

use

of

by its
ordinary

direct

the

contrast

colour

one

means

examined

of

lying on a
that
differentiating

examining the general contour

hardly questionable that the transition
assists in
to a strongly contrasting one

of

when

of
an

the

disposition and

object than

results

relative

from

in
a

hue
more

thickness

examining
12

an

of
the

THE
"studies

in

black

"

white

and

illumination.

ground

PARABOLOID

We

obtained

as

might

mention

conclusion, Mr. Rheinberg considers

the
what
"

of

of

use

this method
be

to

appear

This

incidentally,and
gets in many

illumination,the

same,

as

by

cases,

benefits,or

same

arising from

those

in

the

use

screens.

Paraboloid.
to

seems

have

Shadbolt

Messrs.

the

he

ordinary dark-

"

monochromatic

(ii)The

of

with

been

something of a mixed
Wenham,
although each

and

WENHAMS
RAYS

PARABOLOID

PATH

SHOWING

FbsmoN

APPROXIMATE

OF

worked

of
on

5PCCIMLN

OF

invention

or

SPECIMEN

Fig. 112.
somewhat

separate

Fig. 112,
as

is drawn

paraboloid, but

curved

at

its upper

in

flat at

the

direct

follow

to
are

object
normal

the
to

seen

again

rays

to

of

be

from

path

first.

its

or

reflected

the

In

the

flat,but

the surface," and

so

lower
centre

It needs
on

not

be

glass shaped

end, and
of

this
as

so

in

is

to

deeply
placed

obstruct

explanation
consulting the figure

upper
that

shown

as

of

no

parabolic surface

quit it at the deeply curved

is
this deep cutting away
to

piece

anyhow

rays, which

off the

consists,

larger or

illuminant.

the

of

It

section, of

extremity.

piece of metal, curved

"

which

lines at

the

broken

into

the

extremity.
rays

up

may

into

glass
The
leave

coloured

SUGGESTION

GORDON'S

MR.

will

be

179
the

object placed
afterwards
focus
somewhat
the
scatter
F, and
irregularly.
carried
certain few, caught up by the low-power objective,are

to

the

ones.

in

They

is fixed

in

by this

can

It

should

here

and

be

the

the

Ramsden

that

the

viz.

that

ground,

can

would
of

at

in
the

this

with

in

be

Ramsden
the

shown

of

be

circle ; but

it is
is

"

Ramsden

the diameter

be

startling nightmares

"

circle is

is equal to

both

by

objectiveis

the

the

its

ing
proceedformation

best

is

apt

repeatedly proved
instructive

A.

Mr.

the

dark

E.

and

Conrady

vincing
con-

and

by

highly probable then the possibilities

enormously multiplied when
part of

is

must

objective itself

The

been

Microscopical Society by

Microscopists cannot

has

as

illumination,

this manner,

at

in

doubt

no

bright against

illumination

stop

eyepiece

be

dangerously inviting

one

It

the
can

way

central

dark-ground

perfectlyrealised

it,that

ordinary

by

out

there

be

full aperture

the

understand
in the

stopped

out

direction

dbject and

obtaining
suggested by Mr.

we

Whilst

connected

J. Rheinberg.

numerical

for

above
or, preferably,

circle.1

experiments,
Mr.

arrange

arrangement

method

as

object standing

Royal

this

condenser

be

images. Dark-ground
yield deceptive images,

the

far

so

was,

objective

to

the

the

of

been

the

seem

to

as

with

has

false

to

of

to

which

lighted by

appearance
of

so

movement

case.

lightshould

either behind

disc

diameter

made

be

idea

The

that the direct

so-called

the

paraboloid,

in its stead.

illumination

J. W. Gordon.
the object should

of the

the

in

removed, for the paraboloidis usually made

is

sleeve

dark-ground

metal

employment

ordinary condenser
to be placed in the
Reference

axis

piece

shown

not

up-and-down

the

to

of the

the

in

the

An

objective,and

obvious

is

little cerftral

the field in accordance

general requirements

the

the

although

beneath.

portion of

aperture of the

upon

in use,

right through
applied

be

means

darkened

the

to

little knob

seen,

stem, which

reallypasses

illustration

ending

as

convenience

For

eyepiece.

metal

of

impinge,

blocked
that

quite certain
most

fruitful
often

too

included

in

the

on

"

500

mm.

such

of

N.A.

Magnification

famous

page

false

that

reminded

fullyexplained

Total

source

by a stop in the
placed behind

out

effects.

the

experiment
118,

where

most

with

it is shown

OF

EXTENSION

i8o

Abbe's

TO

of

by

by

utterly false cannot,

images so
be obtained
whatever
by any means
of the objective be left undisturbed.
Mr.

HIGH

obtained

were
diffraction-plate

that

and

USE

blood

corpuscles having

Gordon

by his method,

as

POWERS

the

of

use

if the normal

of research,and

means

extraordinary appearance
recorded
surfaces,"
sculptured
make

unless

upon
methods

the

think

one

amply confirmed

belong

It is obvious

arrangement

possible caution

greatest

result obtained

no

aperture

The

"

it would

with

be used

fact,

of

round

undoubtedly to this order of invited phenomena."

then, with but little further consideration, that the
must

stops,

strict matter

"

he suggests

such

should

by ordinary and

be

as

depended
legitimate

more

of observation.

This

illumination

explanation how

the

concludes

low

with

all that

powers

obtain

to

dark-ground

hitherto

appealed

to

microscopists in general. Lately, however, a new

departure has
taken place, for several opticians have computed and constructed
special forms of oil-illuminators of large numerical
aperture that
be

can

very

dry sixth

or

twelfth.

immersion

an

this extension

immediately

with

profitablyemployed
of

the

of the

use

it will

apparent,

present the microscope has

high

Seeing that

method

in

well

be

to

furnished

not

such

powers,
the

utilityof

question

may

that

up

state

as

be

not
to

satisfactoryresults

the

when

small
refractive index
transparent objects,whose
upon
from the fluid in which
differed to any sensible amount

employed
has

not

they
or

other

similar

for

such

immersed,

are

fluid.

It

example

those

is true

closing the substage diaphragm

able to see
images (largelymixed
up
"by

and
to

consequently of a
more
identify with

distinguishit from
observations

it is

of dark

much

-ground

hoped that, anyhow,

for

by

its

use

not

skilled

were

sufficient

with

amount

diffraction

certainty

still it has

another;

left very

that

in water
have

been

"

phenomena

well
nature)sufficiently

less

or

by these trained

even

extension

doubtful

living bacteria

as

to

be

illumination
most

only

of
can

one

been

observers

that

desired.
to

the
these

perhaps
to
species, and

the

ledged
generally acknowthe

method

Now
use

it is
of

the

and

by

this

lii^hpowers

difficultywill

be

come,
over-

little objects be

the
distinguish the organisms with cilioj from
the
darting movements
non-motile, and
naturally rapid and
the torpid and
perhaps irrc
peculiar to the one
type, from
is of far more
of other forms ; but, what
motion
importance still,
well

enough

to

EXTENSION
is that these

OF

USE

littlebacteria

living state, rather

can

than

TO

HIGH

POWERS

be studied

now

by examining

in their

181

natural

and

after

specimens

staining
mounting, a process
acknowledged to produce differing
results according to the stain used, the
length of time it was
employed, and the particular method
adopted.
It was
thought that this new
departure, first suggested by
and

that is

Herr

Reichert

in

lecture

before

Stuttgart,November

at

the

Congress of

1906, would

have

before

future

great

held

Naturalists

it ; but

this to be the
subsequent experiences have not shown
Details
are
case.
given, however, to obtain the best results.
difference
in the philosophy of this extension
There
is no
to

high

illuminated

be

to

rays
ro

that

which

with

employed

is

illumination

above

and

over

powers

low

obtains

due

difficulties to which

the

of

change

to

adopted

principle,but

the

desired

the

about

bring

to

reference

with

provided

this

To

purpose

have

Why

position?

suitable

stop of

reply that

sixth, if its aperture

obtain
with

fairlygood

the

ordinary

higher aperture
dark-ground effect

is

either

find

to

position,which
focal

must

plane of
should

the
be

further,owing
colour

to

images

of

bending
about
with

by
the

Several

of

of

close

the

rays

effect

rather

to

are

in

stop

purpose

realise
that

at, the

that

obtained

type

condenser

refraction

as

the

good

posterior
ro.

meter
diaStill

of illumination

far better

when

way
when

correct

its exact
N.A.

of this

proved
the

what

to

7,

it is not

the

exactly

below

using

found,

to

exactly

ascertain

by

by

the

asked

ordinary

Moreover,

off all rays

focus
than

means

N.A.

been

impossible

to, if not

character,
to

is

been

for

the

in

sensitiveness

great

the

about

has

it

field.

or

effects,it has

reflection
usual

be

that it cuts

far purer
the

to

not

are

quite possible when

exceed

fix the

how

condenser,

so

to

the

over

of

placed in the usual

for the
special devices

that

required,it

all

be used

it is

not

but

condenser)

made

naturally be

very

made

dark-ground

means,

easy

does

N.A.

size,and

opticians

we

been

of

results.

proceeding, the questions may

the ordinary oil-condenser
cannot

Why

the

have

oblique

limit

change

to

objects

extremely

has

Before

the

dark-ground

the

(those passing direct to the object up to

being cut off by a stop suitablyplaced below

hence

if

for

powers,

before, solely by

as

when

results,

necessary
is

brought
ordinarilyobtains

type of illuminator.
these

new

forms

of

condensers

have

been

placed

DARK

82
the

on

two

BACKGROUND

three

of which

the arrangements

by

above

such, that

are

that

aperture

by refraction.

Another

the

N.A.

below

rays

bacteria

be

is

never

above

be

of

interest

surface
with

to

they

under

in the

them

ordinary

happen

not

and

the

they
of

be

of these

case

cut

are

whilst

instead

asked,

of

If

all

extremely oblique

is effected

seeing

under

first traverse

the

oil

the

these

the

Leaving

upper

connecting

illuminate

and

at

brilliantly

so

bodies, by which

means

by the dry objective when

Tracing the path of the rays
bacteria,

any

used

the

acute

very

in consequence

find

which

them

passing
cover-glass. As they arrive
angle less in point of fact
we

"

angle of the glass from

being unable

them

seen

entering

and

surface

this

self-luminous

as

fall upon

than the critical

"

ro

condenser,

here

may

course

organisms

water

its upper

N.A.

by reflection

circumstances.

manner.

to

through the
at

how

appear
to be

enabled

are

the

each

off

cut

the

side

little

make

below

In

others,

fluid,and
slip. Quitting
the slip itself,they pass
through it to gain
the water
Here
containing the bacteria.
they

into

these

united

are

are

condenser

entered

admission

as

learn

the

the

having

ro

paradoxical

of

describe.

the rays
beneath

question

follow

to
to

apparently

strike

POWERS

the
by the stop, how can
with
a
dry objective,seeing that its aperture
In replying to this it will
?
-95 or thereabouts

seen

pencils,and

suffice to

it must

suitably placed

stop

those

it

HIGH

market, notably by Leitz, Zeiss,Beck, Reichert, and

or

off

WITH

which

to

the

cover

the

enter

made

was

air,they suffer

The
direct consequence
again into the water.
of this is,that with a dry lens the only pencilsgaining admission
those
into the objective are
coming from the bacteria, whilst the
effect is, that
these
a
projected on
bright organisms appear
total reflection back

When,
background.
perfectly dark
of
twelfth
is employed, the contact
in

question

front lens

to

In

to

necessary
immersion

consequence

add

system

which

that

the

or

so

make

set

desired

of

an

immersion

permits these
enter
they now

the

means

of this,to

diaphragm
so

oil

the

cover-glass,and

quit the

of the combination,

longer dark.

however,

background

rays
the
is

no

it so, it becomes

diaphragms

effect

may

to

be

the
thus

Owing to this necessity of cutting off these r.t

opticians arc of opinion that the only benefit that
question,some

obtained.

accrues

from

its shorter

the

focal

use

of

an

immersion

twelfth, is that

length,namely that it magnifies

more

due

than

to

the

FORMS

SPECIAL

84

the ocular

throw

the

as

the

and

CONDENSERS

employment of such, while it puts the

objective into alignment, it is true, is apt to

reluctantlydemur,
condenser

OF

of the axis

out

So

judiciouslyemployed.

the

at

time, unless

same

perfectlymade

goods of this

the

were

most

0
/

B
Fig. 114."

firm

that

device

the

at

allow

must

we

all when

and

has

to

be

might be

very

that
much

thickness

The

between

1*3 and

form

The

it is used

perhaps

sort, it is then

of

there

of
1*4

was

placed this

we

point is,when

Zeiss's Condenser.

self-contained

The

with

being truncated

to

lies

at

C), the

in

immersion

curved
such

an

upper

of

lens

surface
contact

as

the

to

by Zeiss

but
tails
de-

certain

to

J.

makers

the

use.

side, concentric
extent

"

reflecting

which

portion
of

R.

respect

respect

mention,

we

form

that

illuminator

upper

the

in

in

similar

facilitate its

claim

Beck's

of

of Cornhill, consjsts

that

slip,the

arrangement

by Messrs.

(Fig. 115) sold

condenser

it is modified

the

some

mm.

last-mentioned

of

make

for this illuminator

slip recommended

paraboloid

115."
Cond"

; but

felt.

Beck,

Fir.

stand

our

on

microscope of another
thereto by an
adapter of
of

want

condenser

centring

any

on

affixed

the

of

need

no

to

the

focusscs

(which

of

which

is

the

under

with
with

stop

is

apparatus

the

placed
face
sur-

foci,

all li-ht

from

SPECIAL

object which

the

reaching

the

By moving
ring (which
the

is

This

not

dirt

any

should

of

type

into
have

fallen

very

strong

may
A

brought

suitable

the

Or

It

economical

in current.

by Stearn,

is also

of

employed

by

the

microscopist had
as

Whatever

this
with
not

the

focus

little

made

now

the

The

Zigzag

service.

32

water

handy

; it has

in

to
bull's-eye

be
not

point

upon

the

recommends
the

of size ; whilst

the little

to

the

made

scope.
microdescent
incan-

ordinary
good

of

of

flask

the
of

being cheap,

Messrs.

Watson

and

lensbeing

mirror.

large
but
"

is

Sons

all in

the

lamp,

results.
is

bull's-eyecondenser
side

is

exclusively

Welsbach

furnish

is

by Messrs.

for

purposes

glass

arclamp,lamp

lamp,

stocked

of

and

oil

plane

advantage

voltage
(see Addenda)

is almost

use

and

supply,

the

to

useful

; but

enough

in use,

Sons,

profitably employed

attempt

to

the

to

available,a

not

"

candle-power,

usually

is

very

which

arc-light originally

candle-power

ordinary

be

not

hesitate

not

extremely

lamp

different

It

for

dust

ordinary house

Pointolite

new

illuminant
rays

up

bringing

by Watson

It is

to

do

we

the

use,

of

may

Zeiss

purpose

before

particlesof

required, and

nearly strong

the

show

special cleaning.

obtained

better

light is not

to

small

attached

current

burner

gas

also

microscopist should

just immediately

and

Author

If electric

its

to

Miles, Electricians, Brighton, and

"

same

has

particularlyprone

their

is

the

be

can

Nelson

being supplied according

resistance

the

about

of.

(page 167).

be

excellent.

Page

after

Argus

installation.

is well

the

continual

can

ordinary

spoken

any

by Leitz

convenient, for it

remove

some

The

the

most

both

on

to

be

Mr.

moreover

illuminant

out

called

and

thereon

after

recommend,

being

in

as

maximum

disturbing way, great care

thoroughly cleaning both slip and cover

matter

use,

so

use,

in

held)

is

self-centringarrangement

arrangement.

is

blow

so

should

slip

the

ro.

milled

paraboloid

slips into

and

illumination

before

forget to gently
them

The

of

obtain

to

as

N.A.

means

the

apparatus

which

exercised

be

so

condenser

foreign

or

by

which

substage

Zeiss's

for

alcohol

with

the

parabolic

this

As

of

of

necessary.

as
a

in

than

obliquity

down

or

up

sleeve

piece

sleeve

thickness
devised

the

185

less

accurately focussed

brilliancy.

adjustable

is of

paraboloid

rotates

is

light

ILLUMINANTS

size

sary
neces-

For
filled

certainly
attach

onefitting.

TO

HOW

86

HINTS

USE

THOSE

TO

THE

WHO

obtain

the

HIGH

illumination

fullest

it is necessary,

The

of

layer

if too

of the system,

with

all

in

be

cases

grossly

field of

equal

object.

extremely thin, for,

nothing but

appear

may

black.

rich

obtain

to

tioned
men-

for,if this be

illuminated
brilliantly

background

of

instead

grey

impossible

fluid must

thick, the

POWERS

slip of the special thickness

by the manufacturer
be found
neglected,it may
coincident

ILLUMINATION

advantage of this form of dark -ground

have already mentioned, that the
we
as

microscopist shall employ

blackness

METHOD

DARK-GROUND

USE

WITH

To

NEW

this

Should

light

be

appearance

presented, and no shiftingof the mirror improve the blackness,

it is a good plan to gently press the cover-glass,and
at the same
apply

time

of

piece

blotting-paper

cover-glass with the slip,when

fluid and
prevent it being again
it is very

using

character.

the

be

piece

of

cambric

may

be

mentioned,

objective when

layer of

The

fluid

mirror, but

the

be

cone

greater

if the

cover

be

focussed

the

on

If

it docs

if

not

sell

the

than

such

employed,

limits

the aperture

whilst

the

apochromatic

(in

an

of

light
at

the

to

be

the

our

perience)
ex-

sixpence

cross

combination
the
did

when

the

kind

or

from

the

focus,

or

preferred.

from
of

incd

recommend

be
the

use

its

the

supplied
into

purpose.

sent

portion

of

used

his semi-

mount,

own

can

funnel-shaped diaplv

is screwed

for the

Leitz

necessary.

nickel

is

mm.

which

objective must
not

always

of the combination

funnel-shaped diaphragm

Xciss

cone

of

side

not

position is

removed

It contains

which

is

which

to

twelfth, when

readily be fixed.

Carl

to

always shows

plane
of

diameter

general the former

specialmount

that

similar

(an apochromat furnishes the best results)

to its construction, but
require any diaphragm added

apochromatic

the

by

or

be used

be

twelfth

to

sixth

in

means,

of

it

should

illumination

of

lie in the
mirror
shilling. The
may
condensing lens either before the rays

afterwards,but

cover,

adheres

that

use,

the

thick.

is too

light should

by this

of

union

expressed

beneath

material

is in

the

up

other

or

such

point of

up

removed

unless

to

It

immersion

drawn

prone

soft

the

it will soak

the

as

to

correct

amount

with

free end

(It should
works

limiting

the

to

the

of

homogeneous

to

be

be

of

tioned
men-

fitted.)

systems.

TO

HOW
After

oil the

to

possible,and

all

bright

the

mirror

with

focus

to

of

should

be

arise

before

hinted, from

of

of

instead

removed

and

required for
but,

should

The

first

directed

to

the

agitation of

"

has

of

such

of

remove

an

that

inch

be

large.

too

of the

points

found

the

the

smaller, it is well
side

be

now

cation
magnifi-

necessary

be

been

desired

should

be

now

mirror

have

the

that

usually

this

obtained

arranged

real

With

method

had

his

for the

motion

little

if the

of

examination

attention

previously
particlesfloatingin

minute
less

easily
by what

may

"

is caused
for

movement,

cover-glassand

direct

look

obtained

be

when

of

mentioned

looking
deep grey.'

for

that

some

the

at

light in the ordinary

It should

rather

will

not

peculiar dancing pedetic motion

far back
as
readily
1827) can
1

thick.

too

than, say, about

mistake

the

peculiar
pedesis, or

is called
the

on

of

part
the

experience
observer

two

the
can

be

unacquainted
this peculiar form
let him
rub a little gamboge
of motion
for sufficient time
(to
water, and, having boiled the same
of living bacteria),
the possibility
place a minute quantity

beneath
with

be

objects not

readily distinguished; but

with

is

difficulty
may

being

it

one

All

of very

speak

we

objects themselves.
with

background

may

these

usually

examination

five-thousandth

be

the

standing
thinner, notwith-

mirror

making

employs

who

time, and

fluid medium

Brownian

it

required, it must

who

microscopist

for the

be

fluid

until

previously explained.

as

purpose,

the

When

objects

starting,

at

the

low-power eyepiece

most

twelfth

of

substituted.

12

of

lightslightlyto

The

produced.

use

being tried, perhaps

follows

it will

to

first

all directions

making

mirror

in its centre.

exactly

is

of

cone

carefullyattended
effect

the

(not

to

occur

obtain, such

to

after

improvement

no

in

layer

plane side

the

try placing the

to

the

occurs

positions of

lighton

Presuming

often

may

impossible

improvement

cone

is best

brightly illuminated, whilst

very

all

as

mentioned

compensating ocular
carefully. If the field is

manipulated

seems

no

details

187

power

bacteria

black,

If this

If

METHOD

the

to

low

as

the

black.1
as

NEW

slip to the condenser),it

instead

objects are

THE

attending

sixth

apochromatic

as

and

setting up

omitting
the

USE

under

specimen

manner.

On

seen,

and

background

Dr.

Brown

when

microscopists find

if the
ciliae,

twelfth

examination

(discovered by
be

be

once

better
not

results

the
so

fully
are

jet-black,but

188

DIFFICULTIES

appreciated,

cannot

motion

proper
There

be
the

on

is another

call it

wild

bacteria

of

process
caused

often

the

be

any

themselves.
we

"

may

fluid

containing the
the
especially when

seen,

due, it is generally believed,

previously mentioned

equalising the

for

strikingcharacter

fro of

It is not

mistaken

or

little bacteria

of

and

to

very

slide is first made.

either of the

the

appearance

may

ARISE

easily confused
part of

rushing

which

"

THAT

but

movements,
in various

pressures

rather

parts of

the

to

the

to

slide,

upon

probably by the unequal evaporation consequent

the irregulardistribution of the heat rays in this particular

form

of illumination.

very

There

We
or

is yet

refer

the

to

particles
may

pieces of
both

supplied
the

the

look

by Leitz

equally

make

be
lens

of

kept rigidlyfixed
for,if the

the
all

Supposing

of the

screws

be

the

condenser

to

of the

arrangement
and

its

said, this is
very

much

for

out

plan

we

do

of centre, and

with
turned

removal

ocular

stop

should

be

draw-tube

the

axis

of

to

appear

black

the

of

and

should

; but

held

and

be

keep moving about,

it is not

the

distribution

to

be

be

with

of

the

light.
adjusting

little
until

uniform

the

in

ring of
brilliancy.

centring device, an
attached
to the objective,
a

object ; but, as

we

advocate, for if the

the

be

be

ment,
instru-

provided

similar
nut

the

unequal,
manipulated

must

easily

so

the

stop appears
kind

radical

eye

on

obtains

the

be

must

same

used

screws

be

occurs

should
a

tive.
objec-

illuminator

as

"

pearance
ap-

the axis

not

the

central

of

down

to

to

is not

the condenser

When

end

allowed

found

the central

lightaround

is

bands,

the

often

screws

the

case

looking

whilst

be

and

the

round

from

that of

lift out

to

larger

The

from

objective. This

possibleto judge correctly as

this

with

effect

to

being the

such

head

little

; but

of

little distance

some

arise

condenser

necessary

illuminated

sure

the

"

disappear

back

of

that

direction.

troubles

one

organisms

diffraction

one

alignment

form

little

light,and

If
ordinary type.
centring apparatus

own

it may

the

at

be

to
at

its

wings

trouble

the

to

with

in

troublesome

the

of

one

arrangement

until

is

for this

commencement,

in

being

not

defect

as

Both

the

show

may

pointing

disturbing.

of the condenser
The

all

of

the observer.

annoy

of

wings

present

bands

is most

centred

matter

may

each

have

to

appear

and

which

that
possibility

foreign

wings

trouble

more

one

objectivein

have

already

condens"

consequence

has

to

SIEDENTOPFS
moved

be

illumination

dark-ground
called

Jena, and

him

by

throw

to

the

out

spoil the refinement

may

illumination
when

arise

there

distributed

in

are

not

of

relativelyconsiderable

fraction of the total thickness

small

other

See

in focus

difficulties

another,

particlesin

focus;

XVI.

dark-ground
the

object

that

thickness, so

is in

pectations,
ex-

think

Chapter

of

or

of

number

do

title,
we

sort

one

of

Siedentopf

by its attractive

great

form

great

condensers

by

to

The
ultra-microscopical."

subsequent experience.
methods
previously described

all the

made

Dr.

by

realised in

been

In

"

be

must

introduced

caused

however,

the

perhaps

closing this chapter,reference

Before

have

it is apt

amount,

ocular, which

189

definition.

of the

of

sensible

very

of the

alignment

METHOD

only

for in this case,

all

also

brilliantly
lighted,their
diffused images spoilthe dark background, making it grey instead.
The
this by
advocated
method
by Dr. Siedentopf overcomes
through the polished edge of
lightingthe object from the side
particlesnot

being

"

reduced

the

of light being
slip; for,the source
width
by an adjustable slit,only a most

object
this

slit

observer

illuminated

be

may
and

careful

may

so

of

focussing

things that

arrange

suitable

the

small

very

the

of

adjustment

lateral

of
the

condenser,

those

only

thickness

minute

fact,by

; in

to

particles are

objectiveand

with
the
sufficientlysharp focus
magnification in use.
By lighting the adjustable

slit with

powerful light(arc-lamp)the

illuminated

made

which

very

intense

so

method.

hence

method

the
be

of

to

to

the

had

resolution

ficiently
particlessuf"ultra-microscopical

objects

this

say,

been

does

rendered
not

rendered

visible

mean

by

that

the

by

this

obsolete

particlesare

minute

be

may

minute

of

name

for,although extremely

rendered

as
shapeless spurious discs of the
only shown
real shape and
prescribed by the undulatory theory. The
and
real size of the objects are
can
only
absolutely hidden

visible,they
size

applied

illumination

extremely

the

Needless

limit

accepted

make

to

as

luminous;
particles"has been
this

in

are

inferred

are

in

"

of small
visibility

preciseanalogon
which

is

minute

of resolution

them.

See

of
"

some

cases

"

by

under
particles
to

the

Theories

of

the

In

fact

the

of illumination

is

than

TQ^TJU)"f

the

or
easily sees
telescope which
Microscopical Vision,"Chapter

of

stars, the real diameter

(probably less
or

eye

methods.

this method

of
visibility

fraction
the

indirect

limit
shows

XVI.

APPARATUS

SIEDENTOPFS

190

By the courtesy of Messrs.

in

Fig.

116

Zeiss

we

are

enabled

to

show

this interesting method

diagram illustrating

Fig. 116.

Carl

"

of

Diffraction

Light

with

nn

of

Par'.icle.
Ultra-microscopic

f
^

'ianccs

Fluids, as

for the

I:

pro;

in

Fig. 117
powerful arc lamp,

illumination, and

including a
in
ultra-microscopic particles
"

"

complete

suitable
fluids.

for

set

the

of

apparatus,

observation

of

NARROW

192

VERSUS

which

from

it

LARGE

the

data

For

example, bacteriologistsseem

tuberculosis

under
the

is

made

was

probably

not

be

an

stained

encircling capsule,as
in every

appears

increased,

does

so

illustrations

this
be

might

though

many,

case

yet,

narrow

unstained,
clear

and

the

as

is

cone

pronounced

very

possible

as

whether

cone,

the

to

steadily and

eye,

slowly

mysterious capsule disappear ! Other

refrain from
given, but we
mentioning

feel

we

yet with

or

bright

extensive.
insufficiently

were

mostly agreed that the bacillus

organism likelyto have a capsule

ordinary conditions, and

specimen

CONES

obliged

furnish

to

one

peculiar

more

effect of

is with
This
the common
using too small a cone.
object,the proboscis of the blow-fly. So treated, the exceeding

small
lobes
a

hairs

lie upon

which

actuallyappear

interveningbetween

the

two

double,especiallyat their tips; whereas

of moderate

even

cone

the space

angle such

indication

is

with

entirelyabsent.

far can
reduce
the aperture
we
question then arises, How
of
the substage diaphragm
without
the
risk of introducing
To
false images ?
this we
reply that, speaking in general, it
The

must

be curtailed

not

to

greater

extent

lens of any

than

outer

third of the back

down

the tube of the instrument, the ocular

has

what

From

that

strange

by the

should

we

object,especiallyso, seeing

an

of the

large curtailment

It will

diaphragm

between

Before

be

lens

necessary,

narrow

exceedingly

seem

and

resolution

produced

condenser

therefore, to
se,

removed.

improvement effected

is

of the

per

cone

qualify first what

to

"oblique light."
that

by the

Whilst

affect the

use

of

employment

full aperture
true.

back

that such

produce oblique light.

actually proceeding to consider

it is necessary

the

the

been

by
by

of
very

the

iris

ence
the differ-

show

and

the

this

interestingsubject,

narrow

beam

to

necessary

term

to

of the

by looking

seen

having

said, it may

advance

now

cutting off

objectiveas

oblique light in the definition

of

use

been

just

the

of

mistaken

we

"

notion

of this class
of

beam

refer to
in

by the distinctive
has

often been

of illumination

"

meant

the

into the
means
by some
is not
obliquely. This
exactly
if obliquely placed does
mirror

this when

dealing
conjunction with

with
the

high-power objectives
Abbe
test-plate to a certain degree, still this is
when
we
speak of oblique light.
technicallymeant

of

was

tained
enter-

lightsent

condenser

allowing that

image

is meant

the
use

not

testing
of the
what

is

OBLIQUE
using the

When

stopping out
diaphragm of
placed in such
reflected by
into

passes

the

of
say
a

193

its restrictive

sense,

the

mean

we

portion of the condenser

quarter or eighth moon-shaped

by a
design,
that the light

greater

beneath

manner

the

the

in

term

LIGHT

the

illuminator

mirror

condenser

edge only, and so

impinges very obliquely

at

one

tJie

upon

specimen

as

If
Fig. 118.
such
a
diaphragm be so
placed (in the foreign
of
models
microscopes
this
is
readily effected
by shiftingthe partially
closed
iris
or
nearly
from
the
diaphragm away
in

shown

the

and

eyepiece

is

Fig. 1 1 8.
of the

centre

the

removed,

field to

observer

its

periphery)

will

perceive, on
lens of the combination, a
at the back
looking
small
illuminated
elliptical
or
oval-shaped portion of the field
to be the only illuminated
all the rest being in darkness
area,
in different
(see Figs. 120 and 121 showing the illuminated areas
down

the

tube

parts of the field of the back

Prof. Abbe

lens

of the

objective).

explained in his theory of microscopical vision,

which
is now
held so firmly notwithstanding the doubts
brought
forward
in the
did
who
not
by inadvertence
past by those
thoroughly grasp his meaning, that the final image of a small
differentlyformed
object is formed
by the union of two or more
beams"
the

has

the

directly transmitted

hand,

one

the

according to
object caused
of the

minute

blendingor
effects
with

are

the

object
sudden

by

of these

union

are

and

on

the

other

union

illuminant

varying

minute

in

on

number

of the

structure

The

brings out the definition

the object. The
importance of such

differentlyformed
of

the

the

phenomena).1
(interference

diffraction

structure

those

by
of

arrangement

from

one

is shown

by

beams

the

fact

that

if the

diffraction

artificially
stopped out, so that the ocular deals only
of the
details
central
or
dioptric beam, the minute
all of a
immediately lost,and the objective seems

to have
1

lost its power.

These

are

It should

be

borne

in

mind,

also called the diffraction spectra.

13

we

OBLIQUE

I94

passing, that with

evidently the case, or
in

mention

should

is not

such

apparent

so

but

LIGHT

of this

have

we

objects, however,

coarse

anyhow
time

hardly

assertion
the

into

the

to

speak in this
of the microscopic image

of the

formation

image with such

following experiment be performed

specimen of Pleurosigma angulatum, use
the

and

objective, focus
and

condenser,

iris to

the

closed

objective. A

image

of

central

iris will

be

the

on

homogeneous

the

at

blue

the centre

nearest

we
Fig. IIQ.1 If now
in its stead
slide, and use

being especially sold

for

this

ruled
the

violet

"

used

the
any

should

we

red

; in

distance.

other

other

purpose

as

these

apart-

by Carl

Zeiss

in

shorter

spectra

lights

question
the wave-length
are

say

"

less than

observations

are

from

away

diffraction

for future

convenience

three

further
coloured

different

used

lines

the

nearer

the

do

this distance

the

together the

words, the

More

that

centre

we

find

grating-

shall
particularexperiment, we
discover that the spectra always lie
right angles to the objects forming

them, and

if

change the

lines of different distances

one

at

Further,

lens

of tJiefield"

in

soon

become.

back

white
dioptricallyformed
surrounded
by six diffraction

seen

ruled

brilliant

spectra coloured red outside and

as

stage

light, centrality of
the eyepiece, having
look

and

enter

effect,let

potent

twelfth

now

amount,

put, however,

images do

Place

critical

Remove

sensible

of the

the

adjust for

forth.

so

To

diffraction

that these

proof

so

to

place,for the details of the formation

in this book.
into elsewhere
are
fullygone
our

be

not

may

the

reference
here

if

set

we

less
than

forth.

diffraction
two
(i) The
spectra lie at right angles to the
objects forming them, one on each side of the dioptricbeam.
lie together (such as dots or
the fine structures
(ii)The nearer
in diatoms), the further the diffraction spectra arc
placed

dioptricbeam is seen.
(iii)The shorter the wave-length of the light used, the shorter
of the diffracted spectra from the dioptricbeam.
the distance
the dots
In the case
of Pleurosigma angulatum, inasmuch
as
the centre

from

In

of N.A.

Fig.

5,

of the

Hate

1*40 is shown

I., a

back

lens where

photograph

with the spectra

of

the

the

in siiu.

back

lens

of

an

objective

OBLIQUE
hexagons happen

or

the

for
be

both

purpose,

moment

(Fig.

together

to

fusion,let

placed

to

diameter

the

render
which

"

the

For

to

"

purpose

additional

an

placed

with

the

outer

lens

out

later

on

the

focal

length

Place

shift it

an

Fig.

same

blended

ocular.

For

the

as, in

beam
the

back

and

fact,only

to

looking

on

diatom

lens

such

will

now

consideration
small

too

were

of

saying if the N.A.

diffractionspectra, then of

way

unable

show

to

the

minute

(Fig.2,

of

explaining the

be

convenient, before

Plate
that

Numerical
of
the

for future

to

one,

the

back

focal length remains

let

downwards

in

N.A.

of

as

"

1*35

correction

low-power
lines

transverse

oiled

an

objectivebe

the

especiallyin the

possiblewith

using the

continue

we

existing details

the

If the

1*40
of

6 ocular

to

its
see

have

pointed
objective of

we

test-objectsfor

an

such

diaphragm,

illuminator

as

sented
repreZeiss

(or if

using a
stand, close partiallythe iris diaphragm
and
field to produce the
same
effect),
the

should

start

now

IV.),provided

diameter

of

use

convenience

above

understood

more

20, under

that

the

out

into

specimen

great
be

eighth moon-shaped diaphragm

aperture
the

from

length

be

and

nature

proceeding further,to
Let the specimen be changed

question.
eighth moon-shaped

lines

and

exact

in

the

across

transverse

smaller

can

the

are

little further

if the

be

considering

Continental

diameter

of

these

would

the

when

now

in

another

transmit

add

good

just faintly visible

one

only

It is to

it will be

zone,

other

evident,

(achromatic).

condenser
and

all

the

direct

or

structure

its greater

objective,but

same

spectra

and

one

twelfth, so

central

experiment.

field of view.

the

at

in

and
Amphipleura pellucida,

of

one

it be

it
is

it will
oblique light,

to

the

of the diatom.

structure

make

and

it follows

the

minute

combination

the

course

lens

seen

disappeared.

insufficient1

were

as

of

lens

of the

have

is sufficient to
in

back

image

back

the

over

found

the

light

distance

correct

again experimentally proving the utilityof

of the correct
dimensions
diaphragm be made

permit tJie passage

through the ocular
be

direct

I.),hence

the

form

of

purpose

the

5, Plate

195

separated by just the

field of

the

in

seen

be

to

LIGHT

may
lens

of this
constant.

be
of

an

to
practically
its
to
objective

said

lens, the

less the

N.A.

be

and
the

distinctness
well-marked

lies at the lower

the ratio of the

focal

or

length

; hence

of the combination

semithe

if the

LIGHT

OBLIQUE

196

in Fig. 120, which

shown
as
represents
portion of tJtefield,
presented by the back lens of the objective.1
appearance

Rotate

the

diaphragm

positionsimilar

its

quarter of

that shown

to

in

turn

to

make

it

the

change

Fig. 121, and then, returning

Fig. 121.

Fig. 120.

which run
eyepiece, the longitudinallines as they are called
Lastly,change
along the diatom lengtJiwise should be seen.2

the

"

"

positionof the diaphragm

the

now

between

positionmidway

the dots

green
should be

for

purpose.

the

shown

those

again, so that it occupies

in Figs. 120
and
121
;
blue

light be employed,
visible,provided the specimen be a good one
See
Fig. 5, Plate XII.; Fig. i, Plate VI.;
or, better

if pure

and

once

still,
pure

6, Plate XIII. ; and Fig. 2, Plate XV.

Figs.
by trying
Presuming the reader has followed these remarks
the actual experiments, he is in a position now
to understand
5 and

If,whilst
explanation that follows.
when
the amphipleura are
faintly seen
the

eyepiece and

employing

light),the ocular
with

cone

and

the

the

using

lower-power

(without

oblique
substage diaphragm be
in

seen

appearance

recognised.3
the diffraction spectra (here,as
blue portion)on
either side of

one

of

only

to

the

been

entirelygot
Of

solid

lines of

transverse

any

Fig.

122

will

be
difficulty

some

If

removed

trifle,the

veriest

the

closed

be

the

the field of

the back

the

stated, we

central

lens

could

of the

refer
have

objective,

opening is at the top or

portionbeing covered
up.
of their closeness,it is often
be mentioned, however, because
white
when
them
lightis employed, but they should be clearly
this

course

into

above

means

that

the

crescent

moon

opposite side of the condenser^ its lower

-

It should

difficult to
visible
3

ind

The

see

when

green

edge

the eye

of

must

illumination
the

lower

is used.

diffraction

be shifted about

Lite XII.

Sec

spectrum

before

it will

is extremely difficult to see,

see

the upper

one.

OBLIQUE

inasmuch

but

small

of

lines

the

then

the

portion

have

been

absolutely impossible

of it into

this

view,

definition

imperfectionof

and

197

would

specimen

it is

as

LIGHT

to

bring
for

accounts

reference

to which

well

defined
than

more

the

faintness

been

has

made.

DIFFRACTION

CENTRAL
IRIS

BE
SEIKO

Fig. 122.
Now

what

formed

the

across

in

entirely at
definition

the

of

zones

of

the

the

with

iris

to

be

is

is rendered

objective
of

correctness

the

moment.

same

the

perfect as

as

dioptrically

spectra, further

permits
central

in

and

eyepiece completely
By doing this
construction

theory of the formation

Abbe

sequence,
con-

beam

admit, constituting another

will

the

by

up

the

which

123,

closed, both

more

taken

and

one

Fig.

in

diffraction

the

Practically

central

the

shift of

shown

the

diffractionspectra
and

means

company

field,as
when

DOWN

SHUT

oblique light is used

when

happens

beam,

THE

Fig. 123.

simply this, it

it is

AM,

of

the

proof
of

the

at

the

microscopic image.
The

the observer

explanation applies when

such
longitudinal lines ; but because
same

(it is usually found) somewhat

together in most
specimens, so
(ii)their spectra should
the
beam

edge
is

of

the

nearer

by
lie

the
in

lie

position
pro-

nearer

dioptric
the

back

Putting this in other

the
they lie further from

124.

language, as
dioptric beam
the

when

centrally placed

lens, Fig.

from

field

looks

than

transverse

those

which

markings,

come
so

they

Fig- 124.

OBLIQUE

198
are

difficult to

more

is to

"

the field

across

Now

what

to

as

the reader

has

the

microscopist uses a littlemore

employs a littlefurther shifting"
"

say,

get them

to

"

unless

see

oblique light that

LIGHT

its limitations

within

happens when

experimented he
locate

to

lens, so

dots

become

found

will have

the

beam

both

the

(Fig. I24).1
visible.

it is not

in the area
occupy
that the diffraction

longitudinaland

be

present

in

the

at

field.2

the

To

direct

of the

back

spectra

from

lines shall

transverse

and

one

to

easy

position for the

exact

If

moment

same

facilitate this

operation
employ blue

it is

to
mostly necessary
light or certainly a blue-green, because
by employing the shorter wave-length

it lessens

spectra from

gives
beams

real

then

use

simply this

is

also the

ocular

for the

From

what

final
has
the

back

aperture

to

the

lens

N.A.

'05

the addition

the

of

in

being possibly of
shows, with

should

dots

spectra

back

lens

utilised

by the
by the eye.3

seen

having

large

of

having

great

apparent,

addition

an

little service

the

of

words

is very

use,

be
as

necessity

the

into

to

as

image

lens, in other

of the diffraction

student

so

said, the

It further

image.

direct beam,

or

moment,

same

been

to

the

central

buildingup

aperture

even

by

of

objectiveat the

the

beam

diffraction

employing oblique lightto show

enable the microscopist to get the two

to

required,and
of

central

of the

and
hence
proposition (iii),
better opportunity of squeezing, so
to speak, all three
into the limit of the back
lens (see Fig. 125).

The

the

distance

the

in

of

perfecting

low-power objectives(seeing
them

spectra with

is not

of such

Fig. 124 with the preceding. Whilst

is readilyseen
to have
recognisingboth are diagrammatic, the dioptricbeam
shifted
from
distance
in
been
" further
sensibly
centrality one figure than
The

in the

If

much
the

circular

this
3

back
a

Fig. 6,

lens

that

specimen
the

means

In

they should
microscopist be
as

stage
the

move

of

diffraction-beams

the

other, although

quite as

compare

can

be

than

illumination
Plate

N.A.

shown

not

have

to

moved

be.

using
turned

interfere
of the

instrument

an

around

with

1*40 combination

the

being used.

of

is

that

provided

with

the

field is not

1.,a photograph

Pleurosigma angulatum

are

the

is shown

optical axis, it is easier to

as
substage arrangements,
by
interfered

with.

appearance
when

the

"

presented by the
is changed,

venue

"

LIGHT

OBLIQUE

200

This

corrected.

optician'sart,
observer

any

markings

specimen of
numerical
with a low
aperture, why
i
n
difficulty persuading himself there

one

such

all,the diatom

at

Position

shows

field at

the

Position

is

time

be well

lines should

shown

now

noticed

to
so

as

the

central,

when

the

eyepiece

explains the

situation

when

THK

THEORY

and

are

the

in

transverse

use.

is

arrangement
of
it is

showing the
always more

LIGHT

HI

the
pellucida on
N.A.
objective in

Amphipleura
stage

it is

entering

the

"

OBLIQUE

OF

I'|.V;KAMMATIC:ALLY

be

is in

made
for the purpose
venue
changed and the
longitudinal lines,and it further explains why
"

the

poor

"

venue

beam

same

structure.
appearing without
changed and oblique light in

"

the

diffraction

One

the

or

has

the

use.

explains, too, with

1-40

use.

circles

black

turned

central

beam

Circle

in

The

"

the

all

the

be

to

blue

the

end

towards

cases

the

presented

appearance
lens
of the

back

objective

light is used.
/''."Oblique light when

when

to

to

Circle

green

show

CircleC.

the

(seeFig. 119).

at

supposed

spectra,

being

diop-

or

whilst

beam,

are

diffraction

central

the

represents

trically formed

the

Oblique lightwhen

"

show
D.

light when

Oblique
the

arranged

lines.
longitudinal

the

"

show

dots

and

one

the

to

set

spectra (the

two

field at

ends) lacing in the

blue

used

lines.

transverse

time.

same

Fig. 126.
difficult to
be

one,1 entails the

shiftingof
D

Position

lines, which
both

of

the

beam
back

this has
to

of

use

the

"

indicates
means

be

not

in
1

use

On

must

lens.

account

the

the

as

as

be in the

the

position chosen
much

As

from

away

the

will

central

much

").
"the

or

spectral beams, it

oblique light (or so

more

displaying

quite been
at

much

so

venue

spectralbeams,

central

because

considerably further

noticed, being

more

also ;

them

see

field at
in

for

dots."

displaying both

For

this

pi:

possible of each,

with

one

and

the

the

moment

same

it will

the

be

noticecl
diagram,
the light supposed
accomplished, because
time
has
too
long a wave-length ; hence

of the

seen

lines being closer than

the

transverse.

LIGHT

OBLIQUE
blue

blue-violet

or

their

more

back

lens

of

the

This
use

is

at

mind

the

lest

semi-lunar

diaphragm
whether

question

of

large arc
latter

of

part alone

The

exact

the

necessary

portion

lens

back

in

these

two

relative merits

of

of
the

the

former

direct

the

course,

it
details),
of

should

view

little
the

is not

actually

lost

It is

of

image,

should

to

appear

allowed

the

the

for

the

an

open

the

extent

us

best

the

most

the

upon

practical

of

method
the

to

little curious

actual
that

also

requireslightlydifferent
oblique light demanded
closeness

the

"

effects
produce
object, lying in

admitted

with

advantage

"

to

outside

be

of

is for the

zone

our

details

no

be

intermediate

opinion,seeing that the introduction

into
phenomena is very easilyintroduced
(diffraction)
Further, it is

by

diaphragm
In
large one.

As

upon

be

be

may

conditions

put both

largely depends
not

borne

must

care

zones.

to

of

the

circle

be

position

large

amount

but, whatever

of

(which,

often

the

must

this that

middle

It

experiment.

of

half-moon

from
to

but

theory involved

outer

seemed

has
to

the

place,

part of the

the

and

outer

of

objective is usually included

depends

cases

objectsof different types

treatment;

that

arc

outer

It is evident

guide to the student, what

dealing with the subject is
of

the

of

the

small

takes

conditions.

have

to

distance

area

study

position

circle,or

employed.

between

field

this

When

seen.

the

small

; whereas

the outer

test

limited

rapidly changing

too

it is better

case

the

of

zone

by

fulfilment

complete

the

the

very

employed,

be

the

thereby allowing
(iii),

one
important, and
by the microscopist.
the explanation of the
concludes
of oblique light. In practice some

shown
in

beams

objective.

"dots"

shorten

to

through

passage

1^40

the

until, can

not

employed

diffraction

dioptric and
complete

between

be

must

201

real

as

unless

of

the

in

the

space

of

false

the

final

they
light,or

can

at
although perhaps imperfectly, with direct
of oblique illumination.
amount
rate with but a small
any
The
reader
now
naturally ask if it be possible to
very
may
of oblique
that
than
obtain
means
by any
greater resolution

be

seen,

light
we

used

must

obtained
or

as

remind

him

in

ways

two

making

by
so

much

described.

have

we

the

that
"

increase

either

wave-length

desired

can

by

To
of

only be

resolution

the

making

smaller

this

answer

hence

effected

by

can

N.A.
the

question,
only be
greater,

improvement
employing one

ZEISS

202

of these

both

or

by the veriest

of

N.A.

these

as

Up

has

lenses

is

placed

for

of

least

at

all

the

require the

active

the

upon

this

if for

of

ground
glasses

have

we

of

made

usually

"

for

expense,

flint

object
sion
immerto

restriction

combination

reason,

be

cannot

"

the

medium,

the

upon

informed

been

practical

system,

such

other

no

known

laudable

mounting
of

first

forget

refraction,a

employment

practical purposes,

for
not

whole

of

index

high

same

do

we

fluid, condenser, slip,cover-glass,and

be

it is well

reached

with

the

present

; but

Here

Zeiss

by

the

been

r/p.

r6

to

adopted

limit

objectives made

; but

view

mostly

that

by lenses

purposes
N.A.
I '6
in

been

tyro

N.A.

expedients.

two

has

which

is that

OBJECTIVE

the

cover-

in

prepared

the

have
be
but
to
ground and
ordinary commercial
manner,
polished by hand.
Consequently the only improvement
possible
to

was

this

light of shorter

use

much

reason

The

service.

not

be

made

in

1.) Then

that

the

made

to

by employing

X-ray

instead.
much

screen,

the

objects

be

to

ground-glass of the

ent

any

when

blue

camera.

upon

illumination

was

Annular

Although

we

do

interesting

not

remarks

First,

lenses

in pre-war

had

to

met

after

to

be

focussing difficultywas
method

the

used
the

focus

to

with
time

them

Unfortunately, the photographs

those

did

not

obtained

appear

to

by ordinary

employed.
Light

recommend
will

the

was

had

arrangements

The

FCC

light of shorter

in

images

were

times,

be

sufficientlywell

seen

advance

great

violet

experiment.

by this costly arrangement

produced

some

ultra

work, which, by lengthening the wave-lengths for

being, enabled

means

see

blue-violet, so

or

slight

results,why

(These

so.

commercial

cannot

them

photograph

the

difficultywhich

eye

blue

do

docs

were

next

human

the

wave-length than

on

if this

namely, the

making

prismatic

undulations, all the optical parts had

which

quartz

by Zeiss, and

constructed

in

arose

for

was

of considerable

out

suggestion that

"

these

glass transmits

no

met

wave-length still

difficulties

Many

rays?

fact

was

perfecting a

It turned

170.

page

outcome

lightof shorter

use

to

on

in

spent

was

It

green.

shortening of wave-lengths yielded improved

extra

as

time

described

arrangement

than

wave-length

be

this

found

form
in

the

of

illumination,

Addenda,

OF

ILLUMINATION

Illumination

The

light;

transmitted

instances,

by

which

on

other

some

lamp

in

which

Objects

illumination
there

be

must

effected

several.

are

of

method

casting the light of the

shown
in Fig. 127,
them, as

upon

the

indicates

plan

203

the

these

simple

illuminant

other

or

Opaque

their

Of

the

by

for

account

means.

first is

The

of

OBJECTS

by
microscope are examined
this, however, is not
possible in certain

objects prepared

Most

OPAQUE

of

portion

the

lamp

and

specimen

SLIP

ARRANGEMENT

PLAN

IN

METHOD

OF

OPAQUE.

OBJECTS

ONE

OF

ILLUMINATING

Fig. 127.

ence
differinterposed. There is some
should
of opinion which
side of the plano-convex condenser
the piano side
be turned
towards
the specimen, but theoretically,
the shorter
should always be turned
towards
conjugate to obtain
with

condenser
bull's-eye1

the

best

the

condenser,

better

and

(although this

by direct experiment
be
1

reference

chapter.

have

to

the

may

shock

gives the

which

what

different

kinds

tried

in

that

found

statement

however,

mentioned,

frequently

have

We

results.

positions of

practiceit is far
readers) to try

actual
some

better

dissimilar

both

result.

It should

often

effects may

of bull's-eye is

given

in

be

previous

OF

ILLUMINATION

204

different

produced by

using

illuminant,

point which

falls

sun

obliquely

of the

surface

When
in

Hence

make

we

rule

always

the

effects

it almost
to

help

microscope.
the object

fall upon

try

the

to

seems

stage, the

to

much

up

considerably. So

very

it falls upon

when

before.

light from

effect then

the

the

they are illuminated

rightangles upon the

its beams

with
parallel

it

show

moon

objects under

that

of

noticed

the

exactly, at

the mountains

so

situation

seen

of the

little shadow

different from

be very

to

moon.

almost

direction

upon

light is placed

the

never

quarters, when
them, than when

bring out
certain
low-power

with

the

third

and

delineate

it is

have

we

fallingalmost, if not

by beams
to

first and

the

at

OBJECTS

angles for

that the mountains

known

It is well

better

OPAQUE

appear

vertically.

whereabouts

see

is

of
position that gives the best effects by the simple means
direct experiment.1 The
position,however, in this particular
is necessarilyvery often limited to a great
type of illumination
at
degree by the mounting of the low-power objective in use

the

the

moment,

and

of

for

great

so

of

some

the

size,that

older

the

make

are

lightcan

get

blunt-ended,

so

the

to

object only

be
avoided
lamp is in one
position. This can
by
modern
manufacture
that are
not
using objectives of the more
so
constructed, having their brass mount
tapering off to the
the

when

lens.

front
purpose

question,the

or

combinations

the

from

sensible

much

specimen

with

otherwise

mounted.

the

these

the

permit

years

by
1

rubber
This

select out

ago.

stops

illuminant

than

is

hot

object

so

will
is

circumstances

will determine
of the

It consists
and

very

fashion, as

same

of

often

which

in this

with

to

such

the

on

focussed

rays
or

objective

an

many

that the

their

downwards

fashion, and

actually burn

to

surrounded

four mentioned

employing, for the

by Messrs. Watson

light being thrown

ease

exceedingly handy, cheap, and

designed by Mr. Kingsford and
some

the

conical

the examination

when

under

in

the

of

front lens is itself carried

greater

bull's-eyeupon

specimen
then

the

after

made

to

as

fond

are

objectivessold

brasswork

distance

Sometimes

we

Holos

that the

is such

formation
away

this account

in

Sons,

"

On

by

injure

the

It is best
protracted one.
interpose a water-bath, an

small

arrangement

shown
two
to

type

at

plates
a

of

chapter.

the
of

greater

being that
Quekctt Club

glass separated
part

illumination

of

their

is the best

to

ILLUMINATION

circumference

OF

by

rubber

clean

to

easy

of their

own.

devoted

to

best

to

in

be

water

of its

because

The

the

empty,

They

can

powers

the

and

be

can

specimen,

when

using

there

bath

had

as

is

there

easily

better
than

usually too

situation.

usually answers

arrangement

; but

This

condenser, rather

the

and

last-mentioned

in the

diameters,

300

it

hot,

too

gets

less air.

much

so

illuminant

the

spare

the water

that
it is always
in, remembering
and
has been boiled
subsequently cooled,

containing

to

low

to

put

above-mentioned

and

200

that

the condenser

littleroom

with

fresh

between

placed

between

hand, for,if

and

out
use

fill,
easy

recommendations.

great

very

to

brass

stripof

ordinary bull's-eye
stand, or supplied on stands
These
are
more
fully explained in the chapter
Not
too large a one
serves
Accessory Apparatus."

"

the purpose

emptied

Easy

screws.

205

the

fitted to

be

are

OBJECTS

ring,supported by

capable of being tightened by

and

OPAQUE

very

magnificationof

well

between

in illuminating
great difficulty

is

plan suggested by Mr. James to get over

the difficulty
is worthy of a trial. It is that of placing the light
low down, and
the bull's-eyecondenser
so
obliquelythat it casts
a
wedge-shaped beam
along the surface (or very nearly)of the
object

all.

at

ARRANGEMENT
SECOND

IN

OF

OF

METHOD
OPAQUE

ILLUMINATING

PLAN

OBJECTS

Fig. 128.

stage, just passing between

the
A

the

front

objectiveand

lens of the

specimen.
second

method

is

modification

of what

we

have

called

OF

ILLUMINATION

206

the first. The

condenser,
these

is

placed

more

or

stage.

On

the

lamp
in

pass

of

surface

the

received

are

OPAQUE

by

to

less

modification

opaque
mirror, with a hole

third

time

its centre,

in

ARRANGEMENT
METHOD

OF

O5JECT5

BY

along the

it is to

OF

ILLUMINATING
MEAN6

OF

of

have

through which

PLAN

IN

them

returns

method

on

nating
illumi-

parabolic

the

The

objectivejust protrudes (see Fig. 129).

of the

leaving the

parallel beam

constitutes

object. This

an

after

by experiment,

correct

Another

its rays,

opposite side of the specimen

silver parabolic reflector which, placed

position found
the object (Fig. I28).2

the

in

that

so

OBJECTS

front

lens

lightpassing

THIRD

OPAQUE

LlEBERKUHN

THE

Fig. 129.

upwards througJi the slip around

falls

light
"

object

the

that

How

be mounted

must

directly upon

obtain

to

Sin"e

the

late Secretary

the

side reflector which

tit in

the

proper

half, with

as

specimen
if for

mirror, which
from

lens

is

with

use

implies

which

"

transmitted
it to

returns

fullydescribed

in

focus
cailier

1 1.

publicationof
to

this

parallelbeams

parts of this book, page

2

the

the first edition

Ouekett
is

worthy
one

position,it

Microscopical Club,
of mention.

side silvered.

is said

'jolic side reflector above

of this book,

to

be

It consists
When

quite as

mentioned.

has

Mr.

\V.

suggested
of

15.
a

as

of

cheap magnifying

suitably placed, and

effective

Stokes,
form

the

more

held

in

expensive

OPAQUE

OF

ILLUMINATION

208

OBJECTS

cover-glass placed

(Figs. 131
of

the

and

at

132) to

microscope

thence

into
to

on

other

the

optical axis
(suitable adjustments

to

first

latter

the

from

in the

it falls

tenuse
hypo-

the

on

prism

half

of

there

designed

both

little

objective,

total

before, on

as

reflection
the

to

difficultyin
with

it is needful

types

the

by

special objectives arranged

with

of

devoid

thence,

variety offers but

needs

whilst

mounts,

from

objective,and

The

object ; whilst

of

only

cover

passing
the

from

Vertical

into

view

objective C,
mount

has
mount

but

both

'1 he
care

Illuminator

impliestheir special correction

expense
with

Zciss Vertical

in
to

use

with

forms

of

dry powers

p,

lower
the

tube

with

cither

directed
the

in

latter

tached
at-

the

and

short

reflecting prism
knob

for

purpose, which

means

be

cover-glass can

used

of arrangement.
of

these

adjusting the details.

be

mens
speci-

(Full Size).

for the

oil immersions

short

very

plan view; K, milled

revolvingthe prism.

F'g- I33-"

but

use,

(partly sectional)
the

to

men.
speci-

employ

to

cover-glasses. Unfortunately with

A,

this

it is

and

the

surface

which

objective

(Fig. 133)

45"

the

being provided), by
reflected

of

angle

an

into

the

illuminators
It

is very

obvious

little aperture

greatest exactitude.

To

requires particular
in

that

the

the

side

perfect the

of

light
the

illumina-

POLARISED
and

tion

furnish

to

gathered by

are

the

aperture

lens

to

enough light,the
bull's-eyecondenser
the

to

on

reflector.

his latest pattern, which

is

lightis adjusted,no
it

as

Sons

"

Watson

upsets the

it is shown

fixed into the apparatus

directlythrough

cast

attaches

condensing

convenience.

the

tube

of the

evenness

have, however,

where

Fig. 134,

and

is

introduced

in detail.

for

(alreadyprovided

focussing is
form,

new

tube

the

upsets

provides
the

the

illuminates

which

the

ordinary

Watson-Conrady

134."

field.

working of

It is evident
this

little condenser)

described

metallurgicalmicroscopes

In

by making
adjustments of focus
is met

the

stage

move

be made

can

Polarised

of

no

of the

movement

little

use

with

hereafter,the difficulty
and

up
with

battery

down,

hence

any

impunity.

Light

he
when
questions asked by the amateur
the beautiful
rendering of objectsby this peculiar method
Polarised
is meant
illumination is,What
Light ?
by the term

One
sees

be

can

is

Illuminator.

arrangement.

lamp

lamp

supplied for
supply if speciallyrequired.

current,
house

but

Vertical

missible,
per-

illustrated

incandescent

with

the

Messrs.

illumination.
a

An

that, after

^
Fig.

illuminant

the

from

arrangements

of

movement

209

rays

Leitz

great objection to all these

The

in

LIGHT

of

The

answer

how

most

the

first

to this is not

text-books

on

at

the

all easy,

and

subject

of

it is very
the

remarkable

microscope

shirk

explanation. This very probably arises from the fact that

to reply to
it brieflyis so
difficult,and to do so thoroughly
concise
involves
too much
description
Perhaps no more
space.
that
exist than
and explanation of what
is meant
by the term
given by the late Mr. Spottisxvoode in his fascinating volume
any

devoted

entirely

to

the

subject

in

the

Nature

Series,
14

from

POLARISED

PLANE

210

which
words

celebrated

It is considered

medium,

ether.

The

established

as

in

which,

to

due

any

all space

with

consistent

mechanical

the

similarly situated
of

orbits

; and

of variations

to

of

although

number
finite

is

there

of situation

of

portion
to

consecutive
of

the

prevent

ray

the

ray.

may

be

The

the

on

suggested
ellipse.
"

the

not

are

ray

in

that

molecules
there

are

entire

the
But
all

general
be

may
a

sufficient

of average
understood
into

ray

of

of any

but

preponderance
polarisationis

any

various

sensation

ether

believe

to

reason

of
being assumed, the process
orbits
of
all
bringing
throughout the

the

the

been

This

direction.
be

constitution

the

similarly situated, yet in

number

of

molecules

an

the

although

of the
the

direction

and

"

considerable

molecules

none
simpler have
straightline,the circle,and
orbits at different points of
the

made

suppositions usually
possible are
only forms
in ordinary light the

all matter,

producing

of

is called

name,

and

by the

ways

light take place in planes perpendicular to the

paths or orbits of the various vibrating ethereal

the

own

vibration

the

to

better

vibrations

The

it permeates.

of

pervade

in different

affected

are

which

light is

that

absence

the

is understood

ether

its motions

form

author's

"

elastic

media

the

in

following

the

quote

we

LIGHT

similar

positions.
not
thoroughly
elegant description,however, may
to the
lay mind, for it requires,anyhow,
explain the matter
certain, though very
elementary, knowledge of the subject
a

this

Even

whose
light in general, not perhaps possessed by a reader
attention has been
previously directed entirelyto other matters.
To
him, then, the following remarks, though perhaps not so
of

scientifically
accurate,
certain

With

example
consists
say,

in

"

vibrations

of

all

in

paths

of the

stated
ether

to

bi-axial

that

ordinary

tJie

all azimuths

in
and

directions,each

right angles

and

uni-axial

exceptions
generally be

it may

"

directlyappeal.

more

may

patJi of

white

light

that

"

is to

of which

one

every

crystals,for

arc

itself. This

tJie ray

is

rudely represents the section of a

Plane
to the eye.
polarisation consists in
ray of light coming
of all these azimuths, or paths of vibrations into
the arrangement
une
plane only, as in B or C in the same
figure. An object viewed
shown

in

Fig. I35A,

which

"

by lightof
rather
manner

this

description would

feebly than

more

to

be

hereafter

usual

only

; but

explained,

if examined
and

about

:n

hcnomcna

hibited, and

mo"t

specimen

gorgo"us
so

if illuminated

ap;

to

illuminated

in

with

the

beautiful

behold,
and

particular

special
and

would

examined

paratus
ap-

curious
bt
is

PLANE

POLARISED

LIGHT

211

ABC

Fig- 135-

by plane polarised light.

viewed

be

to

is made

further alteration

in

the

apparatus

be
explained later on, the object may
light of a different character, because

vibrations, instead
made

are

to

to

further,but

any

to

by

viewed
in

this

An

omit

not

still

fully

as

polarised

by

instance
in

the

plane,

one

object seen

in

this

polarised light.

complicate the description of

should

we

circular

employed,

oscillate

to

orbit.

circular

be viewed

desirable

It is not

reduced

being

in

move

is said

manner

of

If, however,

to

the
that

mention

subject
certain

crystalspossess the peculiarproperty of reducing all the azimuths

of common
light into two planes,each at right angles to the
As
will be
other, as, for example, a crystal of Iceland spar.
in

seen

the

Nicol's

furnishinga description of

prism,1 the

Nicol's

Iceland

footnote

spar

aim

of

prism (Fig. 136)

thrice

as

long

as

this

is to

arrangement

is constructed
its diameter

from
;

one

is called

what

eliminate

rhombohedron
its

of

faces,

of
which

PPISM

MlCOLS

-ORDINARY

ORDINARY

RAY

Fig. 136.
naturally makes
so

as

to

give the

angle

an
new

face

of 70" with
an

the

inclination

blunt

edges, is

of 68" instead

cut

The

off

obliquely

whole

block

these, and

of

one

in

deeply complicated

is too

book

of this

produce
plane

one

convenient

the

for

produced

To

Nicol's

"

effected

held

mirror

to

revolve

about

the

by the

whilst

made

so

in

that

purpose

divided

is then

in

and

in the

other

lit

to

with

by

it into
the

ray

Canada

balsam.

extraordinary.

'

beam

But

between

being
;

loosely

so

sufficient for the

be

not

the
A

of

unduly

axis, the

two

entering the
plane of polarisation,
ray

refractive

the

index

of

ordinary (i'65)

the

Hence

instead

kind

the

the

angle

of

thin

recommended
.

slides

on

to

the

Mr.

with

polished
the

SUi

perpcn":

45',quartz

52

glass
lies

is

off

"polarising angle," and

of volcanic

prism, but

Nicol

suggested by

as

and

correct

is called

bundle

30'.
of

reflection

glass being 54" 35',water

substances:

"

the

makes

Uao

angle,

entire

apparatus

device

to

that

is

refracted
most
respectively.
balsam
less refractingmedium,
is totally
and
a
of
for most
rid
practically
got
; whilst
purposes
a denser
medium, and therefore passes through.

This

reflecting surface.

different

the

different

the

outside

placed

case,

relation

in

to

fittingan

band

with

two, each

condenser

instrument, such

any

the

arrangement

such-like

or

plane polarisedby

1)6

diamo:

correct

In

the

the
or

collar

more

used.
also

can

so

balsam

prcivi.!the

manner

united

layer of

finds in the

is the

This

forms

sleeve

special

.md
the

the

it is

according

means,

extraordinary(1*48) rays

finds

arranged

prism, called

its mount

is 1*54, intermediate

balsam

the

ray

This

some

milled

into

portions being afterwards

new
prism is divided by
the
ordinary and
Canada

these

lightpol'arised

of

position beneath

it is fixed.

drop

best

are

of rotation
permits of a slight amount
of adjustment.
The
polariser should

it

of

use

microscopist,forms

by various

within

of

cases

to

as

the

optical axis of the

use

other

in

they

method.1

ingenuity of the optician. In

constructed

how

the

matical
mathe-

prism is mostly employed, for

and

the

but

viz. the formation

"

other

any

it and

much

requires

follows.

the firsteffect

polarizer,is placed

revolution

indeed

of

purpose

what

than

between

to

description, and

subject-matter of

is

polarised

rays

ing,
extremely interestbe thoroughly explained in

of illumination, and

specialforms

in

of

passage

philosophical reasoning

and

and

permit the

to

so

LIGHT

plane only.
treated, though
subject scientifically

one

The

POLARISED

PLANE

212

whilst
;

1'rof. Chi -shire.

by
instead
tail-piece

for

is sometin
also

inconvenient;

Michael

employed

often

of the

j":.

circle of

Tl.
mirror.

at

the

PLANE

if it be

for

diameter,

in

small

POLARISED

the

light issuing through

the

LIGHT
it will

so

213
off too

cut

; hence

condenser

if

loss of

the

high

and

be

rotation

should

be

then

it will

large, for

cumbersome

and

the

employed

powers

be

too

inconvenient,

and

will

ringers

of

illumination

employed
consequent
aperture
felt.
be
will
Still, however, it should
distinctly

be

much

not

keep knocking

considerable

mirror, causing thereby

against
annoyance.
the
have
The
prism (the polariser)is, we
light issuing from
is called
"plane" polarised, but for the
already said, what
the

observer

of,

it

must

the

in

involved

peculiarphenomena
nicol

yet

another

the

analyser.

called

is

the

witness

to

traverse

This

eye.

able

be

to

of

action

the

Although

second

this

spoken
reaching the

before

principle

is similar

prism

polariser,still its actual shape is somewhat

position it occupies, viz.
according to which
the
directly above
microscope tube
(i) In the

different,

the

of

that

to

"

(ii)as
with

rotating

lenses

is used

which

of

instead

it is

short, and

end

and

the

rotate

to fit into

cap

this

kind

and

any

power,

same

but

(iii)Abbe's
constructed

we

have

the

No.

found

Huyghenian

the

the

the

previous
be

may
its colour

with

objective

that

analysing

if

top

for

the

ocular

by

the

one

collar

as

and

cut

revolving

ocular.

With

ocular

any

compensating,
this purpose

of
be

can

and

the

in

objectionable.

which

is

in pre-war

ends, placed
or

still

almost

one,

is sometimes

flat

shorter

of

at

ocular

effected

or

used

consisted

Huyghenian

is

being

about

the

over

spar

analysing eyepiece,
Nicol

above

the

to

used

Huyghenian

second-hand,

even

either

with

be

to

rotation

prism

whether

manner,

now

and

tourmaline

used.

analysing eyepiece,

cell to work

is attached

mount

differently;

whole

combination

ocular.

an

constructed
(ii)When
(Prazmowski prism),
cap

the

Abbe's

as

objective,

nosepiece
the objective at the other, a
milled
the optical axis.
the prism around

receives

somewhat

ocular, (iii)
or

is called

what

arranged

(i) When

serving to

over

cap

form

to

the

difficult to
times

of

the

between

obtain

specially
lenses

of

But
compensating ocular.
field and
eye-lens of the No. 2
a

be

X4

removed,

the

X8

be screwed
into the upper
compensating ocular can
analysing eyepiece, no field lens being required at
a
to use.
delightfularrangement

or

the
end

all.

Xi2

of the
It

is

POLARISED

PLANE

214

noticed

It will be

from

LIGHT

has

what

been

said, that either polariser

to revolve with
analyser can be made
equal effect ; in fact,it
is chosen.
movement
Should
is quite optional which
this be the
rather
the fingersin turning it are
against
polariser,
apt to knock
the mirror and so put it out of position ; if the analyser,eye-cap
the eyelashes may
eyepiece arrangement,
form, or the Abbe
get
thumb
of the fingers or
in the way
whilst rotating, whereas
if

or

these
to

difficulties

object may

the

fittingbe

do

arise in

not

sJiake

to

appear

nicely made

very

objective be employed, all

There
are
objections,however,

removed.

are

this type which

the

the

placed above

is

that

form

the

the

use

of the

as

the

so

that it revolves

is

prism

two, for

rotated, unless
in

its jacket

PARALLEL

CROSSED

DIAGRAMMATIC
OF

other

PCPRC

"pARALLEl"

AMES

PL

THE

SdNTATlOM
AND

"CROSS

D"

Fig. 137very

smoothly and

evenly

or

to

travel

about

inside

be at all eccentric to the optical axis

fitting
badly made.
Occasionally the "travelling about
caused

mirror

field,if the

the
or

the

the

prism

field"

is

by the objectivebeing not quite "true" in its mount.

after having placed the
a
low-power condenser, and
ng
in position,and
inch
attached
an
objective to the nose-

piece of the microscope

the

around

opticalaxis

intervals of

lightand

moving the polariseror the analyser

that alternate
it will be immediately found
;

on

produced. This is caused

by the single "planes" of polarisationbeing parallel or ci
with
the other
one
(sec Figs. I3/A and r.). If now
a
\
be
of
it may
scopicobject
placed on the stage, given portions
darkness

will be

"l

"

present

beautiful
is the

to

variegated colours
^iven

objects,or to crystalsor
t""\\. good tfficts
in polarisedlight. For
name

portions be

(if such

such

to

like,that

short

list,sec

of

are

the

able"
"suit-

p. 510.

POLARISED

216

CIRCULAR

employed.

It is obvious

then

LIGHT
of suitable

set

specimens, called

with
polariscope objects,"reveal different colour phenomena
each
an
selenite,hence
by this simple means
enjoyable
many

"

hour
But

spent by those

be

may

form

is yet another

there

of gorgeous

fond

of

effects.1

scenic

polarised light which,

when

correctlyused, gives results so beautiful and entrancing that it

\Vc
just described
quite into the shade.
puts the phenomena
of what
have already called attention
refer to the use
we
to, and
which

in
polarisation,

circular

termed

is

which
plane polarisation,

blue

in

of variations

and

of tJie ivhole spectrum

is revolved,
polariser)

blue
into

merges

circle

complete the
of

of

order

and

utilised.

As

the

placing above

forms

in

into

the union

mentioned,

of red

with

curious

changes

the selenite,but

beneath

blue, to

plum

colour
the

reverses

brought

are

tion,
direc-

one

yellow, yellow

Reversing the nicol

these

below

is revolved
turns

green

red, whilst

All

colours.

nicol

one

green,

we

the colours

green,

analyser (or the

of the spectrum
seems
joined up

magnificent hue.

most

then

and

orange,

red

when

into

latelybeen

yellow, or
end

one

other, hence

the

with

are

to

explaining. The
of polarised light is that, instead

we

of this class

feature

curious

have

contradistinction

about

by

the

specimen,
what
is called a quarter-wave or quarter-undulation plate. This
is really nothing but
a
piece of mica, exceedingly thin and
mounted
A

or

Canada

in

position of
for the

when

and

The

between

effect has

maximum

length

quarter-wave

ascertained, both
for future

marked

balsam

best

use,

so

mica
to

as

be found

to

mica

and

avoid

to

the

who

revolvingthe

On

specimen

do

not

agree

lie upon

the

should

further

trouble.

be

selenite,

distinctly

think, is always obtained

plate with
by using the quarter-wave
rather
than
with
a
blue-and-yellow

possiblythose

pieces of glass.2
ment
by direct experi-

selenite

effect,we

plum-coloured

thin

two

with

a
one
us

rcd-and-green selenite
;

there

but

in this

are

very

Suit-

opinion.

itself

only, the polariserand analyser bein",runtoi:

;;d remains
changes colour,whilst that of the

wave

plate may

slide

unaltered.
1

quarter

of talc into thin

placed

between

of colour
quarter-

from
wave

slices.
two

One

or

made

grey

with
by splitting
of these

more

nicols,one

bluish-black

plate.

be

of which
to

can

fine needle

usually be

found

nly

shows

is

fawn-colour.

This

is

piece

that.
a

"

approximately

POLARISED

CONVERGENT

specimens used with

LIGHT

217

polarised light thus obtained

and
magnificent aggregation of different
give the most gorgeous
No
colour
renderings imaginable as the analyser is turned.
of shades
and
artist can
depict,or eye picture,such a mixture
by this simple means.1
changes of colour as may be witnessed
the whole
field of
If the lightbe not
equally distributed over
the condenser
view
having been suited to the objective the
be tried.
do not
other side of the mirror
High powers
may
to yield such
brilliantlycoloured effects,and altogether
seem
able

circular

"

"

not

are

We

used

to

yellow;

185,
A

find

we

making

but
an

great

very

low

ones.

think

the

Nernst

nowadays

unobtainable
too

as

suitable

so

his

concentrated

own

in

the

the

"

best

specimens by

the

with
the

peculiar
there

and

Polarised

called

the

to

on

cover-glasses,

circular

to the

Light
of

plane polarisedlight

slab
of

of

selenite
third

between

form

of

this"

polarisation,where,
plate of mica is added

selenite,a quarter-wave
yet remains, however, to be described

addition

166

pages

means.

have

illumination

on

slips or

on

only spoken of the use

of a
the interposition
and without
nicols, concluding with an account
we

be

to

microscopistin
of forming
simple method
soluble
salts,and
allowing

different

Convergent
far

believed

illuminant, lamplight being

is furnished

amusement

of

"

substitute.

out
to crystallise
drops of them
finallyprotectingthem by suitable

So

lamp

Zig-zag, mentioned

excellent

solutions

electric

fourth

method

in
:

of

of investigation,
restricted
one
employing this interestingmeans
is called
the "rings" and
the viewing of what
to
"brushes,"
when
with
the special
viewed
which
certain
crystals exhibit
To understand
about
the object of
device
to describe.
we
are
in its component
be
the special arrangement
details,it should
been
that
hitherto
mentioned
have
we
explaining the effect
produced by the employment of plane polarisedparallel beams
1

To

prevent

complication,it

has

not

been

mentioned

before

that

the

tion
of different parts of the specimen also produces modificaof colour-effects
the nicol is revolved.
as
ground
Turning the slide only (back-

actual

thickness

remaining unchanged), revolvingboth nicols simultaneously, moving

and specimen andpolariser at the same
specimen and analyser together,
time,
all produce in most
instances
different effects : especiallygorgeous
with
acetalinide.
baffle
description.
They

CONVERGENT

218

POLARISED
marvellous

light,showing what

of

inner

of bodies

constitution

tension

in the

as

"

case

or

of the different

of

unequal thickness

Now,

however,

show

the

of

wish

of

plane polarised rays

brought to bear upon them.
the

interpretationand

in

is to

beams

in

such

and

The

although,

such

first

be

it

with

of
u

In

soda,

low

lens

means

known

with

plane

of

phenomena

not

both
the

be

David

are

into

variety,

necessity. The
for

no

point

the

numerical
If the

stipulated
entirely viewed

be

sugar,

nitrate

performs in the
extraordinary,"which
ray

"

laws.

neither

to

of the

be

one

not

are

we

more

in the

But

follows

"extraordinary," the

therefore

the

1.

usually well-

in"!

of the
Such

ray, the refracted ray being not alu

of rings
set
crystals then exhibit a double

complicating

final

displayed by
of

is called

well-known

Urewster

the

wide-angled

calcite,quartz, borax,

is what
usual

vergent
con-

For

turned

important

although it
too
large to
as

the

on

being sufficient.2

70

potassium, etc., only

by Sir
direction

Mate

power,

the

incidence.

"

called

and

follow

ignificence of the
the

enough

may

brushes, which, while

and

have

the other

discovered

laws;

varying
the

manner

it does

the

to

these

achromatic

power,

; but

"65

of

now

with

absolute

an

minute

crystals, such

"

the

high

very

required,about

ferro-cyanide of

ortlinnry

of

considerable

manner.

be

deal

their

wide-angled condenser,

of

usefulness

it should

too

is

it is not

obtain

to

practicallyto

necessary

be

very

uni-axial

the

offer

proper

it will

are

and

curious, and

they shall fall

in the

that

light

in uni-axial

very

that

viewed

be

the

not

the

than

much

microscope

manner

layers

crystals exhibit

object, then,

great

the

understood,

objective be of
N.A., the back
1

are

thing

in

recollect is that

aperture

case

nature

objective should
dealing

either

microscope has

believe

we

very

arrange

crystalsin question, and

beams.

vary

The

when

"

called
collectively

are

thorough comprehension

microscopist

telescope of

These

unequal

example

distinctlyconvergent

They

enjoyment.

the

to

effects

of the

successivelyviewed.
be so arranged as to

of certain

sections

of

glass,for

are

apparatus

effect that

rings and brushes.

but
bi-axial crystals,1

revealer

exhibited

phenomena

our

they unfold

of certain substances

we

this purpose

as

unequally cooled

when

intellectual

information

whether

interference

curious

LIGHT

effect.
them.

the

Some
Of

crystals

these

lead, gl.iuborite,and

add

phenomena,
may
some

be

very

much

fine
particularly

are

selected

of the

to

in

nitre,native

varieties of

l"

adui

the combination
Strictly,
the
crystal.
of

should

have

its N.A.

equal

to

or

exceeding the

CONVERGENT

through

the

nicol

is

purposes

nosepiece
the

of the

attached

the

to

in the

microscope

of

convenience
in

purpose

position

of

conversion

for this detail

uses

For

usual

more

the

earlier
those

question,a

be
the

auove

microscope
one

be

draw-tube, thus

referred

to

when

219

best for

may

objective1(such as the
suffice in most
cases)should

will

apertometer

of

the

nicol

upper

2-in.

telescope, a
the

|-in. The

the

complete

To

LIGHT

hence, generally speaking, the

or

in

eyepiece, or

POLARISED

most

above

the

objective.

into

the

used

with

screwed

ideal
the
to

on

constitutingone

describing this part

part of this work.

this

using

for

arrangement

the

diagram (Fig. 138) explaining details

is

Fig. 138.

results,which

best

light,and

and

Set the nicols

2.

indirectly due

to

4. Place

specimen

of the

The

form

dry beneath

for the

it is

cover,

is

piece
nose-

about

stage.

of the

"

or

may

found

In
be

cases

made

necessary.

where

combination

achromatic

Bertrand's

cover-glassproduces

attempt

subsequently if it be

called

objective(say the J-in.)

crystal.2

the

plano-convex

compulsory.

the

the

until

draw-tube) by

it the

with

course,

and

purpose

the absence

the

suitable

most

instances

on

cover-glassor

the

touches

Usually

the cover

in much

in the tube

replaceit

adjustment

coarse

especiallymade
some

field is obtained.

white

(and, of

tube

the

Drop

all but

that

position.

its usual

means

denser
con-

iris wide.

open

so

tube ; centre

the

of

nosepiece

draw-tube, and

of the

in

get the

auxiliary 2-in. objective(Bertrand'slens) to the

3. Add

5.

the

objective on

Fix

1.

to

Nelson.

Mr.

procedure

directly or

is

believe

we

of

order

the

by

followed

given, being

the

Lens."

best

the

first with

results ; indeed

crystalis

mounted

itin situ,removing

CONVERGENT

220

6. Focus

the

with

POLARISED

LIGHT

draw-tube, leaving the

coarse

adjustment

entirelyalone.
be necessary

7. It may

to obtain

condenser

change

to

the

plenty of light.

It will

require raising.
If the analyser or
polariserbe now
axis
in the
the
ordinary manner,
be

well

Sometimes

seen.

position of
mostly

revolved
"

rings

on

and

magnificent and

the
be

substage
found

the

optical
"

brushes

curious

to

will

effects

are

produced.
append the following notes, which may assist the student
commencing to use convergent polarisedlight:

We

when

i. If the

with objective-changers and

be one
the
microscope in use
in
and
the
it
is
the
found
over
a
objective
fitting,
placed
analyser
auxiliary
lens will not focus the brushes
properly, it arises from such being of too
short
of longer focal length or
focal length.
Use
one
a
the
remove
changers.
"
off" in
ii. If the circle of lightas seen
cut
through the ocular appears
the analyser is turned, the condenser
revolves
as
one
requires
part which
be
too small.
lowering, or the nicol polarisermay
much
iii. If the object be too
magnified, use a lower ocular ; a lower
If requiring magnification,use
objectiveis not very successful.
a
power
"

higher ocular.
iv. If the brushes
it is

probable

respect
v.

the

to

the "best

useless,there

are

then

found

be

i. Convert

do not

the

cross

field

completely,

polariserhas not been found with

one-eighth of a revolution.
be used if desired.
quarter-wave plate may
the

the former

Turn

without

or

old-fashioned

With

well,or

position"of

specimen.

selenite with

shown

not

are

binocular

being

of much

no

microscopes the above directions

draw-tubes
; the following hints will

service

into

monocular, add polariserand inch objective.

length of brass tubing.
eye-piececap, replacingby same
it ;
specimen on top of this tube, and revolve nicol over

ii. Remove
iii. Put

"rings

and

It is

will be

brushes"

convenience

slide,and

which

at

concentricallywith
is very

to

the
the

then

have

same

axis

the

seen.

fittingmade

time
of

allows
the

the

to

hold

the

nicol to be

instrument.

en

revolved

good

maline
tour-

useful.

Daylight gives the finest colouring for all polarising

effects,but a close approximation is afforded
by using a No. 38
lak Screen
(gelatine; with the electric light. A useful list
of substances
for polarising effects is given in the
well suited
NOTE.

Addenda.

"

CHAPTER

THE

ON

EVERY

instrument

no

doubt,

to

be

"

as

been

his

work
much

as

in

explained
The

often

and

after

the

origin

tube

model

its

to

not

was

law

that

should

by the

at

either

there

its

medical

As

doubt

better,
discuss,

regards

the

short-tube

the

fession,
pro-

the

is

doubtful

although

system,

be

the

opinion.

the

seems

will

to

no

way,
others

to

matter

is

whilst

but

performed

magnification

with

that

by

Hence,
the

by
it

the

who

latter

longment
instruthe

was

is

was

the
as

was

objective
221

held

of

usually

as

and

obvious

placed

to
on

unwritten

an

of

little

as

the

ment
instru-

microscopists.

magnification

objective,
it

Continental

majority

then

all, of the

nearly

very

eyepiece.

received

fact

the

England

into

all well
the

all, or
be

individual

England,

introduced

from

arose

of

the

long

As

commence

which

buy,

his

instrument

entering

is

condenser

service

to

or

Oberhauser.

first

When

in

abroad
of

about

instruments,

two

birth

originator

ascribed

This

the

those

This

his

on

of

microscopist

beginner

first.

aside

laid

seeing.

very

shall

purchase

possible

the

using

intend

matter

originated

had
actual

difference

all is much
of

that

tube-length

the

is

those

by

been

be

may

found

adequate

of

centring

actual

thought

had

the

finest

it

the

asked

of

the

of

from

have

are,

been

time

because

way

hoped

the

that

the

and

having

at

marked,

method

even

is, Which
what

is

the

subject, especially

them

start

There

purchased

not

of

master

subsequently

purchaser

obtain

to

it

detail

been

have

proper

become

all its details.

in

have

testing

to

so

question

and

that

the

intended

advanced,

more

of

indeed

as

and

badly

objective

is

to

specimens

and

ignorant

using

of

more

poor

endeavour

uses

the

to

art

far

are

rejected

this

the

MICROSCOPE

first,which

at

owing

in

there

has

"

splendid

experience

its

objectives

many

faulty simply

but

all

in

THE

OF

should

microscopist

the

or

USE

obtain

short

an

object

possible

as

an

equal
tube

as

would

and

could

necessitated

of

use

such

therefore, demanding

dictum, however,

This
It is,of

for

true

course,

of

long, it

the

to

ocular; "an

power

instrument,

things could

be

not

moment."

rested

on

with

the

that

attached

were

condition

tolerated

or

if it

higher

MICROSCOPE

THE

obtained

be

the

recommended

OF

USE

THE

ON

222

entire

an

misapprehension.

tube-length

same

higher

the fact was

test ; but
eyepiece puts the objective to a severer
lost sight of that the higher eyepiece, when
applied to a short

.tube, received

therefore

smaller, and

that, if the

object, and

resulting magnification was

the quality of tJie image was
also identically
similar.
objection entirelyfalls to the ground.

Opticallyspeaking, there should be no

performance, say, of a good -fe-in.on
provided, of
of

are

of the

oculars

question that

the

profitin

the

and

advantages

size

also

actual

the

difference

the

of

specimens

end.

in

has

this

between

the

of

the

diameter

such

of

case

been

of

increase

advantage, seeing that

the

difference

point of

instrument

to

long-tube

lay

in portabilityin the
think, is the great difference
the other, and
this is especiallyto the front when

be

to

carried

tropics,where

about, especially by

the distance

observations

have

chair,which
It

has

stated

model

be

with

also

has

difference

smaller

is often

is of sufficient

been

Continental

travelled

often

long-tube instrument
a

to

made

involves

the

height with
that

been

much

discussed, without
field in the

is

piece
eye-

being larger)is of questionable

increase
is usually more
less
or

dissimilarityin the

in

instruments

two

fuz/.y,the reasons
explained already
having been
objectives and eyepieces generally. But the

when

model,

optician'sart

disadvantages of the

often

The

(because of its

have

same,

Hence

form

either

the

equal merit.

The
the

the

course,

of

sharper, image

one

often

the

principal
of, we

case

over

instruments
the

in

men

Further,

great.

stage horizontal, the

of

use

cussing
dis-

hold

one

medical
very

when

stool rather

Continental

point

instrument.

connected

overlooked.

than

It

with
is

of

that

the
a

effect

in
tube-length produces a greater
the adjustment of objectives than obtains
the longer tube.
with
t"" consideration
as
Although classified as a defect, it is open
to

whether

shift

this

is not

brings about
cd,

on

the

other

advantage, as a smaller
adjustment required ; but

an

the

hand,

that

greater

care

amount

it

is needed.

may

of
be

ILLUMINATION

224

It is evident

all

then, taking

things

into

consideration,there

advantages and disadvantageswith each type of stand, hence

think
is struck by employing a stand
that the happy mean
we
which
be employed
for both
can
by the use of two draw-tubes
are

This

purposes.

as

can,

of Continental
made

length by having

drop into the draw-tube

of the English model
any

when

to

case

double

draw-tube, which

for

are

enables

instrument

if

select

to

of

them

using objectives
the same
time
be extended
they can
those
made
for the long tube.
This
ideal

short

strument
in-

an

length of

tube

in the
it

shortening

is, of

manufactured

now

for

corrected

with

done

required ; whilst

method

impossible. Microscopes

course,
a

of fact,be

matter

be

to

closed

short

the

then

required for

sufficiently
whilst

tube,

suit the

to

at

correction

would

the

with

the

seem

double

of

purpose

mentioned.

Illumination

ordinary lamp * used

lighted,it is placed with

The
and

observer, about
of which

surface

inclined

be

look

plan

six

at

into

the

for

the

mirror,

to

inches

seven

or

is turned

angle suitable

an

eyepiece without
actual

There

after

"

will

be

always be found
learn

move

in

are

the mirror,2the
The

the

observer,

On

mirror.

easily in
the simplest manner,

good

ocular

and

it will

directions.

two

the

its lower

towards

examination,

very

can

adjust

to

the

tube

empty

he

It is

how

both

removing

should

that

so

neck.

learning

in

concave

instrument

straining his

the
the

seen

to

these

what

to

beginner,

commence

from

uppermost.

objective" by looking down

end.

by microscopists being trimmed

the
flame
the
edgeways towards

it is best

To

affix

to

length of pencil say an inch and a half long by means

of a little piece of common
candle-wax
to its very
centre, at
right angles to the surface, and with the point directed vertically
upwards. The microscope being placed in front of the observer
a

short

in the

"

usual

provide

two

sets

of movement,
(t

vc,
:"

with

The

disU

hi-h

power

of the

position,the mounting

obtainable

not

"

lamp,

of which

one

which

mirror

used

to

be

is termed

so

found

will be

much

"

to

the sidc-

cmplo\

"

r,

""f the

condensers

illuminant

is

(see p. 238).

an

impoitunt

matter

when

dealing

SETTING
"

to-side

motion,

in which

whereas

the

travel

exactly

other,
at

MIRROR

225

the

pointer moves
left to right, as

from

right to left,or

from

THE

called

the

"

rightangles to

former

an

arc

the

"

to-and-fro
the

in

stretching

case

be

may

direction, makes
line of motion.

"

it
The

to and
fro, and from side to side, is
object of these movements
obviously,by their combined
use, to find a position that ensures
the mirror
reflectingthe lightof the lamp into the instrument
after traversingthe lenticular
in such a manner,
portions,it shall
To
reach the eye of the observer.
perform these movements
quickly and yet with precision,it is best to place the right arm
the table
the corresponding side of the instrument,
around
on
the left passing likewise
around
it on
the other
side.
The
first
of each
hand
should
the corresponding
fingerand thumb
grasp
edges of the metal cell containing the mirror, and then with a
little practicethe operator will find he can
make
the lightreflect

into

up

the

of

centre

the

and

tube,

to

so

his

eye

with

great

facility.
Most
beginners find considerable
difficultyin "getting the
mirror
much
right,"as they call it, and often have to waste
time
in so
to suggest, if they will only
doing ; but we venture
learn to adjust its position in the simple and
primitive fashion
above
described, before attempting to do so with the lens and
ocular
in situ, their subsequent difficulties will rapidly vanish
when
they get a little more
experienced. Having attained
in adjustingthe
proficiency

speedily accomplished, the

the

on
a

No.

nosepiece and
I

of

mirror

tyro had

low-power

opticians,or

some

that

so

an

better

ocular
A

the

in

now

the

eyepiece

operation can
place an
draw-tube
a

or

"

2-in. of

be
inch
say

other

manufacturers.
In
it

screwing

off, many

injured.
method

of

doing

end

objective to

an

has

been

then

for

this

accident.
end

screw

the

one

It is well

mentioned
its

on

next

fingersof

as

which
Let

the

possible

that

the small

"

front

the

nosepiece,and in taking
dropped and perhaps seriously
the
learn a
to
beginner at once
will effectuallyavoid
the
abovefrom
objectivebe held as far away
is to

lens

"

say,

as

between

near

the

as

convenient

first and

the

to

second

fashion
in the same
a cigar is
as
right hand, much
between
these two
end
of the mount
presenting
refingers,the screw
the portion of the cigar that goes
into the mouth.
Having previously raised the tube of the microscope by the

held

15

SCREWING

226

THE

coarse

adjustment, the

against

the

nosepiece

of

end

screw

to

screw

"

screw

the thumb

position.

In

two

the

end

the
of tlie objective,

are

now

slid in

in

such

edge of the

milled

between

interval

thumb

objective

balance

to

first
to

is

and

placed
there

fingerof

grasp

it in

steady
the

fingers and

always present.

mount

OFF

already explained, whilst

the two

as

AND

being gently held

as

and

manner

the

"

ringers of the right hand,

of the same
hand
serves

by the

ON

OBJECTIVE

the

screw

left hand

somewhat

firmly the

This

be turned

must

the

of the hands
of a
opposite direction to the movement
watch, the microscopist throughout the operation being supposed
that is to say,
the microscope
to be sittingor standing behind
in front of him.
The
with the instrument
should
right hand
"

so

assist in

to

as

the

half

good plan

turn

drops

into
"

"home

in the

thread

the

adopted, but

few

position.

the

order

"take

opposite

of the

watch

and

removal, the

of

everything

the combination

move,

it to

allowing

in

advance

begins

to

necessarily
and forefinger

the combination

the

the

fallingon

to

the

hands

nosepiece.

fingersof
free end

to

position allows
the

table

floor

or

disengage itself from the nosepiece before it

accidents
should
anticipated. This simple expedient to save

should
was

be

prevent

method

is

first two

right hand should be quickly placed over

it cigar-fashion as
hold
they did before, which

it

as

objective is

same

leave

to

far, the

too

for about

the direction

the

them

the

In

easily,

click

gives a

one

turns, and

turning

in"

direction

Gripping the lens with the left thumb

edge,

into

objective engage

If this will not

back

in its final

its milled

Before

draw

to

the instrument,

towards

of the

screw

that of the other.

reversed.
around

the

nosepiece.

so, until

or

and

be

may

objectiveupwards,

making

of the

thread

it is

of

the

gently press

now

the

screw

operation

performed

be

can

understood,

dropping

often

out

turns

thought
loosen

and

freelypractisedover

very

or

it

might

to

appear,

displace (if not

little component

numerous

almost

again, until,in fact,the

unconsciously

far
on

costly

more

trouble

of the

account

break)

actually to
lenses ;

an

for, be

for

expensive apochromat,

an

be

over

example,

than

jar being
one

accident

or

that

it

first

at
so

more

may

apt

to

of

its

quite

and
necessitate
its
performance of the combination
and
to the optician to overhaul
sent
repair.
inch
attached
the
The
to
being safely
nosepiece,a specimen
the
be
the
proboscis of the blow-fly should
placed on
say

spoil
being

the

"

"

THE

FIXING

stage in the

seen,1 and

duly
made

objectiveis
if it is

but

word

or

from

side

only
of

two

advice

the

slip,one

at

beneath

correct

should

thumb
the

thumbs

the

"

stage,

so

to

the

the

hold

hands

stage

the

get

until

other, the

it is

so

hold.

the

"

be

to

firmly

left
to

on

adjusts the

righthand

the

firm

is found

gently but

there, while

venient
con-

employed

the

position

slide

specimen

it

to

as

slide

most

be

at

one

so

the

in

clips,a

shift the

to

should

it and

ocular, the

moving

press
as

of

the

how

downwards,

of both

end

one

into

looking

on

above

the

purpose

of

couple

to

as

one,

positionbeneath
for the

be

to

mechanical

provided

screws

given

thumbs

The

stage be

having but

be

from

fingersbeing placed
When,

the

227

it is desired

into its proper

one

may

side, or

to

manner.

upon

plane

STAGE

in which

If the

specimen

by turning

THE

that

to

there.

fastened
of the

adjustment

the

position

reverse

ON

SLIP

does
the
the holding, whilst
the right thumb
clip,after which
left hand
clip.
completes the fixing by manipulating the second
them
to hold much
causes
Pressing either of these clips home
To
find the correct
position
they work loose."
tighterin case
"

"

"

specimen, however, or even

great trouble to the beginner, or
the

of

student, and
"

dry
as

sometimes

dodge
in

than

the

back

reverse

few

be

"

the

ocular

inches, whilst
Most

the

as

thumbs

frequently

however,
method
as

near

into the

with

move

high

equally well
as

possible

on.

to remember

the

instrument, and

object

Whilst
is

head

the

the

eye

; it

readily

to lower

can

then

position, to
this

use

is at

of the

tube

method,

specimen, a
the objective

cover-glassbeforeattempting

then, whilst

drawn

very

central

focussing
always

"

the

in all directions

to

example

off is better

be

can

It is difficult

with

far

down

approximately

an

powers.

to

the

it about

and

glances

eye

ing
follow-

The

for

"

advanced

convenience,

great

is removed

the

quickly slipped into

finallyadjusted later

be

of

"

instrument.
seen,

found

the

to

worker.

experienced

often

have

we

the

to

times

at

even

all, is often

it at

especially. Having placed the inch

be judged
focus as can
little too
a

powers

near

"

find

to

the

to

look

ocular, to

It is not
however
a
strictly
"upside down."
"
method
of speech, for it might be taken as meaning that the
accurate
slip"
face
the
to
and
the
turned
to be
was
next
to the
cover-glass
objective,
condenser
What
!
is meant
is,that if the cover-glass represented a watch
dial,the xii should be turned round, so that it occupied the usual position

This

is often

of the vi and

the

spoken of

iii that

as

of the

ix.

CARE

228

obtain

lowering

it down

expedient

those

saves

with

use

SLIP

frequent method.

more

that

be

With

cover-glass or

crushed

however, the

mentioned,

immersion

dry objectives; with

this

by

simple
front

broken

method

only of
safety

is

another

ones

is under
their use
plan will be given when
Fine
focussing of the specimen may

than

all micro-

frequently at work,

are

many

It should

lens.

the

"

scopists,save

THE

by raising up the objective,rather

focus

sharp

REMOVING

ON

discussion.
be

now

performed

using the fine-adjustmentscrew, but before ever

should
it the Tearner
use
satisfy himself which
which
the objective, and
to lower
serves
turns

by

attempting
the

way

screw

raise

to

to

it up.

microscopes are not quite alike in this respect, although in

far the
majority, by turning the milled head in the direction
of a watch
the objective is lowered, and
that the hands
move,
All

the

in

screwing

on

direction

opposite

it is

consequently raised.

leaving this part of the subject,we should like to answer

be very naturally asked
a
by, or anyhow arise
question that may
of a reader, and
in the mind
that is why all these
precautions
Before

should
such

long

with

taken

be

inch

an

off the

way

specimen

it is because

question,that

seeing
objective,
We

the

was

when

case

employs higher
follow

will

learnt

There

here, in

with

raise the

to

delicate

of

want

attempting

tools

the

against
the

and

the

to

slip happens
1

much

to

Especiall) the
less.

off the

simply

to

put

ringing of varnish
possibly scratching
whereas

accident

an

"

be
case

focal

on

length, he

the commencement

handling

"

jamming

save

stage

or

"

later

the student

which

advice

specimen

combination

addition,
and

very

delicate

indeed

as

"

is necessary.

may

be menti

place. It is always to recollect

consequently the objective,before ever

remove

it is to prevent

instrument

when

"

be established

suitable

more

replace it by another

to

piece of

tube, and
to

the

lines,having from

same

is yet another

ourselves

this

to

answer

; for if such

consequently of shorter

powers,

in the

on

that

began

we

reply,in

it focusses

expediency of getting the

of the great

beginner into habits of care and caution

of
while commencing
to learn the use

that

if for

the next

the

the

high

one

powers,

than
as

latter,

often present catching

delicate

former

slide

If the

it away.

the
their

when
first.

working

of

lens

front

it

purpose

between

possibly occurring

thicker

with

so

it be

stage, whether

the

objective

the
If

second

now

distance

the
is

so

AS

ZEISS"LOUP"

which

a-

with

even

delicate

the

resume,

adjustment
use

may

little

this

raisingup

the

low

eye

learns

to

They
double

Zeiss

by
for

to

having

Watson
about

are

when

that

the

it

placed

diaphragm
down,

or

and

excellent
were

with

even

with

the

he

will

light equably

over

little further

resting

arms

this

mirror

justment.
adthe

on

the

image

requiring

ocular

"

student's

used

as

its

its

low-power

we

must

admit

by

Messrs.

made

one

formula

in
we

Mr.

in

use
are

place,between
until
fingers,

the

the

representative,the
the

the

eye

makes

whole

and

the

racked

is

up

the
iris
or

perfect illumination

very

Should

in

substage,or

specimen

focussing, the finest hairs

looking as if they
definition,
to

position,it

acquainted.

into

condenser

this

should

On

rising up

condensers

good

very

lowest
of

is

market, but

excellent

manufacturers, but

most

with

hand-magnifiersmade

as

that

repeat

very
clear.

condenser

the

in

ones

employed

We

substage

replace

now

the

focus, fluffyand

the

good

very

loups

"

the

the

pushed by

is effected.
in

takes
or

service

proboscis

high-power

what

not
advantage, too, that, when
the best bull's-eyewith which

sleeve which

is in

Conrady. Its lenses

its focal length is 2 in.,and
diameter, and
just drops into the substage. It has the

after

mounted

Having

ocular

found, especially as

be

by

in. in

i"

the

likelybecause

can

made

Sons

"

the

concave

great liking for the very

high

that,

requires

the

several

are

others

are

by the fine

perhaps with all

matter

objective.

condensers

with

be

is very

There

inch

an

done

If the

no

This

and

it

done

appreciate fine definition,that the

proboscis do not look quite sharp and

the

to know

seem

nasty

and

see

tips.

required.
few

229

cases,

much

so

at

that

from

soon

appear,

may

reflect the

not

But

down.

or

of

hairs

be

arise

it will

one,

minute

hence

may

be

not

looks

does

explained.

before
;

these

quite likely now

student

should

This

is poor

is

mirror

the

field,and

whole

as

of

when

necessary

inch, although of

an

recognise that

table

in either

focussing can

be

It
low-power one.
ocular, directly the

the

CONDENSER

thereby avoided.

is

accident
To

previouslyraised

been

has

tube

LOW-POWER

grew

the

now

upon

light

be

appear
the
found

stage
too

this
be lowered
with
powerful, the condenser
(permissiblemay
be closed
the iris may
or
long-focallength objective)justa little,
a

trifle; but

especiallywith

it should
a

not

be

forgotten

are
high-power objective,

that

apt

both
to

operations,

spoildefinition

THE

CENTRING

23o
and

resolvingpower

the

reduce

the light be still too

between

the mirror

neutral

using

that

as

and

the

the

by Kodak

If,however,

has

it should

be

be

better still,
one

No.

be

need

recollected

interposed

of the many
useful.

is very

96

usually about

difference

inch, no

operations,only

lamp, or,

"-in.,which

of the

of the combination.

bright,a thin opal glass may

tint filters sold

When

CONDENSER

the
in

made

N.A.

same

of the

any

it focusses

that

much

Whilst

specimen.

stating this,it is well to recollect,

however, that owing to the variety of computations adopted by
different opticians,the exact
position occupied by a particular
be that required by others of similar
inch or a "-in. may
not
focal length made
by differentfirms. We know, for example, an
nearer

works

that

inch

almost

near

as

beginner then should have

When
using a J-in.,which

The

as
a

\-in.by

in this matter.

care

has

usually

N.A.

must

possibleto ro,1 for it will then be of service

shorter focal length than the J-in.,
and which

of

higher aperture still.

Centring the Condenser.
look

This

In

condenser

using a

objectives

have

usually a

of this

tion
descrip-

before attempting
operation has to be conducted
a
specimen ; it is called "centring the condenser."
that the optical axis of the
shall
illuminator
be
adjustment or in line with that of the objective. To

at

means

in

placed
this

do

"

with

fresh

to

varying

'65 (Zeiss's
apochromatic) to, say, '40, a different condenser
It is best to use
it with an
be employed.
aperture as near

from

as

maker.

another

be

properly must

of

aim

the

all
microscopist on
objective ncrcr
performs

doing the
It is effected in the
properly,especiallyif it be of high power.
by employing the adjusting-screws provided
following manner,
occasions,

cither

To

in

learn

all,but

at
1

without

the

for

the

condenser

the

art,

It is sometimes

objectives

use

above

not

itself

mount

anyhow

rack

to

""/the i!lumin"int,to
for

so

the

at

it
first,

condenser

condenser
this

up

to

the

to

focal

aperture.

"

advantage

an

by

the

same

makers

use

no

specimen

level of the

because

longer

substage fitting.

of

the

length
We

and

often

stage

lev
of

N.A.

'45

empl"

just mentioned, of
excellent
of
but
condensers
s"
performance arc
Mure,
when
of the
most
special care
using a
leading opticians. The
necessary
be
of larger aperture
the objective,
lest the image should
than
condenser
of the
and Abuse
to the Use
flooded," is discussed in the chapter devoted
Substage Diaphragm.
great

illuminator

of

numerical

the

is best

convenience, however,
a

in

or

as

OBTAINING

232
racked
flame

be

down

and

up

The

of the
should

specimen

little further

rapidly make
This

in

witnessed

edge of the lamp-

placed

of

best
the

on

flame

the

bottom

of the

focussed.

and

stage

be

quite sharp

not

substage,

is called

obtaining

"critical

using light that is focussed

by the image of the flame,

the

condenser

out

the

flame

seriously as
and

little

light."
the

upon

the

at

found

have

save

all
electric

of

pencil held
focus.

to
1

this with

do

To

motion

the

to

Of

later

( ci

tain

critical

be

It should

good

as

noted

expected, it is
"v2. For

nothing

condenser,

substages

some

used

to

believed,

we

of

times

at

worth,

was

object
Ncrnst

both

that

quired
re-

other

or

used

glass is
manner

as

lamp,
the

as

or

object

this

hold

provided

are

useful

most

shown

that

has

been

the

illuminant, and

to

so

very

there
the

is

vantages
ad-

positionof
this

recommend

to

fine

addition.

that

refined

ceased

have

with

addition.

quite low powers, if definition be not quiteas

good plan, notwithstanding the use of a condenser,

that
a

try the effect of changing

upon

ease,
We

hitherto

as

it

mean

other.

any

especiallysince it
focussing the lightof
lightare not restricted

expensive

somewhat

to

in

condenser

the

using

however,

years,

of

greater

condenser.

freedom

than

equally well

against the glass serves

Some
preferthis plan to

we

confess

We

so

thing

very
"

obtaining

the

it does

however,

dense

very

spreads

illuminant.

introduced

lamp the ground

gas

puts

re-obtained

critical light in the same

lamp-flame is with the ordinary

for focussing' and

edge

and

Wclsbach

the

trouble

bull's-eye more

a
quite
powers
When
the light possible.

light or

and

be

field ; this

doing this the

usually rectifythe fault.2

the

be

the

screw

If

must

as

image

entire

Adjustments,

really

that

time

definition.

unexpectedly

low

with

will

specimen,

same

the

mirror

in

that

definition.

the

will

condensers

is not

the

It

higher, which

over

affect the

necessary,

to be avoided

of

shade

noticeable, critical light

is here

spoiling

the

or

evenly

more

powers

be

to

care

wished

to

shade

bull's-eyeplaced between

Great

lower

low

with

not

now,

down,

or

up

If the flame
objectivefocusses the object to the eye.
considered
objectionable,just a touch of the substage

does

employ.

to

now

field,

it so.1

process

consists

the

being

be

adjustment

of the

the top to the

mirror

then

LIGHT"

image

image of the edge of the

If the
a

the

until

stretching from

seen

flat surface

the

"CRITICAL

reasons

else than

the

with

the
not

mirror

the

"

flat

"

immediately apparent,

alteration

great improvement

from

in the

is sometimes

angle

the

effected

to

but

curved

"

side,

really depending

rays

by

"

the

impinge on
change.

this

the

OF

THICKNESS
When

using

less,no

different

making

the

COVER-GLASS

J-in. or

J-in.,having

is

treatment

adjustments

be

must

lowered

afterwards

last lens

the

but

lens, for it usually works

hitherto

not

high

from

consideration.
thick

It

indeed

there

puts

of the components
lenses

dealt

the

is called

best

the

best

thick

the
into

if very
the

which

specialthickness

of

If

now

becomes

error

results

front
course

"

effect

pushing

is
in

case),pulling out

of

the

the

the

collar," by

correction

"a

is for

the

lens

other

produced
is the

obtains

to

is to

ocular

by
"

the

suit

push

or

it adds

means

have

to

the

pull out
if the

if too

to

what
the
can

drawuntil
be

cover

thin

adjustment.

sensibly

little increments

remembering,
correct

two

be

to

turning of which
the
special cover

in

; whilst

has

are

combination

different

remedy

which

There

the

being
employed of,

be

present

; that

cover

variation

cover

desired.

are

of

the

thereabouts,

or

objective

containing

the

these

Opticians usually correct

personallyprefer although

we

effected ; whilst

tube

difficulty

bring

to

"

required adjustment
be

as

another

specimen,

system.
a

mm.

of

if the

of

cost

the

'18 mm.1

*i6 to

source

which

one,

use

First, because

enough

room

lens

with

work
is '17

say,

with

be

focus

to

of the

to

chosen

"22,

say,

dry J-in. or

dealing with

reasons.

the varying
everything ; and the second, because
the actual
in the adjustment
errors
glass introduces

of

between,

student

dry
cover-glass.

the

when

focussed

the

the

little

to

stop

mostly

two

not

may

sufficientlynear

their

for

is

lens

thickness

with
and

difficult to

that,

it is

with

to face with

in

much

so

can

until

near

or

care

^-in.upwards, to obtain
perfect definition
of the cover-glass itself has
taken
to be

thickness

actual

lowered

exceedingly

they

the cover,

somewhat

so

mentioned

powers

than

microscopist face

brings the

This

lenses

to touch

'9

of their greater

these

So, too,

one

that all the

objectives work

use.

is

about

both

rather

their

to

233

of

increased, because

almost

as

raised

by being

gets accustomed

TVm-"

so

N.A.

required,save

and
because
magnifying power
with
the cover-glass.Even
nearer

patience be

IMPORTANT

too

(rarelythe

Both

of these

the proof of
require practice, because
having correctly adjusted for any special cover, after all,only
lies in the eye
the
being sufficientlytrained to recognisewhen
methods

Zeiss

suitable
mount.

of

marks

for the

correction

each

dry high-power

lens

objective in question.

with

It is in

the

thickness

that

very

small

figures

is most
on

the

FOR

CORRECTING

234

finest definition

is

THICKNESS

COVER

abilityto judge whether

of its

obtained, and

OF

direction
push in, or a turn of the collar in one
it worse
\ The
Abbe
or
another, improves the image or makes
and over
test-plateis the best thing to practise on, and over
be gained ; this,
it be done
until a real proficiency
again must
But
said that
have
we
however, has been referred to before.
a

pull out

or

thickness

the

of the

objectivebeing
has

cover

great

so

to

as

to focus when
sufficiently

lowered

short

very

be

may

For

distance.

working

the

prevent
the

tion
combinaand

this reason,

to

guard against an accident, the student, after having lowered his

of the coarse
objectiveby means
adjustment as far as he dares,
should never
finallyfocus with it when
using these high powers,
but always employ the fine adjustment instead.
It is obvious
that by doing this the objective is lowered
gently and
very
indeed

gradually

hence, should

certainlywill if it be a high
thick, as frequently found
will do

front is made,

because

fine-adjustment
it had

in

without

have

with

the

collar should

is arrived

works
work

be

to

at

used

see

that

the inner

smoothly
of the

and

latter

runs

"

the

to

its rack

and

the milled
1

Some

accidents
seen

sec

that the

the rack

that
head

of

continental
of this nature

fractures

occur.

outer

the
firms
;

is

coarse

have

reliance

occurs,

reversed, lest

be

cover

for

injury.1

causes

the

of

caution

instead.
as

and

one,

be

yet

cover-glassthickness

draw-tube,

may

disastrous

with, perhaps, most

suddenly that the

slack," as if indeed

word

easilyin the outer

stiffly
; for,if it

applied to the draw-tube

pressure
and
crash comes
to the tube itself,
is cither

but

adjustment
tube

and

cover

get the finest definition

to

in the draw-tube

by pushing

slowly.

should
the

it

"

out, directlythe focus is obtained

be

when

stated

ago

Directly this

objective on

and

cover-glass in question

remains

this, to

tube

already pointed

the correction

"

lost all its power.

screw

it

as

"

years

between

quite

hesitation,the

the

turned

contact

become

cover

many

find somewhat

will

has

screw

moment's

weight of
we

he

moment

As

be

gently,provided the screw

tell when
microscopist can

the

cover-glassabnormally

slides made

in

so

The

the

the

and

power

touch

it

It

that

The

the

"

rack-

downward

communicated

the

objective upon

results.

simply

it is called

loose, the

become

is

moral

covcr-

of

this

sufficiently
tightlyheld in
stiff in itself,
to hold
or
sufficiently
adjustment with the left hand, so
tube

is

introduced
is not

to

be

arrangements

placed

upon

for

preventing

them, for

we

have

THE

FINDING
that it shall not
with

on

the

with

beginner

the

Changing

power

the

of

say

high

the

case

obtain

specimen
critical

begin

to

find

to

This

one.

which

with

appear

that, in

the

when

said,are

the

quite similar.

In

some

so

the

all

troubles
when

cases,

when

is made

change

the

to

"

to

he

may

be

of

the

part

deal.

the

field

with

the

to

appear

in

that

of

the

two

especiallyfound

to

the

of

arrangement

the

adjustment for

apparently upset and of considerably

using a "-in. or J-in. what will it be
have just
as
we
TVm- ? Especially,
when

found

to

revolving nosepiece."

cause,

same

has

centring
is

It

is called

using what

when

these

he

doing, the

so

because

arises

be

not

the

centre

"

"

If this be

use.

to

for the

light,changing

mirror, the centring of his condenser, and

less

and

"

obtainingcritical lightare

the

powers

adjustments are perfectlycomplete. But

find
that yet
perhaps to his sorrow

Further, in addition, from

his

that it is better

carefully into
placed so
the
J-in. utterly refuses

has

"

high
by far

objectives is quickly performed, but

objectives may
be

is carried

difficult with

more

so

find
to

soon

will

the

he

specimen
low

then

will very

disappointed

very

much

so

all the

when

trouble

another

always

J-in.to

with, and

learner

the

ones,1

use

higherpower

is

Specimen

low
to

condenser

the draw-tube

in

pushing

235

right.

Finding
than

whilst

turn

SPECIMEN

using

revolving nosepiece,

object is single and small as a diatom, very

experienced in finding it if anything like a
is exceedingly useful and quite
following method
the trouble
of changing the
frequentlysave
very

the

considerable
difficulty
may
The
be in use.
high power
simple to employ, and may
of these little objects have
a
objectivefor one of longer focal length : Most
the slip,the
the cover-glass, cementing it on
to
ring of varnish around
the
material being attenuated
the
thin
at
and
edge abutting
specimen, and this
of the ring of
whole
forms
suitable
The
a
object to primarily focus upon.
in the
to be
entirelycontained
varnish,however, is too large in diameter
field of view at one
and the same
a portion only is usually visible.
so
moment,
and
This takes the form
be shifted about
of an
of a circle,
should
by
arc
bisected
be
is
the
it
the
until
so
accurately
moving
slipon
placed as to
stage
this
When
view.
of
field
diameter
the
of
horizontal
by an
imaginary
is
the
that
bisection is accurately effected,it is evident
object usually
seeing
if the
that
of
varnish
the
in
the
the
of
enclosed
centre
area
ring
by
placed
slide be now
simply moved
horizontally,the object will fall into the field of
be

"

"

view

without

varnish,the
edge
means

of the

further
same
cover

trouble.
process

instead

of the verniers

their Uses.

can

of

If the
be
that

is described

object

carried

be

out

not
to

of the varnish.
later

on

in the

surrounded
find

by

ring

it,by employing

Finding

chapter upon

specimen
Verniers

of

the

by
and

"DRY"

USING

236
for

it

is, and

never

with

true

For

another.

this

effective

they

Their

years.

All the

and

for this

In

the article

reason

that

which

on

J-in.and

them

teristic
charac-

in all its

here

made,

was

But

it

as

and

bearings, so

said.

systems.

subject of the

explained,

immersion

the

object of

nothing further

there

is

left to

was

ture
aper-

dry lenses,

as

immersion

as

much

higher

with

made

the

into and

be

for many

be of

to

"

possess

be

to

aperture

discussed
need

must

yV-in.

mostly constructed

fullygone

reference

no

their

little later.

the

say

numerical

score

with

so

testifyafter using them

can

"

are

the construction
upon

we

possiblefor

been

has

lens

of Zeiss, with

resolving purposes,

it is

than

are

powers

for

real service

if

truly, for

necessarily be

not

firm

the

is described

use

high

will

it

work

to

"

"

of

arrangement

be, made

can

reason

POWERS

perfecting all details, have designed their

novel
a
objective-changers upon
system, and

of

desire

very

never

objective

one

HIGH

point

one

consideration

to

in

Seeing the

is for
design of immersion
systems
of admitting more
the purpose
light,or rather lightoccupying
be easily understood
of greater angle, it can
that the
cone
a

chapter.

this

of such
power
the condenser
constructed

transmit

words, the condenser

same

numerical

is to

work

the

to

so

as

constructed

refractive

same

dimensions.

Not

to

be

must

for the

only

same

oiled
reason

better

focus

too, is

higher

index

too,
in
the

as

to

lenses.

then

as

fluid

of

refraction

that the

As

greater

than

to

nowadays such
fullydealt with in

centring of t lie N.A.

as

the front

the

1*30

use
a

have

matter

of

the
matter

of the

fullyshown
of

depth
of

much

named.

It

has

yet somctlr

immersion

is

least

at

and

medium

lens

fact,the

aperture
very

with

what

medium

contrast

one

slip

to

and

true, but

the

or

microscopical student

this is
be

other

to

numerical

by employing

learn, namely, how

subject must
The

still,and

brought about

index

gathered
more

definition

is this

cover-glass,viz.

the

objective,although experience has taught

that

In

"

"

the

equally well

approximately, anyhow, the

the objective that is,if the latter

optical continuity." Then

be prepared
specimen itself must
of

combination

of similar

advantage.

N.A.
ro
objectives over
of the objective is oiled
called

have

must

best

completely utilised unless

it be

cone

aperture

condenser

the

with

employed

to

be

objectivecannot

an

will

system

be

of
the

of consequence,

all its bcari

substage

condenser

can

be

pri-

CENTRING

HIGH-POWER

obtained

marily

with

the

the

inch,

the

"-in.,objective in
raise
to
remembering

CONDENSER

ordinary

it up

operations,and the
angle, the
approximately correct
When

the

condenser
lens

of

for

the

carried

is

change

condenser,

of

the

adjustments

we

because

necessary,

if it be

in its turn

will

is

occurred

the

when

place,because

using

order

and

raised

to the

level

the

flame

image

lens of

the^-in.,

It is needless

the

do

not

or

the

will

suggested, seeing
to

accidentally

any

the

computed
slide

in

in

which

one,

appears

use

focussed

be
may

case

used

out

the condenser

that

at

yet

with

general

down

The

rather

be found

by racking

In

trouble

another

was

raising.

just happen
it will

tionary
precau-

carried

It is this.

beginner.
to

adopt

been

attempt

motion, however,

take

would

with, it in

commence

of

not

have

arrangements

confront

been

far away.

too

instead

perhaps
exceptionally thin

slip,this

accident

be

only requires lowering

executing this downward

slip, and

front

be

it

the

such

would

stage

have

should

condenser

top lens strike

the

"-in.,no

of the

may

the

strenuously avoided.

who

those

manner

unexpectedly

condenser.

to strike the

lens

when

measures,

in the

and

be

its front

Fortunately for

the oil makes

that

manner

the

raising

the

final

out.

over-raising of the condenser

if the

contact

Everything
specimen, previously

the

fine

work

iris is seen,

carried

be

If

denser,
light with the oiled conbeginner first to employ the ^-in.

cover

to

objective in

closed

the

can

the

overdone

cause

of the

the

do

be

of critical

on

accident

an

point out,

may

that the

see

should

coarse

lens

it and
"

stronglyadvise
urge

the

stage in such

the

to

on

perfect the getting

we

to

subsequently set to its

TVin- not being substituted

is raised, and

opticalcontinuity between

which

before

stage

mirror

When

condenser.

the

oiled, is laid

This

the

focussing of the closed iris can

tube
rather than
by lowering it.
be
reason
objected to, the
any

complete the tube

"

of

that

so

by raisingthe

out

perfectionin

To

level

quite central, no oiling of the objective to the front

the condenser
with
this high power,
is required. Even
in view, it can
usually be lowered
sufficiently
purpose

that

far

already explained,

and

for
raising method
adjustment should be used lest
too hurriedly,or
bring the front

so

with

purpose

complete.
it is required to

are

made,

this

with

this

is

the

near

adjustments

two

for

manner

the

to

commencing
until these

better

or

237

denser
con-

thick
be

to

an

that
the

con-

as

OIL-IMMERSION

AN

USING

238

(the specimen being

denser

under-surface

the

in the focus

the oil quits

of the objective)
slip entirely,leaving only a vacuity

the

of

CONDENSER

instead.
To

this

difficultyone, two, or more

the
be
glasses oiled together should
placed on
top
to make
condenser, oil being further used
a
complete
remedy

annoying

continuity between

make

The

condenser

the under-surface

lamp

is

his

new

having

designed
such

of

little

"

the

with

his

"

that

they

optical

condenser.

presents

high enough

latter

to

actually touches

it

being abnormally

know

we

of

We

slip.

slips,and

not

that

of

especially

have

be

scratched

not

is

have

should

does

save

that

condenser

Care

are

If this

mirror.

thicker

greatest service.

of

three

often

taken
when

found

of these

put

away

use.

focussed

it

The

has

to

now

performed by

be
one

view

light is said

removed

now

the

presumed

field of

critical

"-in. is

be

now

the

in

condenser, then
lens

the

different-sized

proceed, let

been

is

through

lenses

top

of
To

to

the

even

alternative
to

of

higher.
try the expedient of bringing

now

front

the

up

when

to the

owing
slip,

other

no

work

work

to

them

Even

possible to

as

succeed, there

racked

be

requires liftingup

near

as

slip,and

opposite character

an

all.

at

microscopist should

The

out

quite

cannot

of the

thick,the condenser
the

of

focus of the flame

the

covers,

trouble

Occasionally a
itself.

the

cover-

and

flame

by lowering
to

the

been

have

TVm-

has

image

raising the

or

obtained.
This

substituted.

cover-glass,an operation which

in the following manner
methods

oiled to the
or

two

drop of cedar-oil is placed on to the front lens of the

combination
(care being taken not to scratch it)before affixing
the cover
it to the instrument, or
a
instead,
drop placed on
with
in contact
it. In
it is known
the objective will come
where
Either

lowering the tube great precaution and

some

little

practice

arc

necessary.
The

adjustment

coarse

the

between

will

easily recognised by

when
obtain

looking sideways
the

focus

must

adjustment only, and

should

be

mentioned

employed until the

the cover-glass a
and

front lens

contact

be

be

can

"

little flash of

oil

ir;

fact

that

light quite visible

specimen ; but further lowering

be entirely effectedby tJie use
of tli.
slowly indeed.
gently and
very
very
at

the

(when oil

is put

on

to

the

cover

and

to

It

the

ZEISS

24O
details
this

have

we

"OBJECTIVE-CHANGERS"

suggested, but

of trouble, we

source

invented

their

have

to attain

already

to

it,and

in fact to

mentioned

sliding objective-changer

remove

Carl Zeiss

have

simple arrangement
the purpose
most
answers
excellently(see Fig. 139).
To prepare a battery of objectivesrequiresa littleconsideration.
Before commencing
should
to do so
mention
that the slides
we
"

which

consist

of

the former

portions the ta"?-slide and

(a,Fig. 139) being permanently

two

SLIDING

Fig- 139."
",

tube-slide;

the

"

OBJECTIVE-CHANGER

with
b. objective-slide

objectivc-s\\"t"

screwed

to

the

nose-

(/////

objectiveattached

; c, in section.

of the latter (b, Fig. 139) permanently attached

piece,and one
to each
objective.
that all the battery
is needed
have
As we
so
said, a little care
shall

be

perfect alignment.
plan is easilylearnt and
in

To
is

do

this

effectivelythe

thoroughly effective.

lowing
follow-

being placed in the draw-tube, the highest-power

is first screwed
immersion
lens of the battery
,Vin.
an
say
that
in the ordinary way
to the nosepiece of the instrument
on
of an
''limit the intervention
adapter or fittingof any kind.
r

ocular

"

"

TO

HOW

"

"

ALIGN

OF

BATTERY

OBJECTIVES

241

we
large and well-defined circular diatom, such as the one
the
Aulacodiscus
Brunii"
for
the purpose
usuallyuse ourselves
until it is in the
the stage, and
is then placed on
fidgeted about
No
oil need
be used
of the field and
centre
roughly in focus.
between
the condenser
the objectiveand
and
between
or
cover,
slip,as the best definition is not required just to place the diatom
the subto close
as
nearly central as possible. It is advisable

"

stage iris

sensible

hidden

missed, being

and

full aperture
laid

and
either

the

apparatus

that
the

affixingto

which,

tube

the

or

in

of

the

lens

is

The

thereto

not

for the

such

with

unscrewed

now

touch

to

/^^-slide

in

of

is in the
most
opening to receive the objective-slide,
is now
screwed
on
position. The
oftjecttve-s\ifa
and
slides united
the two
objectiveitself,
by slipping one
other.

probably
field.
the

be

To

few

effect

diatom

the

found
make

to

be

it do

no
so

is focussed

or
applied to one
b, Fig. 139, forming part

in

once

of

both
of

the

made
portions of a turn are
produced. The
objective should

turns

is

understand

the
the

until it is made
the

desired

rationale

of

the

to

into
it will

more,

what

be

quite certain

situation.
has

the

little

until

the

desired

slid

off

and

that

It is well

taken

screws

and
objective-slide,

or

again several times

always appears in

venient
con-

longer occupying the centre of the

the
little watch-key supplied with

is

apparatus

shown
a

When

of
that

manner

the

purpose

the

the

be

may

definition

this

implies,is

name

is attached

"

specimen

doing

stage.

its

as

The

taken

being

care

the

fluffystate

oil contact.

specimen
"

the

by

no

aside,

otherwise

amount,

place.

the

on

now

object
just to

The

idea

of

adapter of
diatom
to place the
was
actually in the optical axis
any kind
of the objective. After
the sliders were
the subsequent
united
and
adjustments with the little screws
watch-key were
merely
carried
lens to its original position. This
the
out
to
restore
its best possibleperformance.
ensures
The
lower
now
(each in their own
adapters) should
powers
be centred
the
after the other
is easily
one
on
diatom, which
effected by screwing an objectiveslide on
and
to each
adjusting
with
the
observe
It is needless
to
watch-key in succession.
putting

the diatom
manner

that any

objective on

must

not

be

to

the

touched, or

instrument

the stage

without

interferedwith

during the entire operations. It is very

object placed centrallyin the field with

evident
the

low
16

in any
now

power

GREAT

242
will

be

central

can

be

understood

USE

when

it is
all the

given are much

greater precision than if
the everyday use
of the
find

to

that

in

centring of the
for the

changers

no

shall

or

three

is manifest

in

do

by the

more

objectivesof the

it is essential,to

the

be

not

focal

same

length have

that
thing fairly,

the

all

suitable

upset

of these
If

in

and

second

one.

far

time

another

to

the mirror

accuracy

than

ways

saving of

immediately

the

employing

afforded

of

kinds

Moreover,

use.

objective

one

it

with

and

out

great

hence

one,

of different

in

adjustment

and

first combination,

changers

from

changing

convenience

higher

were

it is

instrument

condenser

the

to

previous directions
more
easily carried

require readjustment when

The

ALIGNMENT

changed

have

we

OF

objective-

supposing two
to be compared,
part of the

same

of the illumination)
refinement
specimen (and consequently the same
be employed
should
with
each.
this can
Now
only be
done
as
expeditiously in the manner
just related, taking one
the
here

be said

first

screwing

shall admit
each

lens is

and

the

setting the others

and

standard

they

can

one

on

be

as

to

well

the

and

But

the

then

only if

this is sometimes
same,

exactlythe

the
the

If it

it.

other, by

against the

tried,one

is true, but

is that

consequence

alignment with

nosepiece

that the argument

exactlysimilar.

in

other, we

centring of

not

the

same,

case,

portion

specimen is not in the field of view on each occasion.

of this is that when
The
this original
secondary consequence
be
found
not
to be
position is obtained, the light will now
be made
to
over
exactly central, and all the adjustments have
of

the

again
trouble
the

same

to

compare

one

combination

fairlywith

the

This

others.

prevented by first aligning the different objectives to

have
centre
we
as
suggested. Of course, if one
ticular
parof
combination
position to
requires a very large change
is

adjusting-screws before it is centred

to the same
alignment as the rest, it is possibly best to examine
that one
separately,by placing it directlyon to the nosepiece ;
often happen.
but this does
not
afforded
the great comfort
Then
by the use of these chai
which
with
a
is manifest
in another
namely by the case
way,
low power,
with
be run
a
over
spot requiring
any
specimen may
be

effected

the

aid of the

by

more

the

little

powerful

being readilyexamined
objectives,no adjustments of any

combination

simply by the interchange of

kind
being further required

save

that

of

altering the

WATSON'S
Similar

CHANGERS
of examination

ease

revolving nosepiece, as
in

the

and

one

opticiansassure
the

on

fault

they
other

mostly

manufacture

can

adjustment

of

with

such

of

almost

the

obtained
for

with

the

tives
setting objecthat

aware

some

surely they forget

actual

of

the

that

combination
of

amount

accurate

special

some

the

means

provided.
low

only

are

this

primary

uncalled

243

nosepieces are perfect in this way,

so
exactly that one
objectivewill

quite truly ; but

amateurs,

many

not

is

there

When

their

mounting
in the
no
nosepiece, which
unless
possibly correct

occurs

than

itself rather

be

provided
alignment. We
are

made

in

POWERS

is

means

same

are

LOW

rarely

can

no

that

us

assertingthat
follow

FOR

for in most

battery,as
of

Under
be

may

each

indeed, the

cases.

Zeiss

the

centring

exact

importance

objective changers of

in

powers

these

found

objective
refinement

is
is

conditions

trifle

obtains

the

cumbersome,

Fig. 140.
and

perhaps

offer

other
in

better

than

disadvantage

especiallywhen
"

changer

made

and

is

in

to

changer,

and

be

causes

to

It
in

for

size,however, is

To
the

as
use

it is very

inversion

end
pence,

truly that
140.
and

with

it has

simple.

downwards

the

of

movement

to

of
to

tube,

efficacious

the

nosepiece,
the objective
"

attach
seem

used

given

to the

The

the

on

to
to

each
leave

"Facility" Objectivehave

We

powers

objectives,Messrs.

it would

the

suitable

not

it interferes

is fixed

few

is called

Fig.

heavily

screw

To

although commonly

exceedingly

an

the

grip

ring, sold
firmly and so

desired.

microscope,

its slides.

as

price.

in

different

the

four

not

This

magnalium.

is shown

weighing

introduced

low-power instrument,
Its

so

of

three, if

little

"

nothing

of

have

constructed

so

combination

on

filled with

Sons

protected by

time

rapidly changing
rotating nosepiece, which

the

the

Watson

of

means

by

has

use

costly, although lately reduced

too

one
us

for

every

Continental
of the

some

faction.
satismodel
tube

in

turning of the handle

pair of jaws having a

WHAT

244

TO

screw-thread

cut

aperture, and
carried

DO

WITH

upon

them.

directly the

back

their

to

natural

THE

EYE

NOT

varieties

with

objective is placed in the

is released
handle
A
the jaws are
position by the action of a boxed

of sizes,within

objective threads,

USE

The

their threads
spring, in doing which
engage
and
it
the
shoulder.
objective
carry
up to
the

IN

it has

very

small

been

found

the

threads

In

of the
of

consequence

limits,that
desirable

still

prevail

supply the
to screw
to the objectives,these
rings mentioned
having threads
of an
absolute
will be gripped by the jaws of the
which
gauge
nosepiece with certainty.
Before
be
quitting this part of our subject a few words
may
said with respect to the way
of using the eyes.
Of course,
only
be employed
with the ordinary instrument
one
can
at a time,
follows

and

what

the

other.

This

muscles, as

refers

especiallyas

more

should

be

never

closed

[strain thereby effected

is

what

to

up

to

do

to

tightly by

its

own

spoil the

to

apt

very

with

Fig. 141.

perceptivefaculty of
be

used

this

shut

to

be

cannot

touch

or

close

It is best

it.

the

off

eye

addition, should

try

by the

objectseen

similarity in the
same

to

make

eye in

focussing

it open

It is best,

doing
By

this

brought

the

so

if it

as

If,however, the observer

moment.

the hand
if

; but

only shade, and not

that, although it is prevented

it turn

is

keep

to

shut.

use.

should

should

when

but

so

kept

not

learn

hand

duty,

Neither

use.

to

acquired, the

seeing anything, it is
said, to keep it open
the

in

the eye

means

about

we

have

observer, in

were

lookii

an

unconscious

at

lets his

as

and

one
"

the

off-duty

focussing is not effected, and

be
it may
be that a certain
kind of diplopia (double sight)may
is very
which
unpleasant; for
brought about by this means,
the
effect is that the observer, after
leaving the microscope,
simply

become

apparently
For

those

arrangement

sees

unable

blank, then

double,
to

is made

learn
to

this

perhaps, for

even,
to

fix

do
on

what
to

we

the

an

have

hour

aftcrv,

said, a

draw-tube

that

neat

little

holds

shield, effectuallycutting

small
in

Some

use.

of

users

the

off

"the

circular

shuts

microscope, and the other

It is usually made
eye.

the

Position

The

of
If
with
end
of

the

such

If

slip.

as

Brunii

placed

so

as

centre

of

the

to

in

slip
only

need

measures

taken

be

and

and
I

the

Method

marked

in. from

centre

diatom,

the

it,and

will

diatom

either

the

circular

to

the

approximately

for

the

called

with

diatom

show

fashion.

convenient

more

the

disengaged

its centre

be

on

dot, then

the

cover

it

size draw-tube.

may

burnt

in
of

sizes,one

exactly

This

side.

the

as

Stage

taken

be

should

has

part

from

Occupy

Circular

cover-glass be

this

parts,

draw-tube

two

English

Centring

Aulacodiscus

an

vulcanite, in

should

either

in. from

and

the

light

out

for the

dot

not

eye

two

one

over

Verniers

ink, this

of

dot

the

of

of

consists

middle

ordinary glassslipbe

i-in.

in

other

the

and

Continental,

It

slides

which

aperture,

seeing"

245

microscope regularly employ

ingenious little piece of apparatus.

in Fig. 141, jointed in the
shown
a

STAGE

CIRCULAR

CENTRING

VERNIERS:

the

All

these

correct.

"

a
square-shaped movable
centring slip upon
Placing this
in
of the ordinary milled-headed
screws
by the use
stage and
of the field
such
a
occupies the centre
position that the diatom
low
of view
when
power) and a x 4
using a J-in. (or other
are
fairlywell located,
ocular, it will be found, if the verniers
of their
their
length. For
midway
readings will be about
"

if

example,

be

one

readings should
from

much
the
used

with

the

verniers

if not
this

both,
we

be

the

low

the

diatom

one

be

slip having
will

not

will

be

the

stage is shifted far

well

placed, a
and
is

other

the

and

approximately

should

mean

long

mm.

the

returned
two

able

be

beyond

to

the

be

were

of

one

as

the

of

exactly

in

the

centre

of

both
of

when

the

the

covers,

graduations.

readings will be at an end

Providing the verniers
enough.
be used
should
now
high power
readings

very

it, in all probability

scale

exact

the

example,

makers, because

used,

reach

for

"

upon

covers

then

mm.,

they differ

the

to

40

If

"

figures,supposing they

these

instrument

60

verniers

field,a

before
are

By
the

ably
reason-

instead

taken
note

of

when

being

made

centring slide,with

the

on

which

to

at

now

the

the top

on

STAGE
additional

some

be

to

right-hand

in the

time

any

field of view

the

in

correctly recorded

having by
the

fault

the

occurred

centring

it proves

does

bearings of

its recorded

figures,by

means

the

that

central
of

accident
should

previous

mistake
the

or

in

contrary,

of the

centre

field,

other

has

codiscus
right,the aula-

matters

the field,according tp

in

the

the

on

no

some

accident

set

same

enquire

the

if,on

the

some

To

If

case

from

into

come

To

aulacodiscus

; but

themselves

verniers

is the

placed

it.

the

arisen

the stage.
made

be

upon

question

not

first be

should

which

in

unmistakably

most

upset the

after

evidently has

diatom

such

or, what

should

course

fails to

positions
the centralityof the

field,in which

the

of

the slide

upon

of

stage

centre

appear

the notation
the

the

"

failingto

"

vernier

seen

accidentallyslipped.

have

position as recorded

to

the

in

appear
"

we

particular

any

course,

upset,

centring slide

"

the

be

to

from

arise

been

means

must

stage in its proper

has

method

set

on

desired

provided, of

"

it must

"

some

thing, the verniers

into

as

stage.

is the

corner

position marked

recorded

previously

appear

stage

the

on

future, after having

slide,the specialposition of interest

were

placed

indication

ourselves.

employ
If

future

it is in the

way

capital letter

to

CIRCULAR

CENTRING

246

ordinary stage

should

screws,

released

be

from

that retain
them
screws
bearings by undoing the minute
situ.
A slightenlargement of the little holes through which

their
in

minute

the

figures noted

the

again be

once

With
has

to

around

be

circular
taken

the

the

field.

comes

from

the

the

highest of
revolving m"
and

into

the

slides

on

maker

the

set

according

This

done, the
will

containing specimens

tJic specimen shall

of

stand

the

diatom

all.

watched.

low

the

in

revolving

the

"

should
field
power

be

by
and

placed

the

it

on

ordin,.
then

with
or

"

about

Revolution
If

whilst

motion

description,directly

of the

battery, taking
cd at

this

centre

first with

additional

remain

centring slide

the

an

; it is that

consideration

with

screws,

the

read

more

once

centring slide."

"

be

to

correct.

adjusted to

milled-hcadcd

graduations

revolving stage, however,

Hence

the

the

verniers

on

optical axis

stage and

rr.dde

the

positionsof interest

recorded
now

that

so

enable

will

pass

aggin,

correct
to

screws

"

no

travel"

the

axis

is then

of

the

diatom

CENTRING

248

CIRCULAR

adjustment, through

the

of the

one

if two

two,

one

other, the situation of the

its

position,but
and

When

not

used, being

more

requires

turned

arrow-head

fresh

adjustment

be

must

than

or

the

frequently change

alteration

no

enough,

in

the

method

of

mentally pictured

each

made.

should
be used,
be, a higher power
perfect as can
finallythe highest of the battery. It should be mentioned

and

that

as

with

smooth

regular except

allowance

AMOUWT

Or

Tf?ltD

BE

must

OF

in

ADjuSTinCj

IN

BY

be

finest

for

of

grease

or

"

the

PLACED

appear
and

unexpected

AGAIN

OF

FIELD

OffOiriARY

BY

STAGE

SCREW*

Frews

Fig. 144.

presence

not

instruments,

made

CENTRE

THE

SPECIAL.
sc

the

will

motion

DIATOM

FIR6T

THE

the

then

even

9HIFTTO
AT

MEANS

magnification

great

and

certain

Fig

145.

exceedingly small piecesof foreignmatter

the like

making

it

apparently jump

"

thickened

little until

they

removed.

are

In
be

the

numbering
for

made

letter R

the

the

it is

so

they apply.
and

down

be

we

have
at

to

be

Thus
must

able

be

as

have

we

the
placed on
its position on

top
the

out

before, always

the

and

that

top

differentiate

placed

the

the vernier

means

at

of

the

always

suggested,
right-hand
stage

pointed
to

-3

should

cabinet, room

readings, and,

always

vernier

one
as

for the

slip to indicate

convenient,

reading of

slides

vernier

should

of each

corner

up

turned

in ttiefield may

arc

The

treatment.

time

this

being

screw

were

STAGE

to

put

other

verniers

to

moving

the

30-45, whilst

that

; and

the

neath,
underwhich

recording

READINGS

VERNIER
is to

motion

horizontal

suggestion because
in an
irregularmanner
in

microscopists

just the

in

their

have

"

verniers

being

vernier

in another

reverse

this

repeated

using

the

of

reading

one

"

have

most
upper-

led

them

So
recording stages to be of no service.
if
with placing the R
:
always at the top right-hand corner
future
be not
at some
always done, it is impossible to know

too

this

which

date

the

the

way

the

Reading

by

We

25-10.

mechanical

think

to

at

set

many

and

case

one

be

249

Verniers.

of

name

the

record

to

motion

indicate

scales,a long

of two

and

framework,

the

the

hold

along

of

edge

attached

in

"

the

the

side

to

side.1

point

fact

smaller

is

whilst

engraved

it

upon

the

of

division

simple

each

smaller

the

the

Each

one

consists

portion
to

contrary
of

both

of
of

division

the

of

some

frames

should

that

it slides
be

within

distance

scale

vernier)

equal

long

In

one.

to

has

exactly

this

then

that

called

mostly

one-tenth

this lies the

divisions
; but

mm.

It is obvious
is

in

nowadays

portion

(which

is

length,is graduated

commonly

equal divisions.

the

the

in

mm.

movable

or

smaller

the

name

for

only

into ten

space is divided
each

field of view, the

arranged that

so

microscopist.
The
longer scale,usually about 50
length, more
throughout its entire
millimetres,

one

the

sight of

easy

to

scale, and

greater

1630.
being to

immovable
on

matician,
mathe-

about

in

some

known

French

seen

to

of

of

somewhere

affixed

one

The

specimen.

the

as

from

short

stage.

usually two,

are

down

one

is movable

part that

flourished

movement

the

on

ingenious arrangement

there

and

up

placed

the invention

who

microscope stage
the

other

The
was

Vernier,

be

to

"

Vernier

Peter
In

has

slide

less

by
than

principleof

the

arrangement.
In order

to

for certain

the

that

and
called

the

this
1

We

5.

Sometimes

stage

the

of

the

4 and

it is evident

position taken
about

of

next

up

the

divisions

vernier.
this

on

zero

the

In

into
is

marked

"taking

; let for

ten

ascertain

equal parts,
o.

This

position"
example it lie as

greater scale.

We

write

is
we

in

down

position,although greater than 4, is

much
proceed to find out how
greater
reallyis,and consequently
by the zero
the

third is added

opticalaxis.

is divided

mm.

position of

Fig. 146, between

less than

of

first line

zero"

4, because

given position of the vernier, we

scale

the

"the

first note

read

to

indicate

the

amount

of revolution

of the

VERNIER

250
how

much

more

READINGS
add

must

we

the

to

make

to

the

reading

correct.

To

do

reaches

this the

eye

division

that will

is

"

the vernier

"

along

run

scale

until

it

correspond in alignment exactlywith

the fixed scale.
one
on
This we
in Fig. 146 occurs
see
the
at
division
the
of
scale
in
eighth
qu.estion; for there the line appears
to be exactly continuous
with the twelfth division of the greater
scale

of

millimetres.

the smaller
have

we

scale

vernier

is

this distance

equal

one-tenth

the amount

to

each

less

than

be added

the correct

the

to

of

the

each

of

reading 4-8.

THE
12"

the

of

(because

the

greater),so
is

of

smaller
learn

we

simply "8,which

reading happened

have

to

SCALE

FbRTION, USUALLY
THE
VERNIER

CALLED

WITH

divisions

If the

MOVABLE

SHOWING

eighth division
millimetre

prime figure4

FIXED

VERNIER

the

at

eight-tenthsof

to

already shown

was

makes

As

8"

DIVISION

SO

AND

COINCIDENT

READING

4'8.

Fig. 146.
shown

the

eighth, was
scale,then
the

in

alignment
have

would
have

been

alignment
should

we

4*6 and

of between

written

in the
found

been

with
we

that

should
So

far

"

in

place of
have

of the
have

the

so

on.

Should

and

and

occurred

only

added
to

the

if the

*i, the

understand

the

correct

in

zero

would

first division

it

were

one

reading
the figure
scale

have

of

been

but

the

case

as

may

had

scale

one

line,

continuous

reading appearing

fixed

whereas, if

subsequent alignment

the
as

the

figure o

the

at

the

"3 to

of

the

of

of the free millimetre

5, then

4;

division

sixth, then

other, making

it is easy

o*r.

arise

"

scope
using the stage verniers of the microthat
having noted the prime figure,a"
unple the
cannot
the previous argument,
we
subsequently find any
it often

indeed

to

4 and

other

some

at

scale, instead

vernier

only added

resting between

instead

the

with

have

been

had

been

of

division

third

docs

when

VERNIER
that

scales
there

as
seen

marking
the

251

the
reallyactually in alignment between
The
vernier
reading 8 is
represented in Fig. 147.
in advance
of the twelfth divisional
to be just as much

divisions

two

READINGS

fixed

the

on

are

of

thirteenth

scale

the

the ninth

as

fixed

of the

then

Seeing

one.

movable

is behind

the

advance

in

half a tenth or
question really means
"'S millimetre, so we
-%-$" or
the
to the reading,
difficultyby adding that amount
get over
The
of
scales
will not
readily admit
making it finally4*85.
finer

although
differentiating,

between

'025, -05, and

required

never

however,
be

can

in

such

the

read

to

of

inches,

instruments

for

example

the standard

BEYOND

THE

BEHIND,

understood,

desired,

so

third

usually find

we

DIVISION
12".

READS

I3TH

the

to

is

of

place

obtains

in

barometer.

8TH

THE

be

verniers, when

course

quite conveniently

as

as

DISTANCE
IS

of

refinement

should

It

distinguish

may

realitysuch

in

microscope.

SHOWING

VERNIER

practised eye

'075 ; but

passing, that

made

decimals

with

the

ABOUT

AS

THE

EQUAL

9"

DIVISION

4'85.

Fig. 147.
It

take
set
at

remains

now

up
them

be

4-8 is T8o of

millimetre

divisions

the

in

this line meets

requires

set
more

"05 further.

with

the

to

it be

desired

to

until
the

its

to

thing required

be 4'8, it is evident
4,

the

to

nearer

the

graduation, move

shift in the

to

first graduation

4*85, we

To

do

recognise that the

still,
so

movement

this

we

count

the

that

gently

turn

the
the

zero

whole

direction

scale,

great

vernier
shall

stage

smaller

the

required
on

screw

the

5, because

Accordingly we
(that is to say the

it in

are

rests

zero

4*00.

scale

upon

verniers

alignment. This is the line 12 as

Supposing, however, that the figureswe

set

Fig. 146.

vernier

eye

the vernier

causes

we

vernier

vernier

numerals

than

more

the

on

one), and, fixing

to which

the

the

set

scale, and

passed along beyond the

stage, which

the

fixed

the

to

simplicity let

along

Should, however,

must

until

For

slide

We

at 4'OO.

is done.

eight

explained how

given reading.

required figureon

the

zero

be

to

indicated
wish

the

scale

yet

be

shifted
a

trifle,

READINGS

VERNIER

252

about

;on

object

for

centre

of

field

of

view

of

field

is

screws,
tear,

so

that

the

reason

so

that,

r.

the

course

already

should

:"

readings
the
been

of

out

on

stage

be
the

was

explained

is

of

stages

"r-set

how

should

ocular,

in

the

147).

The

lie

now

provided

object

in

the

central

this

the

figures

once

the

more

the

effected.

stage

the

slide

provided

time

they

of

were

made.

centring
and

wear

When

service,

shall

was

with

axis.

of

centre

itself

through

optic
be

the

the

eccentric

with

at

is

are

become

alignment

that

upon

make

in

appear

is

record

first-class

will

to

It

the

plate

upper

specimen
truly

"

necessary.

since

centre

the

for

that

thing

another

shifted

ivc

This

view

distance

same

(Fig.

taken,

the

twelfth

given.1

mention
the

in

the

thirteenth

are

the

over

about

say

the

readings

correctly

re

to

behind

is

the

which

fun

is

that

advance

"

division

the

the

make

to

much

as

ninth

1C

fact

in

enough

this

provided

taken.

It

is
of

has

XI

CHAPTER
THE

MICROSCOPE

BINOCULAR

VISION

STEREOSCOPIC

where

between

provided with

is

each

whilst

eye"
this

By
about

to

it is

arrangement

be

described

about

inch

an

ordinary book-shelf.
is usually printed must
his

line with
eye

will

eyes

just be

now

the

right eye
and

mind

of

face

able

to

observer

the

effect of

photographs,

depth
each

viewed

fact, the

union

dimension

and

that
one

the

by

thin

theory

book, say

placed

where
be

of

side

the

upon

fact upon

in

the

in

Each

book, the

the

left one.

an

title
exact

an

in. therefrom.

18

is

from

we

of

impression

behind

vivid, distinct

the

and

"

in

the

different
the

say
other

of

these

different

two

produced

speak

details

blending

from

through

mental

that lie

the

to

volume

different

the left eye

right side,and

question, although taken

same

the

of, say,

see

Let

observer, and

the

distance

stereoscopicvision,"

it does

as

of

manner

both

When

looks
to be
simultaneously employed, the book
very
decided
in
the
confusion
to have
a
depth, no
arising

are

solid

at

nose

back

The

the

in

five in width, be

thereon

table, standing upright

as

follows

as

and

thickness

in

"

for

one

one.

simply, according
is

is that

"

"

by Wheatstone,

propounded

difference

oculars)

two

only provided with

possibleto produce

explained briefly and

which,

Fig. 148,

microscope

(and

the effect known

"

in

leading

is

latter

the

tubes

two

the

seen

Monocular

the

and

Binocular

the

the former

is illustrated

ordinary form of this instrument

inspection it will be
by mere

THE

AND

standpoints.

of

vantage,

instrument.

in the

photograph

unequivocal
253

suggestion

appear

to
manner

do

The
two

taneously
simul-

are

Here, in point of

produces such
and

where

stereoscope,

point

in

images

two

so

and

strong
to

as

of

in such

that

no

the

nounced
pro-

depth

landscape
a

"

marked

possibility

254

Swift's

Binocular.

which

instrument

*.hc

to

in any

way,

deviated

the

two

of

the

The

left-

interfered

with

rigJittube

and

or

into

little consideration

But

observer.

the

d, after

c,

observer.

the

uninterruptedly

passes
of

of

eye

is not

however,

b,

a,

through the left tube

thence

corresponding

right eye

the

to

but

figure as

the

and

body

half of the cone,

hand

in

shown

as

passes,

reflections ii.to the

so

BINOCULAR

ZEISS

256

is

of rays
right-hand half of the cone
travel
those beams
proceeding to the left eye of the observer
much
a
longer distance than those of the opposite side ; hence it
is obvious
the image formed
magnified of the
by them is the more

sufficient to show

the

that

"

"

To

two.

magnifying

the

less than

be

this

correct

that of the

left

images are
nearly so.

be

To

is usual

When

using both
(See Hints,

by

of the

means

adjustment should
caused

be

the eyes

to

of

end

milled

the

images leave something

be

used

short

different form

right

and

small

to

differences

eyepieces are raised

(see Fig. 148). This

out,

suitable

to be

tube

in

as

we

fatigue is

some

of binocular.

informed

To

unless
then

the

can

prism

this difficulty

meet

such

for

even

times, quite

in pre-war

with

form

inch,

an

Neither

made

It met

ordinary

half

are

desired.

Zeiss

its

about

instrument.

rccnough suggested, and

a

to

neglected.

is not

prism

the

the

head

objectivesof shorter focal length than

for the purpose
speciallymade
; but
on

the

made

Chapter XVIII.)

carefullycarried

if it be

Wenham

The

find

to

however,

eyes,

adjust for inter-pupilarydistance

lowered

or

right. It

images,

quite of equal merit, although they ought

not

noticeable.

not

are

power

inequality of amplification in the

of the left eyepiece is purposely

good reception

them.
make
opticians now
In this arrangement
it will be seen
by consulting Fig. 150
stereoscopicvision is obtained, not by a division of the pencils
of light(one going to the right eye
and
the other to the left)

American

.lishand

through

ng

of two
in tl

each
,

of

of

tnce
"

fixed

to
(

it,rr.

or

its

ach

lowered

same

rotating these

as
an

style
the

as

of oculars

the

different

obtains

in

suit

to

microse
the

an

objcctirc. Instead

oivn

itic binoculars

By

by

different observers

nlina;

known.

having

being raised

pupi

bination
ingenious commicroscopes which are complete

tioned

ju

"

Me

single objective,but

intcr-

usual

the

erecting Porro
that

supplied

for field purposes

change

for

in

now

the
so

inter-pupilary

BINOCULAR

ZEISS

257

readilyeffected. The microscopes are simultaneously

raised or lowered
rackwork, a fine
by the use of a single coarse
adjustment not being required.
be raised more
The
cannot
magnificationby this arrangement
in our
than about
opinion is quite sufficient
70 diameters, which
is

distance

for

stereoscopiceffects.

all

We

should

phragms are also supplied beneath

the results.
perfecting
Seeing that Wenham's
prism, as
stated
that

not

to be

suitable

observers

for

high

the

mention

stage

we

powers

have
in

certain

which

dia-

assist

in

already said, is

its usual

form,

performance of
focal length,Professor
that form
made
for objectives of short
Abbe
designed a special kind of stereoscopic eyepiece that
of the monocular
is
drops into the draw-tube
microscope, which
itself lowered
the tube-length the correct
to make
sufficiently
amount

some

for which

the

are

not

content

with

the

and

objectiveis computed.
17

ABBE'S

258
The

is shown

eyepiece
be

will

It

STEREOSCOPIC

pencilof rays
producing two

in

seen

in
the

EYEPIECE

Fig. 151.
illustration

that

the

two

*OI

mm.

of

the

emerging from the objective for the purpose of

is effected at the
end
separate images
upper
"

"

by partialreflection at a thin stratum

opposed glass prisms. This air space

of the tube
the

division

One

thick.

of

set

rays

passes

of air between
is

now

made

straight through the

Fig. 151.
Abbe's

StereoscopicEyepiece (two-thirdsfull size),

are
incorrectlydrawn.)

(The lenses in the eyepiece B

b and

prisms
other
passes

reflected
into

to

a
on

form

image in
the hypotenuse of

the ocular

B,

an

which

the
the

is inclined

ocular, whilst

the

rectangular prism b'

at an
angle of 13" to

To

adjust the eyepieces for intcris provided.

In order
D
ocular distance, the screw
to obtain
to give equal
perfectvision the two oculars must be constructed
the

axis

definition

of

the

and

microscope.

magnification,

so

to

fulfilthese

conditions

are

made

STEREOSCOPIC

ABBE'S
ocular
differently,

length of 45

whilst

mm.,

similar

focal

Abbe's

views

that

length.1
2

to

inner

the

is

It

cover

up
are

is of

stereoscopicprojectionthe observer

of

the

diaphragms
The

this

day

above

to have

of

Firm

struggled

have

to

see

to

This

the

eyepiece can

is

halves

outer

vision

the

so,

be

with

do

ingenious

to

one

faintest

for

used

for

at

not

was

double

image

of air above

all well
the

in

mentioned

entirelyremoved,

upon

the

one

the
the
of

for
of

high

it

powers,

optical reasons

have

the

the

second

but
cannot

not

the

present

kindness

sensible

was

of

ingenious

most

Through

ghost

removal
of

reader

examine

and

microscope

entire

the

probably because

oculars

out

been

appliances.

had

do

has

it leads

as

"

to

modern

compensating

as

the

uses

pseudoscopic

stratum

advance"

great

stated

we

entirelyfailed
The

arranged

occulted, consequently

only

brought

works

recent

nothing

convenient
the

be

must

two

instruments, however, by reducing

objection

this

notice

objection

the

In the recent

regret that

to

is

objectionable

an

from

thickness, the

in

failed

of
arose

thick.

too

much

we

which

first

when

account

on

eyepiece B,
being

ocular, hence

These

for

; whilst

each

Professor

placed in exactly the opposite position,the inner

beams
being alone employed.

arrangement

received

of

of

form

out

carry

focal

are

of the

halves

ocular

of each

of

Ramsden

to

beam

each

for

rays

the

necessary

portions
provided.

portion of

259

ordinary Huyghenian

an

ocular

diaphragms

half-moon
so

being

EYEPIECE

and
of

time, and

image,

but

there !

achromats
be

only,

provided.

of

of the
equalising the magnifying power
but inside
eyepieces,as the focus
objectivelies outside the Ramsden
the Huyghenian.
in
The
lenses
Fig. 151 are incorrectly drawn.
2
Professor
Abbe's
theory of stereoscopic projection in the microscope
(for which the reader should consult his originalpapers, scattered, it is true,
and
somewhat
difficult to find upon
the
view
here
subject)is not the
of obtaining stereoscopic
referred to at all. This only relates to his method
vision with the microscope, and
his departure is merely that, instead
of
he
divides
it in a very
dividing the light at the back of the objective itself,
similar manner
in the image at the back of the eyepiece instead,z". at the
Ramsden
circle.
in
as
Opticallyspeaking the effectis absolutely the same
Wenham
where
the usual binocular microscope,
the
prism is used.
3
If an
ordinal
the table, were
like
"a
it
ily
a
s
on
object
jelly,"
appears
under
observation, the stereoscopicprojection gives to it depth, and it is
the dish ; pseudoscopic vision is the reverse,
when
it
to stand
seen
on
up
if indeed
sunken
and receding, as
the jellymould
to the eye
were
appears
an

way
of the

"

being looked

at

instead.

"

POWELL

26o

"

should

We

in

both

using

BINOCULAR

before

mention,
certain

by

LEALAND'S

although

instead

eyes

of

Lealand

to

which,
in

only

in

same

into

"

is

present

we

with

employed

Fig.
of

the

of

whilst

glass

the

It

is

beams
;

the

beam,

by the

Abbe's

of

use

but

most,

it is

other
at

the

be

can

short

shown

to

in

Part

one

eye,

it passes

being

into

totally

the

said,

of

which

of

moment

to

of

the
each

becomes

be

produced

just spoken.
have

arrangements

going

by

in

vision,"
well

the

used

are

have

we

of

halves

portions

equally

can

inter-

distance

inner

this

the

ocular

such

can

using

outer

pseudoscopic

"

effect

when

each

binocular

new

it

off

the

altering

by

diaphragms,

times

pre-war

devised,

press,

been
for

are

the

unobtainable.

time

A
the

This,

is

parallel-sided

arranging

that

employ

to

as

this

this.

stereoscopic

so

from

effect, called

reverse

apparent.

once

In

so

the

adjacent,

the

merely

that

it

of

simply

produced

coming

moreover,

direction

opposite

at

and,

is

of

other.

distance

pupilary

double-

effect

is

prism

reflected

that

said

by

prism

eye

the

"

that

througJi

prism

binocular

whether

upon

passes

immediately

be

the

action

portion

to

The

falls

right-angled

reflected

Fig. 152.

its

light that

plate

the

length.

and

152,

used

and

objective

any

focal

long

or

and

peculiarity

informed,

are

prism

carrier

stereoscopic

no

"

of

called

The

that

Powell

the

be

may

"

form

converts

what

rienced
expe-

by all

Messrs.

Wenham

instrument.

arrangement

comfort

special

manner,

microscope
visioned

led

one,

the

the

recognised

not

construct

placed

the

that

concluding,

observers"

PRISM

very
"

fine

Bicor,"

entire

by Watson

existing stands.

See

instrument
"
Addenda

Sons,

by Beck
be

can

for

some

is worth

arranged

attention;
to

fit

on

and
some

interesting information.

XII

CHAPTER

WITH

OBJECTS

MEASURING

UNIT

THE

AND

THE

MICROSCOPE

MEASUREMENT

OF

USED

BY

for

scientific

MICROSCOPISTS
IT

for

diatom,

These

the

obtain

to

purposes
as

in

objects, being
do

certain

of

amount

minute

extremely

the

example,
the

taxes

The

in

of
of

have

the

instrument

is

placed

be

in the

is

with

the

In

speaking

unmindful
Mr.

object

of

J.

W.

an

of

be

this

Gordon,

of
"

utmost

new

the

full account

of

light
"

the

is

by the

which
as,

for

of

use

(Fig. 153), which

are

viewed

usually

of which

is

that

simultaneously
which

employed,

given

It may

by saying

purpose

lenses

form

we

distinctly original arrangement

261

when

operation

ordinary ocular.

through

instrument
and

but

Micrometer.

wires

measured,

paratively
com-

extent.

measures

present

two

view

pellucida
the

bacillus.

some

wave-lengths

of the

the

which

as

entirely

attained

measured,

these

out

for

by
to

be

to

instead

draw-tube

contrivance

been

Spider-line

"

of

such

"

difficulty after

Spider-line Micrometer

sufficientlydescribed

such

by

called

the

much

very

to

operator

carrying

like

organism

Amphipleura

Fig. 153.
an

so

has

with

dots

given object

microscopist's point

offer

details

powers

method

the

required
of

minute

practice

commensurate

even

of

or

not

is

it

dimensions

exact

example,

large,

are

that

infrequently happens

not

in the

Addenda.

part
are

not

devised

MEASURING

262

of the

when
the

"

the

wire

inch,

divided

of which

circumference

the

divisions, for
the

he

the apparatus,
so, he

proceeds
the

to

on

of the
how

in focus

are

avoid

as

it is

comb

the

This

lens

in

understand

to

all that

at

into the

with

so

comb

of the

notches

been

readings
that have

through

and,

if not

of

detail

which

are

counting
by the

over

instrument

; but

mentioned,

not

the moment.

readily understood

fixed

to

as

arrange

wire

shall

enclose

which

over

is to

object,whilst

the

the

to

be

of

revolution

they

micron, whichever
threads

or

wires

to

obtained

the screw,
be

must

the

subsequently added

figures thus

so

are

that

to

into

those

is desired.

This

reduced

of

the
lie

the

other.

micrometer

Originallythey were
ingly fine cobwebs.
hence
threads procurable ;
the originof

are

made

the

term

micrometer

apparently

has

of

the

object represents
whilst

screw,

make

them

the

in

of

excess

ment.
measure-

terms

of

practical

implies

reallyconstructed
the

the

inch, millimetre,

conversion

in

is

travelled

complete the
necessarilyin

with

in

one

count

hundredths

of

make

to

movable

this latter thread

furnish

drum-head

the

on

The

The

being

field of view

passed

the
the
field to enclose
in its passage
across
of the
revolutions
of whole
the total number

the

form

it is

the

of

end

one

the field

across

or

looks

eyepiece,and

usual

is necessary

position that

contact

value

of

complication arising in the reader's mind, inasmuch

that is really necessary
only \\\z principleof the construction

such

the

distinctly

putting the arrangement

of completerevolutions
number

wires)have

is the

entire

one

capable

observer

the

hundred

appear

is

stretching across

little consideration, and

run

webs

drum,

any

measurement

in

the

actual

variations

many

for him
A

the

the

the

before

so

The

with

thread.1

to

them

in

figure,called

distinctlyin focus

wires

by looking

notches

many

movable

make

to

is known

(and also

make

that,when

the

sees

microscope.

screw

there

To

screw.

to

outside

engraved with exactly

of showing
portions of

pushed in,so

or

itself ends

in the

eyepiece containing

pulled out

threads

is

purpose

of the

revolution

sharp,

the

is

hundred

screw,
screw

shown

head,

hence

spoken of as
other, working in a separate

the

The

is immovable

necessary,

and

delicate

field.

the

across

in

eyepiece

by

wires, although capable of

when

; whilst

thread

or

these

being taken,

moved

be

can

of

adjustment

is

measure

fixed

frame,

of

amount

a
"

One

arrangement.

limited

OBJECTS

of

finest wires

question.

the

"

or

silk

MICROMETER

SPIDER-LINE

USING

264

be

example's sake, be
hundredths

on

of illustration

way

making

14,
shows

41,

quantity

must

equal

grand total of
The

beginning
least

at

should

the

on

with

the

Suppose

be

the

to

the

by

eye

it is considered

the

to

moved

resettingof the

the

as

14*41,

making

random

from

whole

fiducial wire

readings

thus

ran

process

"

repeated again

"

different

possible,over
the

at

away

and

micrometer,

Presuming

micrometer.

them

estimated

'005 is added

now

stage

times, if

four

add

by

may

pointer to the drum

enough to call the

not

then

we

14*41 5.

micrometer

lines

the

be

which

"

the

count

we

and

"

yet

14-41.

division^ then

-5 of a

to

the

to

any)

if the

and

the

finallyadded

and

be

But

14*41.

over

this

42,

of

total

Then

14.

in number

41

are

say

excess

an

reading

supposed to
the drum
(if there

rulings8 of

the

"

14-415

14-550
I4"452

I4'428

5)72-235
14-447

then
of

14*447

represents the

of

TTTTTtn

rulings

inch.

an

absolutelyaccurate
large as they at
Without
1
*

In

This

of

method

case

If it be

added

half

or

the stage micrometer

desired

lines

the

change
to

secure

show

deviation

interestingpaper

with

their

mean

from

the

upon

what

values

the

degree of
of

the

errors

not

are

so

if worked

than

more

intervals.

ten

vcrsd, any

vice

or

the

deviations

in the

Microscopical Society (1907),after

Journal of the I\"

by

Mr.

not

divisions.

accuracy

rulings of

Marshall

D.
a

In

reader

The

Nov.
..

of

the

mean

the

above

should

stage

Kwell,

series

measurements

from

is stated.

is ="= '043.

American

at

the

be measured

now

downwards

obtained, which
mean"

or

fresh place."

have

arrived

furnish

not

above

which

been

object can

of the hundredth

one

does

from
"

to

made, the absolute

togetherand

"average

*!?,

means

being adopted
"een

an

course

the

either
were

; in

touching the draw-tube

Sometimes
this

that

observations

the

or

intervals

-00006921,

figuresshow

above

(10

reality,however, the errors

first sight appear,
for the difference
exceedingly small.3

is

out

in.

"OOi

revolution

exactly equal

not

were

that

The

of

value

mean

therefore

in.),and
Ttf-JsiT

mean,

are

the

consult

micrometers

President

of

the

painstakingexperiments,
1908.

USING
and

its dimensions

and

estimations

out

this

diffraction

which
may

of

doubt

element

an

taken

of

extremely

tube when

using the

stand,

micrometer
have

one

to

As

touches

never

such

in

Then

too

makes

the

the

the

of

object,for
seen

of the

shake

settingdifficult.
separate

on

the

in

measurement

the

act

optical axis, the

all,is

at

obtaining

the

micrometer

draw-tube

the

carrying

being exactly

exists

support

In

of

edge

always
objects.

it facilitates

found

accurate

valuable

one.

and

measures,

is

cordiallyrecommended.

be

have

we

The

Nelson's

Mr.

following are
objectiveswith as large

(1) Use

of the real

before,it is difficult to be certain

said

object.

of the

to

settings

exceedingly difficult

that, although in alignment with

so

We

found

reallythe

micrometer

suggestion

taken.

mean

prevent

minute

265

estimated, several

their

be

is

phenomena

Nelson's

and

it will

know

hence

Mr.

made

being

to

of the inch

in terms

measurement,

cases

many

MICROMETER

SPIDER-LINE

suggestions :

"

aperture

an

edge

possible with

as

largestilluminating cone
procurable.
inner
from
the
(2) Measure
edge of the inner diffraction

the

the

inner

(3)

In

of the

of

The

were

of the

black

filament

seen

black

an

do

not

we

of

small

objects such
the like,we
it
admit
real size of
that

power"

his

imposed
must

comparable
it

by

to

seems

the

the

be

the

to

outside
it

edge
be

may

white

diffraction.

with
If the

small, there
black

the

and

one,

again.

suggestion of
quoted
with
No.
reluctantlyadmit, save
making

In

to

estimate

the

little consideration
from

"

the

position of
at

limit

attempt

uncertain

be
of

the
to

I,

flagellaeand

of

the

shows

once

resolving

undulating theory of light, so

consequence

so

measurements

holes, bacteria, or

arises

any

the

outer

is what

illuminating cone

resolving power

obvious

from

represented

due

are

side.

opposite

words, if the object

other

remarks.

chosen

to

in full the

is difficult

in

be

outside

minute

as

the

measurements

Hence

must

object,but
difficultyreally

this

side.

edge

one

have

we

with

agree

opposite

; in

the

and

faint black

authority,we

to

to
"

edges

diffraction

white

Although, however,
eminent

dot

band

it would

slender

another

perhaps

the

on

object

filament

is very

be

band

the

on

hole, measure

diffraction

black

"

band

of

diameter

the

These

edges.

diffraction

black

outer

of

focus

slender

may

the

that

termed

the

diffraction

outer

(4)

inner

measuring

edge

outer

of the

edge

band

within

any
limits

objective employed.

establish

hard-and-fast

USING

266

rules

SPIDER-LINE

which

by

the

is

for

is

it

possible

reallybe

cannot

of small

discrete

if

minute

object

an

of the

measurement

such

"

distance

diatom

as

admit

we

dots

of the

fluffy edge

all

objectivesis merely

around,

give to the objects

(notwithstanding this) the

that

so

of

bisected

with

the

and
correctlyindicated
they
certainty that the only circumstances

might vitiate

the

result

bisections

The

the

or

objects

result, as

of

millimetre,

it be

desired

to

divide

of

obtained

be

the

object be
high

has

measurement

where

obtaining

the

The

will be

(or more)

are

explained

the

of

when

Figures

so

certain

convenient

to

that

say

is to
has

Nelson

set
a

arranged

value

taken

on.

to

of
of
/*,

one

the

Chapter XVI I.,

scribed.
ocular
are
fully dein

microscopist

the

inch

in

revolution

specimen"

is the thousandth

metlv

accurate

most

measuring
the

lines

Micron, usually written

further

"

Mr.

described

arc

and

the

comb.

in the

more

distance

explains the

arise

I Living obtained

by

by multiplying\yya 1000.
inches
multiplyby '03937,

found

be

methods

number

oriented

special purpose.

the eikonometer

may

be

by '00003937.
and
yet requires for

given

some

said

other

Occasions

lines

line

been

into

one,

it will

power,

for this

micrometer

large

of notches

certain number

should

measure

into inches,

fiducial

the

the

obtain

to

in millimetres.

microns

readings

microns

to convert

What

micrometer

changed into

change millimetre

back

if

inch, but

further multiply
(//,),
originalfiguresin inches by

divided

stage micrometer

a
can

reasons

the

proportional parts
be divided
by '03937,

in microns

the

of the millimetre, the

means

the

estimating

or

If it be
in terms

which

into

same

multiply by 25,400.
required in the first instance

"00003937,

of

terms

figures should

If desired

multipliedby 25*4.
the result by 1000,
or

If

the

convert

in

errors

be

can

itself.

is in

said,

the

then

or

To

personal

are

have

we

on

is

of the micrometer

errors

later

is,

"

to

position

apart

matter

resolving power

and

be

may

absolutely unscientific,

not

measure

markings

objects

altogether,for here theory teaches that,

carefully regulated illumination, the effect of the limited

with

The

objects or

however, another

such

quite useless
accurately

to

seen

of

size

true

correctlyestimated,

MICROMETER

is

of

desirous

given specimen.
of the

that
part of

screw,

is to

say

millimetre

five
one

it

placed

is

wire

'00006

As

in

If desired

of

turn

one
use

of the

the

interval

the

that

the

; let

little

are,

of

be

we

valuation

taken

of

every

upon

in

microscope
in the

purposes

removed

eyepiece

(which

the

if the

course

for other

employed

micrometer

that

always

mean

we

micron

millimetre).

it is obvious
must

are

inch.

the

to

they

say

"

the

3 to

over

us

number

on

be divided
figures must
roughly speaking, 3280

the

part of the

said

"

say

we

83,300

there

micrometer

been

has

ordinary
different

between

being taken.

measurements

of

Units
In

.mnhnr

millimetre

been

instrument

and

way,

thousandth

has

what

From

::

showing

is the

said

have

millimetre, and

the

to

second

the

and

Then

inch.

an

of

terms

25*4, thus

by

of

in *oooo6

contained

line

one

carefully measured

distance

the

six, and

number

on

267

MEASUREMENT

OF

UNITS

the

previous

section

inches

into

in

expressed

Measurement

the

of

means

of

terms

the

converting
millimetre

measures

been

have

for so
reason
given. The
doing is the fact that a growing
for all dimensions
in
feeling is rapidly gaining acceptance
scientific matters
Since
to be expressed in the metrical
system.

microscopical objectives have

improved, both in defining as
of measuring
possibility
This

greater.
found

be

to

objects,or

the

have

sought

much

of

measurement

smaller

convenient

that

even

the

dealing with
the German

about

the

of

for

inch

object

an

than

that

unit

become
of

measure

mentioned

be
p.

part of

hundredth

or

the
savants

micron

an

has

been

the

small

surate
commen-

in

so

what

on

the

one

expression

an

letter

Greek

scientific

standard,

permit
figures,and

millimetre, or

be

may

it would

Selection

part of

of

some

fell

and

greater

suitable

more

the

power,

light. Consequently

less

in

hitherto.

thousandth

four

It should

as

usually expressed by the

"

is the

thousand

inch

has

much

so

separating

as

objects

wave-length

than
of

form

Micron

which

small

so, the

with

so

the

well

been

years

inconveniently large seeing that

to be
portions of them
measured,

even

authorities

being

later

in

more

is called
//, (mu)

"

twenty-five

inch.1

here perhaps, although hardly in

is not

of

is called the double

mu

(written p.p.\which

of

measurements

employ

wave-lengths

logicalsequence,
physicistwhen
light. In this case

small

what

the

enough

unit for the

METRICAL

268
there

Seeing that
system

readers

some

hope it may furnish

to
originallyintended

metre

was

whom

to

the

append

we

the

in the

explanation
A

be

may

immediately appeal,

not

may

UNITS
metrical

the

following

information

be

the

desired.

T^^V^ZRr Part of

pole of the earth to the equator, measured

however
it is
to
an
Owing
along a given meridian.
error,
the metre, strictly
short ; hence
known
to be in realitytoo
now
from

distance

the

the

length of

the

speaking, is merely

given definite

standard

kept

in Paris.

the

Fig. 154

In

numeral

to

"

mm.

\i\*.roth

metre

is

"

seen

metre.

II

I
I' 000

the

represent

0000

OOO

Fig- 154.
be

to

The

cyphers.

third

the

indicates

cypher
because

(writtenmm.)

point from

decimal

the

separated by

it is the

the

following

ten

position of

thousandth

the

metre
milli-

part of

the

expressed in decimals (in terms

of the metre) as o-ooi.
If we
proceed to the sixth cypher we
which
is therefore the thousandarrive at the micron
(written//,),
Hence

metre.

this

thousandth

(millionth) part

thousandth

part

expressed
of the

of

is called

whilst

metre,

but

metre,

then

it

is

in those

'ooi

as

the

being

decimals

In

of the

in terms

ninth

the

to

the double

mu

which
(written u//-),

cypher,

decimal

as

position of

of

unit

of

parts

millimetre

the

have

we

still smaller

"

in

in that of

o-ooooooooi,

measurement

"

becomes

metre

what

of

O'cooooi,and

micron

O'ooi.

as

The
the

last

cypher

smallest

unit

in

It is called

mu.

as

the

millimetre.

Continuing

to

of

millimetre.

the

'oooooi

as

is

quantity

of

of

Hence

of

ten

thousand

part of the double

decimals, with respect

existence, being the tenth

the

tenth-metre.

metre, this is written

O'ooooooi,

position of

the

figure indicates

the

all in

oxxooooooo

micron

these

In

as

0*000

ten

million

millimetre

1, and

make

tenth-metres

micron, and

of

in terms

of

double

mu

double

one

as

mu,

0*1.
ten

millimetre.

is the thousandth
smaller

part of the micron; but the English scientist adopts a

unit still,
is the ten thousandth
called the tenth-metre, which
part of

the micron, the

power)

go

to

mi

son

metre.

d'etre

of

the

term

being

that

iol"

(10

at

the

tenth

CONVERSION
As

have

we

said

is found

too

of

wave-lengths
that

too

double

the

positionof
for

both

but

metre,

this

In

whilst

four

or

will

has

make

our

in

been

the

have

the

with

dealing

mentioned

of

science

with

is
The

respect

the

to

quite clear,illustrate
expression according to the two
of

wave-length
be

microscopist,

tenth-metre.

shown

the

written

eight

by

line in the

spectrum.

approximately

hundred

and

4862,1

as

sixty-two

tenth-

486*2 double

as

double

two

reader

the

position of the decimal

the

for

almost

now

meaning

of

readily understood

change

the

branch

this

Germany it would
appear
and
eighty-six decimal

in

hundred

be

units

thousand

four

is

it is the

England

it would

country

measuring
metres,

the

for

unit

difference

Take

standards.

in

these

the

moment

micron

measurement

the

might, to

we

269

large for spectroscopy when

differentlycoloured
light. We
whilst

mu,

of

unit

Germany

in

MEASURES

already, the

universally adopted
but

OF

mu,

This

mu.

the

remembering

point between

the

two

standards.
what

Although

follows

this book, still it may

it is

into

terms

convenience
of

by dividing

convenient

be

inch

been

already

at

able

once

vice

or

to

stated

to

tenth-metres, would
52,241

and

to

waves

forty-one;

tenth-metres

become

"

the inch

nine-figured quantity

same

in

measurement

written
the

of the

in terms

expressed
in

of

above-mentioned

conversion

way

"

being

divided

and

may

be

is

parts into
sometimes

Decimal

required ;
*

How

the

one

carried

hence

these

millimetre

convenient

portions of

region might appear

of

the

the
exact

to

in

out

use

the

two

obtained

inch

"

hundred

in terms

of

of

the

inch, the

by

the

quantity

of

proceeding
similar

conversion
or

when

Fraunhoffer

4862-23.

figuresare

the

is shown

for

manner.

of the

vice versa,

it

following tables,even

added

are

wave-length

for

micron

or

tenth-metre

light in

quotient furnishes the

dealing with expressions
be taken
off
cypher must

Notwithstanding the explanation given

inch

express

those

done

the

When
mut

times

tenth-metres.
of

nine-figuredquantity, the

either

"

inch, when

double

to

in
be

must

tenth-metres.

terms

desired

written

measurement

in

thousand
i.e.fifty-two

if it be

vice versa,

"

in

tenth-metres

in terms

expressed

at

readily be

can

54,000,000

that

convert

This

versa.

elsewhere

repeat

by the expression
4862, the approximate length of the waves

Thus

as

be

to

the

has

in the Addenda.

great exactitude
line in the

OF

CONVERSION

2;o
if

only

be

made

check

as

that

conversion

any

upon

MEASURES

might otherwise

TABLE

CONVERSION

FOR

BRITISH

OF

METRIC

AND

MEASURES

inch

p.
1
2

'000039

'000079

-000118

3=

'000157

io(icm.)=

'000197

20

"000276

'000315

4=

'000236

6=
7
8

-000354

'000394

20

'000787

30

9
10

'ooi

50

60

'039370

"078741

'196852

'787409

'393704

Example.
in inches

=1-968522

50
loo

-001575

40=

j^

decimetre

p.

-000787

.QOOQ39

'002362

^""8^

'003937

looo

i"mm.

tenth-metre

double

micron

mu

25O

millionth

=a

25

millionth

=a

25

thousandth

MICRONS

INTO

ins

inch

AND

of

an

inch

"

"

"

MILLIMETRES
-028222

n.

irfcnr

I 'Oi-

si,v

nkns

1-269989

,J0

-031750

-050800
'253998

,'u

2-53

millimetre

centimetre

decimetre

2-539977
3-17..

5 '"799 5 4

(usually written
'":,

time

/i)

.-trc

iinetrc
""

2-822197

25'39v
micron

nearly.

"

^318

equivalent

p. ?

21

-003150

100

is the

What

"

to

20

'001969

80=

IN"

inch

mm.

l"1,5jmillimetre
,

"

*r

,'".-,
metre

5'"79954
9-5-4915
=

'00003937

inch.

"03937

"

metre
,.',,,

'3937O

"

J6 metre

3 '93704

"

272

XIII

CHAPTER
THE

DIFFERENT

FOR
THE
the

selection

of

different

suitable

classes

of

SUITABLE

PURPOSES

they

objectivesdepends

and

stand

for which

specialpurpose

The

OBJECTIVES

AND

MICROSCOPE

are

subject

intended

to

be

therefore

will

upon

employed.
be

treated

seriatim.

Botany,
For

these

and

as

an

purposes

Instrument
the

Fig. 155.-

for

the

simplest type

llimmlcr's

Stand.

of

Textile
stand

Trade
is all that

MICROSCOPES

LOW-POWER
is

required.

preferablyof
if the

well

A
the

not

coarse

powers,

do

"handy
needed
are
seeing the objectives
really

The

be

mirror

provided

"

Bausch

should
with

cap

as

above

have
of

Lomb's

Stand

i-in.,but

draw-tube

his

with

is

2-in.,ij-in.and

only
especiallywhen
cf coarse
adjustment
The

provided

will

rack

Fig. 156."
low

be

adjustment should
form, but the sliding tube

good

microscopist

adjustment is

273

takes

hands."

fine

all very

A.

it is not

to

place of

the

very

be
a

despised,
rack

form

stated.
concave

opal glass

and
that

flat surface
can

take

the

and

also

place
18

of

MICROSCOPES

LOW-POWER

274

l.'s No.

the

silver
the

when
1

surface

li^ht

Occasionally

chapter

devoted

needed.

when

it is u^cd

"

to

be

too

obtain

1124

Stand.

usually employed1
softening
powerful and wants
This

is

polarised 1
/.ion.

icd

in

the

MICROSCOPES

LOW-POWER
; but

down

botanists

some

between

the

instead.

The

tint film

preferto

now

instrument

upright position is quite as

studies,indeed

at

times

need

rather

Reichert's

more

not

No.

96

under
have

so

little

joint,as

by

Messrs.

whilst

Bausch

one

"

of

Lomb,

much
shown

the
in

an

textile

and

Stand.

than

an

inclined

examination,
specimens, temporarily under
(Fig. 155) used to make
stage. Otto Himmler

stand,

stances
circum-

these

it prevents
off the

neutral

Kodak

for botanical

convenient

Fig. 158."

mirror

and

illuminant

use

275

same

design

Fig. 156, Stand

is

one,

for

slipping
cheap
provided
a

A.

LOW-POWER

2/6
R.

Messrs.

model

addition.

in

J. Beck

supply

(Fig. 157), called

of their

form

"

MICROSCOPES

their

"London"

for

slightlyhigher

little

fine one,

production,

rackwork

no

by which
and

reminds

has

to

the

It is

cheap
fine adjustment

sell

to

perfect

more

firm

very

microscope can
an
required. It was
of the

one

type

adjustment,

coarse

the

means

when

powers

and

Stand.

1124

(Fig. 158) used

(non-inclinable)that has
has

No.

Microscope,and

Reichert

but

different

be used
excellent

original Oberhauser

model.

Those

who

desire

modest

I59-

to

with
one.

of stand, but

liaker's Plantation

that is easy

one

Alicroscope.

quitelow-power work, should see

It is not provided
Plantation
by C. Baker.
Microscope made
for a coarse
it has only a draw-tube
fine adjustment, and
a
dimensions
of exceedingly small
It drops into a case
about

carry

the

"

form

for

suitable

and

(Fig. 159).

supply cheap

manufacturers

other

Most

stands

that

are

equally

efficacious.

objectivesrequired by

The
Textile

1.1-in., and
ck

need

Trade
a

make

i
a

-in.

not
arc

scries

be

that
this

Botany and
finest quality,and

student

of the very

all

of

the

is

in

necessary.

description,and

Messrs.
so

do

for the
a

2-in.,
R.

"

Messrs.

"

desired,

most

its

diameter, whilst
for

serviceable

found,
used

like

rotating it

ring
"

to

with

ocular

I,

when

used

with

the

If 'the work

furnishes

This

with,

in

is shown

former

I, Plate

forms

screen

no

inch

of

the

valuable

for

one

such

is

the

the
or

with

highest
that
a

by

pensating
com-

the

photographing

the

excellence

can

be

any

deterioration

of

employed

definition.

and

Pharmacy,

For

these

For

class of

instrument, for he

half-inch

or

even

Teacher's

Dairy

student
must

required, but

photographed

Abbe

An

with

more

employ

to

expect

Microscope

rather

requiresa

quarter-inch.

is also

too

frontispiecewas

The

as

the

purposes

of condenser
1

is 33

XVI.

of

limit

performance by

to

to

the

used

compensating ocular
objective that any
raise the magnification without
producing

the

magnifying

Zeiss

by

when

required,3and

is

Zeiss

objective produced

demands

upon

image

Fig.

the

and

years.

the

8, whilst

apochromatic
illustration

arrangement
as

the

An

ocular.

green
have

we

magnification being, of
ring in conjunction with
sold by Koristka
of Milan.

engaged

excellent

an

in.

exceedingly

Beck

for

caused

"

to

TV

by simply turning

This

It is also

is

student

quality of definition, the

Swift

of

use

intervening powers.

of

oculars

the

by

i^-in.of

that

is

suitably deep

the

5, intermediate

ocular

obtained

with

double.

about

The

0*24

it

great satisfaction

us

magnificationof

makes
\-~\

whilst

are

flat field,about

objectivecollar

an

N.A.

mm.

very

combination

increased

be

power

course,

given

useful

24

projection objective is,

35-mm.

have

make

to

if used

combination,

useful

are

great aperture

Zeiss

Wray

of

2-in

such

photography

The

has

it

as

277

perfect combinations
equally excellent.

more

objective

Holoscopic

lens,

favourite

If

productions
opticians'

wide-angled

screen.1

others.

Sons, and

Watson

MICROSCOPES

DAIRY

AND

PHARMACY

this

objectives up

(chromatic)type

modified

elaborate

form

objective and

of
two

non-

green

screens.
8

This

It

is regrettable, for, although

photography,
owing
3

to

the

piece

increases

believe, unobtainable

objectiveis,we

the

still the

focal

under-correction

length being

of green-pot
contrast.

glass,

was

necessary

hand).
(except perhaps secondoriginallydesigned for
was

scarcely noticeable

great.

so
or

now

it

66, 56, or

61

green

Kodak

film

often

centring substage will

Suitable

stands

in

most

made

are

list is not

the

course

DAIRY

AND

PHARMACY

278

particularlyconvenient

fulfilall his

requirements.
following firms, although of

cases

the

by
to

meant

MICROSCOPES

variety

be of
is

to

exhaustive

an

be

HistologicalMicroscope by Baker, shown

found
in

nature.
in

Fig. 160;

Fi".

the

model

superior

161.

'"^ical Microscope.
'ill is a!
with

by

the

swinging

In

"\vn

by

I.cit

firm.

same

make

useful

be

supplied

good stand, \\l"\

an
microscope was

to

ngly

can

in 1

"

.62.

They

This

piece of apparatus,

and

quite equal

solid

is

cding.
it

old

by

more

Mc"srs.

elaborate
\Vatson

and

"

very

Sons, and

it

can

stand
be

the

supplied

28o

Fig. 163.-Watson's

"

Kram."

281

Fig. 164."

Zeiss's Stand

V.A.

PHARMACY

282

AND

DAIRY

MICROSCOPES

the latest
exceedingly useful type (Fig. 164). Constructed
upon
easilyheld in the hand for carrying about.
(1905) lines,it is most
The
specimens
objectives for the study of Pharmaceutical
be

should
used

; but

The

inch

really good
for

the

opticians,but
"

We

Sons.

in

have

if

Indeed,

treated

this

lens

down

the

employed

with

difference

any

and

manner,

have

by Swift, and we
the same
tests
applied
the

by Watson

absolutely cruel

an

but

image,

have

we

the

it

image

much
it

to

pleasure
the

to

as

break

and

the

most

unfair

conditions, which

Reichert

used

make

to

in

image,

desperation

objective(a

of

matics, which,
called

be

this

little over

sixth with

desires

pharmaceutical student
by
the

the quarter, well

finest in

the

Holoscopic of
the
have

and

worth

performance
failed,and

opticians,as
1

\\Y

than

h.ive

equalled by

separately or
*

found

Those

better

who

that
the

the

turn

in

was

opinion

our

lenses

the

by

for

every

it

en

afforded

was

tried

Watson
guish
distin-

to

artifice

possible,

screens,

66, 56,

peting
com-

produce
is

recommended

and

of

one

the

labours, should

.ulassformerly
"

lens,if the

congratulation that

of their

See

have

We

length.

"-n

appreciatethe meaning

finest excellence,

amplificationthan

matter

t:

to

should

more

outcome

three

nomenclature,

adjustment

these

it is

conjointly.
will

of

first-rate
achro-

being only equalled by

focal

same

without

collar

as

an

in
absolutelyirreproachable

were

buying,

market,

the

was

low-power

of the very

them

produced by

magnification

to make

Zeiss's

modern

scmi-apochromats,"were

"

respect. Their

evety

with

pace

the extra

also used

all of

focus, and

keep

to

the images

and

Lcitz

be serviceable.2

times

combination

effects,and

in black-dot

just

perhaps

save

of sheer

out

an

have

we

as
a
seventh, which
quarter),called the 7#, usually
exceptionallyfine lens, especially for colour correction

at

that

saying that, with

listed

might

tinguish
dis-

to

produces

Holoscopic

down

to

loss of blackness

way

failed.

screen,1 it is hard

failed

tried.

were

in

we

mentioned,

rarely required.

series

Holoscopic

green

between

made

under

the

is

"-in.apochromatic by Zeiss, employed in the

A fine quarter is
that is saying a good deal.

the

by

furnished
same

of

to

endeavour

our

is that

break

" being often

mostly of good quality with all

combination
|-in.it has been

are

finest achromatic

examine

lot to

our

last mentioned

two-thirds

the

and

the

work

dairy

inch, 2, J, and

an

ones,

61,

more

used

chapter
of this

rei;

upon

the

"Testing

of

Lenses"

will

distance, which

is

provided with
being

used

which

is

The

magnificent results.

such

Berlin

(6A), was
the

If

desires
half-inch

the

Zeiss, but

it should

long tube,

so

of

form

Continental

the

extremely

useful.

Of

and

are

Zeiss

and

The
The

Brewer

needs

as

that

demanded

shortly),because
the

than
a

for

If he

that

the

former.

latter

uses

his

example,
good one ; such,
We
pharmaceutical purposes.
small

Lomb's

model

BB

Watson,

instrument

the

as

of

bacteria.

dealt
much

best

with
more

must

employed
following :

the

recommend

of

use

Microscope

very

in

fine instrument

be

so

the

to

book).

of the

subject

Still,however, the Brewer's

are

perform

purchase such
bacteriologist(to

for

The

reference

need

the

only

Koristka

by

itself to the

the

the

sixth

third

end

lend

into

carried

by

and

Zeiss

the

the

with

employ

to

third
the

at

for

recommended

elect

will

are

of

Himmler

by

the transformer

or

stand

think, however, he

not

studies

of

made

employed

Microscope

We

do

be

Brewer's

his

long,

particularly

very

lenses ; and, with

twelfth, as

be

only made

are

must

(see Plates
indistinguishable

manner

be

both

Reichert, Koristka, and

by

the

the

combinations

these

is

objective

on

also

times

tube, the

short

excellent

most

sixth, those

to

(see Index).

for

Watson

highest praisephotograph his specimens, we

the quarter-inchapochromats by

instrument;

Heurck

by Dr. van
apochromats

the

as

and

deserving

lengthening adapter

working-

of the

should

pre-war

recollected

be

but

instrument

another

in

combination

student

recommend

and

made

semi-apochromat,

little extra

admits

Mention

by Koristka,

sixth

that

short-tube

the

on

has

283

sometimes,

adjustment

great convenience.

good

fine

well

Zeiss

advantage

an

collar

as

MICROSCOPE

BREWER'S

THE

of R. "
and
Bausch
J. Beck
1129
Baker's
model, and one
special Brewer's

No.

stand,

all of

which

respect

to

student

suit

arranged

are

almost

exclusively

for

"

by
the

purpose.
With

add

twelfth.

combinations
twelfth
purposes

will

be

objectives,those
the

brewer,

We

have

but

details
found

required by

but

the

already spoken
in

concerning
the

article

(Bacteriological section),and

student
of the

the

the
will

ceutical
pharmahave

to

first-mentioned

semi-apochromatic

devoted
those

to

medical

relating to

the

apochromatic
eighth

for

seem

Medical
has

in Medicine

student

critical work.

quite so

not

good

to

the instrument

use

that

as

have

we

of advanced

student

Pharmaceutical

might

Purposes

Histology, Pathology, and Bacteriology. For

nothing but a reasonably good stand
purposes
indeed

We

not

reason,

For
The

to

easily discoverable, a dry

favourite dry lenses for the Brewer.

some

ninth

even

or

in that devoted

2-mm.

that

mention

MICROSCOPE

MEDICAL

THE

284

for

first

the
is

Biology,
two

required,one
for the

recommended
; but

seeing that for

latter subject a

type

Bacteriology especially the

Pathology and
is a sine qua
it is
reallyfine,steady, and solid instrument
non,
and
for all,the best
better for the beginner to purchase, once
at
the first, rather
than
sell his cheap
type of instrument
he requires a better one
in
later on
instrument
at a loss when
"

for the purposes

Pathological and

his career,

The

we

are

about

now

consider.

to

Bacteriological stands
should

together

considered

be

"

"

have

for

"

they

may

large stage, one

of the
ordinary user

very

needed
by the
larger than
what
be called
microscope. Seeing it has to accommodate
may
should
the mostly used size of Petrie dish, its dimensions
never
and
six inches
be less than
be of greater
larger would
square,
convenience
still. It is a subject of regret that manufacturers
in

fact

far

do

not

grasp

attention

this

it,for in

to

the stages

now

for

large

so

the

body

fine

the

of

far too

are

stage

to

why the addition

by opticians,for
involves

this
we

to

our

has

knowledge

that

Since

the first edition

been

made

greatlyincreased

some

in the

mechanical

of the

details

under

is

stood
readily undergrasped it becomes
taken
speak of has not been hastilyunderto

to

the cost
and

thought

particularlycall attention

are

earnestly call their

we
are
recommending
fullyaware
arranging

reconstruction

it adds

considerable

We

alteration

; and

When

very

microscope involves a good deal of

the tube further
to hold
longer arm

consequent

adjustment

arrangements.

small.1
a

we

of the stands

some

it demands

trouble, as
from

necessity,and

this

of the

trouble
matter,

in this direction,many
the size of the stage.

was

and

arrange.

We

to

because

students, those

of this work

instrument

who

it has

come

happen

published,considerable
opticianshaving in recent

not

advance
models

be

to

possessed

manufacturers
have

been

mechanical

of

"just

alter

to

somewhat

Baker's

possiblybe

such

could not

The

is obvious
difficulty

the

stands

which

order.

We

when
believe

we

Bacteriologist are

done

several

commence

285

knowledge, having asked

their

"

annoyed

D.P.H."

with
what
are

in
with

take

to

stage

surprisedand

Fig. 165."

The

MICROSCOPE

BACTERIOLOGICAL

THE

at

dish,"

being told that

Microscope.

their instruments
we

Petrie

the

have

stated

suitable
number
that

"

for

in

question

is understood.
the

arranged

by C. Baker

purpose
in

of

betical
alpha-

(Fig. 165),

D.P.H."

called

the

useful

model,

Messrs.

agents

"

and

Microscope,
one

Bausch

"

Messrs.

A.

Fig.

166."

is also

Messrs.

and

K.

improved
^cnt

"

model

with

unstained

the

stage and

is

Lomb's

"

thoroughly sound

and

C.A."

Microscope.

exceptionally large stage (Fig. 166),

quite recently

have

of their
It

"

of.

has

provided
specimens.

the

is

has

Bausch

spoken
J. Beck

Model."

ebonite) which

(Fig. 16;

well

which

given great satisfaction; whilst

Lomb,
Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A.
(English
E. Staley " Co., Thavies
Inn, E.C.),make
that

another, called "C.A.," with

which

MICROSCOPE

BACTERIOLOGICAL

THE

286

"

with

London

stage
a

is

introduced

new

microscope, called

the

(surfaced

with

in.

4x4

special iris diaphragm

Additional

base, which

"

is allowed

space

certainly

great

Ol
between

convenience

288

THE

excellent
for

BACTERIOLOGICAL

type,

we

supplies a stand especiallyconstructed

bacteriological laboratories

numerous

vulcanite

stage

Stativo

modcllo

"

believe

MICROSCOPE

of

large

dimensions

grandc I."

abroad,

(Fig. 168). It

having

is

called

289

Fig. 169.

"

"

Dolken's

Microscope.'

2QO

:"."

Reic

THE

The

had

to

admit

as

firm

well-known

which

of
"

has

Dolken's

given

for

which

stage

by 95

90

which

in

Swift

Messrs.

It is shown

name.

represented
could

be

in America

after

It has

I IB

"

in

Model,"

with

fine

very

; it is named

selected

for the

fame, from
The

Fig. 172.

sell

No.

"

specialbacteriologicalstand

was

Antarctic

swing-out

large stage.

laboratory

which

it takes

its

substage arrangement

exceedingly primitive,but

is

added

there

is

as

doubt

no

it

to.

Watson

Messrs.

his

(Fig. 170). It had

spoken very highly of.

construct

ship Discovery,of

the

called

excellence, which

of considerable
of

Sons

was

mm.

Fig. 171.

"

ticular
par-

war.

was

sought

this

model

This

designed.

Co., of Buffalo, N.Y., also

is much

shown

40," and

and

sections.

believe

We

(Fig. 169).

was

instrument

an

substage condenser,
The
Spencer Lens
stand

it

the

brain

satisfaction,especiallyfor the

great

very

furnished

vulcanite

supply a specialmodel
so
peculiarlyconstructed

to

size

Microscope"

improved before

Reichert

used

291

exceedingly large preparations like

purposes
further

Leitz

of

stage of considerable

It is called
stand

MICROSCOPE

BACTERIOLOGICAL

"

Sons'

Students'
Model," a
Edinburgh
well-known
their
instrument, still enjoys a great fame, and
does
taken
its place
not
to have
seem
recentlydesigned "Bactil"
in the
size of the top plate of
manner
some
anticipated. The
the stage is approximately 3" in. square
and
is covered
with
vulcanite.

introduced

Everything is
rigidity(Fig. 173).

and

Zeiss's

Carl
excellent

"

being

one,

fault with

no

hold

take

Model

this

of.

firm's

the

in existence

best
It

seems

amongst
wanted

is

being

the

of

new

entirelynovel
fine adjustment,
of

the

slides of the

in

their

which

is

know

of

unpleasant

so

as

to

model,

1905

construction

form,

to

perhaps

acetic

stage,

seriouslyinjured unless

difference

considerable
whether

to

work

everyday

or

it is

most

was

of

one

(Fig. 174).

matter

hydrochloric

that

save

an

not.

or

objectionablebecause, if,when
as

steadiness

We

stand.

entirelyremedied

bacteriologistsas
for

produce great

useful

practicaland

arrangement

contains

to

III.,"although of the old type,

This

which, besides

"

using

acids"

Some

upon

that

chemicals

the

fluid

is

it
"

runs

such

screws,

which

is

stage

think

corrosive
of

opinion

mechanical

finelymade
immediately cleaned,

or

the

any

of

is

such
into
are

nuisance

Fig

171."

The

Spencer

Lens

"

"

292

\
.

40."

293

Fig.

172."

Swift

"

Son's

"Discovery"

Microscope.

204

Fig

1 73."

Watson

"

Sons'

"Edinburgh Student*

Model.'

and

Others

such

care

however,

of

take

to

seem

work

everyday
the

are

should

accidents

always

of

forms

numerous

hand

third

class,

position,consideringthat

mechanical

at

happen.

never

intermediate

an

nothing

be

facilities should
of

WORK

standing
exactly opposite opinion, notwiththe objectionsjust mentioned, holding that with reasonable

hindrance.

for

MEDICAL

FOR

OBJECTIVES

296

is

required, but

place

to

that

the stage

upon

auxiliary mechanical

one

contrivances

the
advantages derivable
already described, so as to obtain
for
when
therefrom
absolutely necessary
example, in
; as,

count,"

blood

"

making

seriatim

through
when

made

for the

their

should

built

into

the

daily used, and

and

registerwith
may

work,

rapid

and

becoming more
the heavy work
37-4I-)
pages

use

we

medium

it is

the

place
in

are,

and

an

when

thirds,and
but
some

we

no
a

ought

best, unless

more

to

sixth

than

to

instances

remind
it is

be

verniers
continue
dis-

continued
their

positionsobtained

month
as

the

fact,to

the

hence.

to

Besides,

recommend

them

increasing

they

"

"

shake

submitted

are

to

the

when

the

instrument

the finest is

is intended

say

about

mentioned

the student

actually

the

selection
in

the

for

usually desirable.

objectives mostly required by the student

have

of

abruptly

we

of

the

are

(or two-thirds),a sixth, and

a
semi-apochromatic
2-mm.
where
apochromatic being added
expense
We

; but

microscope,
bacteriological
of
pretty universally acknowledged one

photomicrographical use,
The

performance
desired

laboratory. (For Auxiliary Stages, see

is the

speed

recommend

appreciably alter

such

way"

manifest

previous

be

little use,

hence
a

regards the fine adjustment of

think

stage

is not

loss of

more

of

no

remarks

register by their

tube, and

of

construction
"

the

to

on

likely be

mechanical

they

After

of the

axis

very

in

particular specimens"

putting
the

when

"

recommendation.

our

taking off

regularly

use

especiallyto

more

little to

leaving

microscope

positions in

important

As

not

purposes
proposed for

stage

hunt

to

the

in

special object just mentioned,

are

for hard

be

kinds

We

they

their

different

the

overlooked.

when

to-day

of

occasional

for these

required

auxiliary stage, however,

an

speaking

part of this work

them

be

it may

specimen.

recommending

In

when

or

twelfth
is

no

object.

inch, two-

an

preceding

it is very useful
essential" to have
an

inch

"

sections
indeed

in

additional

FOR

OBJECTIVES
sixth,
this

WORK

employing

haemocytometer

the

not

corpuscles with the sixth he employs

owing to the special cover-glass provided
Accidents
being so extremely thick.
may
this

Since

cause.

first edition

the

of

other

with

apparatus

often

do

book,

this

before
especiallylong working-distance have come
entirely for the purpose
being designed almost
is

by

Messrs.

by

the

Watson
has

combinations

with

; hence

obtains

either

useful

quite sufficient

purpose
do

for

This

excellent

resolving

very

this its actual

counterbalance

but

to

by

direct

about

measurement,

true

these

although

"

mention

we

it

in pre-war

times

"

"

and

double

"

No. 6B."
corpuscles called
combination
of decidedly superior
of the
two
previously mentioned,

either

to

power

both

higher prices

at

blood

counting

of these

objectivesto compete

sold

made

other

ordinarily

of

but

"

these

the

inconvenience

or

small, it is

question

others

Reichert

focal-lengthsixth
is

in

with

greater aperture.

question.

which

aperture

is

intend

not

resolution

of

powers

with

makers

the

because

for the

lenses

notice,

in

millimetre, which

that

numerical

possibly occur.
remarkably cheap and

sixths

our

Each

accident

objective no
The

should

in

of

working-distance

said, roughly speaking, is double

be

may

Sons, of Holborn, London.

"

occur

two

Co., of Buffalo, N.Y., and

Lens

Spencer

the

purposes,

the

and

focus

of

One

make

microscopist

cannot

for

blood

from

It is for

to

the

infrequently happens that

unpleasant experience of finding he

blood-count, it

297

long working-distance.

extra

an

When

reason.

has

has

that

one

MEDICAL

find

working-distance is,we

'6 to

which

mm.,

cannot

we

in hand.
help thinking is rather too small for the specialpurpose
differs from
It is only fair,however, to add
Reichert
that Herr
in this opinion, considering it meets
the requirements of all
us

quite effectively.

cases

Lastly, it
dark-ground
the

and

use

study

to

illumination

substage
reflecting

new

to

is necessary

of

high

bacteria

add, owing

(by
condenser

that

powers,
in

the

their

to

the

construction
of

recent

and

and

numerical

high

those

extension

recent

who

wish

as

apochromatic

to

render

sixth

it very

to

their

objectionableto

use.

the

equivalent)
to

investigate

living state,

battery of lenses, and

of the same
2-mm.
type (with its limiting diaphragm
for the purpose),as
the semi-apochromat
constructed
an
by the secondary
image so unpleasantly coloured

an

of

use

of

must

add

perhaps

especially
produces
spectrum

FOR

OBJECTIVES

298

MEDICAL

WORK

be considered
that for
true
as
regards the twelfth, it may
of the
the general use
laboratory the microscope is mostly
ments
employed to distinguish differences of form rather than refineAs

that

really a

highly apertured twelfth is

This
is readily understood
be the
to
practically not needed.
from
the simple fact that nothing but dry condensers
are
case
of detail,so

conditions.

working
what

bacteriological laboratory

the

in

seen

ever

the

aperture

1-25, 1-30, 1*35,

nominally
the

escaped

implies, of course,
of the objective be that
it

1*40,

or

ro.1

attention

of

We
some

fear

high numerical

their

working

N.A.

from
much

N.A.

at

i'2

1*30 to

1*40, and

rectifythan

less to

fact

have

may

dwelt

objectivesof N.A.

the

whether

use,

microscope, who,

in

the

upon

1-33 because

Seeing that combinations

cheaper than those ranging

that accidents

with

matter

no

dry condenser

thought, have

much

so

is in

this

of the

users

aperture

are

that

its normal

that

with

only works

of laxity of
passing moment
advisabilityof having immersion

of

under

This

N.A.

at

very

the

to

latter,we

former

cost

so

help thinking

cannot

provided the qualityis as good, is all that

cheaper type of \zr\s,
work
of the student
in bacteriofor the rough hard
logy.
is necessary
this

however, structural

When,

formations

under

are

the

sideration
con-

when
the highest resolution
and
professors,and
likely the highest magnification possible are sought after

of

very

for the elucidation

utilityof

the

steps in.

We

In
may

be

able

to

have

at

remarks

variance

with

judge.

to

used

type.

be

is cut

usually at about
when

this

reader's

The

and

Abuse

we

so

feel bound

attention
of the

is

suggestions

our

agreeing

actual

down,

appeal.

by those doubtless

whilst

in

of

with

practice
be

it is true,

N.A.

by

ro,1

what

we

more

purchased,

the

that

better

it is

highest quality obtainable;

condenser, provided
To

held

real

condenser

court

semi-apochromatic should

of the

reallywork

as

1*35

the

out

oiled

the

fully aware

example,

combination

full aperture

at

to the

"Use

for

Some,

that it should

with

using

point

to

be used

are

the ideas

that the 1*35

although the

we

proposed in theory, think

economical
and

that it should

mean

these

making

venture

we

apochromatic

2-mm.

of

details,then, instead

semi-apochromatic,

1*40

or

of certain

and

dry
it

that,
denser,
con-

required by merely oiling the

such
to

illuminator
demur.

be

It may

be

can

slip

of the immersion
be

advisable

to

particularly directed to the chapter on the

Substage Diaphragm" with respect to this matter.

WORK

MEDICAL

FOR

OBJECTIVES

299

do, and

would

i -20

its full

moment
to

working

hastily arrived
film

screens,

by
performance
experienced
It

of

the

the

with

desirable

times
similar

shaped objects can

powers

of

of

absorbing

colour

one

might

Further, it has

they

have

that

opinion
after use (as
the

us

But

the

in

water

very

fatal

its

of

the

water

is

only

of the

draw-tube

once

"

1*33,

that

(or

collar

the

of

is,if the best

nuisance

and

has

cover-glasshaving

There

fallen

they need

the

has

cover

in

both

in thickness

definition

for

their

apparent

1*5, and

be

must

be

the

in

the

the
the

altered),for
objective

required.
and

cover

cedar

same
cause

that

length

This

one

circumstances) with

because

of

stain),or

objective before
Seeing the refractive

daily work,

approximately

with

wiping

no

any

effected

performance

hindrance

in

become

which

unusual

differences

is another

with

seeing

water

be

to

leading.
mis-

ordinary

inducement

adjustment

required (save
very
homogeneous immersion, simply

effect in the

of

suffice for

leaving

it is this.

alteration

an

all

light

case

possibly

ordinary cover-glass is approximately

under

small

without

considerable

adoption, and

by their selective.

have

to

objection,however,

differentthickness

employed

dries

done

immersions,

water

confess

practicalapplication

index

every

that

of i'2O, should

must

be

the

is it at

stains,in which

if only for the fact that

first,

one

recommending

at

We

distilled

the

staining, for

; neither

only inconvenient, but

aperture

specimens either, a

adoption.
to

at

mended
recom-

light,especially when

coloured

suggested

bacteriologicalwork.

colour

of

be differentiated

only

not

been

numerical

too

green

glass

always

kinds

monochromatic

different
be

this

can

suit every

employ

to

with

used

pot-green

different

many

will not

screen

green

But

disseverate.

certainly cannot

their

to

opinion

an

are

is

spectrum

allow
do
on/y tlien, we
be difficult,
to
save
objectives may

two

to

eye,

one

and

before, then,

us

the

F-line, or

Gifford's

the

mind

objectives

both

If

at.

for

brought

are

our

N.A.

or

of appeal is equal

secondary

the

to

no

think

to

court

corrections

possible,is

correction

highest

as

all

zonal

the

and

eliminated

aperture

but

agree

we

where

apochromatic

an

this

to

when

better

buy the high aperture, because perhaps it performs

at N.A,
to work
than
down
cut
an
objective made

oil and

index
no

is
is

never

the
the

of refraction,

appreciable

of the

object.
objection to using

water

immersion.

It

300

OBJECTIVES

is this.

For

FOR
it has

years

many

MEDICAL
been

WORK

the

habit

in laboratories

to

the front lens being

glasseswhenever
using cover
possible,
the oil does
in most
oiled directlyto the slip. It is found
not
instances
injure the preparation,and definition is not affected
avoid

it has the

because

refractive index

same

as

the

I f water

cover.

be

putting aside its possiblesolvent action on some

tions
preparahave before pointedout it certainlydemands
the ment
we
adjustfor the absence
in length to compensate
of the draw-tube
of
then it is obvious, all things considered, the
Hence
the cover.
used

"

"

is

for

breed

to

as

certain

Hence

do

we

students, who

have

may

if not

of broken

is

"

certain

combination.

and, what

covers,

fronts, especiallyby commencing

even

never

seen

microscope before

or

high power.

Swift

makes

twelfth

favourite, and

great

ment
instru-

daily routine

as

of this delicate

use

unfrequentlyhear

not

of the

use

of contempt,

amount

still,of crushed-in

worse

constant

pastime, but

tance
large working dis-

bacteriology,a

of carelessness, in the

amount

bacteriologicalpurposes.

great convenience, for the

apt

used

for

mistake

not, by the way,

"

is

selecting a twelfth

In

very

is

immersion

water

with

long-working distance
their

Watson

"

new

which
"

Versalic

is

with

a
a

of '43 mm.,
having its front fixed by some
working distance
new
design to prevent it being easilypushed in. Combinations
"
Lomb, Baker, Beck,
by Koristka, Powell " Lealand, Bausch
all good lenses.
and
are
(parachromaticseries)
by Watson
All of these give good results,although varying somewhat
in

quality, but

most

at

with

the

green

as

the immersion

N.A.

ri

mention

Watson
so

those

as

result

finer

make

Watson's

binations
com-

Holos, which,

that

competes

with

apochromatic.
twelfth

with

which

by Messrs.

low

often

are

R.

numerical

"

of

J. Beck

Sons, which, seeing their price

was

aperture, such

use

by

and
in

ought

we

"

pre-war

reallyexcellent constructions.
bacteriologistscomplain of feeling considerable

moderate,
Some

an

thereabouts"

or

two,
"

manufacturers

same

: such
greater expense
illumination, furnishes

performance of

Of

of the

to

Messrs.
times

are

fatigue

specimens,
they have for long periods to examine
when
the
for
for example,
searching
or
as
presence
necessary,
absence
of bacilli tuberculosis in several specimens. The comfort
when

in the eye

of

using

suitable

monochromatic

screen

is

not

so

generally

FOR

OBJECTIVES
known

is either the

film

green

of which

glass

it should

fullyappreciated as

or

MEDICAL

we

organism quite black

being a soft monochromatic

field

the

afford very

contrast-screens
to

his eye

use

much

case

of bacteria

are

not

of

stained

with

An

the

in

washing well
(aqueous) of
allowed

If the

in

water,

it

for

say

the

Should

dry.

to

may

be

it should

formalin

five minutes

and

then

fainter.

To

meet

the

aurantia

made

with

with

gelatine plate
such

of

is

of

the

In

specimens
of

its

great

stained

with

to

place

an

box

into

an

hyposulphite of

soda

completely clears, and

half

an

film

uppermost.

hour, into

by Canada
of his lamp

heat

of

formalin
This

dried.

it
difficulty

(of
after

solution

Left

more
gelatine very much
solution,and
consequently the

is best
and

in

screen

rest

this

use

melt
a

this

solution

for

about
much

solution

of the

will

which

the
of

dried.

the colour

water,

is

in

water)

make
to

and

is apt to

to

will

than

balsam

and

may

wine

the

after

fatigue.

morning in plain water

single glass not be of sufficiently

spiritsof

observer

contrast-screen

be, after the rinsing,allowed

(equal parts

the

these

next

united

microscopist finds the

screen

of

until

dark-room)

both

enable

example,
a

strength

any

makes

easily detected,

less

of

way

of

colour, two

Here

by using

pot-green

colour, however, these -filters

for

"

the

; whilst

much

know

we

of these

very

green

red

dye mentioned,
night, it is rinsed the

all

and

with

best

Either

preparing
side-plate straight out

solution

aqueous

deep

of

easy

lantern

ordinary

solution

not

are

is formed

aurantia.

course

and

use
quite so much
methylene blue.

convenience

and

that

The

and
great relief,

longer

301

Ltd., or

already spoken.

red-stained

be.

by Kodak,

screen

have

WORK

stain

simple aqueous
deeper colour

Some

treating with the formalin.

powerful a lightis reallynot required by the bacteriologist.
Nernst
of opinion it is the fault of the five-shilling
are

lamp

for

Too

ordinary

work.

substitute,we

have

elsewhere

stated,

make
candle-power Zig-zag lamp of Steam's
of the filament)with
an
(because of his peculiar arrangement
intervening slip of ground glass, or the globe of the lamp
the ordinary oilitself
laboratories
sand
frosted.
Some
use
lamp, whilst others prefer an incandescent
gas-lamp to all other
is to

the

use

"

"

The

32

green

screens

glass, sold

by

with

is called

what

Baker

are
or

called

Watson,

of

"Signal Green,"

66, 56, or 61. The

Holborn, London, must

special green

No.

which

is different.

not

be confused

opinion, to their

our

The

remarks

concerning
both

them

student, and

from

them

saving

from

The

of

this

of

the

the

found

instances
in

the

mention
have

been

few

until

which

thought

however,

have

only

previous stands, where

the

few

in

instrument

one

taken

up

the

highly complicated

recently
of the

been

put

upon
In

modern.

more

to

state

hitherto

have

we

the

years
not

are

now,

several

subject of

recent

which

it desirable

than

the

to

in

hence

thought

details

more

vision,

embodied

have

the market.
we

experienced,

has

microscope

"

stands

this

commencing

more

which

late ; but

subject somewhat
warmly
and
beautifullyingenious
doing

or

microscope

cause.

manufacturers

We

the

double

petrologist

been

never

Several

alone.

the

Petrological Microscope

special requirements
have

objection,

properlyfocussing

those

to

manifest,and

particularapplicationof
petrology has been growing of

"

with

perusal by

diplopia

The

number

considerable,

commence

be of comfort

itself

arise

to

some

to

worthy

having

occasionally makes
by

about

well
even

may

offers

keeping both eyes open, but

only

also, are

heat

use.

those

to

not

MICROSCOPE

their great

; but

illuminants
in

PETROLOGICAL

THE

302

in

several

mentioned

figures mostly

explain

themselves.
The

first is

by Messrs.

Bausch

"

of Rochester, X.V.

Lomb,

(Fig. 175), English agents: 37-38, Hatton

we
E.C.I, which
brieflydescribe as follows :

Garden,

London,

"

Base, horseshoe
Pillar,finished

form.
same

as

base.

stage-plate,having scales
circular,revolving, with vulcanite
at
right angles for the location of the specimen,
graduated in millimetres
circumference
graduated to 360",with vernier ; centringscrews.
spring clips,
of the complete substage,with rack and
pinion
Substage, a modification
Stage,

adjustment for vertical movement.

rack
and
adjustment by standard
Focussing adjustments, coarse
j"
micrometer
screw
fine adjustment by standard
having pointer
movement,
of extra
and graduated milled head
large size.
and
lens by rack
pinion.
Adjustment of Bertrand's
slots
for
tube with universal
s lens,
Main
thread,
quartz wedge and
lens,
prism-box and Brrtrand's
sliding prism-box, iris diaphragm between
size
standard
draw-tube
eyepieces. Nosepiece with
nickelled, carrying
centringadjustment.
Polarisingapparatus.

The

polariserand

analyser are

extra

large Nicol

of the

lens

condenser

adjustments.
modify the light.
The
polarisingprism is
be

carried

Leitz

of

was

in

model

hitherto

thrown

to

Fig. 176

for the

boldly contrived

than

which

of the

commonly
The

of

firm

takes

and

its draw-tube

are

handle

more
room
deny
the analyser with
its circle

cannot

we

"

hold

various

"

carried

measurements

Bertrand's

to

hitherto

coarse

any
was

ment
move-

adjustment lately
form

more

for

better

divided

out

This

by its

to
use

for

the

curtailment

purposes
of

the

Further, it affords

designed fittingto
360",enabling the
to

be

more

easily

effected.
efficiently

and

the

by

risking

large in diameter.

very

when

convenience

the

considerable

very

place of the older

using the instrument

of photography, as it thereby prevents any
low powers
field of view when
are
employed.
is

The
for

room

for the

of fine

type

the

massive

convenient

arrangements
new

in

with.

met

tube

the

tube, but

by the

devised

in the

is made

change

larger

shown

more

more

his latest

and

the

No

of

Hence

be carried about
without
microscope can
injury to, or straining of, the fine adjustment as
in the former
likelyto occur
type of stand.
which

is used

microscope

much

be

may

so

when

previous instruments.

itself affords

arch

the

moreover

tube,

instrument

instrument

an

portion affords

upper

polariser

the

requirements for

purpose.
Dr.
Lincio

of his

any

manipulation of specimens
size,and

by

disturbing

in the main
the

the

many

speciallydesigned of

solid character

and

the

demand

believe

we

been

has

"

side when

one

opinion that

constructed

suggested

"

below

slidingprism box
opticalaxis of

perfectpetrological
microscope
size than

side without

one

is mounted

into the

thrown

polarisedlightis desired,or
in ordinary work.
Herr

to

iris diaphragm

An

arranged that it can

MICROSCOPE

instantlythrown

be

can

of the

any
to

PETROLOGICAL

THE

304

same

be

in

lens slides into

being capable of removal

use.

See

219,

page

The

nosepicce, of
centring adjustments
The

the

very
the

\\hen

the lens is not

to hold

required

footnote.
solid

character, is provided wit

usual

universal

thread.

large revolving stage, the upper

plate
being divided
by rulings to facilitate the fixing in position of
slides on
for bringing
the stage, centring screws
being added
into adjustment the whole
to obtain
so
as
perfect
arrangement
the
The
optical axis.
alignment with
ordinary rectangul
instrument

has

and

tube, the carrier made

305

176"

PetrologicalMicroscope (new model) by

Leitz.
20

PETROLOGICAL

THE

3o6
movements

present, and

are

attached

are

MICROSCOPE

different

to

verniers, divided

parts of the

millimetres,

into

instrument

so

position effected by any of these three motions

The
modifications
are
substage arrangements

the

form, but
that

be

can

made
to

as

so

screw,

fine helical wheel-rim

of

to

operator

object during

an

We

measurements.

adjustments for

the

of

pleasure with

obtaining the

the

usual

the

stage

endless

an

ment
adjust-

exact

operation involving goniometrical

any

have

in

mentioned.

placed beneath

itself at

engage

assist the

is

record

to

as

been

not

able

find

to

which

substage condenser,

that

there

hope

we

are

be

can

easily added.
Swift

illustrated

logicalstand

design of Mr. Allan

the

This

attention
to their petropaid much
has been
built after
Fig. 177, which

Son, too, have

"

in

B. Dick.

differs from

instrument

structed
petrolo^ical microscopes hitherto conWhen
of the object is required,
in having a fixed stage.
revolution
the same
effectis produced by revolving both prisms and eyepiece en bloc
The
the objectwhich
instead.
turn
on
spider lines in the eyepiece therefore
in posiremains
stationary,so that the most minute specimen is maintained
tion
entire
and
hence
the
the
rotation,
during
necessityfor delicate centring
of revolution
is altogether
ensure
to
accurate
concentricity
adjustments
circle rotates
A divided
obviated.
simultaneously with the prisms.
and
the polariser,
in the
A converging lens is fitted over
another, mounted
be combined
with it when
slide A, can
is required,
greater
convergence
the
horizontal
slides
H
of
in
the
tube
G
and
two
are
optic
microscope, each

of which
for

is furnished

with

most

lens

and

clear

The

aperture.

the optic axis of crystals ; and

showing rings round
exhibitingoptic images in very minute
crystals.
in the vertical plane.

the

is divided

stage

to

millimetres

in both

directions

G, is

one,

upper

Both

is for

The

lower

one,

have

H,

ments
adjust-

for

recording the
tion
micrometer, undula-

positionof an object. E is a slot for the insertion of a

latter can
also
be
used
the
over
plate,or quartz wedge : the two
The
fine
is
differential
with
milled
a
screw
motion,
adjustment
eyepiece.
into 80 parts, each
thus
divided
division being equal to o'oi
head
mm.,
be
used
the
of
it
refractive
for
index
to
enabling
finding
transparent
any
The
be revolved
mineral.
polarisingand analysing prisms may
dently
indepenmounted
each
other.
The
allows
which
of
an
arm
polariseris
upon
of its being turned
out of the axis of the microscope.
A
Klein's
to
drop into the open aperture of the
quartz plate is made
slide

it

G, and

can

also

analysing prism
out).
readily thrown
An

observation
the

one

the

fitted

be used
can

For

analyser

over

the

be

in

holder

fitted

eyepiece not

who

the

require
\oukl

being

stage.
the

below

mounted

those

on

to

be

suitable

slide

(which

photograph
of considerable
for the

purpose.

slides

can

be

under

advantage

Fig.

177.

"

Petrological Microscope by Swift

(Mr.

Allan

Dick's

Design.)

308

i;S.

Sons'

Advanced

Slancl
Pctrological

MICROSCOPES

METALLURGICAL

309

microscope is required for non-petrologicalstudies the analyser is

condenser
the polariserremoved, and
the achromatic
thrown
out of position,
iris
with
furnished
is
The
in
inserted
its
condenser
A
an
diaphragm
place.
for oblique and the other for dark-ground illumination.
and two stops
one
If the

"

they call

of the
The
bar

to

various

the

arranged, and
most

critical

stage

is

carry

contrivances

users

are

circular

brass

object.

the

vertical directions.

this instrument

In

of

constructed

petrologicalstand

overlooked.

be

not

advanced

an

have

Sons

"

Watson

Messrs.

(Fig. 178),which must

everything is excellently

to

finished

It is divided

dead

stage,

as

requirements

after.
black, having

millimetres

to

mechanical

separate

the

meet

carefullylooked
one,

what

late years

sliding

in horizontal

figured,with

and

divisions,

be attached
at once
giving a long range of motion, is included,and can
the
divided
The
circumferential
is
of
when
to degrees,
edge
stage
required.
is fitted reading to five minutes.
vernier
The
and
rotates
centrically
cona
stage
and
are
centring screws
provided for adjustment to
completely,
of different objectives.
the axes
The
be lifted
to focus,and
to centre, rack work
can
substage has screws
in it upon
in
when
aside with the apparatus contained
set
a
hinged joint;
of a clamping lever.
positionit is securely fixed by means
with
The
draw-tube
At the
actuated
one
by rackwork.
body is provided

and

end

lower

lens, etc.
it

of this tube

the. universal

At

end

the

analyser

an

lower

of the

is fitted to

thread
is

body

fitted in boxes, which

be

can

Klein's

carry

Bertrand's

quartz plate, and

instantlywithdrawn

above

when

not

required.
The
eyepiece is provided with cross
webs, and above it is fitted a rotating
circle divided
silver reading against a fixed bevelled
circle at the top
on
of the draw-tube, and
carrying an accurately adjusted analyser prism and
which
be
A
either separately or in combination.
used
calcsparplate,
may
polariserhaving a speciallylarge prism is included, the rotating circle of
silvered
is divided
which
a
on
being indicated
edge, each quarter-circle
A removable
by a spring catch.
condensing system of high angle is fitted
the prism for showing brushes
above
in crystals,
etc.

The

Microscope

for

Metallurgical Use

study of Metallurgy by the aid of the microscope has

much
of late ; so
that
been
so
increasing very rapidly indeed
in Germany
the investigationsby Sorby about
1864, Martens
The

about
have

but
So

1878,
raised

an

much

by

followed

what

might

interestingstudy
is this the

case

and

Stead, Roberts-Austen,

have
into

been
an

called

and

exact

that within

in

the

olden

others,

days nothing

far-reachingscience.

last ten

years

consider-

METALLURGICAL

3io
able
of

has

skill

inventive

MICROSCOPES
been

brought
which

instrument

furnishing an

to

would

bear

upon

meet

the

the

subject

requirements

peculiar to the study in question. Of these there are several.

reflected
to
For
use
instance, it is requisite,of course,
light,
because
the specimens are
be
necessarilyopaque,1and this can
of

only perfectly effected

by the employment
the vertical illuminator, already described.
is itself

piece of apparatus
with.

end, it

Attached

to

receives

the

illuminant

by

one

or

nosepiece of

the

being projected into

more
diaphragms) in

itself

is in

specimen)

affair ; hence, when

must

be

not

adjustment

set

microscope
be

the

altogether different

of stand

and

tube

the

to

of

in build

lowered

raise

the

from

ment
instru-

the

be

of

construction

to

on

fidgety

the

of

use

cannot

made

the

(guarded

it is reflected

the

one

auxiliary
light exactly into

of

forbids

at

an

troublesome

order,

This

the

as

in

hole

Arranging

beams

deal

light from

small

little

to

microscope

(from which

touched.2

hence,

its side.

called

this very

other, the

through

the

is

arrangement
the

somewhat

once

it

have
to
specimen, arrangements
means
up to the objective,which

form

the

objective in

to throw
bull's-eyecondenser
this little hole just mentioned

the

But

troublesome

what

coarse

to

the

specimen
a
special

of which

any

we

the vertical illuminator

spoken. Then, to use
successfully
in very
short
to be speciallymade
the objectiveshave
mounts,
have

the

that

so

lens

of

examination

the result

devised

is

shall

each

slices of

Other

pieces of material.
so

of

addition, provision has

In

illuminator.
for the

back

by Martens

ten

some

have
is

that

be

to

also

made
of

to

seems

the

only

not

sensible-si/.ed
be

to

to

considered,

highly complicated.

ago
those

years

close

quite

metals, but

details

instrument

an

be

have

That

satisfied

of certain
faddists, and
requirement possiblesave
of technical
in a very
is used
indeed
large number
colleges.
have
constructed
Quite recently, however, Messrs. R. " J. Beck
the
Rosenhain
model, which is said to have improvements of

every

"

"

be ground so
Occasionally,for exceptionalreasons, platesof metal
may
certain
extremely thin as to transmit light" anyhow, through
parts" in which
case
they can be used on an ordinary instrument.
1

Messrs.

illuminator

"

Watson

which

Son's

meets

adjusted. It has a
bull's-eye.See page

this

have

difficultyof

self-contained
209.

recently made
electric

new

form

after

the

of

\"

light

focussing
bulb, a condensing lens, and

is
a

METALLURGICAL
screw

which
off.
teeth
from

edge

into which
the

of
a

the

key, which
with

slide by 0*005
micrometer

pinion Tr engages.
focussing screen

Is

"

Zeiss

bears

screw

(5 M)

mm-

This
of the

directlyby hand, this

arm

when

is turned

the

by

scale, by

immediately read
of oblique
crest
in motion

set

of Hooke's

means

after Martens.

The

St.

micrometer

aside

divided

be

can

camera

rod

wooden

be
of

pinion

MetallurgicalMicroscope

joined to a removable
a
:
revolving arm

can

consists

screw

positionof the

Fig. 179.

moved

the

of

movements

The

of this micrometer

head

The

M.

MICROSCOPES

after

pinion
screw

easing

the

is

nected
con-

is to

be

screw

specialform of stage, suggested by the Royal Institution for Te" 1

also be added
the stage (afterremoval, if
to
Research, Charlottenburg, can
of the Abbe
illuminatingapparatus). This appliance is fitted
necessary,
with adjusting-screws,
the surface of metalliferous
to enable
so
as
prepara-

METALLURGICAL

MICROSCOPES

313

to be
to the
adjusted vertically
tions,held in positionby spring stage clips,
axis.
optical
The
to the tube,
illuminatingaccessories for reflected light are attached
and
the
action
rack
for
is
whose
pinion
focussing
preparation not required

for this

of illumination.

manner

vertical

higher magnifications the

by means
magnifications,obtained

With

of

illuminator

is

For

employed.

objectivesgiving

sufficient

object
is used, or a thin plane-glass,
distance, either a plane or a concave
inclined at 45" to the axis,is placed between
object and objectiveso as to
The
to the axis.
partiallyreflect upon the object the lightfallingvertically
low

mirror

plane

and

that

so

manner,

is

gimbal

The

end

upper

of

cylinder
at

by

is made
The
A

for

small

or

of the

The
It has

body

limb

which

cradle

to

to

it.

lower

movable

manner

vision
pro-

manner

mirrors.

the

as

object distance

to

and

limb

is

the

of

angle

and

provided

with

means

of

and

horizontal
which

base,
strain

no

horizontal

when

socket

the

is

down.

is almost

the

at

projection of

Thus, it is claimed, there

purposes

and

up

instrument

the

30",and

about
a

on

different lines from

racks

stage

that

arranged

it rests

quite

on

properly proportioned truss.

front portion having the
upper
portion having a wide dovetail

front

so

Microscope

the

holding

an

visual

for

used
The

built

constitute

to

centre

support

when
joint fitting

Fig. 180, is

the

vertical

the

same

used, according

throughout,

positionfor photomicrography
forms

be

solid bracket

Besides, it is jointed on
from

exactly the

is also
this

In

slide-

mirror.

Metallurgical

designed

been

T-girder section
rigidlyattached, and

in balance

is to

in

seen

fittingupon

in

"Rosenhain"

has

of the

which

on

illuminated.

field to be

microscope, as
preceding.

opticalaxis"
clamping-screw.

movement

attached

are

This
the

by

extensive

plane glass

The

the

third

and

cylinder itself is situated

The

parallelto

very

plane glasses

large

extent

tube

the

is secured

and

direction

(Fig.Sp}.
by a clamping-screw at the
is verticallymovable
in a
stem
secured
by a second
clamping

This

illustration"

elevation.

usual

is secured

which

SI.

stem

in the

gimbal

in any

conveniently turned

rod,

in the

seen

to

on

hand

to

small

together in

mounted

are

be

can

joined

desired

any

screwed

they

the

not

"

screw

mirrors

concave

for

clamp

for

spiralrack

and

the

on

micrography
photo-

holding

bull's-eyes,etc.
The

lowering

raisingand
is

and
vertical,

horizontal.

is
to

is by

focussingadjustment

coarse

the

stage

further

for

in. when

is i" in.
fitting

distance
the
and

of

3!

in. when

instrument
fits

is at

the
a

of

pinion,

instrument

slightangle
broad

or

dovetail.

wide,
by
of a micrometer
which
screw
focussingadjustment is by means
it is claimed
situated in the opticaxis,immediately under the object,where
is not immediately apparent.
be of specialutility,
but for what
reason
The

The

fine

The

body

nosepiece

consists

for

of

very

thick

tube, at

carrying the object glass

with

means

the

lower

end

of

which

centringadjustments, by

is
which

Fig.
different
around

MICROSCOPES

METALLURGICAL

314

iSo.-R.

objectglasses

which

can

"

be

the stage rotates.

J.

Beck's

"

adjusted to

Rosenhain

the exact

"

Model.

axis

of

the

microscope

MICROSCOPES

METALLURGICAL
actuated

iris

diaphragm
nosepiece,by means
An

by

which

of

the

behind

aperture

object glass

the

the

behind

immediately

is fixed

lever

315

be

can

depth of focus or for cutting off reflections.

dovetailed
Three
fittingsare supplied at the lower end of the body,
attached
to
their diaphragms are
which
all illuminating appliances and
thin
include
various
These
instrument.
glass and prism illuminators
The
parabolic speculum, the
throwing light through the object glass.
between
glass illuminator,and the Sorby's ^-fieldflat speculum for use
constricted

object glass

the

required. At the
is provided, so
glass

that

thread

when

using

in the

ordinary

low

very

can

also

thin
the

directions,an

amici

attached

these

be

by

provided

for

effect

and

provided

in the

arranged

that

axis, can

be

obtained

with

the

illumination

the

on

is in

object glasses

be

can

sated
compen-

and

pinions of
and

instrument,

the

is always concentric
used

are

for

in. of

designed

that, with

for

with

they

with

are

the

their

2-in.
so

optic
travel.

the

exception of
be removed, there is no
projectionto interfere
shadows
when
a very
oblique pencil of light is

stage

cast

or

of

motions

the

can

watching
placing
object in
the exact
optic axis of
the

body.

form

complete

when

adjustments
stage springs,which

the

the

complete rotation,which
of

The

angles

for

clamped

for

by spiralracks
directions,

in both

motions

Mechanical

and

of different

variation

any

be

may

rotation

of

centre

centring nosepiece

the

travel,are

different

at

The

required position.
instrument,

rotation,which

complete

illumination

of

by

or

power

way.

stage has

The

the

all

for

extremity of this tube

when

any

different

the

lengthening the body-tube

the standard
a ring with
objectextra
focussing adjustment can be obtained
photographic lenses which might not focus
is

draw-tube

supplementary

in

into

simultaneously

for

glass screens

colours

illumination"

further

prism or bull's-eyefor
fittings.

the

coloured

object,also the
light of different

and

illuminatingwith

its

increasing

for

so

are

employed.
A

efficiency

same

the

fixes

on

and

movements

apparatus
stage

to the

stage

rotation

remains

bracket.

of the

level

The

stage, and
of the

whole

use

with
a

the

the

latter

instrument

standard

and

stage

is well

table

of the

partakes
while
itself,

is fixed

not

thought

objects
microscopes.
which
bridges

transparent
model

supplementary

microscope

possessed by

fixture,as

supplied
obtained

that

as

It fits above

it over

is

attachment

transparent

with the

the

to the
out

mechanical

illuminating

stage but

and

to

the

finished.

parabolicLieberkuhn, Sorby's silver reflector with special objectives are

objectglass constructed, not for
supplied, including a ^-in. oil immersion
increased
of giving an
the purpose
angular aperture, but to avoid reflections
focus
of
and
to
or
penetration than is possiblewith a
give greater depth
A

similar

angle dry glass.

Quite

forms, the
for

use

in

different
first

This

appears

class of

to

Microscope designed

and

instrument

being designed by

workshops,

be

the

for the

other

Royal

very

useful

is made
Mr.
a

addition.

by

Swift

in two

J. E. Stead, F.R.S., etc.,

Compound
Metallurgical

Arsenal,

Woolwich.

METALLURGICAL
The

first

where
laid

on

round

MICROSCOPES

(Fig. 181) is arranged to be employed in engineering works

in the lathe or when
when
large forgings,etc., require examination
the ground.
It is speciallymassive.
A solid stage is made
to swing
that the object glass can
so
into
focus
be brought
the steel or iron
on

l8l.

"

Swift

"

Son's

Compou

Metallurgical

Microscope.

forging
inside
be

the

or

tube

lowered
stand

metal

under

the foot or
casting, upon which
slides
the
glass
carrying
object
to

is

sufficient distance.

rigidlyheld
examination.

in any
When

fork
within
of

rests.

the

To
outer

effect

this,an

barrel, and
wire

can

a
By means
simple
strap
rope
position required on the massive piece of
in focus the positionof the barrel is fixed

317

Fig jg^." swift

"

Son's New

Microscope.
Compound Metallurgical

METALLURGICAL

318
by

side

one

(Fig. 182)
taken.

be

then

be

can

at

screw

camera

used

is

of the

rack

placed

When

in the

MICROSCOPES
and

the

laboratory or office,and

When

barrel,

in the

employed

not

pinion.

of

top

on

so

and

fixed the conical

photograph

fittingshop,

is suitable

can

the

microscope
metallographic

for all

work.

second

The

variety (Fig. 183) is the New

Microscope originallydesigned for

Compound
the

lurgical
Metal-

Royal

Arsenal,

Woolwich.
The

adjustment

coarse

2^ in.
being

when
;

diameter

is by

the

spiralrack

draw-tube

and

pinion,and

is removed

the

it allows

of

optical tube
photographs
photographic

objects with the smaller type of

the ordinary oculars.
The
slow
motion
is by
Ariston"
lever fine adjustment, described
the
in this book, and
elsewhere
and originaldesign which
of the object,
the stage is of entirelynew
admits
in the horizontal
after having been
focussed
position,being tilted or turned
in
the light impinging on
the
direction, so that
object from
any
any
be
is maintained, thus
examined
to
source
thoroughly
enabling objects
of focus, and
at
out
so
point of inclination without being thrown
any
different
with
the
of
levelling
supplementary
entirelydoing away
types
the
the
This
is
effected
of
base
the
by
holding
stages.
stage
part of
of a circle or
basin, a
moving in the segment
specimen under examination
the
it
in
or
holding
carrying
specimen, the
corresponding segment working
point at which the object is viewed being the centre of the circle. The stage
made

lenses.

of large

or

coarse

draw-tube

The

takes

"

mechanical

is fitted with

for shifting the

movements

object

in

rectangular

entirelyrevolved round the optic axis of

the
microscope. It is also provided with a rack and pinion for moving the
from
the objective. The
ordinary 3 in. x i in. slide
object up or down
of two
is held
steel springs which
the top of the stage by means
upon
in
of
held
Pieces
removable.
are
positionby four clamping
metal, etc., are
dogs slidingin dovetails and are held in positionby small clamping-screws.
The
optical tube is divided to show the positionat which any objectivewill
allow
of an object being tilted without going out of focus.
directions

and

the

specimen

can

be

Metallurgical

the
name

Made

is

of

the

"Works"

originallyaccording

Coventry,
both

it

seems

in this country

to

student
to

appearance

Watson
by Messrs.
It
Microscope.

sold

Heathcotc, research

S"

"

differing in

pattern of instrument

preceding

WATSON

Messrs.

By

Microscope

have
and

to
met

the

Sons

is shown

specificationof

Messrs.
with

"

abroad, for it

from

any

the

under
in

of

Fig. 184.

Mr.

II.

L.

Rud:_ji"Whit\vorth, Ltd.,

pronounced approval
has been
supplied to such

very

PORTABLE

320
firms

Messrs.

as

Sons

"

MICROSCOPES

Armstrong, Whitworth

Maxim,

not

the

mention

to

Railway Companies in England,

Navy are in possession of two for
foot is of the

The
what

angle the instrument

The

is mounted

stage

fitted by dovetailed

their

into

the

several

of

the

Imperial Japanese

works.1

affords great

substantial

very

and

Vickers,

no
stability

matter

at

inclined.

be

may
on

Co., Messrs.

Mint

whilst

which

tripodpattern,

"

bracket,which

is

the back

at

frame, in which, by rack

and

pinion,it
body of the microscope. It is usually
motion
is provided with verniers.
and
supplied with mechanical
Complete
rotation can
be made
that specimens maybe
under
examined
so
every aspect
of illumination.
A slidingbar is fitted to a recess
in the stage ; this bar may
that either a levellingstage or metal
be instantly
removed
so
holder may
be
raised

be

can

grooves

lowered

or

to

from

or

the

substituted.
All
and

the

auxiliaryapparatus

necessary

for their separate

supplied with the instrument

a
substage with rackwork,
that the microscope can
be employed

are

provided
mirror,and other details are added, so
for examining extremely thin sections
transmitted
where
lightis used.
purpose
means

; whilst

use

There
been

seems

doubt

no

in

that

of

metal

or

considerable

for any

other

must

have

time

and

more
perfecting this arrangement,
especially in rendering it both a practicaland
portable one,
far as possible of additions
devoid
that
be regarded by
so
may
in everyday use.
as
some
superfluousand perhaps troublesome

spent

Of

recent

devising

years
the

especially for

felt.

much

been
that

the

sciences

home,

and,

well

has

This

being
be

his

on

originated,of
now

so

rounds.

the
of

one

use

somewhat

the issue of the

introduced

spoken

of.

new

of

the

in

arts

Further

still,the

that

instrument

superior type.

form

of this work

the

titioner
praccarried

Messrs.

of Metallurgical

of

similar

is not

For

and
from

of

parts

remote

fact

away

researches

diseases

has

the

profession,when

an

about
the

is

user

built

was

from

medical

first edition

horizontal

course,

used

much

when

wanted

respects the

as

demand

toy, but

have

purpose

microscope that
of being easily carried
a

subject of malaria, and other

which
require investigation in

character

Since

of

want

the

upon

the

often

may

world,

Microscopes

instrument

is
on

Portable

this
Watson

Microscope

the
mere

reasc

"
which

is

PORTABLE

portable microscopes

MICROSCOPES
of

are

two

321

classes, those

suitable

for

low-power work, and those adapted for critical examinations.

These
in the following figures can
be disseverated
by mere
inspection.
One

the

of

Fig. 185, by
find

no

Fig. 185.
"

Leitz

fault

Leitz:s

useful

most
:

have

we

with

it

of

for the

first purpose

for years
and
can
employed one
description. It is called
any

Fig. 186."

Hand

in

is shown

Microscope.

Baker's

"Diagnostic"
Microscope.

Abbe
condenser
with
microscope. A chromatic
handle
substantial
that
is provided, and
iris diaphragm
so
a
the objective
of a ring just above
the fine adjustment by means
be easilyactuated.
Coarse
can
adjustment by a slidingtube.
is the
by
Another
Diagnostic
entirely different model
show
how
C. Baker
(Fig. 186). Dimension^
given below
very
is
made.
it
how
and
portably
lightly
consequently
very

demonstration

"

"

The

dimensions

of

this little instrument

may

be

mentioned:
21

PORTABLE

322
of stage,

width
of

feet,7

is far

loj

One

7 in.

steadier
4

2|

in. ;

MICROSCOPES

depth,

in.

back

(from

to

front); spread

Although exceedingly light this arrangement

than

it looks.

It folds

into

of the

smallest

microscopes

Small

manufactured

ever

Portable

the

medical

is very

Microscope.

probably that designed by Swift.

Fig. 187 shows
Fig. 1 88 packed for travelling. It has a mechanical
altogether is an arrangement
a centring substage, and
to

case,

3 in.

Fig. 187.-Swift's

suited

small

very

being
practitioner,

it open,

stage

and
and

admirably

fit for examination

of

MICROSCOPES

PORTABLE

malaria, anaemia,

in

blood

called

fairlybe
the

both

and

of

bottles

and

for

intended
are

the

not

the

by

the
requisite,

weight

arrangement
for all-round
may

use

not

considered.

be

with
we

desired, and
We

have

where
where

with

this

the

6J

measures

is

objectives
cordiallyrecommend
work,

reagents,

only

measures

microscope be

If the

where

two

clinical

hold

to

88.

amateur,

only

case

and

details

Ib.

made

case,

solutions

other

blood-counting slide, pipette, and

8 x 4 x
if in. and weighs under

Fig.

the

as

It may

conditions.

inflammatory

pocket instrument,

instrument

323

under
to

the

ij

above

3^

Ib.

medical

additions

IT3^in.
This

and

is

an

profession

expensive instrument
portabilityhas to be mostly

more

arrangement

used

twelfth

PORTABLE

324
without

has

care

Of
the

MICROSCOPES

difficulty,
although we
to be employed.

the

more

severe

portable variety is

admit

types of stand,
that

certain

one

of

amount

the

by Leitz (Fig. 189).

most

of

extra

perfectof

MICROSCOPES

PORTABLE
This

is suited

instrument

being constructed
heavy ; but, where
of

advantage

hold

to

weight

for the
several
is not

greater steadiness

good

substage,

upon

the

but

mechanical

no

of the

addition

is

most

325
critical work, the

case

It is somewhat

accessories.

importance, the
readily felt. It has a fairly
relying
stage, the makers
of

auxiliaryform

material

when

necessity demands.

Fig.

190,

Fig. 190.
It

packs

ii

7f

Messrs.

they
the

call

in

away
x

in.

special want

instrument

and

case,

shown

in

that

measures

approximately.

Watson
their

"

Sons

High-power
of
one

those
that

have

recently introduced

Portable
who
can

Microscope,

which

model
meets

require an exceptionally strong

be
employed when
using high

326

Fig. 191."

Watson

"

Sons'

High-power

Portable

Microscope.

INSTRUMENTS

SEMI-PORTABLE

328

Semi-portable
THE
The

for

idea

of

Instruments

MUSEUM

introducing this

MICROSCOPE
class

of instrument

that will show

is to

provide

series
a
a
microscope
of objects or portions of one
that is
object in succession, and one
so
arranged as to guard against the possibilityof any accident,
from
We
whether
mention
intent.
two.
ignorance or malicious
first used to be made
The
by Leitz (Fig. 193).
museum

Fig. 193.

In this instrument
from

rotation

left

"

the
to

twelve

Museum

to

The

interior

of the

correct

The

detachable

apertures
drum

for illumination

contains

mirror

drums

Both

damage.

in

metal

sheet

of

drum

are

observation.

and

is movable

which
the

of

for

provided with
supports
latter being separately retained

spring registerat the back of

positionof each specimen as it comes
microscope is only provided with a

all directions.
the

twelve

capable

drum

right, and

protect the specimens from

perforated by

by Leitz.

stage is replaced by

preparations ; the
position by clips. Another

serves

Microscope

student

to

drum

under
coarse

in

ensures

tion.
observarack

and

SEMI-PORTABLE

the

The

powers.

which
figure),

is

accordingly solelyadapted

stand

is

supplied in

The
"

of the instrument

use

model

is shown

conveniently designed
several

specialcase

than

doing

for

"

in
the

Fig. 194.
former, and

with

use

(not shown
the

specimens.

Sons
It is

in

injury,whilst

any

studying

Watson

for

called

perhaps

is said

the
more

embody

to

important improvements
previous patterns.
upon
the
twelve
a
the
dust-proof case,
objects, mounted
on
all

Under

Fig. 194.

standard

solid

very

Messrs.

by

arrangement

Waterhouse"

prevents the public from

free

allowing the

329

and

pinion adjustment
low

INSTRUMENTS

Museum

"

are
slips,

Microscope by

placed

construction.

The

upon

Watson

"

Sons.

revolving

surfaces

which

on

brass

drum

these

of

objects

machine-planed, thereby ensuring proper focus for all the

The
change from one to the next is made.
specimens when
any
of a milled
head
drum
is rotated
in
by means
(not shown
be changed without
the figure),
that the specimens can
so
opening
rest

are

the

case.

which

Fine

adjustment

projectswell
is inclined

at

out
a

of

is effected
the

convenient

case,

by moving

and

angle, as

the

back

shown

the
of

eyepiece

the

in the

ment
instru-

figure.

MICROSCOPES

330

FOR

Microscopes
The
the

of

class

whether

his

hobby

If his

be

to

of botanical

the

of the

or

elects

he

of
he

as

of

As

prefer
find

obtains

Of

from

Zeiss's

and
well

the

nothing

to

For

the

of

but

doms,
of

finest

consider
will

the
It

stand

be

they

as

Baker's

we

and

it be

nothing

of

very

discuss

still is all that

for

be

this

two-thirds,
said

of

respect

short

objectives are
It will

the

be

of

lower

the

the

finest

demanded.
necessary,

for
a

type,

they leave

fine lens.
of

diatoms

mostly

are

power

the

animal
to

is

what

quality,as

mounting

to

but, as

best

excellent

Koristka,

is

class

satisfied with

well

or

authorities

most

two-thirds

new

however,

come,

whether

kind

all of

are

objective of still

an

highestorder.

the

will

animal

portable type,

need

more

the

the

in

Holoscopic series, Swift's

especially with

diatoms,

the

"

often

kind,

any

student

Watson's

desired.

When

selected.

no

the

as

towards

one-and-a-half,

fairly

the

objectives necessary,
three,

be

required

never

selection, identification,and

J-in. and

hand,

recommended

objects
of

the

highest

well

as

bent

cheaper

by Leitz, Reichert,

be

his

more

first two,

the

achromatics,

those

as

study

said

very

already

small

are

powers

than

more

other

stand

the

regards

regards the quarter,

he

the

as

the

stand

have

we

somewhat

high

very

quarter.

enjoyment

already

of

be

the

But, should

life and

pond

rarely employ
and

such

have

not

respects

those

him.

may

necessary,

work.

need

as

of

suit

perhaps

may

such-like, \ve

instrument

some

probably

examination

he

and

extreme

or

expensive type ; but if,on the other

study fungi or such-like, he will require a

to

kingdom,

entirelyupon

intellectual

vegetable kingdom,

from

apart

most

objectives,and
will

amateur,
almost

and

amusement

installation,both

good

the

to

low-power work, medium,

the

specimens

objective and
class

from

reaped

Work

depends

man,

is for

WORK

Critical

suited

business

magnifications.
are

for

instrument

or
professional

CRITICAL

of

study
or
vegetable

minutii
kin"

secondary markings

possible stands
//

is critical

therefore, for

work

us

carefully these first-class stands, after

which
the finest objectives made, those

and

now

which
are

of
to
we

called

apochromatics."
is but

fair

remark

(Fig. 29), which

scopist

for

very

we

great

to

make

believe
number

the

that
has

been
of

typical Englisl

before

years

"

the

viz.

micro-

that

b)

MICROSCOPES
Lealand

"

Powell

Messrs.

objectives were

when

present

by microscopists

long

so

ago

as
high power
requirements demanded

One

moment

present

331

such

fulfils the

the

to

up

of

made

daily use, still

in

are

although designed

"

not

WORK

CRITICAL

FOR

at

would

be

tempted to say the designer lived before his time ! Handsomely

made
tremely
throughout of hand-finished brass, it is necessarily exexpensive, and consequently out of the reach of many.
earliest

the

of

One

aspect from

the

equal, none

could

had

former,

years,

and

performance.

The

several

is shown

in

surpass

the

earlier

models

their

of

two

Continental

the

of

of this firm
in

find

to

yet

latest

in the handle
especially seen
objection to their previous designs.

If the

draw-tube

extra

"

"long-tube

of

additional

also
"

and

Nelson

model,

designed by
a

one

the

claims

and
of

mechanician

is

their

in

sleeve

the

very

One

by

C.

Baker

considerable

greatest

only

excelled

used

for

great convenience, and

designed and
highest order

our

arrange

be

to

we

of the

omission.

well

firms.

other

by
"

instrument

serious

stands,

generally of

made

be

firm would

centring adjustments

for it is

substage condenser,
finished

the

objectivesit would

regret the absence

Several

enable

to

for

with

fault

We

improvement, which
which
for lifting,
removes
an

is

an

may

daily use

any

the

figureshows

others

in

(Carl Zeiss).

constant

very

different

so

Though

Fig. 195.

make

have

we

models,

beautifully
of

merit,

is called

attention

the

being

as

living microscopists
by his adroitness

are

who

as

as

an

observer.
It is
for all
it is
be

form
of stand, for it can
essentiallya universal
critical
low-power work as well as for the most

arranged

so

used

with

it

combination
feature

in

elsewhere,

and

lower

of

is

end

by

seen

rotation,but
it

by

which

the

wear
seems
1

We

learn

often

its

construction
is

body
most

screws

the

casual
in

the
for

that

of

in

besides,

is

plete
com-

able
notice-

one

with

met

never

is

"

placed

at

the

the

ordinary position,as
inspection of Fig. 196. Every

centring

eccentric

in recent

There

adjustment

mechanical

oversight.1

powers

have

we

used

objectives can

low

with.

met

fine

instead

short-tube

and

extremely

very

too

become
an

as

long

not

present

any

both

well

as

that
the

is

movement

that

be

do

The
models

the
not

stage

complete

rotating stage should

to

seem

substage
these

with

have

is

be

complete

been

added.

present,
with

I95-"

Zciss

Stand

I.

MICROSCOPES

FOR

Fig. 196."
fine
a

adjustment.

horseshoe

can

be

C.

CRITICAL

Baker's

tripod

foot

substituted

"Nelson"

is

WORK

333

Model.

usually supplied, although

if desired.

We

know

this stand

gives the greatest satisfaction.

The

N.Y.

American

(Agents:

firm

of

Messrs.

37-38, Hatton

Bausch

Garden,

"

Lomb,

London,

Rochester.
E.C.i), sell

MICROSCOPES

334

called
wish

CD."

"Stand

It has

for, including

although
This

are

has

instrument

(shown

adjustment

every

with

feeblest

the

as

novelty

provided

WORK

we

centring arrangement

regard this

we

model

which

CRITICAL

magnificent first-class

most

FOR

the

in

in

Fig. 197)

could

possibly
substage,

the

to

part of the

centring screws

micrometers

that

so

the

be

in

use

future

without
This

the

stage

movement,

is

We

transverse

as

very

; but

of

course

trivial

should

venient
inconthis

objection.

like, too,

adjustment for
condenser

size

large

upon

most

cially
espe-

"

its

as

look

heads

screws

for

were

should

we

milled

that

we

tion.
addi-

alteration

smaller

can

trouble.

useful

most

contemplated,
to

the

readjusted

further

If any

prefer

hence

be

any

is

registered

carefullyset,

once

the

the

in

stage

opticalaxis, can
stage,

their

ascertained

the

further

stage,

of

extent
once

centre

for

the

to

movement,
to

instrument.

the

the

substage

improved.

Beck's

"

London

"

scope
Micro-

("Iris" model, Fig. 1 98)

is

197-" Bausch

"

Lomb's

"Stand

C!

'

".

good

The

stage

and

surfaced

four

is

removable, which

we

have

said

before

we

It has
travel
of
a
bacteriologicalpurposes.
iris is contained
and
extra
I in. laterally. An
of the stage, being placed there to avoid
any
The
a

to

body

can

only

be

extended

to

have
to be
lengthening tube would
with
be used
English objectives of

200

added
the

work.
in.

4x4

with

ebonite,

clip-holes being

vided.
pro-

mechanical

The
is

of

piece

object
in.

in

to

hnn/ontally

the

substance

accidental

(about

mm.

for

the

long-tube

injury.
8

in.),

instrumcn
correction

336

Fig. 199.

"

Leitz's "Universal

Microscope

Stand

I.'

MICROSCOPES

centring

No
far

we

as

FOR
are

screws

CRITICAL

provided

to

the

WORK

337

condenser

substage

so

aware.

are

I," by Leitz (Fig. 199),is

Microscope Stand
fine adjustment already described, has
provided with his new
standard
a
type of revolving centring stage provided with a
and
is arranged for the short-tube
mechanical
removable
one,
need
work
a
lengthening tube when
only, and so would
using
No
to
centring screws
substage
English long-tube objectives.
and
favourite
with
stand
is a practicalone
This
condenser.
a
but for the highest type of instrument
should like the
we
many,
"Universal

The

firm

to

arrange

model

the

where

stage is built into

work
frame-

the

provided for centring the condenser.

No. IA (Fig.200) is an
entire departure from
Reichert's Stand
the usual Continental
model, the body taking the form of a
opticiansare now
recognisingto be of great
handle, which so many
in
service to the practicalmicroscopist. In this instrument, as
and

the

arrangement

an

Zeiss

new

model, the

use

of

the

handle

in

no

threatens

way

safety of the fine adjustment. A circular centring stage

fine adjustment, but no
centring
provided, and the firm's new

the
is

for the

arrangements

for the

It is constructed

condenser.

short-

tube

objectiveonly.
ingly
The
Spencer Lens Co., of Buffalo, N.Y., have also an exceedfine stand of entirelynew
design,which is believed by them

to

be

far

Fig. 201.
Swift

superior to any of their previous make.

It is exceedingly steady also, being
"

Son's

in

It is shown
well

balanced.

Portable

Histological Microscope (Fig. 202) is

of great excellence.
Although primarily designed for the study
all-round
of Histology, it is perfect as an
It has
instrument.
the peculiar feature
first of having four legs, and
secondly of
be packed away
in the smallest
being collapsable,for it can
of
amount
imaginable, although a little practice is
space
to do this,as
a
study of Fig. 203 will lead the reader
necessary
to

understand.

of

Portable

be

extended

It may

therefore

Zeiss

"

admission

into

the

class

for the short tube, it

microscopes. Constructed
for an
opticaltube-length of 10 in.,which makes

just a trifle too short for the

long-tube objectives,without
an
of

claim

sliders

scientific

and

convenient
additional

draw-tube

"

or

of

use

the

which

can

it
of
use

just
revolving nosepiece,either
increases
the length sufficiently.
Messrs. Watson
Club
" Sons'
Royal and
Microscopes are
or

"

"

"

"

22

338

Fig. 200."

339

Fig.

201."

The

Spencer

Lens

Co.'s

Stand

No.

10.

Fig.

202."

Swift

"

Son's

Portable

Ilistologicnl
Microscope.

MICROSCOPES
to

of

mind

our

FOR
convenient

more

CRITICAL

WORK

pattern than

341

their Van

Heurck.

alike. We
describe
They are both excellent models, being much
instrument,
Royal" (Fig.204). It is a remarkably well-made

the
ing
be-

"

of very

easily believe

can

we

The

fine and
Van

the

to

the

perfect construction, and,

"
"

Heurck.

The
of

of

outcome

adjustment

coarse

English form

the

tube

body

say

the

is of

this

and

"

experiments."

numerous

of

are

makers

the

as

usual

supplied
large diameter, taking

eyepiece (1*27 in.).

type

draw-tubes

Two

are

be used
can
provided (one having rackwork), so the instrument
with
both
Continental
and
English form of objective,seeing it

Fig. 203.

closes

to

the

to

142

substage

instrument
With

how

have

is

doubt

no

of the

perfect its performance

to

screen

of

of

the

take

the

the

cut

off

advanced

the

expected

305

that

the

6"

believe

be

to

considerable
for

the

made

or

Professor

and

firm

of

productions of

Carl
this

and

power

the

leads

way.

explained

used

and

for the

Abbe,

practical

acceptance.

secondary spectrum,
student,

screws

highest

apochromat
semi-apochromat,
well

4! in.).

Centring

mm.

the

is when

the

(size,7-|

philosophical inquirer,the more

precedence. Seeing apochromats

genius of the late

first by the justly eminent
be

to

provided. This we
have
justly obtained
the objectives used

spoken already

critical work

by

to

work, there

suitable

must

are

to

respect

critical
We

and

extends

and

mm.

in Cabinet

Folded

shown

Microscope

"

but

minute

with
for

the

gation
investi-

expensive rival
were
originated
manufactured

Zeiss, it is only
firm

should

be,

to
as

342

l''ig.
204"

Watson

"

Sons

Microscope.

APOCHROMATS

344

displayed by

that

it and

and

short

for the

one

Swift's

with
HERR

direction,

same

that
finest

in

desired
HERR
his

the

combinations

its

performance

as

the

Zeiss

of

Speaking

for

the

His

minutest

and

the

green

they

lightand

appreciated

the

new

focal

objective

illumination

at

that the
hands

the

rather

and

than

not

St. Louis

than
so

TOtfijTOtn"f
We

in

have

Fig.

idea

can

is not

lens

that

mcn

also

others
2-mm.

passed

ever

of

lenses

the

of
take

taken

and

of

very

too,

by

aperture

by

four

these

Zeiss, the

and

manner

with

pellucida even
be

must

be

fully
graph
photo-

and

blue

to

seen

VI.,

I, Plate

of

images of which we
others)a Gold
(with some

of the

and
in

have

we

the

often

felt

manufacturer's

simple photomicrographcr,

photograph

although

"

quite an easy matter

will plainly show
dots
diameter

"

superior in

no

made

as

placed

been

those
to

His

apochromatic

2-mm.

awarded

was

difficult

an

in

by Watson.

Amphipleura

some

have

in

has

length

Exhibition, 1903,

should

it
amplification
construct

in

Zeiss

photograph

honour

seeing it is
great

the

furnishingbut

This

speak.

dots

reproduction

with

dots

producing resolution

powerful electric lamp,

by

have

testing

combination

2-mm.

the

; the

taken

Medal

show

the

tertiary spectrum
at
spoken about

is

structure

of similar
a

the

manufacturers, Koristka, Leitz, Reichert,

in which

the

It is a
crisp and beautiful.
apochromatic objective is one,

so

4-mm.

those

Koristka,

and

combination

of

with

the

that

attained

that

which
to

image being

competes

of

article devoted
a

lens.

of

highly.

so

showing

explanation

the

finest details

that

Whilst

hands.

in

of

neglectfulinbringing

of excellence

remarkable

length

remarkable

level

most

some

manship
work-

using

rendering

been

truly spoken

an

when

in the

of

absolutely nothing

justly and

"

world,

the

made.

attention

both

have

plate

the

much

be

critical observer.

most

to

our

the

leaves

apochromats

through

also

Amphipleura pellucida mounted

Heurck

van

with

the

of

specimen

ViENNAhasnot

of the

one

given

and

OF

we

should

with

met

REICIIERT

of which
is

have

for the

one

"

impossible. Comparison

twelfth

too, has

test-objects;

as

the

by

Zeiss

by

"

twelfths

produced magnificent specimens

is one
beyond praise. His 2-mm.
we

well

realgar by Dr.

up

and

are

excellent

an

be

WETZLAR,

combinations

test-plateas

tube

apochromatic

OF

WORK

apochromatic

two

long

new

LEITZ

CRITICAL

FOR

in the

photographs

as

"

not

wonderful
of

the

to

this

compute

much
manner
same

at

mor"
hibited.
ex-

diatoi

APOCHROMATS

FOR

CRITICAL

WORK

objectives by Leitz, Reichert,

graduallydiminishing amplifications so as to
with

and

2-mm.

the

presented with oculars

magnifying power
(Plate XIII., Figs. 5
the optician'sart rises to
Fig. 2). When

of

appearance

and

difference

is

required to

distinction

possibly no
all appear

of

be

to

be shown

exists, and

the

equal merit,

simply an impossible one, and the

manufacturer
to
congratulate each
inability.1
So

the varied

are

many

that

employed,

the

reader

be

the

made

where
becomes

expert

the

microscope

readily understand

can

excellence,

him
to
only thing open
and
acknowledge

which

to

uses

XV.,

objectiveswhere
to

of

task

smaller

Plate
of

pitch

between

reader

and

6, and

selection

the

smaller

this

of

Koristka,

show

and

345

the

is
his

be

can

difficulty

should

experience if we attempted, alone and unassisted, to

suitable
for every
state
positively the objectivesmost
very
have
felt this so
particularline of investigation. We
strongly
we

that, fearing

by

might unintentionally lead

we

do

have

attempting
so, we
whose
scopists
experience and
justifytheir speaking with the
to

our

have

we

should
upon

made

not

like

to

it not

regard

emission

on

We

the

replieswe

the

writers

as

met
now

for

individual

with

Hartnack

and

He

is

colour

this

it

;
us

which

special subjects
authority. Doubtless

of

list

failed

of

apply
ought to
but

admission,

simply

arisen

response,

taking

this

know

we

to

any

specialist

sought, he
of
merely as one
unfortunate

an

opportunity
our

be

of

substance

the

and

will

we

have

from

before

lay

to

inquiries,hence

to

we

hearty

micro-

of

thanking

readers

their

highly

ciated.
appre-

opticians as producing such remarkably fine

be doing an
injusticenot to include the work
may
Potsdam"
the representativsof the ancient firm of that
his apochromatic series,
had, however, but commenced

certainlya

than

several

four

formerly only listed

better,and
more

of

name.

of

astray

to

upon

voice

aid

has

append
allowing

mentioning these
objectiveswe feel that we
illustrious

sin

experiences,

In

of Dr.

we

part, that

our

oversight.

have

given subject, whose

any

must

add, if

student

written

work

exhaustive

an

the

we

very

are

twelfth
fine

accustomed

and

fifteenth.

The

combination, although
to

see

with

with

the

Abbe

twelfth
we

we

like

the

admit

it exhibits

Plate.

standing
Notwith-

admirably
Amphipleura, showing the dots
with
all the other
tests given later
satisfactorily
very
very
in this book.
in a most
It is sold
convenient
form of mount, but requires
fit
it
the
modern
an
to
to
on
adapter
microscope, which we think a mistake,
seeing the universal fittingis now
so
generally adopted.
well,and

performs

conforms

FOR

OBJECTIVES

346

F.

Mr.

SMITH,

P.

Club,

VARIOUS

formerly
"I

wrote:

Hon.

Editor

usually use

ordinary spider work, employing

By far
a
an

best

the

it

when

transparency,
CHARLES

Mr.
and

D.

SOAR

whenever

tions.
examina-

spider is to put it into

and
treat it as
methylated spirit,
a

low

If suitable

powers.
mounted

and

used

for
as

J-in."

with

sometimes

and
|-in.,

scopical
Micro-

frds for

J-in. for detailed

the

employ

Quekett

2-in.,i-in.,and

subsequently

be

can

the

to

examine

to

way

it with
pomade-pot lid,cover
object,using of course
opaque

preservation

PURPOSES

the

Hydrachnidae

used

i|-in.

Jth,employing dark-ground
i|-in. served to identify species
tion
illumina-

The

possible.

J-in.supplied details especiallyfor "drawing" purposes.

less exclusivelyemployed for the
more
or
Jth, however, was

the

and
The

of skin

examination

his

WESCHE

W.

Mr.

upon
with

Binocular

great

as

three

had

only
anatomical

well-known
the

texture.

objectivesin

researches.

Microscope,

An

frds

working-distance

as

constant

he

inch

possible,for

as

employed

finder, and

for

use

-Ith,

of

details

structure.

A.

Mr.

HILTON

E.

"For

wrote:

these

of work

my

class

the

and
Capillitia

and

sporangia

use

sufficient for my

are

although

concerning the

"

I should

gather Mr.

in

have

Mr.

in

recommend

distinctive

authority, used

studied, I employ

his
he

say

on
a

binocular

J-in.was

stand, but

he

sufficient power,

apochromats
Mr. JAMES

and

will be

and

found

for work

low

powers,

He

preferredall objectiveswith

very

but

of

was

of

objectives
frequent use

sufficient if
had

to

be
not

object the

no

\\

For

the

employed

searched

for

always be of
higher power

serviceable.

Algae

on

occasionally a Jth

great depth of focus

-jVth,

of

of insects.

added, may

was

most

found

were

details

when

set

organs

i-in.

if expense

BURTON,

sense

This, he

useful.

more

the

immersion

long experience
had

in.,all of which

ranging from 3 in. to J

and
in the study of Ixodidae
majority of Ticks the 2-in.

dry "th,

diameters."

from

to

opinion, for occasionally

same

1200

who

Mycetozoa"

i-in.,and

preferencean

is of the

Massee

LEWIS,

RICHARD

be

to

require a magnificationof

we

not

are

and

of

mostly
as
great magnifications for
required. When, however,

purpose,

general

spores

2-in.

study

and

low

obtained.

and

Fungi, employed
Jth and rarely an ith.

numerical

aperture

so

that

H.

Mr.
at

the

length

some

who

FREEMAN,

with

Acarina,

sunk
of

because

powers

Mr.

the

R.

T.

He

difficultyin following
his

for

ROSSETER,

especially,
perhaps, the

2-in. and

J-in.of

well-known

avian

used
and

use,

his

and

been

having

second-class

mineral

frds

sufficient.

and

for

But

employed
with

length

inch, J-in.,

an

immersion

water

of minutiae.
his

at

favourite

2-in. of

polarised light is used."

somewhat
(whose experience was

ASHE

ALBERT

studies

an

directed

substances

for industrial

delicate

other
a

plain

animal,
such

purposes,

objectives than
form

work

of

stand

condenser

and

of

the

being

occasionally,he

arising
apochromatics, presumably

suitable

Jth, quite

unique,

especially to

more

adulterations) rarely employed

as

convergent

vegetable,and

variably
in-

focal

same

critical illumination

upon

first-class stand.

E.

Mr.

of
two

of
a

lowest

drop

who

LEONARD,

mounting

"

inch

upon

employ

to

sufficiently
high
of rocks, reserving a Jth for
ordinary examinations
interference
the
the back
of the
at
figures formed

"viewing
objective when
Mr.

object

researches

Cestoda,

type for rough

second-class

Petrology, found

for

power

moving

J-in.,and ^th of high-class make, with a TVth

in search
occasionally to study the details when
S. MARTIN,
when
Mr.
HERBERT
working
of

of

and "rds with opaque

3-in.,I J-in.,
objected to the use of very high

Entozoa,

study

studied

field of view.

the

about

cells.

has

history in general

life

the

347

in and

interested

was

microscopic insects, employed

objects in small

PURPOSES

VARIOUS

FOR

OBJECTIVES

"

on

diatoms

and

J,|,J,J, and
were

powers
the

has

slide,the

given

their

TVth

much

so

attention

selection,said

oil immersion.

his

to

battery

the
sisted
con-

For

mounting, the
the
searching over

employed, the ij for

ally
Occasionf for the actual mounting.
for the "drop" searching,and
used
of

| -in. had to be
for subsequent work
of a more
delicate nature, the TVh.
course,
For "picking up" the best objective was
a
ij-in.,and for darkbest bristles for
a
added, "the
ground illumination
f-in. He
mounting with I obtain from the back of my fox-terrier !
for some
Mr. ARTHUR
the valued
Hon.
EARLAND,
Sec.
years
the
to
extensive
work
Quekett Club, whose
Foraminifera
upon
the

"

and
he
and

Radiolaria

is

rarely employed
a
J-in.

too

any

well

known

other

to

need

objective

save

any
a

remark, said
ij-in.,a frds,

FOR

OBJECTIVES

348

C. F.

Mr.

ROUSSELET,

VARIOUS
of

one

Rotifera, preferredfor his work

the

with
matic

35-mm.)
Zeiss

2'5-mm.

fine anatomical

C.

G.

Mr.

Club,

almost

to

immersion

and

highly

who

has

Secretary

and

amateur

an

more,

in

MORLAND,

to

select

to

be

his

as

did

make

not

Mr.

for very

need

A.

STILL

work

an

especiallyfor
G.

Mr.

asked

work

on

Fungi
For

by

add

(3)

and

In the

and

used

the

the

two

through
added
average
movement

for

of the

be
a

TVth,

Diatomaceae,

other

more

and

mounting,

than

quarterI le

purposes.

secondary markings,

and

immersion

high-power

objectives.
Microalgae and Desmids

upon

objectives I find

The

"

Myxomycetcs

are

useful

most

for

of

fungi

finest details

specimens
about

^th

takes

and

the

of

them

J-in:

latter

the

for

recollect

in
run

some

very

-/ah."

Rotifera
former

for

he

mostly

searching

examining details. He
subjectsare alive, and
my

length, so that every

of focus," which, he
out
subsequently
of
higher power objectives.
employment

an

pointed out, prevents the

Occasionally,however, he

inch

species

use

upon

should

student

so-called

in his work
a

and

Myxomycetes,

required,I

are

found

and

the

where

objectives,a i-in.
"The

of the

systematic study

BRYCE

DAVID

Mr.

most

structure
a
ij-in.
general aspect of the superficial
of spores, a Jth,as
histologicaldetails,measurements
is used.
consent
a
magnification of 400 diameters

special groups
close

sequently
con-

common
"

two

three, I

should

is

required,the low-powers being more

and
the Jth for examining details.
past-President of the Quekctt Microscopical

(four years),wrote

"(2)

the

said,

Jth
searching

Club

For

be

all he

MASSEE,

"(i)

many

Quckett

would

inch

an

say,

the

to

purchase they

upon

for his work

found

inch, Jrds,and

the

U-in."

especiala study

so

no

had

so

high-power, and,

very

experience

especiallyrelatingperhaps to their classification

he required objectivesother
he rarelyfound
wrote
inch

the

studying

his attention, it may

"

it would

H.

esteemed

devoted

I had

Mr.

for

apochromatic

and

of

objectives for
Jrds and a Jth. If
one

confused

instrument,

livingspecimens in water.
M.R.C.S., L.S.A., formerly so

useful

yet

be

to

upon

binocular, the apochro-

variety of subject,and whose

If I were
unique, wrote:

every
almost

if

for the

long-tube monocular

KAROP,

amateur

an

36-mm. (not

the

structure

valued

the

years

the

the 17-mm.

water

authorities

greatest

our

and

for

12-mm.

PURPOSES

had

extreme

requireda Jth.

FOR

OBJECTIVES
ROBERT

Mr.

W.,

PAULSON,

speaking

Council

Technical

County

London

he

wrote

had

he

work

employed

immediate

difficulties of the

the

such

successful

and

Jth for

known

smaller

from

ranging
a

studying
finest

working-distance
thick

of

service

The

the

ocular) shows

covers)

the
1

For

effect

its

mens
speci-

suitable

to

that

the

but

their

2-mm.

yVth

the

of

use

all

colours
the

new

inch

may

for

be

of diatoms
screens,

for

require

much

reason

same

well.

longer
having

ago

useful

Addenda.

of

neglected

years

with

aid

quarter-inch

having

remarkably

of

primarily

the

than

sorting specimens

see

to

objectives

markings

more

(used

ing
possess-

Jth apochromat

with

is

most

author

of

So, too, for the

apochromatic

blue

the

types

mounted

often

the

necessary

The

tube

long

the

immersion.

r5-mm.

or

Jth.

was

diatoms

secondary

well

so

straca
Entomo-

objects

powers.

upon

specimens
a

of

for
it

illumination.1

half-inch
i-in.

is

regards

as

binocular

especially convenient,

or

and

an

is

Diatomacese,

highest

employ

than

biology,

to

examination

to

the

to

on

one

the

as

small

Entomostraca

on

resorted

the

to

(some

; and

diatoms,

exclusively

use

apochromatic

admit

Zeiss

third

the

'28

of

apochromatic

3-mm.

2-mm.

N.A.

study

one

is

to

the

the
to

by

manded
com-

Zeiss

powers

attention

for

he

forms,

objective, and

the

"

(better still)blue

apochromatic

rather

life

apochromatic

or

green

highest

the

when

lowest

their

very

with

Occasionally, however,

excellent

very

the

the

employed

that

to

half-inch

is bound

work

this

to

he

his

the

upon

wrote

inch

an

respect

he

general.

pond

power

all

^th

ever,
occasionally, how-

mounting

seemed

work

details.

higher

With

is

for

employed

useful, but

in

whose

found

he

"

use

all work

objectives

dry

opinion always

say

much

so

pays

microscopists,

to

best

but
of

types

whose

to

selecting and

microtomist,

SlDWELL,

Mr.

but

Crescent,

situation.

who

HOLDER,

Mr.

biological study,

F.R.A.S.,

all

employed

he

Laboratory,

and

peculiarly convenient,

is

shape

at The

work

T\th.

for

349

Institute, Lalham

respect, used

(i5-mm.) objective

PURPOSES

f-in.

COTTAM,

ARTHUR

Mr.

in

of the

found

usually

had
his

for

required

VARIOUS

are

the
both

high-power

CHAPTER

XIV

TESTING

OBJECTIVES

testingof objectives has always

THE

difficult

It used

subject.
lens

of the

this

besides

nowadays,

searching character
after

him

once

proceed

The

"

of

the

apparatus

contrasts

of

densely

deposit

and

The

be

these

little

piece

of

of

one

far

Professor

more

Abbe, called

of

which

this

of

clear

at

we

of

kind

on

dull

grey

light indeed,

to

manner

lines

of dark

and

it is difficult

offer every

film

to

being

under

Now,

object

an

bright

the

lines

imagine

fulfils
that

one

always absolutely

not

then

may

are

the

the

contrasts.

semi-opaque
in which

"

film of

remove

appear

grating.

and

taken

was

if

to

as

would

coarse

irregular-shaped particlesof
are
closely packed together in

sufficientlydiscrete

result

dense,

Abbe,

pronounced

it is evident

certain

having greater
the Abbe
plate is

of

piece

chemically deposited layer

in such

the

full

as

advantage

glass,for
in

little

inventor, Professor

purpose
of

glass
"

its

useful

and

object

an

ruled

exceedingly

consisting of
black

aim

alternating series

constructed

although

very

excellent

required, for

deposit

test-objects,but

Test-plate

character

be

an

ideal

very

late

this

For

between
as

consisting of
could

leave

untouched

microscope
the

on

described

nature

left

special

opaque

silver

pure

the

of

possible.

as

of the

Abbe

artificiallyproduce

to

was

is

ance
perform-

furnish.

to

construction

the

called

Test-plate,"a description

The
In

the

the

examining

there

method,

interestingthough

an

specimens

originated by

Abbe

in

consist

to

certain

upon

been

be

black

described

"filling"transmitting
closely scattered
silver
the

deposit.

but

numerous

Although

still they
filling,

facilityfor accurate

as

appear

focussing.

TESTING

352

illumination

only

can

(appearing
the

OBJECTIVES,

the

as

objective

microscope)

as

fourth

or

when

seen

the

"

third

of

of

the

third

the

down

looking

arrangement

PLATE

its uppermost

through

enter

lowest

ABBE

back

the

lens

tube

of

of

effects

colour

fourth

or

the

becomes

entirely different.1
First.

The

lines

white

colours

respectivelyare

and

upper

now

the

purple is seen
Secondly^it

will

that

whether

is to

say

causes

any

light;

and"
no

opposite third
employed as we
be

It will

of

follows

what

be

it has

chapter
of

over

the

in

the

that

it is

white
of

alteration

placed within

alteration

of colour

the

cause

objective,

carefullyexplained.

For

do

to

the

in

72

chapter
of

at

spectrum

"

best
"

modern

the

have

and

make

of

these
before

referred

to

improvements
objectives. In this
in

consists

that

folding

selected
the

focal

shortest

to

the

particular colour

the

correction,

then

upon

is

that

to

purpose,

reader

achromatism

explained

been

the

so,

direct

by any
exactly

causes

that

focus,

using

produced

or

whilst

the

when

be

can

if the

understood,

construction

optician for the

preferred colour

the

spaces.

without

or

it did

as

border,

upper

of the

no

effect

actually commencing
Figs. 69, 70, 71, and
effected

of each

one

found

the

at

of colour

better

effects

colour

of

excepting by admitting light from the

of
the
fourth
or
substage condenser
have
just stated.
before
interest
proceeding further,and

whatever

means

lower

be

change

Thirdly, that

borders

no

quality,apple-green usually appears

at

lower

longer symmetrical, for with

semi-apochromatic objective of the best

visually corrected

the

at

rays

by

the

of

length,the

this

others

meeting at intervals along the axis forming the colours of the

is
point then here to bear in mind
secondary spectrum? The
the purple
that the apple-greenhas the shortest focal length and
1

This

be

can

the

by turning

iris and

closing the

with

done

illuminating apparatus

Abbe

the

milled

which

head

by simply

the

puts

iris out

of

axial centrality.
1

prism

rainbow
green,
formed

formed
and

so-called

The

primary colours are

grating breaks a beam

or

colours, as
blue,

violet,and

by unions
by

violet.

the

they
of

are

those
of

which

white

often called"

come

into evidence

consisting of red,

oran-r,

ultra-violet ; but the secondary colours

are
different residuals,such
these
as
apple-green

joiningof

yellow

and

green,

and

when

li^ht into its components-

purple by the

union

those

bring
of

red

the

the
longest,

353
blue

and

of orange

mixture

intermediate

PLATE

ABBE

OBJECTIVES,

TESTING

being

be

now
description. Let Fig. 205
the
here a point of light P situated
We
have
considered.
upon
at L.
axis of a semi-apochromatic combination
roughly shown
because
the yellow-green rays
In an
they
exaggerated manner
selected
in
the
construction
the shortest
have
are
focal length
seen
focussingat A, whilst the red and violet forming the purple,

for

omitted

of

clearness

"

"

of
a section
longest focal length,meet at A'. If now
should
of lightwere
see
an
applethe beam
possible at A, we
by a faint haze of purple ; whilst
green point of lightsurrounded
should
section at A' we
if we
examined
see
a
purple point
a

having

the

WITH

WITHOUT

Focus

in

Focus

Fig. 205.

surrounded

by

being shown
Within

apple-green halo (the rays

an

to have

the

apple-green

focus

disc

crossed
at

after

plane

forming
marked

forming this halo

focus

A"

we

at

A).

should

see

an

of

light surrounded
by a distinct and wellmarked
halo
of purple, whilst considerably without
the focus
A"'
at
a purple disc surrounded
by a halo of apple-green.
Although in the Abbe
test-platea white line of sensible area
between
black
two
is the
ones
object,instead of a discrete
point of light,a little thought will suffice to show that the same
reasoning affords an equally correct
explanation of the colour
phenomena in this instance, as in the previous one.
Perhaps
the

easiest
the

case

hence

way

image

in the

Abbe

to

of

understand
the

this

point was
plate the image

is to

remember

formed
of

the

in
white

the

in

the

first

yellow-green,
is reallyin

line

apple-green also.
Now
the

when
of

the

objectivewas

lowered

in

the

first experiment

the

blurred into an
point became
apple-green disc
with a halo or fringeof purple around
it ; so
in the second, the
becomes
image of the white line following the same
course
blurred
and the purple fringe makes
its appearance
at the
edges
of it. Likewise
raised
in the first
also,when the objectivewas

image

23

354

TESTING

instance

outside

had

and

disc

the focus, the

apple-green

an

became

halo

it ;

around

the

described,
206

Fig.

conditions

is drawn
from

rays

as

the tube

the

of

edges

in the

apple-green
already

manner

white

the

of

lens

back

the

A A

line

situation.
shown

are

objective at its
observer
were
looking

in fact if the

an

would

be

of the

microscope, the ocular having been

seen

second,

it.-

materiallychanged.
exaggeration to explain

leaving the

entering and

in the

into

were

in

the

blurred

so

and

blurred

employing oblique light formed

When

third,

below

PLATE

purple point

line becomes

image of the white

fringe forms above and
the

The

ABBE

OBJECTIVES,

THIS
..

RAY

14

D*Awn

T*"

AS

COlrllHO

um,

K*Y

-me

It

lower
down

removed.

APPAWtHTLV
---

as

IT

TKtK"V"l"

RCO-VIOLIT

MTAWM

"uti".

LOW

"T

COWING

Yecu

unn,Tt*

Fig.

image of the white

A' A".
Here
at A', the

The
at

appears

it is the

because

line

206.

AA

upper

is shown

edge, the yellow-green

refracted

most

and, having the shortest

the spectrum,

edge A' : whilst at A" we see

colour, being the least refracted
lowest

is lost in the former

ray

because

of the

limit
and

case

of
brilliancy

the

of any

of

the

colour

colours

of

focal

length,so lies at the

that
the purple tint because
sequently
(longest focal length) con-

very

lies at the

diagrammatically

of the
the

white

image.

The

apple-green in

red-violet
the

latter

line.1

change of position of the objectivecauses

for by the fact
alteration in the colour fringes is accounted
any
of the microscope up
down
alters the
that
movement
or
no
of things in the slightestmanner,
hence
the absence
condition
That

The

exact

beneath

With

seen,

case

change of

of any

card

in this

no

colour.

reversal
the

of

colour

effect

condenser, and

however,
practice,

these

so

colours

produced by changing the

allowing the lightto enter
can

of
notwithstanding the general brilliancy

be

distinctlythough faintly

the white

line.

TESTING
the

from

position of
and

vice

the

tinted

The
been

versa.

Abbe

in the

We

even

if

to

have

the

observer,

been

focus

in

used

been

seem

if

as

not

that

the

is

the

these

nothing

12,

ments,
experithan

more

field

the

same

the

than

of

zones

believe
for

out

far

that, so

present is known,

at

as

anything better.

is this

It

uniformly defined field at one and

led several
microscopists of the old

consider, in their

adding

that

effected

by

they
the

opinion,

the

do

hold

is

objectives with

which

replied that

all

of

at

effect of

in

be

can

they

school

than

or

now

to

in

that

say

they

has

of

of

this it

To

the

old

must

be

sation
past, the equalifield of view

the

definition

best

been

field of

the

some

in the

zones

is

is

required in
(occupied alone by most

If the

intermediate

and

that

moment,

same

acquainted.

in all three

compromise.

the

improvement
years, seeing that

times, whether

can

inabilityto produce

much

smaller

are

hope

no

objective is retrograde,

modern

recent

much

so

definition

the

central

not

optician

perfect definition

the

most,

if it has

and

one

throughout

flat

the

the

sharply simultaneously.

held

has

at

ocular

power

intermediate

and

even

examination,

lower

of

cursory

it would

Indeed

central

both

never

the

explanation, in general,how
with direct and oblique light

an

this

in

that

becomes

ray

strikes

has

so

tried.

the

focussed

which

supposed

be
about

concludes

view

It is not
is

This

before

field of

which

refracted

point

noticed

time.

least

fringes are formed

test-plate.

next

whole

be

the

355
because

readily understood,

is

opposite side,

PLATE

ABBE

OBJECTIVES,

zones

the

be
must
one
microscopical interest),then the outer
to
suffer,with the possibilityof being immediately brought
of the fine-adjustmentscrew
focus by a touch
; whereas, if
whole
field be required to be equally well defined,it must

and

can

objects
left
into

of

only be produced by lowering

the

central

former
the

of

state

cause

exhibited

things being preferred by

for the
falling off
apparent

by this

be

to

for they
objective^

cause

the

have

outer

contraction

zone

so

that

remark

with

confused

cutting off

outer

the
no
zone

the

three
relation
of

the

the

In

zones.

of

It is needless
not

intermediate

and

quality of

the

three
zones

of

one

back

in

the

with
lens

of the field of view, which

present day the

modern
of the

zones

of

definition

microscopists is
the
performance

most

noticeable

the

the

by

back

lenses.

fieldmust
lens

of the

other, otherwise
the

it does

iris would
not.

PRECAUTIONS

TO

TEST

draw-tube

the

objectiveis

side

of the
The

hence

back

of

lens

by

matics,

\YITII

distance

exact

THE

which

for

frequently engraved

N.A.

over

the

upon

of

and

approximately
The

scientific value.

of

an

carefullycentred.
should

test-plateto be selected

the

compensating ocular
what

matter

of over,

apochromats

used

be

light;

with

that

is the

be

thickness

average

opticians.

most

no

slip

observation

the

be

the

to

filled with

be

must

ro

thereabouts, because

or

4. The

the

objectivemust

the

cover-glassof

mm.

selected

OBJECTIVE

ANY

set

it is

oiled

make

to

should

condenser

and

corrected

condenser

3. The

be

must

objective

every

equal N.A.,

OF

TO

mount.1

immersion

"i

COMMENCING

BEFORE

TEST-PLATE

The

2.

USING

BEFORE

OBSERVED

BE

PERFORMANCE

THE

ABBE
1.

PRECAUTIONS

PLATE,

ABBE

356

is to be

their

say,

employed for
length, and

focal

'5 N.A.

apochrosemi-

with

ordinary achromat

the

; but

all

low-power semi-apochromats below the N.A. mentioned

perform best in most cases, although perhaps not in all instances,
ocular.
with the ordinary Huyghenian
the

is to be such
that
of the ocular
magnifying power
the total amplification
multipliedby the initial of the objective,
hence
should
a
numerically equal the N.A. x 1000;
-j^thof,

5. The

say,

1*4 N.A.

6. The
so

far

of

the

from

as

requires a

illumination

12

light from

should

pass

N.A.
With

B.

With

With

A.
in the
the

the Abbe

ivJiite
brilliantly

very

is meant

centrallythrough

direction

the

obliquityin

no

the

beams

the

condenser.

Objectives

SEMI-APOCHROMATICS

OF

A.

be

mirror, by which

Testing
EXAMINATION

critical and

must

off the

the illuminant

be

must

possible. There

ocular.

1-3

iVIN-

TO

"-*"

OR

*4

Test-plate.

Special Test-objects.
the

preceding

examination
1

Test-plate."

Abbe

section
of

an

The

list of

having been duly

objective N.A.
1-3

of
qualification

this statement

precautions given

read
or

is made

and
1-4, say

later.

TESTING

OBJECTIVES

TVth, or Jth, is

carried

chromatic

(a) For

(i) The

aberration

(f)

being

the

visible.

the

observation.
Holos

If the

"

the

white

of

quite suiting

Let

the

former

lenses of this ocular

space

must

will be

should

the

colours

These

an
2

sold

are

advance

are

magnifying

focus

or

raised

to

be

lines

instant

above

original.
caution might
critical
having
light;

it is

the

the

only

accurate

the

at

white
very

adjustment that they

objective is lowered

depends
Sons,

no

betoken

not

it, coloqr should

"

Watson

component

If,however,

mind

power.

bordering the

the fine

expected

Messrs.

in

after,for

The

the

does

borne

with

of

it.

correct

black

the

replaced by

the

appear.3

the

upon

position

series

improved

being

the

upon

word

Another

by

similar

to

be

compensation
objective under

and

appearance

carefullysought

focus

the

to

removed

found

colourless.2

appear

beneath
What

edges of

of their accurate

moment

be

due

individual

of

focus,

accurate

as

fault, adjustment

at

takes
improvement
place, this
good objective; but it must
the

the

be

eyepiece

been

be

in

are

nearly as possible
phenomena should be

colour

no

not

lines

occupies

space

present, it may

be

has

focussing of

definition.

black

field ;

the

compensating
ocular

poses
pur-

"

and

edges of

that

taken

ocular

for two

manner

light,
obliquelight.

If much

the

of

357

direct

diameter

true

PLATE

(testingfor colour).

sphericalaberration

(a) (i) When

care

following

"

"

(i) With
(ii)With

ABBE

presented with direct light,

oblique light.

appearances

(ii)
For

in the

out

the correction

to ascertain

WITH

of

be

We

mentioned.

have

spoken

of the

important also to see that the

of the lamp with
reflect the beams
mirror does not
degree oj obliquity
any
for
that
this
all upon
the
condenser.
at
if,
mean
we
example, a point
By
in use, the
that
of light from
the
illuminant
see
were
microscopist should
when
the
field
of
is
in
of
view
the
the
that
use
centre
plate
point is in
the
than
colour
with direct light. Should
one)
(otherwise
folding-over
any
have
then
be
explained should
seen
upon focussing the lines (which we
by the mirror being a little
not be the case),it is possiblefor it to be caused
the matter,
on
obliquely placed ; hence, before coming to any conclusion
trifle should always be made,
the simple experiment of shiftingthe mirror
a
in question.
fault
the
if that does
not
at once
to see
remedy

necessity

Too

of

great

stress

cannot

objectivethe slightesttouch
focus.

be
of

but

laid
the

it is

upon

fine

the

fact

that

adjustment puts

with
the

first-class

object out

"f

TESTING

358

by the computer

chosen
the

spectrum
focal

shall

formed.1

wave-length
exhibited

placed,
This

the

of

class

select

such

which

what

the

folding over

colour

shall

of

have

what

colour

the

is often

called

the

the

image

appleusually takes place about

foldingover

the

and

within

purple

are

for

system

PLATE

the
colours
ordinary spectrum, and
borders
of the white
lines, symmetrically

5500

on

ABBE

consequently in

If he

in

the

words,

length,and

correction, then

green

of

other

in

shortest

be

WITH

OBJECTIVES

is

correction

apple-green without
favourite,but

great

the
few

focus.
makers

their

the green, which

folding-over point slightly nearer
purple within the focus and a deeper green
produces a redder
is called a slightlyunder-corrected
outside
it. This
combination,
term
to be explained a little later on.
a

pitch

the colour

Sometimes

indeed, and

green

called

outside

quite

very

blue-purplewithin

it.

objective,a

slightlyover-corrected

is

the focus

lightyellow-

term

This

type is

also

needing

must

be very

explanation hereafter.

objectivemight present (althoughthey

Lastly,an
few

and

rare

the focus, but

for

the

in

white

red-orange

within

only,

photography

of

case

one) the

with

met

yet

never

number

in

|th, for

or

lines bordered
it.

would

and

T\th

This

be

denotes

outs.

correction

wretched

blue

with

have

we

objective for

visual purposes.

objective has

(a) (ii)The
it is

and
manner

important
The

"

curved

removed

when
the

moment,

student

must

and

covered

up

white

the

two

can

furnish

is the object, the

of

image

really pure

white

unless

the

truth of this remark

comparison

with

the

to

enter

by

lines,care
should

as

card

is
an

described

ocular
a

little

should

occupy

as

of the

coloured
objectmustbt
with
colouring is in accordance

white

It is

focal length.

image.

If the

only

the

performance

wlv

objectivesbe

apple-green colour, however, gives

by

tube

the

spaces

using a semi-apochromat, and that such

wave-length of the ray having the shortest
that

following

three-fourths,preferably one
that when
so
shape
looking

looking at

recollect that the

different kinds

oblique light,

in the

"

of the

one

with

obtained

the
objectivedown
lightonly appears

ocular

apochromat
of

the

returning the

The

or

crescent-moon

limit.

that

be

be

must

its lowest

exercised

be

should

two-thirds

"

of

for the

portion at
On

edge
lens

back

the

at

this

condenser

its lower

throughout
with

that

be tested

to

now

closely compared
The
experimentallyput to the test.
from
image not easily distinguished
above

be made

at

the

moment.

OBJECTIVES

TESTING

36o

is

placed

WITH
the

whilst

the

colour

during the operation. The

eye

eliminate

to

colour

the

keeping

be

the field,should
that when

lines

the

zone,

rigidlycarried

little aperture

the

bright reflectingsurface

in

the

iris is

ill-defined.

of

of

lens

front

the

portion of which
ihusfogs the dark

silvered
and

small

the

As

illuminated

back

of the

remains

the

is often
line with

be

of the

over

or

the

green

utilityfor

and

under-corrected

of each

placed of
a

it will

thus

in

colour

iris,the

three

is

whether

becomes

redder

the

to

found
case,

This

diameter

quite

slight

instead"

violet

blue

zone

of the white

point of

the

whether

the

border

is

jective
ob-

fringed
or

green,
be

line instead

of

of

more

distinct

then

coloui

it beinj

"

the

if

very

If this appeal

movements

"

this

guided by the

w/^r-corrcction
or

in

accurately

so

border

upper

be

redder, perhaps

that

the writer

perfectly corrected

are

finest it

very
means

of the field.

the

the

of the white

practicallyto
to

of

using this exceedingly

always so faint that it

of the white

throughout

and

objective shows

change

border

zones

objective,

zone

the

indicates

; but when

be

in the true

course

purple

lower

the

inner

pinhole iris)

border

corrected

illumination

beginner, in this

presented by

the

already stated, shows

have

spectrum,

; hence

the

passing

the

outer

apple-green, a lighteryellow-green,a deeper

dark

of

(caused by

especiallythe

is not

zone

difficult to say

very

by

cover-glass,the

into

"

point of light,the

becomes

with

and

oblique light,we

folding over

central

When

from

the

in

the

rays

again

objective,the colours

outer

the

point of fact it has appeared to

z^zd^r-corrected.1
The
slightly
upper

rest

small

area

"

lenses the

in

silver.

reflected

slightlyalter in some
lenses,but
nearly if not actually constant.

line may

as

of

back

of

is caused

the

upon

by

diameter

lines.

the intermediate

many

again
them

turns

traverses

lens

back

ocular

usually found

placed

the upper face of

lighting is perfectly straight, some

through the slits (or white spaces) are
surface

exact

This

the

explained,

the

It will be

out.

of the

dull and

are

of

compensation

of

changes

any

precaution above

observation

under

PLATE

ocular, noting

the

in

error

any

at

ABBE

pinhole

the

red,

purple

then

the
if

whereas

over-correction

present.
Sometimes
intermediate
1

These

terms

the
and

colours
outer

of under

and

are

zones;

violently different
this

07vr-correction

is

bad,
will be

for

in
in

the
a

ccntr;

reallyfine

explained very

shorf/y.

TESTING

WITH

OBJECTIVES

stated, there
objective,as before
anyhow, not of that violent
change

should

the

Seeing

explained,

yet been

further,to do
It has

mentioned

is in the

normal

in the

the

nearer

slip of
6

for

chosen

for

; but

if

red

end, "?zw-correction.
it

is

half size in

off

dots

seven

the

achromatising
in theory, for
the

line
it

be

at

about

the

three

now,

long
the
When

at

what

method
draw

the

if

follows
take

to

of

space

of the

UV"
Y

be

and

plainly illustrates

how

over

immediately
of

which

line

along

in.

apart,

it
as

the

lines

one,

the

point

second

at

by

the

with
of

G
"

to

words
at

paper

this

obtained

was

inspection

mere

has

colours

been

dots

made

caused
in

other

secondary spectrum.
drawn
at
right angles

at

it

the

to

right angles

at

Fig. 71

has

be

affixed

slip

different

of the

ing
line,let the follow-

G,

indicates

mention

additional

horizontal

third

the

z^rtfcr-correction,"the
and

make

to

of

bending

words, it reveals the formation

Let,

of

over

wave-length 5500
takes
folding over
place

marking

made,

folding together

blending

objective

the

To

right-hand end

line, let another

the

proceeding

folding

convenient

R, O, Y, G, B, V, and
between
succession.
Midway

how

as

Fig. 207.

at

Visual."

the

length, and

8 in. in

some

in., marking

"Best

not

whilst
z/Tzafcr-correction,

letters"

this

before

once,

the

now

end, it is called

Commencing
in

at

have

visuallyconstructed

violet

paper

shown

well

the

in

easily understood,

more

"

over-corrected

apple-green, say about

spectrum

the

towards

be

it may

position mostly

spectrum

"

and

little if any

but

so.

been

the

that

under

"

terms

be

361

nature.

"

"

PLATE

ABBE

to

slight
being marked
slight 0zw-correction,"
"

B, "photo correction."

folding over

of

the

slipis made

at

"

as

occurs

in

362

TESTING

OBJECTIVES

slightunder-correction
and

follow, whilst

left

outstanding.

for

Abbe

the

human

the

perceived by

will

border

have

have

pronounced

With

at

be

purple,and
a
or

powers,

fringe,whilst

lens, where

now

exhibit

its upper

margin

colour

sideration
con-

line

manner

objective,its

its upper

the

will

one

folding over
of

and
lower

takes

if bent

show,

red

at

with
of

margin

nearly violet

more

fringe composed

of

than

almost

photographiccorrection (rarelyto be met with

indeed
where
B
over,
any
say, a half-inch),

folding-overpoint,the slipwill
and
green, whilst yellow,orange,
the upper
mixture

border

of the

Arranged
these

of

the white

under-corrected

an

feebly

so

yellow.

With

is

left out

when

violet
ultra-

and

tint.

green

line will

the white

pure

red

the

in

of orange

(UV)

yellow,the slipof paper will now

with green,
that
position,a union of orange
the
blue, leaving violet outstanding ; hence
place

and

by oblique light (in the

with

over-corrected

an

it may

Hence

purpose.

reddish

PLATE

observed

latter colour

that

plate illuminated

prescribed)is looked
lower

The

ABBE

yellow and blue

it will be

eye

present

our

of

union

violet will
are

in

"

WITH

in

of the white
three
the

of

different colour-effects

Exhibition
White
Manner

of Colours
Line

at

with

described.

red

are

line shows

colours

form

indicate

union

of

blue, and

Upper

and

as

Lower

Oblique Light

violet

and

the

high
the
with

follows

one

of reference,

Borders
obtained

lower

red.

table for convenience

become

is

left outstanding. Hence

yellow, orange,

in

of
in

tJte Ccntn

the

Special

exhibited

the

and

one

time

same

363

been

said,

described, the tints

and

valuable

the

of

borders

lower

information

to

three

things

The

colour

in which

(2) The
(3) The

colour

having

(1)

has

by the upper border shows

exhibited

colour

what

manner

most

PLATE

objective.

of the

the examiner

afford

line

white

centrallyplaced

at

from

table,and

using oblique light in the

respectively by the upper

that, when

The

this

from

It is evident

ABBE

WITH

OBJECTIVES

TESTING

the

image

is formed.

shortest focal

the

length.

of the spectrum.
folding over
0z^r-correction.
be yellow, it shows
if this colour
of

point

Moreover,
"

"

"

"

"

"

green,

it shows

^^^r-correction.
shows

apple-green,it

usual

visual

correction.
shows

blue,it

"

"

"

purely photographic

correction.

by the lower border,

exhibited

colour

The

Purple
Orange-red

the

whilst

much

deeper
look

we

as

at

correction.1

The

understand,

that

visual

both
1

Owing

spectrum
the

shortest

borders
the
when

matter

the

the

of

this difference

focal

lens
exact

5500;

shade

the

of

length"

system

white

illumination

but

few

an

this

objective
selection

of

underled

are

be

colours

line when

is direct.

to

used

for

strenuously

who
by different computers, one
readily identifythe
plate can
very

observation,this

under

produces

decided

is, we

are

have

to

has

chosen
the

of

we

position for the folding-over point in the

preferred colour, or that which is to have

being

presented along

placed as they
view, oblique light being used ; or

of the

field of

"

for

reason

experience with

of the

noting

the

this selection

"

of

can
they think the combination
Others
well as photographic purposes.

as

to

extended

opinion exists
of the
the folding over
decidedly leans
very

difference

some

opticians prefer
their shortest focal length,which

as

green

correction.

photographic correction.

"

saying this,that

aware,

"

visual

for
position to choose
The
generally accepted one
apple-green, wave-length about

spectrum.
towards

proper

best

the

to

as

mentioned

before

have

We

under-correction.
"

"

"

over-correction.

shows

Blue-purple or blue
Reddish purple to red

if it be

turer
manufac-

fairlyeasilyeffected
the

and

upper

should

be, in

within

and

the

the

by

lower

diameter

outside

an

of

focus

364

TESTING

and

emphatically repudiate

OBJECTIVES

lessened

greatly
is

there

degree

the

of

performance

by

"

the

photographic correction
It

be

may

is

mentioned

those

with

that

who

objectives,a

mistake

combination

the

They

used.

colour

the

of

for

sensible

photographic
blue

at

be.

it must

made

of

use

of

the

shown
corrected
of

to

be

lens

of

not

the

shown

within

line

the

case

the

Abbe

the

and

scarcely exhibit
made
stated
are
by
the

is

gets

rid of

these

well

better

innocent
of

possessor

as

said

observer

to

hide

has

been

fact

the

well-

the

the

computers,

extent.

same

whole

congratulatehimself

kind,

field,that
leads

so

being

upon

the

from

free

"remarkably

so

even

zones,

lightof

the

the

under

circumstances

the

white

over

colours

objectives

all

to

semi-

corrected

those

to

form

the

and
the colour-effects,

combination

fine

to

the

this

in all the

not

fog extending

the

outside

plainly,too,

known

residuals

be

may

show

all under

at

"

in

recognised
or

should

residuals

admixture

which

the

trick

"

of

Moreover,

colour

any

matter

very

leaving heavy
preferred colour, although

their

By

mentioned.

conditions

consists

as

and

test-

when

said, however,

mentioned

type

that

with

for

place,

oblique light is
exhibits
apochromat
no

an

been

secondary spectrum,

different

which

has

what

red

semi-apochromatic

by assuming

white

the

suitable

more

the

From

the

"

secondary spectrum, the nearer

apochromat approaches to this performance, the better
colours

is

purposes

to

the

the

seeing that

reason,

suitable

correction

colour

of

the

refinement, whilst

anyhow,

"

for want

is often

edges

all of

visual

towards

commencing

are

less

the

at

or

for

that

small.

so

here,

plate for ascertainingthe

focus,

made

advance

"

PLATE

assertion, declaring

corresponding gain
of rendering it more

way

ABBE

usefulness, quality,and

seeing that

purposes,

this

objective so

in

the

not

WITH

colour."
If

such

carried

an

out

"

"

be

off

the

although

the

fog

the

period, that

"absence

in

of

plate,the

fog, unless

the

iris be

intermediate

zones:

great

is at

of the

Some

the

and

outer

separating power
also.

in

the

old

colour,"

time

were

large
made

black

shut

lines appear

down

so

which

by

reduced

by

dry ,Vths, even

received

extensively
to

as

means,

disappears, it is true, the

measure

same

been

has

trick

the

with

examined

positivelybathed
cut

where

objective

measure

in

this

very
the

considerably

best

of

makers

of

praise

way,

and

for

their

give

the

TESTING
student

the

If

of the

iris to

The

these

student

taken

the
show

the

that those

effects

to

are

the ordeal

of

regarded

an

examination

border

upper

with

one

pure

of the

be discovered

his

but

not

with

suspicion

at

its central
one,

and

simple

the
1

and

centre

clusions
con-

facturers
manu-

devoid

should
colours

primary

they
plate.1

show

line tinted

of colour-

have

objectives

passed

corrected

with

oblique light the

blue, and the lower

with

JTHS

AND

the

of the

outer

intermediate

whole
:

of

But

to

If

ones.

the field of view

sharpness being limited

adjustment
zone

is sufficient

examination

zones.

of the fine

SPHERICAL

FOR

ETC.

time

same

intermediate

touch

and

one

and

definition

the

up

as

conclusion, that

Tyrns

THE

in focus

good

general

until

Abbe

the

"

of the

vaunted

are

by

white

the

and

mind, is that, all

any

(b) (i) With direct light. A cursory

show, as previously stated, that the

to

by reducing

by the
exactly at

ABERRATION,

is not

on

orange-red.

an

TESTING

to

difficult

position mostly chosen

that

repeat, in

photography

is rather

of

shortest

or
point is very near
that a good semi-apochromat

turn-over

be

in

the

combinations

should

We

which

class

the

ascertain

to

remarks,

hold

to

wave-length 5500 ; and

the secondary spectrum,

and

for

these

together,

for

computer

"

this

studying

it can

fog

of

then

for the

of

desired
"

of

TWELFTHS

pinhole.

summary

be

objectives

greatness

almost

AND

opportunity

should

it

of

length

account

good

very

correction.

focal

EIGHTHS

objective be

if the

is sufficient to

very

the

sharpen

nearly equal that of

lens

be

of

second

subjecthas been alluded to before,it is worthy of further

fine
of having a
before
proceeding, that the utilityand benefit
image in the preferred colour is of just as much
importance for using the
in
photography with the aid of monochromatic
semi-apochromat
screens,
if
it is when
such
be
the
for
because
it
visual
not
as
:
employing
purposes
the negative cannot
be a sharp one, as the monochromatic
case, it is evident
than
in
the
acts
to improve
screen
by cuttingoff
no
image otherwise
way
the damaging
effect offered
by, and the confusion arisingfrom, the presence
This
of the secondary spectrum.
offers an
tives
explanation why the older objecAlthough

the

notice

very

light
"

was

so

often

because

failed to furnish
the

indifferent

objectiveof

more

good

image presented by
in comparison with
modern

construction.

results
them
that

when
even

used
in the

"

say

with

green

preferred colour

readily obtainable

with

the

TESTING

366

FOR

quality, no

will

black

The

not

dense

so

be

must

It is

just here
with

the

of

case

looking

back

the

is due

true

is

of

lens

of

the
as

will

this it is evident

From

N.A.

over

to be

seems

with

to

down

avail.

zonal
with

all, of
the

the

fog

at

on

the

iris,to

by

objective is seriously and

old

lenses

(jj)(ii) When

of
for

a
so

very

doing

error

was

colour

one

pass

light of

contrary,

nothing

to

something lacking
that furnished
by a good
In

light

disappears.

such

great
the

case

that
will

sharp image
its

when

the

show

is

of sufficient

once

principal cause

It is obvious

an

fairly,it

ro

condenser

happened

used

aberrations.
the

of

performance

found, if monochromatic

be

fact that

screen

ones,

object glass not

(see Figs. 3 and 4,

the

test

central

properly.

Sometimes,

compared

is due

cutting
be

colour.

always

This

off

the

objectiveto yield a reallyfine crisp and

the

induce

the

that

particular
there

being

expressed

objective being sphericallycorrected

the

only, and

to

immersion

an

nearly

the

III.).

aperture

use

back

all,or

from

arises
to

to

objectives it

some

used, that

due

in

stopped

and

others

the

as

is,that

numerical

fill the

to

aperture

This

ocular

is best

portion of

2, Plate

and

contention

our

absolutely necessary

be

is

when

seen

appearance

intermediate

this

plane

same

Figs. I

objective with

In

as

"

instances, be

describe, but

of the

from

rays

the

II. ; and

bow

zone

The

class

whereas

diaphragm,

objective,the

bad

in

second

improvement

an

of the outer

little.

the

to

focussing in
Plate

firstand

are

improvement

an

the iris be closed

sharply defined.

perfectperformance

and

all ; but

former

the

crisplydefined

II.),provided they

of the iris

of

is difficult to

look

the whole
field of view, which
fog lying over
off when
the diaphragm is shut sufficiently.
This
is due
injuriouseffect produced by the outer zone
spoiling the

clears

more

the

whole

lens

lines look

appearing like
to

with

sometimes,

must

the

I, Plate

between

touch
slightest

the

definition

bad

for

the latter the

"

before

the

at

removed

that the difference

fine

the

with

improvement.

should

lightat

no

direction

in their definition should

is exhibited,

effected

of focus

area

transmit

to

as

this

sensible

any

aperture (see Fig.

expected

objective

about

bring

ABERRATION

in

coaxing

lines in the

full

with

even

of

amount

adjustment

SPHERICAL

ance
perform-

computation.
nothing but

extent

too,

will

resolving

power

of

Some

of

the

in

the

terribly lessened.

this fault to

perfection.
oblique light is used, being arranged

TESTING

368

be

(6) Should

OBJECTIVES

computed

for

so

all colours

give equal magnifications

to

as

when

used

with

compensating

eyepieces ; whilst
The

D.

full

apochromatic

(7) Freedom
(i) When

the

towards

the

small

focus

above

as

intermediate

the

(2) In

of

central
the

as

aperture, the object

iris

is moved

opening

outer

part

object goes out

(as the iris opening

returns

of

presence

the

of

the

zone

periphery) and

to

centre

secondary spectrum.

with

out

tested

certain

the

periphery.

(4) When

in

focussed

increasingly

goes

to

from

further show"

must

focus

to

coma

or

focus

the

near

margin.

image of an
be obtained
by any

can

up

from

passes

distinct

no

field

at

of

object
means

whatever.

(3) When

the colours
mixed

both

is best

(5) This

in

and
intensity

detected

of

filter is used

or

made

test

are

usually

(i) without

correction-collar,whilst

tint well

out,

and

width.

by repeating

change of tube-length or

any

be

can

by oblique light are primary ones,

variously with changes of focus.
They are

pronounced

folding-overpoint

obtained

up

very

definite

no

contrasted

with

the

screen

folding-over

colour.

(6) With

lower

and

upper

direct

either

edges of
right across

the

oblique light,the

or

test-platelines

the

the

of

this not

blue

faintest

and

usual

the

In conclusion
a

then

fluffyjumbling

of

sufficient

visible
the
and

varies

very

may
the

very

often

the

of

the

of

or

much

fault
to

edges

but

tints

more

sum

up

what

lines with

black

of

If
when

the

focus

has

very

should

be

light,and
faintlypale

of

been

outer

the

even

the

prc

general absence

the

particles when
for

oblique light is changed

the

to

the

use

of

zone

without

points to an unequal action

general under-correction, or

general over-correction, or

said, that

oblique light in

the

sharp definition
nebulosity indicates

correction.

direct, the

there

of

want

fluffiness

much

we

of

up

objective,whereas
of

obliquity

sphericalaberration

excessive

shows

any

colour, on

secondary

be

of red.

sort

some

of

trace

should

the

on

field.

the

same
nearly
D (7) With
oblique light of

only

colours

mixture

of

the

perhaps

of both

zones

to

in different

TESTING
of

OBJECTIVES

369

the

objective (compare Figs. I to 4, Plate II., and

Figs. I and 2, Plate III.).
should
condemn
the
Great
not
to
care
always be taken
performance of any objective for defectivespherical correction
until it has been
tried successivelyon several of the cover-glasses
of the test-plate,
and, if necessary, with differingtube-lengths to
zones

reasonable

extent.

this

Although
when

omitted

it is well

applies far

in

more

effectand

testingdry lenses,still even

to

make

the

This

trial.

is

with

must

be

never

the oil immersions

especiallythe

more

case

rather
than with the Abbe
dealing with test-objects
plate,
lie in the medium
the object may
because
distance
below
some
the underside
of the cover-glass,thus increasing its effective
when

without

thickness
who

naturallyis

and

hence

of

indication

any

believe

led to

the

to

same

is in

object

thickness

that the stated

the

of the

the

observer,
with

contact

it,

is all that needs

cover

his attention.
It remains
curious

to

be

pointed

out

that, further

sometimes

phenomena

there
still,

noticeable

in

are

certain

two

lenses.

Fig. 3, Plate III.,and Fig. I, Plate IV., the

the latter
former representing the effect outside the focus, and
has been experienced in attemptwithin it. Considerable
difficulty
ing
These

to

They

shown

in

ascertain

the

are

used

to

considerations

be

exact

thought

have

led

present, however,
it is not
to

find

little

the

arise

to

to the

that the fault arises from

come

focus

at

from

peculiarappearances.

astigmatism, but

belief that

subject must

curious, when

into

these

this is not

non-fulfilment

some

the

usually that objects in

will not

of

cause

all

the

be

and

case

of the sine-law.

At

sub

considered

phenomena
outer

the

recent

are

judice,for
well
marked,

part of the field of view

that

sharply,but

"

ance"
appear-

perhaps limited
also,so far as can be discerned, to outside the focus (Fig. 3, Plate
III.,only not anything approaching this amount), no difficulty
alike !
to arise in focussing all parts of the field of view
appears
Before
concluding the testing of the -^th there yet remains
be
It is to
another
which
the Abbe
to
use
plate can
put.
all properly
combination
the
if the
lenses
of
ascertain
are
this the lines are
centred.
To
ascertain
put out of focus, using
be

restricted

medium-power

objectivebe

raised

to

the

faintest

ocular.
a

little

It
or

trace" and

if the

matters

lowered.

not

that

to

do

Suppose

this
it is

if the

lowered,

24

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

370

TyrH

the

purple fringes
that

arranged

so

width

the

of

if all the

all the
but
a

ones.

This

so.

components
it takes

confirms
of

the

of

are

taken

lenses
the

well

same

Even

this fault

be

very

to

experience

or

very

to know

returned

fringes

and
will

of the

more

good objectives
triflingdegree,

wJicn

the

to

as

centred

optical axis

one

see

width

same

are

the

to

of the

the

are

suspicion that

recollect is, if all the

to

of

(in all probability)they

centring.

existence

lines

be

tJie limit

maker.

is

But

equal the centring

are

good.
One

caution

condenser

In

although
In

be

II.,Figs.

actual
and

Figs. 3
been

and

Plate

in

Apochromats

apochromats

because

their

using monochromatic
the

an

and

light
the

the

alteration

oblique light effect.

presented by a
oblique light are shown,

appearances
and

4 #;/"kr-correction

photographed

B. Testing

direct

to

limit of the field is curtailed

succession.

of

due

2, the

with

apochromat

the

easily be

very

illustrated,whilst

has

given, viz. that the

carefully centred, otherwise

might

Plate

first-class

be

must

should

in -appearance

is

where

be

around

focus

eighth

to

ones

so, the

discovered

objective should

the

point

are

turned

great deal of

and

passed
the

the

the

the

an

is then

below

plate be

out

are

show

but

is

be

position will

they

Let

about

are

Notice
and

TEST-OBJECTS

view.

if all the lower

If

if not, let the

may

fringes

lines.

is to say,

into

come

the

black

upper

become

will

fringes above

; that

width

AND

with

direct

III.,Figs.
with

direct

have

been

for lack of space.

and

and

2,

and

over-

correction

oblique

chosen

light

instead

precludes

construction

oblique light

the

of

in

semi-

necessity

light.

^th

with

Semi-apochromatic

Test-objects

INTRODUCTION
the

Although
lens

any
there

are

reliance
sometimes
their
in

Abbe

test-plateis perhaps

the

severest

trial

used
undergo when
by experienced hands, still
much
do
not
some
place so
microscopists who
of
this
it, partly because
great (and they
upon
of
account
partly on
say, needless) severity,and
can

lacking

fact, to

sufficient

employ

some

experience
pet

slide

for

its

with

use.

which

prefer,

They

they

are

well

markings or such-likc
acquainted and which
presents certain
that experience has taught them
ought to be r;r// shoii'ti by the
best objectives,
fairly ivell by moderately good ones, and not at

INTRODUCTION"

by those

all well
with
do

the

for

objects has

been

the

until

its

the

only
English opticians who
allow

case

objective

an

performance

on

the

explain

to

appearances

presented

feel

we
test-objects,

attention

several

to

their

it

duty

our

little considerations

being carefullynoticed, as
of specimens^we
think, than

use

is not

many

of

deserving
in

This

371

test-

tried.

proceeding
objectives with

reader's

the

TEST-OBJECTS

extensively,still never

testing-rooms

Before

good

that

know

we

plate very

their

leave

OF

decidedly inferior.

amateurs,
use

to

USE

call

to

which

they apply
in the

by

much

of

use

are
more

the

Abbe

test-plate.
first is, what

The

when

know

has

he

this, how

of

idea

has

his

been

obtained
is

it

experience

critical

he

possible

purchasing it ?
advantage before
the
experience gained by using
; if so, what

half-inch

attention

his

The

twelfth ?
He

finds

soon

the

to

of

use

fact

is,he

out

that

does
he

of

much

how
do
to
so.
difficultyto discover
made, or
certainly frequently felt, that
the

given by

All

proceed.
ideal

hand

at

text-bocks
these
to

obtain

Having
him

to

said
to

obtain)

to

easy

done
is the

with

about

instances
the

same

it

take

in

styrax

best

then

him

to

comes

is often

he

fact that
he

he

has

obtains

in

is

student

better

try

to

is

is desirous

to
no

his
real

should

(selectedbecause

or,

of

reallyto expect.

The

made.
nobilis

recommend

we

equals

the

whole

time, as

this, however,
also

mounted

it is

still,in realgar.
get what

appears

result

employing green.
the
photograph

whether

Pinnularia

turning

which
difficulty,

been

or

little information

image

this

meet

XVII., has
of

the

to

has
been
possible (recollectingwhat
altering his tube-length or using his collar adjustment
and after
cover-glassthickness),using white lightfirst,

suit the

that

so,

to

try

specimen

with

no

that

to

on

Complaint

the

from

has

only had

when

point : yet

arise

questions

compare

microscope. To
Fig. i, Plate
one,

this

upon

he

objective

learn, and

his

will

one-inch,

success

what

to

he

has

later

know

not

has

he

two-inch,

sixth, and

his

test

can

his prospects

are

If

image?

Perhaps
a

how

and

he

the

He
shown

should

then

the

in

illustration.

field may

not

usually obtains
must

particularnotice

regard
that

with
as

all

plate mentioned,
He

be

his

compare

will notice

quite in
a

at

first-class inch

impossible

but

parts of the field

and

that

focus

in
one

see

both
and

objective;
he

can

results

should
be made

INTRODUCTION"

372
to

focus

into

come

USE
if the

fine

TEST-OBJECTS

adjustment

objectives,
especiallytwelfths, will

Some
central

and

intermediate

ocular, but
outermost

This

The

best

will

results

again and again

quickly to obtain

will be

more

been

should

so

the

rapidly.

The

the

of

should

seem

as

valve, using
Faint

lines

When

they

laid

out

also

be

to

in

try

now

if

realgar

in evidence

fully
care-

them

instrument
his eye

called)

so

the

if necessary.

should

gemma

obtained

be

and

commercial),
finest image possible,his

the

the

if all is in order.

possible (they

obtain

to

do

in

floor of

the

them

the

reset

sometimes

are

in

on.

accustom

upon

little obliquelightto make

ought

to

as

the

images

settinghis

at

(as they

were

the

in

is not

this later

and

well

testing a twelfth,a Surirella

mounted
must

if

seen

combination

about

expert

specimen

as

adjustments and

as
results,

best

recognise them
tongues

his

become

to

as

the

obtained

upset

well

sharp image

said

manipulated.

very

field

the

shows

be

focus

produce

once

having

he

compared,

at

but

possible;

of

zones

focussing

no

one.

the finest

to

OF

are

he

former

If he compares
first with
at
experience coming to his aid.
Fig. 4, Plate VIII., using green light,he will not experience
much
difficultyin getting as good an
image ; but to get as
fine

result

find

he

obtain

its

The

lead

the

same

as

that

room

in

green

is,that

unless

the

XVII., he will probably

2, Plate

and

screen

Addenda.

powerful illu-

light.
the

observer

be

in

looked

when

has

been

at

in the

evening
the

occupied by

or

in

well-darkened

little
microscopist some
which
This
peculiarity,

observations.
commencing
is undoubtedly
probably from the
true, arises
inherent
perceptive faculty of the retina is much
eye

is

kept continuously

even

the

It is thought

by

immediately
retina.

for those

strong light than

in

fact

that

the
the

less when

after

rest

in

illumination.1

subdued
1

practice

constant

of

before

time

difficult to

It is very

his eye
testing objectives,
possibly
may
very
amined
object, for instance, exastray in his opinion. An
just
by day in a well-lightedapartment rarely appears

art

him

Fig.

blue-green

with

equal

next

the

in

explained

as

in

seen

employ

must

minant,

that

as

who

It is

some

before
moot

express

observers

that

commencing)

admit,

point,we
belief in

is

its

smoking during
apt to spoil the

and

one

that

observations
sensitiveness

is not

rendering vision less

acute

easy

to

admit

(or
of

decide,
that it

INTRODUCTION"
if

Then

student

The

disaster.

phenomena

human

continued

and

in doubtful

always prefer to
combinations

the

only by

dint

the

of

pitfall is the

final

exact

do

of

of

one

visual

extensive

very

so, and

he,

even

produced by
opinion.
illumination

of

courts

that

state

to

of

evidently patent,

so

with

image

gives his

he

performance

impression

professional can

the fault is not

compare

before

Another

retains

mind

where

cases,

upon

attempts

he

it is

the

373

comparison with that

is perfectly familiar, he

making

badly that
practice a

so

there,

which

with

others

more

or

TEST-OBJECTS

test-object and

and

first

given lens, without

OF

examines

then

opinion,

an

pass

USE

will

other

the

at

is of more
observing, which
importance
paramount
with
with
a
a
test-object than
test-plate. A fortunate and
of the light may
show
the
exceptionally fine arrangement
up
of

moment

details in
"

"

believe

make

it is

the

may

quite spoil the

reverse

these

"

the

of

performance
for the

This

remark
is

power

on

performance

of

details
But

word

that

all

this

very

it should

that
of possibility

might

not

does

not

do

may

be

one

this cause,

necessitate

ex

at

so

who
so

that

sightbeing

all times.

is,or
he

may

can

other,and
the

the

as

limit

breaking

difference

serious

other

But

if the

lenses,
here

must

of

objectives,even

account

range

his

of

the

when

probably will,affect

defects, although

so

to

as

vice
of

versa.

resolving
into

up

dots

pellucida,say, with green

change in the obliquity of the

of

objective.

caution

of

combination

Amphipleura

make

that

and

may,

for

so

such

amount

may

with

"

good

strongly applies

the

expected ; whereas
point a bad lighting

very

probably

lines in

so

of

to

as

was

the

to

reveal, so

may

Now
all
strongly against it.
cleared
are
by comparison with the
objectives; for if the lighting be extra

smallest

light and

than

more

being approached,

The

light.

lens

poor

one

fine effect

it is

very

well-known

the

is

other

one,

better

microscopist
judgments

erroneous

good

even

which

just

impress

that

specimen

the

be

be

the
be

merely

become,
avoid

it is

in

from

suitable

here
a

in

to

of

fact
zonal

one

any

lens

It is adviscase

the

prejudicialmanner

the value

alike.

degree, still on
the
quite within

another.

to

of

the

to

suffer

minute

mentioned

affected

misjudging

temporarily affected.

type,

parative
com-

its turn

Owing

given.

lightingso

suitable

so

in

one

forgotten

exact

It is

to

apparent

performance is
faulty arrangement

each

finest

likely only
not

in the

lens

reader
from

owing

to

USE

INTRODUCTION"

374

too, is

eye,
with

so
on

which

has

attention

used

separate

strain

that

rest

As

with

experience

with

the

about

growing

observer

the

in

the

to

expect
of

case

On

generated.

from

is

with

then

in

felt,and

those

other

hand, if the

mind

and

so

know, is

to

so

on,

It

the
are

make

is

Lastly, an
examination

opinion
of

one

some

should

other
not

of

it,

dislike

or

been

has

an

led,
ference
indif-

adjustment of

much

that

so

and

more

the
more

anyho\v, direct
recognised to be good

the

plan

and

which

one

at

attempt

opinion by comparing the performance with

other lens at some
lection of that given by some
by

tributed
dis-

student

far better

an

exhibited

this

observe

disgust

careless

objectivesthat

leads to far better results,than

perhaps

of

limits

exhibition,

poor

to

proceed, that, for

do

tested

by being

fails to
to

really fairly treated.

who

effect

the

beyond

question) and
feeling akin

not

other

be

microscopist is
exceptional (perhaps,

even

light,focus,
we

the

weary

it is well

"

to

one

our

If the

very

the

comparison with
by

lens

or

as

in

never

lost

and

with.

dealt

other, to expect
leads
engendered which

objective is
evident

be

see

the

cause

some

details

is

binations
com-

protracted

tired

that

insensible

something
is
beginner, what

the

possibilitywith
disappointment

rather

so

three

or

rapidly grows

eye

will

or

group.
to

to

strained,

great is this

somewhat

objectives,the

become

whole

two

otherwise

of

is

eye

is true, but

well-known,

are

Prejudice, too, has

prepared

than

the

"

rulings

objective will

without

As

be

series

fatigue may
over

view

nothing
"

in the

experience, so

our
more

extent.

an

that

the

test-objectsit

the

others

In

object in

such

especiallyif the

whether

see

time

same

know

The

employed.

examine

other

to

change

be often

cannot

this

of the faint lines

powers

especially

the

at

the

mean

the

that

instance,we

an

we

weary,

greatly strained

series.

given

we

So

to

grows

in

of

state

overlooked

eye

not

changes

The

question

no

the

as

very

also,to

with

ones

is

lightbe very intense.

fatiguingas the examination

not

is

There

the

glass,which

be

be

performance

opinion.

not

must

off

be

to

final

its

try moderate

others, to

expressing

perception rapidly go

the attention

to

the

fatigue.

to

and

"

of

any

factor

respect

if the
and

as

before

details

the

of

good

so

TEST-OBJECTS

testing a lens, if

able, therefore, when

quite

OF

forming

vioitnl

other

;""

lime, and

person.
be

pet specimen.

hastily arrived at by the

It is quite possible,and

it subscribes
the rays
is
final effect. That
this is so

the
that

when

the

iris

flash

such

contribution

diaphragm, the
all

out

of

Traviss's
of

out

the

placed beneath
box

of

central

its back

at

the

through
the

opposite

internal
the

the

of the

zone,

method

observer

hesitation

in

these

from

effected

the

in

better

the

or

to

zone

of the

aperture

"

the combination

than, it does

now,

the

being employed. Then,

objective perfect.
We

might

asked, if the
nature

when
1

This

mention
rays

added

to

is usintfwhat

the

in

the

perform

not

and

as

till then,

in

others, why

are

is called

be

annular

of

adding

then

used

as, if not

well

zones

are

it has

they
See

not

be

the
when

at

been

full

better
alone

reallycall

we

such

light.

to

attained

objective,that

can

two

improving
thus

full

justly

the

be

no

and

the

from

so

passing,
of

zone

be

can

when

ever

central

be

this

poorness

definition

in the

objective being

however

from

of

area

inner

and

there

can

lie

mind

first instance, is

improvement

must

shall

when

by closing

The

two.

derived

those

and

in the

present

future, if such

the

"

produced

area

in the

are

issuing

middle

doubt

Hence

The

existing knowledge,
performance of this offending
is added

When

that
the

the

when

seen

suggested, may
deteriorating effect"

mentioned.

lens

of

the

fallingoff

our

its contribution

of

second.

the

outer

off

stop

removed.1

with

no

pronounced

the

"spoiling

already

ones

can

fog, both of which

with objects like that

the

to

with

in

to

the outer

be

be

occluding portion

being

of

attributed

inner

"

affirmingthat

is used

rays

there

for

1/3), should

objective as

ocular

(cut

metal

in

size

the

tried.

that is,entirelyby the rays

of detail,so

introduction

aperture

of

is the

absent

conspicuously
the

"

which

definition

its

exact

be

diaphragm

page

critically
compared
the conjoint action

sufficient amount

-the

lens, the
is

of

ment
experi-

may

made

see

"

produced by stopping off

zones

iris

those

to

zones

in this way,

outer

way

substage condenser,

intermediate

additional

wheel

illumination

wheel) being

image formed

the

of

the

and

looking

the

or

similar

An

another

in

Stop,

cardboard

definition

proved by the simple fact

off by a suitable
closing of

obtained.

matter

Expanding

black

the

test-objectimmediately
fog entirely disappears, and

the

once

producing dark-ground
(or

still ruin

details of the

true

is at

with

dealing

is cut

sudden,

definition

excellent

TEST-OBJECTS

others

the

with

by

OF

USE

INTRODUCTION"

376

an

often

deteriorating
always

Addenda.

cut

by

off

suitable

read

or

will suffice

to

has

student

would
the

by

But

the

by

the

from

coming

of

form

idea

an

numerical

on

be

cannot

will

add

may

the

question ?
of
spoiling effect

TTroVotf"f

of

if alone employed.

lens

the

in
in

zone

the

those

of

gather

when

outer

inner

pellucida,only
shown

be

cannot

intermediate

and

question

then

and

marked,

performance

as

it varies

in

ene

offers

another,

in different

lens
of

one

in

of

at

the

of

means

that

with

all

of

areas

retaining this

manufacturers,

comparison

to

come

will

matter

and

theory

reader

in the performance
improvement
make,
by objectives of modern

the

exhibited

as

zone,

forgotten

we

now

this

from

rays

present

Amphipleura

in

be

immediately be settled ; but the

the use
if the chapter upon
understood
better
The
carefully studied.
oblique light has been
will

zone

the

issuingfrom

never

understood

The

here

day very fine

question if employed alone.

aPart, which

action

by the conjoint

to

still it must

that

dots

incn

an

added

the

We

"

better

of

in

area

"

ones,

be

exhibition

talk of the
about

zone

produced by

are

we

outer

already said,

have

we

images

be

ture,
aper-

tolerated

it demands

illumination, seeing

when

intermediate

and

the central

outer

bination
com-

so

of the bad
employment
allowing the
reply, that whilst

the

chapter

such

that

show

selective

This

the

consideration, however, especiallyif the

will refer to

oblique

this

what

of

back

the

at

377

of the objective
doing the resolving power
the advantage gained
be thereby enormously reduced, and
of oblique lightentirely lost.
use
be the advantage of emcan
the querist may
add, what
ploying
for

moment,

placed

diaphragm

moment's

TEST-OBJECTS

OF

USE

INTRODUCTION"

so

will
of

the

is very

its better

exhibited

by

distinguishing first-class

to
computations from those of inferior design ; but it remains
be hoped that
eventually improvements will be effected of so
will be designed and
made
high an order, that a combination

will

that

work

all

exceed

must

we

find

we

Some

full aperture,

expectations

It is evident

then

at

them.

from
content

For

of

what

in

the

moment.1

has

been

ourselves
this

and

said,

with

purpose,

attention,especiallyof late,has

such

at

the

examining
in

been

addition

manner

as

present

to

time

objectives as
to

the

plate

given to the use of a Nicol's

the condenser, as a means
of
prism above the ocular, or a polariserbeneath
of the objective. The
is discussed in
matter
increasingthe defining power
the

Addenda.

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

378 TVrn

AND

previouslyspoken about,
for

selected

threefold

combination

as

of

the

images by
the

by

object :

whole,

outer

combined

diatoms

certain

to

of

test

employed, being
the performance of the
are

satisfyourselves

as

only, and

definition

zone

action

to

TEST-OBJECTS

to the

middle

the

the

to

internal

and

rendering
produced
alone

ones

employed.
Test-objects
pellucida.

Amphipleura
indicate
outer

the

first-rate

compensating

from

oiled

an

IV., for

honestly

have

test

the

one

to

as

selective

of the

use

of white

cone

the

approximately
about

conjunction

critical

N.A.

same

"f

yWoinF

with

distinctly rendered,

light
the

as

incn

an

apart

in

Fig. 2,
requiresoblique light,but certainlydistinctly
not

found

never

fail us,

this test

examined

world.

the

in

the

But

make

to

as

and

this

test

we

of

performance

y^ths,representativemanufactures

of

large number

full

lines

have

we

say

in

of

visible ;

that

We

visible.

makers

to

also

and

the

image by

ocular, and

transverse

just be

Plate

whole,

objective is employed

condenser

objective,the
should

the

diatom

only.

zone

When
x

rendering

of

this

use

objective as

the

of

performance

We

"

may
a

very

of all the best

valid

two

one,

first to have
:
a
precautions are to be observed
good specimenf
and secondly that the lightshall not be inany way oblique. With
for the student
obtain
the
to
respect to the first,it is best
assistance

of

friend

some

objective,to

wanting
marked.

They

are

pick

and

"f

Ttnrbinr

absolutely

Concerning

the

an

^ncn

him

out

One

the

be

second, seeing

that

any

see,

not

still nevertheless

should

It

to

lines, although

are

not-found-

and

specimen that is well

is an
exceedingly small

extremely difficult

apart,

distinct.

well-tried

kinds.

of two

the lines arc

variety,where
other
a
larger type, where
about

has

who

than

more

well

mounted

in

the

and

marked

realgar.

objective,if it be

^th

oblique light,the
di;
is distinctly
that the illumination
be exercised
to
care
by this
simply a precaution to prevent a poor combination
for a good one.
and
unfair assistance"
accidental
being mistaken
worthy

of

will

the name,

the

show

lines

with

"

We

admit

the

test

is

severe

dissevcratingthe good from

by showing the lines,but in

one,

the

but

it has

second-class

the distinctness

remarkable
not
objective,

with

which

i;

only

it docs

so.

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

T\TH

; but

quite so
it

them,

will

combination

good

true, fails

is

them

379

almost

type of

perfectly,if not
manufacture, while showing

that

particular of furnishing a

depict

second-class

TEST-OBJECTS

AND

just

in

will soon
learn
to
crisp definition which the observer
immediately recognise. A low-power ocular should be used.1
for testing the performance of the outer
To
the diatom
use
and

neat

specimen

zone,

the

by
him

by

sought for
discreetlydefined, when
follows
the
make
what
intelligible,

and
To

remarks

the

read

the

condenser

oblique beam
spectra, in
at
1

This

the

of

component

any
such

same

not

may

occur

at

for

years.

be

taken

for

to

ascertain

time

is

the

to

to

and

the

slip

of

the

diffraction-

lie in

the

field

light be used, the

use

of

"

for

of caution

word

requested

two

quite unknown
objective suddenly

an

well

experimentally whether
to disintegrate,
commencing

granted, almost

in its components.

commenced

any

If then

dots

direction

the

green

drawback

well-known

commence

lines,it may

now

apochromatic system

decaying being
It may

If

service

of great

an

the

and

beam, shall

direct

moment?

is also

test

the

is

cover,

arranged that

with

the

tioned,
men-

particularmanner.

reader

the

to

explained,

light so

of

company

and

one

there

as

oiled

be

show

to

in

before

using oblique lightin the

After
doing so, the objective

purpose.

should

examination

under
to

the

to

friend

and

obtaining

upon

chapter devoted

the

ascertained

been

has

that

selected

be

must

this type of
the

to

or

show

to

ceases

certain, that

bination.
com-

user"

trouble

must, however, be

has

added.

bright light immediately before

of
frequent cause
missing the
in consequence
lens
a
quite incorrectly,be condemned
lines, and
may,
the
is
when
the
at fault,
really
as
culprit.
eye
2
One
might call attention here to the fact that in doing this,the field
because
the flame
of view may
image may not entirelycover
rapidlydarken
which
the aperture of the diaphragm
is being shifted
the whole
over
area
where
the
to find that
dioptricor central beam, as well
particularposition
lie
in
field
shall
the
of the back
lens at one
the
and
two
as
spectralbeams,
The

should

eye

be

for

in

some

the

every

eye

the

so

to

is

"

effect of this

central

by moving

met

object to

in

others.

lie in (to bring about

The

only

which

It may
the

the

mirror

has

is troublesome.

objectaround

substage arrangements.
is astigmatic,
by
than

is that

which

beam,
the

observer

better

"

the

axis, instead

drawback

is meant,

to

The

sees

happen that
ideal of having

to

this

objects
the
the

best
three

in the area
of the back
lens at one
and
dioptric,
in
which
the
meridian
moment)
particular
same
astigmatic eye
be astigmaticthen, this plan suggested of moving
observer
If an
worst.
of its utility.
objectinstead of the iris aperture loses much

beams,

sees

the

of the

meridians

positionfor the
the

shift of the

usually be

interferingwith

is when

exposed

immediate

The

moment.

same

altered

can
difficulty

of

never

operations : doing

commencing

the

be

two

spectral and

one

is that

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

380 Tym
dots

should

outer

zone,

show

them,

AND

TEST-OBJECTS

be

in Fig. 5, Plate XII.;

sensibly visible,as shown
but their perfection of definition is in direct accordance
with the
of its
aperture of the objective and the beauty of the correction

in

and

to

the

skilled

XV.,

to

of

that

different
of

learner

the

remark,

deliver

another

objective they

light it

is recommended

with

reader

an

when

circumstances,
form

in

shrewd

question by
well

lens

before

that

even

judgment

any

the

to

of

light

will enable

opinion as to the
mere
glance, but

performance

its

compare

giving his opinion. Indeed,

will
practised observers
many
first

without

know

idea

blue

amplifications.Practice

will do

master

Figs. 5 and 6, Plate XIII.,

at
photographs being taken

the

to

will

in

furnish

correction

is this

lenses

VI.,
the

under

see

the

is but

never

Plate

with

of

who

true

I, Plate

to

sensibly perfect computation

Fig.

tester

excellence

so

2,

expect

employed

with

in

magnifications

is

one

but

nothing

as

Fig.

different
what

and

well.

performs

with

comparing
To

obtain

blue

the

prismatic illuminating
by
(page 170),or to use the blue-green films made
apparatus
which
Kodak,
are
plained,
are
fully exexceedingly good, and which
with

the

employ

to

illumination

Navicula

the

lyra (Plate V.). This

performance of the central and

aperture
outer

this

the

as

the

this

we

when

mean,

objectivethe

The

zone.

denotes

diatom

"

objective. By

superiorityof

test-objectis

using

is

for

one

full

be

tc

of

zones

of the

cone

closed

to

cut

an

same

off the

produce reallyfine defini:

another.
Moreover,
objectiveover

one

to

excellent

an

Addenda.

intermediate

iris must

needed

amount

the

required,in

the

show

to

one

chromatic

semi-apochromatic objective, the folding-over

well
that
colour
of the longest focal
as
as
being easily seen
length. It also furnishes a useful object to show the comp!
of

correction

of the

elimination

explanation
It is

planes
These

to

that
arc

microscopists,that with different

arc
presented by all
leading appearances
d
of
a
composed
recurring structure
known

two

have

called

the

respectively. Some
better
dot

than

the

image,

equally well.

It is

to

"black-dot"

and

that

another
a

matter

is,the black-dot
to

seems

of

some

white-dot"

the"

always

objectivesseem

other"

whilst

apochromatic. S

an

V.

well

focus

in

secondary spectrum

Plate

matter

of

diatoms

be

t".

show

effect
able

difference

to

of

or

im;.

die

im

the

white-

render

opinion

b
which

finer

the

betokens

this part of

it is worth

for what
finest

this

opinion.
Navicula

the

perfect if

and

the

mentioned,

the

of

the

outer

is indeed

combination

zone
a

with

for
difficult,

to

make

practice and

of

home

opticians at

its
"

several
at the

use

"

'called

are

areas

walls,

shown

as

appearance
in

"

is made
Here

is

with

in

us

if any,

arrived

at.

great favourite

; but

its

is rather

use

considerable

is what

by
has

by

amount

shown

with

in

Fig. I,
focus";

black-dot

"the
been

obtains

if covered

as

those

to

that

questionably

termed

little

six

very

in

which

example,

many
also

focus

exact

perfectly white hexagonal

black and accurately defined
VI. ; whereas, lastly,a third
when

the

valve

is mounted

ourselves

regard as the true rendering

difficult object is capable of being seen
when
the
focus
such as
that depicted in the centre
of Fig. 3, Plate VI.
we

"

each

little white

dot

appears

as

perforation in the pale-coloured substance

is made
both

of

requires much,

very

similar

Fig. 2, Plate
especially noticeable

realgar,and

of this

indeed

bounded

seen

taken

"

indicative

perfection is

the

to

for

dots

effect,"where

white-dot

foreign

is

accordance

abroad

utilitya

appear,

black

minute

conversely there
the

different

"

It may

XIV.,

being

diatom

as

appearances," according

circumscribed

"

it of real

that

One
plicates
experience is necessary.
thing that comis
the
that
it
first
fact
anyhow, at
presents

moment.

Plate

well

as

structure

that

This

"

these

in

iris before

with the
closing down
Pleurosigrna angulatum.

further

involve

image should be very sharp

objectivebe cut off,and the

one

poor

would
of

effect

are

many

381

leaning ourselves

black-dot

the

to

"

have

we

computation, and

the

With

but

book,

our

minute

diatom's

the

representationsof

decide

formation

the

upon

TEST-OBJECTS

To

computation.

discussion

theoretical

to

AND

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

Tym

of

; there

is

which

we

exceedingly
this

no

minute

because

six-sided

white

errors

certain

focussing.

curious

and

of which
and

space

personally believe
in

minute

are

no

really

More

the

distinct
diatom

black
due

to

dot,
very

especiallydo

we

false

images, due probably to

diffraction phenomena, are
in the black
capable of being seen
referred
hexagonally arranged boundary walls above
to if care
say

be

exercised

show

them,

and

the

magnification be sufficiently
an
great. For this purpose
enlarged negative,obtained with an
excellent 2-mm.
in Plate VII.,
apochromatic by Leitz, is shown
several
where
be plainly seen
in the boundary walls which
can
to

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

382 Tym

in

white

arc

TEST-OBJECTS

particularinstance, because
shows
negative photograph which

this

of

is that

AND

the

ment
enlarge-

them

better

But, however, this is not the place for

positive one.
discussion
of the Pleurosigma and its many
so
we
appearances,
of the diatom
to the use
on
as
a
test-object.Seeing that
pass

than

good image of any of the different

believe, do not employ
images with full aperture, opticians,we
the diatom
mounted
in realgar, but
to the
dry and burnt on
in Canada
balsam.1
cover-glass,or mounted
that
this class of specimen the best objective is the one
With

objectivewill

no

shows

the most

be grey,
the

by

but

render

black, and

the

smaller

the

black

the

perfect rendering of

It should

dot.

of

amount

required,the finer the lens.2

evident
then, seeing this is what

not

cutting down

diaphragm

It is very

be

may

called

quantitative test, it requires a great deal of practice,and many

be compared
and
before the microscopist
seen
objectives must
himself

trust

can

found, too, that

there

with

several

are

the

that

upon
to

diaphragm

viewing

mentioned,
the

of

its

disquieting matter,
the only
discussion
; but
the

against

by

which

to

hexagonal

own

furnished

the

the

is

of

wrath

papers

reader

the

focus

exact

then

seen

'20, because

on

effects

that

by

this

reference

in

mounted

specimen

think

we

It will be
i

hold

is

several

upon

referred

the
for

information.3

When

but

and

appearances

to

opposing theorists is that

subject by Mr. Conrady,
further

very

layer ! This
good deal of

seems

opinion. It will be
considerably closed,

really good

black-dot

images also, layer

and
has
given rise

explanation

form

to

are

images
means

the

to

previously

realgar,as

all emphasised very

the

white

true

1*40

appearance,

really performs

chapter

the

on

strongly ;

at

of

use

as

aperture

an

the

substage

with
used
Londcnscr
that with an
N.A.
ro
diaphragm, it will be understood
an
objective of greater aperture, the working aperture is found by adding
the apertures of the objectiveand condenser
together and taking the mean.
Thus
this
becomes
2*40, the
1*40 -f ro
speaking of a 1*40 objective,
of which
the real working aperture of the objectiveunder
mean
1*20
=

consideration.
*

It

is

not

certainlyshow
years

of

little curious

the

white

"

effect

observation, however,

the better the combination, the

matter

no

the

Journal

that

we

"

some

better

otherwise
than

feel bound

better

the

the

rendering

Aftci

that, on

the

of

the

limits,of the

appearance^ within reasonable

1904, pp. 610-33 ; 1905, pp. 150-2

R.M.S.

dot:'

black

to assert

obj"

good

very

"

black-dot

white

one.

1905, pp. 541-53-

AND

I'jTH SEMI-APOCHROMAT

384

illuminating

the

When

(as explained in the

arc

oblique

lightpreviouslyreferred

axis,

moment

these

which

light,offers

The

they

of

to

lines

the

assistance

the

use

of

should

obtain

than

Surirella

be

in definition

is

gemma

It should

be

It affords

fine

shutting

of

the

optical
into

up

vicing in
sharpness
employing white

from

mounted

procured flat and

some

to

as

have

in the

Plate

VIII.

is afforded

think

some

binations.
com-

realgar,and

explanation

that

by

Addenda.

see

useful

inferior

in

Amphipleura,

polarising prism,

the

broken

are

distinguishinggood

past preferredthis test-object.See

For

upon

around

especially when

seen,

specimens

easier

were

are

means

the

article

(Fig. 5, Plate VIII.),almost

Amphipleura pellucida. The

of

those

with

smallness

to) is turned

when

arrive

dots

minute

extremely
with

will

TEST-OBJECTS

easily obtainable

and

marked,

well

mounted

diatom.
in

realgar.

opportunity for witnessing the rapid alteration

from
black
to white-dot
effect,by an
incredibly small change
of focus
See
(Fig. 4, Plate VIII., and Fig. 2, Plate XVII.
fine objectiveshows
these dots exceedingly
text
to Plates). A
well
hardly any
depicted, crisp, and
sharply defined, and
be

substage

required before

combination

is

with

seen

blue

colour

it for that

purpose,

it

centre

be

correction

of

an

as

zone

its

use

is well

this

show

still,the
1

think

we

and

white

it

outer

as

is

obtained, the
It is best

art.
optician's

Plates.

to

favourite

in

England

for

like
do not
objective. We
be misleading, seeing
may
well

as

the middle

lying lengthways

marking
"

note

constriction

interior

effect

zones

cut

and

of

carefullyfocussed

well-defined

If much

necessary.

Hence
perfectimage is obtained.
as
a
test-objectfor ascertainingwhether
for
corrected.
In good specimens used

the white
purpose,
of each
centre
so-called
examined

the

to

well-defined

merely regard

the

of

used

always requires the

off before
we

scale

testing the
that

specimen

poor

be

to

black-dot

good

ought

light. See explanation

Podura

The

iris

should

exclamation,"

with
around
not

end

down

when

the

closely

good objective,should
; and

its neck

abruptly,

but

further
be

seen

with
specimens are of old date, and consequently mounted
rather thick covers.
r
for several ,'5
The microscopist is warned
of this,
"
work
not
being too small
through this thickness, their working distance
with
It is usually necessary,
before obtaining a well-defined
image, even
to get over
homogeneous
objectives,to considerably shorten the "draw"

Most

of these

"

this extra

thickness

of

cover.

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

ATH

prolonged a long
it almost

fades

focussing (Figs.

be

3, Plate

and

This

away.

should

notes," but

"

385

delicatelytapering off

the note,

down

way

imperceptibly

all the

with

TEST-OBJECTS

AND

in

seen

careful

with

some

See

VIII.).

visible

be

not

may

until

explanation

to

Plate.
what

mentioned

have

perhaps may
the
classical
the
still
of
test-objects,
following
some
them
little profit,
used by us with no
enumerate
we
so
in the hope they may
be of considerable
peculiarities,
in the subject.
those interested
Although

we

obtusa.

Nitzschia

that

obtain

to

light,the

in

all the

getting
shall

dots

the

that

so

When

with

show

these

power

of resolution

be

well

white

ordinary
afforded

by

illumination,

the

to

saying which
the

to

as

small, the

so

in focus

dots

do

we

is

very

refer

not

of

resolution

Inasmuch

these

this diatom

to

green

I, Plate

of

their

service

to

specimen is
of oblique

but

the

extra

light is

needed

taken

with

excellence.

See

IX., was

great

is

the

not

but

flat,and
to

expect

the

see

It is

moment.

same

to

resolve,in

but
showing of the striae,
dots.
exceedingly minute

anything

the

and

one

diatom

difficult

strise into

microscopist must
at

with

Plate.

Boeckii

Brebissonia

of

use

Fig.
exquisite definition.
Reichert
2-mm.
apochromatic

explanation

been

requisitespectra into the field

A
seen.
good objective should

for very
a

have

difficult diatom

good

called

apochromatic and the use

are
lines,which
exceedingly close together,1
into dots closelypacked side by side.
Some

resolved

is needed

care

marked.

is

first-class

transverse

be

should

experience,this

our

well

is

with

examined

In

"

be

details
of

many
an

are

the

exceedingly

taken
with
photograph. Fig. 2, Plate IX., was
See explanation
apochromat by Leitz.
superior 2-mm.

difficult object to
a

very

Plate.

to

Synedra

crystallina.
"

This

diatom

is

fairlyeasy

to

see

in

these
broken
into
sharply
interrupted lines ; but to show
up
well-corrected
defined
dots
quadrangular
requiresan exceedingly
taken
with
a
remarkably fine
objective. Fig. 3, Plate IX., was
See explanation to Plate.
apochromatic by Koristka.
r5-mm.
test for
Cymbella gastroides {small variety)is an excellent

purity of

the colour
1

The

c.d.m.

late
=

Van

'0003937

Heurck

combination.
the

says

English

in.

10

The

lines

dots
a

are

microns.

fine

26

'01

mm.

should
or

27

be
to

25

shown
c.d.m.'

386

less

or

more

as

the

portion of

off to

taper
little

apochromatic.
dots

See

with

The

"

till the

Plate

in

shown

as

apochromatic by

Koristka

above

the

white

Hartnack

light.
2-mm.

Plate.

to

of

the

zig-zag rows

of

of first-class homogeneous

using

combination

be very

which

X.,

using

excellent

an

advent

objective (Van Heurck). When

these dots should
sensiblyperfect,
such

when

even

nature

true

distinctlyfrom

very

haze,

These

photomicrograph.

"

out

explanation

discovered

not

was

taken

was

Smithii.

Navicula

stand

be free from

IX.,

Plate

the

in

seen
"

should

and

background

well

point

TEST-OBJECTS

in the central
rectangularnearly everywhere, save
and
the median
diatom
near
raphe, where
they

markings

Fig. 4,

AND

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

T\TH

that

is

circumscribed,
distinctly
taken

was

mentioned.1

with

See

the

1*5

explanation

Plate.

to

firma

Navicula

is

curiously marked, rather flat diatom

;
inclined
are
delicacy of the dots, which

peculiar shape and

places to be ovate
objective to render

rather
them

than

the
in

require a first-class
with
oblique white

round,

distinctly,even

light. Their separation (both as white or black dots) should

show
be distinctlyseen,
but
it requires a fine combination
to
them

Fig. I, Plate XL,

Reichert, using green

in

seen

as

by

taken

with

2-mm.

light. See

chromatic
apo-

explanation

Plate.

to

Epithemia

turgida

plainly visible
is

rows

Fig. 2,

the

the

matter

When

about.
of

; but

is

their
have

we

test-objectin
exact

shape

never

been

slightlyout of focus, as

Plate

XI., they look

which

in

their

able
in

the

the

dots

very

are

doubly arranged

quite certain
right-hand portion

to

circular,whereas

be

in the

centre

of

angular
trialmost
they look sharp, they appear
of
end
in the left-hand
; but at a third plane, as shown
photograph,where they are just going out of focus, they appear

specimen

for the most

where

attention
to this
paying some
lean towards
the opinion that they should
be always
matter, we
shown
angular
circular, although it is difficult to explain their trias
in the
central
A
photo
portion.
appearance
1

for

whose

markings.

Consulate, Volo, Greece,

whose

power

discerning secondary markings is envied by many

microscopists
and
in
care
patience
observing difficult objects are well i"

calls attention

Hate

After

A. A. C. Merlin, of the British

Mr.
it

and

part round

to

The

the fact that

late

is characteristic

Dr.

Van

larger variety of this diatom

Heurck

of the smaller

stated

type.

the

shows

photograph

additional

shown

in

the

text.

The

severated

and

guide

to

as

the

See

in

of

account

on

the

Plate

their

Messrs.

rhomboides.

Navicula

they
able

could

be

do

so,

to

of

"

We

"

have

no

seen

3-mm.

with
Fig. I, Plate XII., taken
apochromatic by Zeiss. This diatom

colour

correction

Eupleuria
Diatomaceas,

found

the

this

fuzzy edges.
lens, and

is

irreproachable

well

semi-apochromat, hence

in

little black

exhibits

is very

the

useful for

explanation to Plate.
pulchella (Arnott). This diatom, which

does

"

by
when

many

books

devoted

examined

by direct
object, giving

the

to

light

subject
appears

but
faint
a
exceedingly transparent
With
secondary markings with full aperture.
very
white
adjusted
oblique light (of great obliquity)at

meridian, very

minute
pronounced, extremely
of
studding the quadrangular sections

seen

2,

and

See

mentioned

seem

the

in

this purpose.

focus

Fig.

belief

great

well

of

Blakeley respectively.)

of

They

photograph

to

been

have

into

up

diffusion

; any

closely

however.

This

dots

as

of

roughly ruled,

in one
point, viz. that
test-objectsave
without
look
should
distinctlycircumscribed
betokens, in our
opinion, a finely corrected

diatom

for, if

broken

difficult

interest

Herbert

2-mm.

entirely invisible.

be

may

micrograph
photo-

Leitz

series
if

as

appear

great transparency

they
objective,and
XII.
(Further details

photographed by

light,a

green

extremely

are

fine

carefully searched

when

been

never

delicate, and

very

are

have

we

The

this little valve, which

the floor of

that

afford

whole

the

dis-

be

can

Plate.

to

They

belief

effects

objective.

the

oblique

lines.

arranged transverse
and
engender the
dots, but

of

to

exceedingly

seen,

of

aid

the

with

explain

these

an

In

be

may

narrow,

better

which

explanation

solea."

Cymatopleura

necessary

with

taken

387

chosen

of

excellency

TEST-OBJECTS

been

general sharpness

the

was

is very

with

neatness

apochromatic.

has

effects

three

the

showing
the

AND

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

Tyrn

of

the

as

an

trace

of

carefully
a

points
which

not

the

certain
may

be

object

with
nation.
illumicomposed, but they are better shown
green
Excepting with very well-marked
specimens these can
be easily overlooked, and
to
they are
especially troublesome
photograph. Fig. 3, Plate XII., taken with an excellent
2-mm.

seems

apochromatic, manufactured

by Hartnack.

See

explanation

to

Plate.
Nitzschia

sigma

is yet another

that requiresa good

test-object

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

TyrH

388

objective.

We

do

refinement

of

the

large),but
intermediate

The

defined, no
stand

out

Plate

XIII.

the

should

See

explanation

from

varies

adds,

striae,about
a

but

yVh,

fourteen

sixteen

to

of

^w^tn

these

up

each

to

combination

their

having
of

axis

lines

"dots"

in

will

resolve

see

them

illumination
and

show

be

according

to

the

Fig. 2,

Plate

at

end

the

unusual

illuminant
made

to

in the

to

this

obtains
the

Navicula
From

finely

refuse to call them

or

more

be noted

instance
with

that

by the

most

between

"

dots

these

them,

"

in the

black, whilst
in

those

illustration

one

this

diatom

with

Jth,

only after trying

and
hibition
others, being a faint exthe median
near
raphe.
secondary markings arc formed

and
as

photograph,

some

instance

one

breaking

diatoms

"effects"

being quite flat.

not

resolve

to

secondary

white

or

look

centre

specimen

able

"

one

These

shown

are

approach thereto,in
objectives,apochromatic

spaces

in

"appearances"

two

the

been

never

It should
in

usually about

secondary markings
Synedra crystallina),

black

as

appear

Those

due

course,

of

these

necessary.

both

white, the

are

are

nearest

several

with

difficult. A

shape, some

focus, and

XXI.

have

We

easily seen

are

segments,

(as

verse
trans-

Green
ordinary acceptation of the word.
light
well
if
but
them
used
to
fairly
strongly oblique ;
really well and
neatly defined, oblique blue-violet
transmission
about
tenth metres)
(maximum
4700

can

being, of

(see Index).
apart,

length,

The

the

markings

one

its

measurement

their

to

powerful

and

found

lying parallel to the long

that is, transversely to the direction
of the

valve"

Owing

striae.

Heurck,

into

form

being

common,

line,is somewhat

should

greater

the

Van

inch

an

distinctly rectangular in

as

and

central

Plate.

to

50 c.d.m.

to

20

break

to

corrected

fairly

are

especially under

more

is very

"

he

the

be

Synedra capitata. This diatom

almost
everywhere," according to

of

perfection

objective are

dots

Lealand.

"

the

extreme

one

as

pronounced and uniformly

blurring or running together visible,and they should
shown
well
their background, as
in Fig. i,
from
an
Photographed with
apochromatic
jVth by

examination.

Powell

when

of

TEST-OBJECTS

requiring the
oblique light (as the dots

of

use

zones

it

regard

not

one

as

AND

are

up

of
not

think

the
due
to

lines
to

be

"

usually

as

resolution

the

case

of
with

cuspida.
what

has been

said, it will be readily seen

that

Synedra

TESTING
is

have

light,we
clean

be

for

object

test

APOCHROMAT

2-MM.

the

outer

of

zone

is

always found,
sharp.

and

PLATES

WITH

TVth only,

oblique

as

image should

The

imperative.

389

be
used
for
specimen can
suitable
and
is perhaps more
i^th, but is mostly employed
a
it is fullydescribed.
for a Jth,amongst
the test objects for which
of

Pygidium

the

Flea.

This

"

"

"

REMARKS
APOCHROMATS

TESTING

ON

LENGTH

FOCAL

VARYING

with

formed

by

true
practically

when

images

Abbe

J-IN.

with

dealing

of

test-objectsof

computation be of the best type, but

statement
requires qualification. We
himself, in his scientific

remarks

TViN.

TO

apochromats, to
absolutelycolourless, and

are

OF

1-40

Plate

speaking

them

TO

1-30

FROM

the

when

It is customary,

N.A.

OF

with

the

believe
the

upon

this

all kinds
Abbe

the

say

is

if the

plate the

Professor

Abbe

achromatisation

of

apochromatic system, only claims that seven-eighths to nineof the secondary spectrum
tenths
are
entirely and completely
his

using the Abbe

plate,seeing that it affords
it is not
difficult to understand
extremely delicate test-object,

eliminated.
an

the

When

possibilitythat
one-tenth

eighth

or

matter

of very

it

of which

considerable

be

seen,

felt.

Some

whether

or

consider

able
have

we

this trace

it would

be

all colour

show

to

this residual

just spoken.

difference

qualifiedto speak, whether

to

be

might

of

should

faint to

should

seems

opinion amongst

of colour

too

It

be

make

be

onea

those

possible

its presence

absent,even

this microscopical

of

tertiaryspectrum ; whilst others hold if such be

effect is really due
absent, the absolutely pure colourless
to
a
in one
of spherical haze
of the zones
trace
which
or
more
hides,
trace

obliterates,or
the

by
lay

law

any

apochromats

of

of

the

with

the
the

in

repute
the

firm

of

manufacturer's
of

colours, rendering them

"

that

powers
the

upon

nearly, if

very

world, and

plate,whilst

same

classes

the

When

eye.

down

the

covers

others

opticians
"

we

do
both

be

of

find

unobservable

differ,it is hard

We

matter.
not

"

have

absolutely
some

do

tested
every

show

this

the

maker
trace

Two

from
specimens even
magnificent representations of

not.

furnishing irreproachable images of

test-objects actually differ to a very slightdegree
art,
"

to

all
in

APOCHROMAT

2-MM.

390

this

WITH

particularrespect when

examinations

image
produced by

is that

"

if

"

rather

to

always
such

support

be

the

visible ; but

one

it is

be

can

the

that

such

degree of refinement
positive in one's assertions.
the

question of chromatic
speak than ourselves.

always

not

better

than

bination
com-

goes

of colour

sJiould

difficult matter,

very

of

which

we

At

this

point

speak,

for

the

one), which

residuals

correction

repeated

colour-rendering

colourless

obviously a

called

minute

to

theory

plate. After

thought (although

the

(in contradistinction

the

on

sometimes

the better

perhaps)
other

have

we

used

TEST-OBJECTS

then

quite
leave

must

we

those

be

to

better

with

able

to

As

of the black
lines of
regards the definition of the particles
the plate,nothing should
be left that is desired.
Of
the
course

field is not

flat anymore

sometimes

we

the

absence
of

amount

of

the

have
of

with

thought

the

the

loss of

having focussed

scmi-apochromat, indeed,

flatness
when

fluffiness,
even

oblique lightis used,

lines and

after

all

than

definition

curtailed

more

than

more

the

and

is

absence

when

returning

moderate

of

all

doubling

direct

to

with

oblique illumination, should

complete (see Figs, i and 2, Plate II.).

and

; but

light

be

spicuous
con-

REMARKS
FOR
DEFINITION,
TEST-OBJECTS
APOCHROMATIC
TVTH" ETC., OF
1*30 TO

USING

ON
THE

comparing the images of diatoms

semi-apochromat and the apochromat, there
noticeable

difference

itself appears

diatom

colour
most

cases

for which

light be

if the

tinted

exact

is

to

behold.

enthusiast
must

the

It is this
in this line

and

that

makes

of research

With

their
; but

so

use

whilst

the

over
turn-

in

an

apo-

little valve

object

an

the

; hence

is corrected

colourless

The

with

distinctlyapple-green.

perfectly white

by the

remarkable

one

accordance

chromatic, however, that is properly corrected,

rendered

N.A.

monochromatic.

not

combination

the

it appears

in

1-40

produced

When

WITH

ETC.,

beauteous

coveted

saying

is

by

the

so, still

we

if
duty point out what wo have mentioned
tion,
with monochromatic-green illuminamicroscopist be content
the
details and
in the actual
difference
definitionof the
in

object,as
is not

before, that

shown

always

so

by the really well -corrected

immediately apparent

and

scmi-apochromatic,
distinp

from

be

they

\vhich
in

of

and

in

takes

easily

for the

object
the

"

little

is

"

and

light

an

"

tongues

the

If

tongues.

It
marked

light

does

invisible
to

diatom,
the

Plate

XXI.

tongues

so

as

to

be

The

student

employed,

source

the

the

itself: it

apochromat.

An

good
of

that

linear

itself between

in the

field,are

in mind

of

source

image
vary,

however,

has

up

of

oblique

made

of

his

his
he

with

no

of light

matter

find

case

the

on

student
fully,
care-

very

the

3,

hand-

in

field too

optical system

what
so

car.

this

mirror

one

Fig.

The

condenser

will

the

at

in

them.

easy

down

all in focus

been

quite

quite

nearly everywhere

in

the

well-

often

and

photograph

that

ana

mission
trans-

with

it is not

markings

bear

the

ings
mark-

plainer still.
perfectlyflat and

the

portion
possible,otherwise

green

seen

Further,

attempt

seen

each

especiallywhich
blotchy blemishes, very

portion

cone,

as

that

diatom

positions between
shift
oblique light must

should

can

much

in

test-

central

more

get the small

filled as
brilliantly

as

aperture,

them, and

upon

and

occasionally

"

with

show

several

his

union

Using oblique

now

this
examining
shown
markings are

in

and

the

common

aware,

are

sufficient

On

arranging

seen

one

time.

same

magnifier, the
in

we

of

light that

the

or

of

case

is very

XVII.

illumination.

the

with

restricted

more

If viewed

striae upon

some

direct

arrange

entire
and

with

the

sharply defined,

should

be

and

show

not

in

light (maximum
powerful blue-violet
obliquelycast be employed, instead

specimen,

also

noticed

styrax

4,700) very
all the markings in question are
searching to find
requires some

green,

so

several

have

frequently to

are

as

and

condenser

3\th, however,

immersion

in

nobilis,Fig. I, Plate
oiled

the

i\th.

clean

appear

Pinnularia

in

"

"

is very

to be

colours

to

far

so

of

zone

be

diatom, which

known,

outer

tongues

three

mounted

ready

difference

The
can

difference

the

to

semi-apochromat.1

This

"

procured

realgar

of

the

refers

only

contradistinction

place with
major.

Navicula

called

of

expected, however,
fault, seeing that the image

It is

union

by the

apochromat

be

may

that

used, and

apochromat

true

difference,however,

one

images.

two

light be

what

formed

which

the

the

and

is

and

illumination.

is not

is

spoken,

brilliancyof

monochromatic

There

merit.

not

striking if white

TEST-OBJECTS

semi-apochromat

equal

have

we

the

the

of

performance
if

WITH

APOCHROMAT

2-MM.

392

bright

it is in favour

of

the

APOCHROMAT

2-MM.

dark

to

TEST-OBJECTS

satisfactorily.Different

see

and

performance,

observer

the

best

the

obtain

to

WITH

objectiveswill

393
in their

vary

will

require to be very patient

difficult to
obtain
they are

results, for

satisfactorily.
Navicula

lyra

should

magnificently defined

look

(that is,as large as

over-closingof

may

the

especiallywell

otherwise

show

the

of the

(Figs.2

and

Surirella

ought
remarkably

little

but

or

With

respect

it is

light inherent

of

form

to

more

about

an

effect
with

made

in

should

the

neck

secondary spectrum,

interior

of

the

note,

dealing with the

be

to

formance
per-

especiallywell

iris

than

proper

(Fig.4,

Plate

the

be

seen

performance
to

apochromat,

perfectand

in most

dots

without

VIII., and

Fig.

compared).

afforded

that

the

focus

further

no
test-objects,

reasonable

only

defined,and

their

at

it should

the

well

finish,its greater perfection of correction

to

tinted

apparent

white

additional

with

; but

apochromat

the

furnished

in connection

possible

for
definition),

not

of the

appear

black

which
the

to

be

can

them

to

closing of

I.,with

XVI

2, Plate

colour

as

to

VIII.).

gemma

intensely and
any,

semi-apochromat,

3, Plate

cone

constriction

of the absence

because

tapering off too of the

allusion
has already been

which

ought

white

pure

fine

with

dots

readily produce

very

the

and

full

as

consistent

the

(PlateV.).

should

scales

of

course

use

objects

larger illuminating cone

Podura

of
to

iris may

little

minute

these

and

be

colour,and

no

recollected

be

it should

but

in

show

when

speaking of
semifirst-class

of the

that

expect
its

mation
infor-

usually

in every
cases

the increase

perfect

more

all

way,

bine
com-

beautifully

more

rendered

image.
Nitzschia
singalensis.

This

"

tests
severe

and

for

for
taxes

is difficult

know
-^th that we
semi-apochromatic.
the
to

of the

resources

obtain

mounted

probably, like others

difficult to photograph on
are
approximately
are

extremely

faint

and

diatom

with

severest

it too

amphipleura,

microscopist very severely. It

those
in styrax
in realgar ; and
in

to

The

see,

the
that

experience, more

our

lines

inch;
the

but

in

our

they

measurement

object is
regarded as approximate only. The
lines
into
by employing oblique light,using a
be

the
think

some

It competes

this account.

difficult to

of

one

of; indeed,

in this medium

110,000

is

best
screen

men
speciare

so

must

resolved
of

TESTING

394

SEMI-APOCHROMATS
transmission

maximum

Limited, and

for

tenth

4700

in

the

sold

metres,
with

Addenda,

-95 TO

illuminant

powerful

very

effected

improvement

by

without

or

of

the

in green

equally
required. See

is

use

-65

by Kodak,

38, and if the student is able to resolve

fine objective,very
fine eyesight,and an

light,he has a
fine specimen.
Addenda

of

spoken

of No.

addition

at

N.A.

nicol

the

over

ocular.

the

XXII.,
be

photograph

the

In

at

markings

transverse

noticed, are

nearly

not

When
Amphipleura.
side by side, as in Figs.
in

becomes

appearance

of the

latter, no

clean-cut

objective

of the
is

be

this

obvious

lines,it will

sharply defined

so

enlarged and placed

XXII., this difference

be

borne

imperfectionin the
a

in

mind,

performance

peculiarityof the object.

the

test-object is

their

ever-increasing

an

fact should

case

alter

to

seems

Nitzschia

This
to

3, Plate

accentuated, for,in the

in

of to

instead

or

enlargement

down

put

2, Plate

more

whilst
itself.

objects are

and

of

amount

shows

spread
such might

much

appearance,

lateral
as

the

Fig.

These

shown.

are

pronounced

so

in

as

in

2,600, reproduced

difficult

very

and

one,

It

only

of the combination, for the strongest

appertains to the outer zone
be employed.
With
illumination, as
oblique light must
green
have
we
already said, the secondary markings are
extremely
difficult to see.
to
our
They have
knowledge, been
never,

broken

into

up

dots.

SEMI-APOCHROMATS

TESTING

N.A.

Semi-apochromats
length
there

between

is

in

fact

and

raised
us

upon

above
after

this

with

numerical

these

'8 at the

examining

of most

-95

AND

-65.

dry TV inch.

nothing gained

aperture
forced

of

N.A.

BETWEEN

We

focal

in

vary

help thinking

cannot

dry objectives,in having

most.
a

aperture

very

This

conclusion

of

great number

their
been

has

objectives,

leading opticians in the world.

Whilst
some
computations give a satisfactory image with
N.A.
more
*8, others
by the iris ;
cutting down
require even
but we
have
with one
that performs to perfection
never
yet met
at N.A.

face
is

specimens

"95,

with

or

the

even

belief

at

of

'90.

that

in

the

\Ve
the

arc

therefore

existing

practicallyimpossible for the computer

really well, or
semi-apochromatic to work

state
to
even

brought
of

face

to

knowlc"

construct

dry

approximately

N.A.

TESTING
so, with

of

any

what
it

merely

is it for

is it for the

it,or

much

when

by using

immersion

an

system,

circumstances
actual

In

commonly

the

these

to

to the

which

ordeal

severe

the

in
the

with

of

use

dry

to

oblique light?1
the

push

to

lens
be

in
at

defining

this

extreme

obtained

once

under

very

tional
excep-

with

much

be

fear

in

with
for

Jth

any

full aperture

still is

convenient

the

especially

more

"-in.; the

former
and

by amateurs
go-between

the

by
inch

rVth.
Plate."

to

(if over

have

We

collection,but, as

own

and

yet

test-plateis

The

through.

pass

have

world, and

Hence

applies quite correctly

and

"th

systems,

trembling.

employed

Abbe

the

it

so

members

by

upon

and

question,

of the

examination

not

rapidly

immersion

be looked

it understood

powers

is

Jth

or

microscopists are
with

to

in our
by different manufacturers
already stated, we have examined
firms

gain by
objective may be

dry T\th

used

much
so
particular,because
the
medical
profession as a
(or the f rds) and the immersion

Testing

much

the

perhaps

save

in

A.

has

could

familiar

more

school

dry high

directed

wish

with, probably because

met

follows,although

what

ever

any

practice nowadays

old

the

Is

impossible?

much
so
becoming
of
the employment
of

he

with

results

better

equivalents we

the

object that

laudable

more

395

question naturally arises,of

thinks

who

employed to a greater advantage

The
rejoinder here is,who would
of a Jth or
and
resolving power
manner

PLATE

opticians to attempt

please the tyro

to

'65 WITH

stating this the

In

then

use

TO

extremely high numerical

these

advertised.

see

-95

to

meet

several
have

we

efforts of

the

tested

most

with

that

one

most

yields

-8) a

one
reallyperfect image
when
approaching that of a good immersion
-^th. Even
slightly
reduced
in aperture, these
extremely high-apertured objectives
do
not
perform to complete satisfaction,notwithstanding the

delicate

most

collar

"

have

we

The

not

Upon

previously

the

with

"

on

Numerical

of

increases

or

the

^th,

importance

objective,which

of

length, or

the

is reduced

to

correction
the

limits

mentioned.

focus

in-and-out

the

tube

until,in fact,their aperture

folding-over point
obtains

for

adjustment

"

so

of

use

spectrum
the

having

the

Aperture."

the

of
in

subject
a

oblique light yields the

just the
need

large diameter

aperture, the

reader

not
to

manner

same

be

further

the back

is referred

as

lens

to the

gone
of the

chapter

N.A.

396

different

the
all

sixths,

of

even

in the outer
Some

give

diaphragm is closely shut to test

manner
already described, nearly

best

TEST-OBJECTS

will

make,

be

especiallymarked

more

"

the

the

portion

in

of the

the

found

in

outer

some

and

than

cases

zone,

intermediate

exhibit

to

in

often

very

also.

one

focal lengthcertainly
semi-apochromats of 4-mm.
the
semias
image, such
approximately white

recent
a

the

over-correction

to

"

WITH

in

zones

great tendency
others

-65

however,

When,

into.

TO

-95

very

of

Himmler,

apochromatic Jth by

whilst

Berlin,

others

have

to which
tendency to that fogging of the "blacks"
which
has
think
reference
we
made, and
so
already been
the finest specimens we
ot
decidedly objectionable. Some

distinct

have

with

met

those

are

When

the

using
it is

aberration,

been

has

collar

this is

of the lines

edges

the

however,

at once

finest

indicating the

testingthe zones,
B. Examining

seen

with

it will be

at

fog

and
'8

or

that

correction
the

finest

evident,

once

with

and

an

that

the

duplicated. If,
7, the best objectives

perfectimages, that combination

of
All

computation.
the

with

to about

cutting down

etc., are

the

produce

to

nebulous

as

reduced

least

spherical

previously said, that

to show

commence

that

or

amount

field is covered

be

aperture

exact

of

especially careful

ascertained,

have

often

are

correction

more

accomplished

we

requires the

which

the

'95 the whole

of

aperture

been

has

what

be

value.

in

testing

to

turned

of

truth

for

necessary

When

definition.

disseverate

to

examined

(the Holoscopic series),

Koristka,
all exceedingly
are
6A), which

new

plate

tube-length

best

the

difficult

and

fine lenses

(the

combinations

numerous

Watson

and

Leitz

and

Reichert,

the

Zeiss

by

the

of

out

same

Many

"

aperture

other

with

as

Test-objects.

the

of

course

details,such

as

T^th immersion.
diatoms

are

chosen

by microscopists for this purpose, but we think the Pleurosigma

for the same
first on
the list much
angulatum comes
reason
(but
with
with
the
immersion
think
as
more
iVh.
effect)
we
With
seen

at

aperture

an

all,will

all cases,

and

N.A.

is

the

namely,

about
with

If, however,

look

they
reduced

above

'8 and

ocular

exceedingly faint
cannot

be
the

called

and

black

12, the

greyish
in

black

dots, if

in most

if not

appearance

until

previously mentioned"
in Fig. i, Plate
'8 or
XIV.,
7, as shown
graphed
photoexcellent
an
apochromatic by Koristka.
4-mm.
the dots
the objective be a really good one,
will
to

amount

N.A.

-65 WITH

TO

-95

in

rapidly improve

very

closed, the

more

blackness

colour

correction

the

as

required

amount

indicating the

appearance
The

least

TEST-OBJECTS

finest

iris

is very

the

the

the

objective is under-corrected.
for the

folding-over point

purple

colour

is not

under-corrected
said

of

reader

as

the

with

for

greatest
be

diaphragm
back

of

lens

with

the

and

of

diameter

objective,light passes
the

tube

it floods

article

but

is not

experiment
focussed

If this

but

is

have

the

fact

which

the

quitting
again given

be

lenses

dry

circumstances

the

that

if used

limits

of

the

the

periphery of the
the tube
by looking down
be not
to
properly attended
than

the

through
into

the

back

the

lens

of

combination

ocular.

By

the
into

doing
light,making
infinitely
specimen
otherwise
be.
have
it would
We
explained this in
of the substage diaphragm,
the use
abuse
and
upon
be
due
to

here, because,
for

blamed
to

let

the

iris be

the

carefully effected,the

head

should

the

tube, and,

back

is

of the

ocular
be
still

really the
following

the

true

carefullyshut

lens

whilst

trying

said

to, the

when

performance
been

with

the

if unattended

It is worth
has

what

prove

its

all.

it at

so

the definition

caution

the

from

lens

We

to

these

with

iris be greater

specimen,
margin (apparently) of
the tube
looking down
inches

all

Under

with

objective may
fault

with

exercised

it is reflected

which

repeat

we

be

edgeways

the

than

worse

the

from

the

Before

should

caution

N.A.

greater

the

the

evident,

information.

of

removed.

when

as

jVth immersion,

the

exactly in accordance
the objective as
seen

ocular

the

it,and

when

eye

is in evidence.
very

diaphragm

should

care

is not

of

edges

at

computation is arranged
5500 wave-length, the
eye

red

by looking

ance
concerning the performthose
similar
to
test-object are

word

iris

of

the

to

additional
a

the

condenser

the

of

use

about

at

jet-black

details

this

with

subject,however,
to

The

true.

referred

is

this

examining

when

explained

of

reason

Jth

the

pronounced

nevertheless

seems

be

to

offensive

so

and
the

before

the

When

and

more

this

computation.
readily noticeable

specimen, especiallyat
to
particularly evident

becomes

is

effect

to

different parts of the

red

397

objective as

removed.

When

withdrawn

two

looking

into

Having
the

to

very

by

seen

this
or

is

three

it, the

iris

flooded
opened, whereupon the inside of the tube will be seen
with light that
is readily reflected into the eye of the observer.
It is this light we
complain of as spoiling the visual image, and

N.A.

398

be

should

which

The

that

using

should

lesson

Jth

TEST-OBJECTS

be

to

or

off before

learnt

diameter

making

from

lens

dry

any

the

exceed

never

WITH

-65

carefullyscreened

examination.
in

TO

-95

the

of

this

critic;

experiment

aperture

of

the

back

lens

of

the

is

iris
the

objective.
The

Pleurosigma does

afford any

not

idea

the

to

as

limitation

of resolution
come

across
we

purpose,
Nitzschia

and
have never
as
we
possessed by any objective,
a
test-object that is universally accepted for this
should
like to bring forward
the
claims
of the
scalaris
E. (Fig. 2, Plate XIII., taken
with
an
ceedingly
ex-

fine 4-mm.
has

transverse

distinctlyinto

apochromatic by Zeiss). This little diatom

markings easily seen, but to resolve them
very
dots with direct lightrequires an
aperture over
7.

the

differencewith
objectivesthat constitutes
is

//

another.

We

great

number

of

these

appear

grey

over

objective is

have

whicJi
the

superiority of
for years,

never
objectives,and
and
only feebly defined

and

below

here

with

very

it fail.

and

If

there, the
be

cannot

of the

example

various

combination

found

whilst, if they

one,

by

one

have

all,the lens is certainlya poor

has

sJwwn

are

the test

used

second-class

such

at

seen

optician'scraft,or

No
required amount.
attempt
be made
should
the image by greatly reducing
to sharpen up
this spoils the validityof the test.
the aperture of the iris,as
the best tube-length or
collar adjustment is
to have
Great care

else

aperture

an

the

absolutely imperative, and to make

obliquelightshould be employed. The
for direct

set

The

colour
the

for down
the

show

lens

with

correction

of the

side

colour

same

as

this

if

the

lower

be

when

evidence

of

edge
in

be

once

value

no

carefully

the

at

With

focus

exact

but

the

well-corrected

red

always

line of

of

moment

the
is

noticeable,

which

white

the

use.

present,

the

at

little spaces

are

oblique light is

under-correction

plainly in

real

should

mirror

test-objectis

valve

nearly all colour disappears

but

of

test

light.1

platewhen

Abbe

the

colour

focus,

is

very

slightly changed.

that
some
are
willing to admit
remarks, we
making the above
specimens, and certainly
microscopists,using perhaps unusually well-marked
stated
that a perfect renhave
of
dering
vision,
speciallyacute
being possessed
1

In

of these

magnification.
not

when

refer to any

employing

dots
In

can

these

be

seen

notes,

by

them

however

happily possessed, but

the ordinary commercial

so

with

smaller

aperture

(concerning all test

rather

to

specimen.

those

with

and

less

objects),
average

bight

N.A.

400

should

They

TO

-95
also

-65 WITH

TEST-OBJECTS

crisplydefined, especially with

appear

oblique light (Fig.4, Plate XIII., taken

apochromatic by Reichert).
The

favourite
twelfth
into

of

to

day

see

the

outer

specimen

not

be

flooded

know

we

the

the

outer

leaving

zone

with

day,

this

is better

Jth, it

of the

cause

follows

must

be

of the

central

and

trouble

at

by

once

wheels

to

"

If this
detail
will

be

be

the

cover

simple

correct

that

fact

the

the

surface

in the

even

the

with

the

the

way

long

taken
This

up.

should

that

it is

is known
from

coming

first into

come

be

should

objective.

be

hairs

using
testing that
performance

the
view.

all the

rejected,as

to be
explained
pygidium about
through the solid portion of the object, which

viewed

of

"

corrections

that

should

care

explained hereafter
specimen
so, the

not

of
be

the

the

so

deal

to

the

desired

portions of

intermediate

beneath

especially when

and

zone,

only

First,in selectinga specimen,

mounted

be

to

off this

from

arose

much

so

understood

to

quarter

Microscopists used to say

with
light." In the present

specimen,

cut

to

be

to

large apertures came

the
specimen really well it was
as
seen
by looking at the
zone,

removed.

must

used

when

use

being

present
a

to

of

fine 4-mm.

very

specimen
objectivesvarying from

It fell out

off

cut

This

"

lens, the ocular

this

of

inch.

an

being, because

back

Flea.

test-objectfor

necessary

"

of the

Pygidium

with

green

the

materially spoilsthe definition.

On
lowering the "th objective,these

very

into
as

to

view

(see Fig.

delicate

point

I, Plate

filament

not

far from

Lowering further,

the

XVIII.),

long
and

hairs

each

should
should

come

appear

with

nearly parallelsides, only tapering

their ends, and
then somewhat
suddenly.
hairs forming the outer
covering of the

into evidence, as
constituting part of it, crowd
in Fig. I, Plate
more
XIX., and
amplified in Fig. 2 of

pygidium,
shown

and

entirelyfree from fog,

They should
appear
spines,"but
sharply and very clearly defined. They are not
hairs."
bulbous
lambent
as
They
Dallingerwrites, as
appear,
the

same

plate.

"

"

are

interwoven

disassociate

together so
from

one

the

much

other

that
; besides

they

are

not

which, there

easy
seems

to
to

notice
to
point for the student
layer. The
is the quality of the
be clean, sharply cut,
seeing. It should
and
entirely free from all fog (sec Fig. I, Plate XIX.). The
iris should
only require to be slightlyclosed.
be

more

than

one

N.A.

the

Lowering
u

wheel

that

TEST-OBJECTS

objective (the ^th) still

"

discs

taken

'65 WITH

TO

-95

present
some

may

themselves
differ

view,

to

in

the

more,

and

should

each

wheel.

These

should

wheels

be

of

spokes (see
Fig. 3, Plate

more
magnified still in
Fig. 3, Plate XX., and
XVIII.). The cuneiform, or Maltese-cross
appearance
is
the
dot
central
being the hair
spokes
very striking,

from

so-called

note

number

their

401

of
that

with

appear

these
issues

extreme

of

fog being present, although they may

When
focussed sharply,
be all in focus at the same
time.
not
and without
touching the fine adjustment, the substage diaphragm
should be opened as wide as possible(anyhow, to entirelyexpose
and
careful inspeclens of the objective),
of the back
the area
a
tion
sharpness,not

of

the

trace

If the

image made.

notwithstanding the amount

visible and
be still distinctly
remain
the same
(see Fig. 2,
will

break

now

with

poorly

indeed, that

in

corrected

actually show

to

the

the

their

in

zones,

for

in

past have

the

not

have

some

spokes

one,

reallya fine

one,

fog introduced, the discs should

the peculiar shape of the spokes
Plate
XVI
II.). Certain
objectives
defining powers,
especially those

cuneiform

correct

be

use

of

outer

observers

as

"

as

dots," and

recorded

having

even

been

known

clearly

so

this dot
the

seen

pearance
ap-

Maltese-

effects !

cross

It will be
wants
as

up

Jth

is,the

in

care

well

gathered from

with
absence

required

of

what

has

been

said that the

pygidium
employed just

using as a test-object. It can be

the great point about
the
a T\th, for
of fog and the smallness
of the amount
the
obtain
to
substage diaphragm

observations
of

closing

these

fine

effects.
Stauroneis

phcenicenteron.

"

This

diatom

is

good

test-

object for a third,with a numerical

aperture of '65 or thereabouts.
Plate
XIV.
See Fig. 3,
in styrax usually
Specimens mounted
The
dots
yield good results and are
easily obtainable.
are
about
s^itfQ- of an inch apart, and resolution at the aperture in
question ought not theoreticallyto be difficult ; but we have
found
that to see
them
clearly and distinctlyis not quite so
A
weak
furnish
to
objective is prone
a
good
easy a matter.
from
of fog : it may
the high eye-piecing that
deal
arise
is
If,however, a good semi-apochromatic be employed,
necessary.
well-corrected
be distinctly
or
a
apochromatic, the dots should
in evidence, especiallywhen
With
the
light is in use.
green
26

APOCHROMATS

TESTING

402

little

the

arc-lightand

apochromatic

should

FROM

blue

with

screen,

furnish

N.A.

or

-95 TO

without

No.

-65

38, the

reallyfine image, and when

green
semi-apochromatic, the rendering

with
the
light is substituted
if at all inferior.
In all cases, attention
ought not to be much
if the finest black
dot effects
to the tube-length is demanded
striae,according to Van
are
required. The
Heurck, are about
14 to the

(see Index).

c.d.m.

TESTING
With

APOCHROMATS

N.A.

FROM

-65.

TO

-95

the

testing of the apochromatic objectivesof

the apertures above
mentioned, ranging in focal length from
" to \ in.,there is little further to be said beyond that stated
when
numerical
dealing with semi-apochromats of the same
the plate; but
the leading feature of
equivalentemployed upon
respect

to

is the

difference

purity of

without

within

and

image

is not

the

the

and

image

focus.1

The

the freedom

from

colour

precautions,however,
hold
with
these
to
as
using oculars properly compensated
but
of course
the deteriorating
objectives as with the 2 -mm.,
effect of inferior
the
eyepieces is not so pronounced because
information

objective

under

was

objectfor

an

be

of

quired.

It

must

in

shown
The

apochromatic

Plate

N.A.

below

page

398.

The

tube, is

70

; but

It should

objectivenot

magnificent

combination.

Van

Heurckia

Louisiana.

seen

on

either

objectto

test

dots, this is the

sixth

scalaris

in Nitzschia

apochromatic of
an

this

further

higher

power

in

show

the

as

lines

difficult

most

existence,

the

outer

test

zone

portionsof these
Fig.
to photograph.

into

discrete

the

reader

XIII.)

(Fig. 2,

Plate

dots

if the

is referred

can

rarely

objective has

to

be recollected,however,

the

the

footnote

absence

an
on

of the

i-in. focal length by Zeiss,only made for the longit should

as
be, for it is truly .1
nearly so well known

side of the
lines

is

XV.

perfectlyresolved

be

the

when

for

oblique being
exceptional excellence, extreme
is still more
difficult to photograph. An
attempt

Fig. 4,

lines

of

trace

is referred

examination.
As

"

without

or

reader
said

similar

pellucida.

Amphipleura
with

been

has

what

to

The

magnified.

so

same

fine

Transverse

median

resolved
I, Plate

(ailed
test-objectis the little diatom
lines exceedingly close together can
be

raphe

; but

into dots.

XV.,

was

very

It is

taken

with

fine combination

somewhat
the

six

difficult subject

objectivein question.

FROM

APOCHROMATS

TESTING

assists

secondary spectrum
of this object that

the

in the

much

so

is often

observer

-95 TO

N.A.

-65 403
definition

apparent

apt

think

to

actual

the

objective per se is very much

this properly, let him
To
test
place a green
than its rival.
or
a
piece of the green glass previously mentioned,
screen,
of

performance
finer
film

illuminant

the

between

apochromatic

the

and

mirror

the

and

then

the

compare

performance of a really fine semi-apochromat with the entire

be
then
; he
may
apochromat used under similar circumstances
this is
Of course
of difference.
surprisedat the small amount
reallynot

the

using

screen

any

suggested

been

has

as

in

mounted

those

markings

student

requires the most

to
recommended
purchase

is

anyhow,

realgar
"

in

styrax,

mounted

oiled

oil-condenser

solid

with

commence

do

as

of

cone

the

to

slip (as

this

white

and

light of

with

1^30

give better

to

seems

the

suggest,

we

for

"

show

not

ocular, a full aperture, and

x6

ordinary intensity, a

to

experience,

our

Using one
Jth apochromatic,

It

objective.

well.

so

employing

in

up

in

"

sixth

an

specimen put

differ without

they

Fig. i, Plate XXL,

test-object perhaps more
especially
diatom, shown

This

"

apochromatic
patient study. The
for

do

all?

at

cuspida.

Navicula

question is,how

the

point ;

lines are
easily
dry condenser), the transverse
entire
which
and
down
the
valve,
being recognisable up
seen,
of description is placed verticallyin the field
for convenience
careful
and
With
ocular
XI2
a
focussing,a faint
of view.
very
black
dots
of very small
now
just be caught and held
row
may

results

than

by an
Upon

observer

using

if he
xi8

several

tried

have

Changing

secondaries.

on

38
page

and

that

167, the
indeed

altering the
dots
ought
they

in

screen,

appear

due

tenth

47""
with

the

should

any

into
the

for

metres), and

little

arc

become

straining of

lamp

very
the

of

trace

screen

green

surprise awaits

come

to

easily seen,

more

than

more

the

at

without

to

now

offer

little dots

are

"

company

focus,

dots

fine lens.

adopted, they certainly appear

be closed
iris diaphragm
trifle.
a
which
we
are
acquainted and we

now

transmission

(maximum
No.

with
will

"

these

and

eye

be

still,especiallyif the

plainer
No
semi-apochromatic

sharp

very

eye-piece

illumination

if green

and

has

these

blue-violet
with

it the

mentioned

plainlyvisible,

eyes

at

all.

On

microscopist,for white
view, being fairlywell seen
; but

resolution

the

of

the

spaces between

the

APOCHROMATS

TESTING

404

lines,and

transverse

may
but

breaking

the

to

N.A.
of

up

-95 TO

the

lines

-65
selves
them-

(see Fig. i, Plate XXI.). A first-class semi-apochromatic

of these, but, in our
just reveal a trace
experience, it is
trace.
Making the blue-violet illumination oblique the
a
"

of

opening

circular
diameter

the

not

FROM

about

to

objective,as

for this

opening

seen

of the

when

looking

being removed

down

the

the

back

tube

intervals

(see Fig.

found
fine

very

distinct

I, Plate

of

scope,
micro-

be

soon

to furnish

ought

in

lens

of the

position will

"

of

being equal

dots, all arranged in clear and

discreet

separated by

diameter

placed,which

be

to

white

the

image of

third

ocular

the

substage diaphragm

the

XXL).

rows,

These

be remarked, ought to be fairlywell shown

it may
appearances,
by a first-class semi-apochromatic,especiallyif the iris be closed
a

small

very

what

to

able

fact

an

unusual

diatom

with

that

while

student

white

white

dots

careful

their

prepared for

of focus

ones

focussing reveals

somewhere
to

seems

mostly

as

sharply in evidence,

are

be
seen
arranged
patches can
exact
positionvarying according

black

change
black

into

; but

be

now

No

dots

structure

the

must

appearance.

these

convert

to

obtains

is

us

The

amount.

the

certain

around

them,

the arrangement

of the

circumscribed
like dots, but
not
oblique light. They are
are
the
of
word
This
blackness.
best described
is
by
patches
more
by eye-piecing.
apparent if the magnification be increased
"

"

however,

What,

is

capable of being varied

pencil is changed ; and
the

dots.

white

is believed

this

supposed

to

cause

of

light,or

by

interference

possibly with
in

To

use.

enlarged Fig.
in

like

mountains)

Plate

in focus

Specimens
though they

in styrax
are

XXL,

better

and
at

of

the

same

seems

oblique
focus

as

the

objects which

with

of
of

the

are

of

length
what
To
they
surmised
they

be

it may

but

are

are

kind, complicated

some

aberration

in the

tion
combina-

have
we
intelligible,
meaning more
and
reproduced the positive taken
This
the white
dots (looking
shows

our

XXIII.

spoken, both

but

residuals

make

I, Plate

when

thereabouts.

say,

position

strangely like shadows,

phenomena

some

therefrom

little

to

the

at

appear

commensurate

are

then, it is difficult

caused
very

be

their

the azimuth

as

patches are
impossible

them

single wave-length
due

according
that they

These
to

is that

remarkable,

so

dark

the

the

exhibit

which

we

have

time.

same

these

rendered

patches,of

if

appearances

they

arc

quite efficiently,
mounted
in realgar.

photographs, however,

The

-65 TO

FROM

OBJECTIVES

TESTING

from

taken

were

405

-2

the

in

valve

medium.

former

OBJECTIVES

TESTING

-65

FROM

SEMI-APOCHROMATS

-2.

APOCHROMATS

AND

of

this range

Objectives having

TO

N.A.

usually possess

focal

length varying from one-third of an inch, or a half-inch, to an

manufacturers
inch
in length. Some
English and Continental
but they
shorter
focal lengths of this low resolving power,
make
of giving a high
for the
are
especially constructed
purpose
be judged
magnification with great depth of focus.1 Such must
their

by
from

N.A.

plate

in
of

over

'65

fashion

the
the

the

the

parallel with

semi-apochromat,
the

case

nullify the

impossible to
with

corrected
show

the

and

presence,

fail to

should
1

the
of

of

one

These

be

are

specimens
Focus."

in

ocular

do

not

go

out

service

for

of focus

for

one

of

one

'30

In

be

must

very

is sufficient

N.A.

lens

'60 it

we

are

of

N.A.

seems

hence,

fond

at

of

aperture, should

striae,

transverse

optical

all of

of

'40, well

only faintly indicate

objective from

any

severe

explained

good

will

indication

mind,

especiallyof

this respect

manner

specimen

poor

them.

to

distinctlyvisible

draw-tube

tongue-like

quality

really
in

be

aperture,

the

test-

light shall

right angles

in

cases

some

use

exceptional excellence.

the

major.

definition

incident

apertures of less than

numerical

any

the

the

lower

furnish
borne

of

folding

small

no

is indeed

slightesterror

second
a

of

of

of
to

Abbe

difficulty.
scalaris,using oblique

at

test

in

12

the

this diatom
of

class

lines should

it be

With

indeed
a

not

length

Navicula

and

with

whereas

will

use

objectives

employing

; but

unless

for the

test.

and

the

point

better

is

Nitzschia

"65,the

correct

eagerly sought,
to

of

the

that

with

the

however, is

the

aperture varying

out

for

it

exercised

XIV.)

2, Plate

(see Fig.

carried

power,

one,

lines

apochromat

an

usually an

discern

to

always employed

fall

either

be

but

being

may

"

length.

already described,

illumination, care
With

has

suitable

focal

which

resolving

find

To

have

"40

spectrum

afforded, and

object.

Jrd"

N.A.

to

their

by

not

the

testingof

The

We

and

aperture

their

'65

their

construction

existence.
to

"30

It

should

studying objects that are motile, as

so
easily. See article, Depth

nearly

"

406

TESTING

easily

bear

ocular, without
Another

for

test

Plate

still it holds

its

the

the

exactly the
by looking
of

the

of

the

critical

the whole

over

dimensions

of

this is

tube

the

iris necessary

object, a

if not

of

the

fly
Blowone.

all

opticians. The image

crisp and very cleanlycut,
appear
hairs, especially those about the

back

lens

of

this off is

black

the

and

be

adjusting

the amount

; and

be
should

proboscisafter

clear

to

old-fashioned

an

light. There

the

-2

image.

the little organism, should

with

down

many,

small

exceedingly

of fog

absence

Although

should

tubes

defined

suitable

"rotten"

-65 TO

apertures is the Proboscis

with

of

with

even,

low

own

outlying borders
sharply

or

XVI.).

suctorial

whilst

12,

producing

(Fig. I,
of

FROM

OBJECTIVES

an

the

iris to

objective as

of additional
to the

guide

very
entire

seen

closing
perfection

design and workmanship of the lens under examination

nearly all combinations, however, require a small amount

but

closing of
is,of

the

iris before

with

low

producing

their

effect.

best

;
o

flat field

especially,a great desideratum, and

the loss of it is perhaps more
particularlyunpleasant with low
with
A
magnifications than
high ones.
great improvement,
course,

the

in

however,

powers

modern

respect, especially since

the

in

leaves

one

of

nearly
The

is better

all

opticians is

To

combination
been

not

those

of

are

fond

passing, that
of the light and
in

The

advent

of

little to

first is

as

"3 from

very

needed
dots

to

with

but

three

of

in

any

this

way

impossible

another, for the

has

the

with,

met

the

in

save

tests

just

to

product

tests

are

; but

severe,

focussing are

as

of

'2, has

interest

be

careful

some

distin

such

it should
very

of

to

be

may

aperture

case

suited

that, of less aperture,

testing lenses
careful

numerical

high

to

remarked

adjustment

necessary.

Actino-ptychus Boliviencis, a
A
obtain.
combination
having a numerical
should
neatly pick out the points in three of
remaining

in

Jena glass, which

complain

following,however,
the

the

effected

remarkably good.

so

that

of

been

it is almost

than

worse

select diatom

The

easy.

who

the

commonly

so

apochromats.
a

or

combination

of "3 is not

has

this account

lens

inch

powers

present day but

(see Frontispiece). On
say

low

diatom

aperture
the

to

easy

sections

of

'3

(the

is
being necessarily out of focus), but care
obtain
a
good image. It is just possible to sec the
an
less),
experience, being useaperture of '24 (-17,in our
the higher numerical
equivalent is required to show

408

APOCHROMAT

must

be

equal

that

to

of

latter result,they must

as

it is of

obtains
room

when

Zeiss's

have

and

by Watson

sold

their

"

These
3

or

of

performance
of

purposes
as

using the
to

long

shut

employed, or
and
perhaps

the

from

definition.

in

condenser

are

construction

bad

of

question,often

of

asked

objectivereferred

"

we

from

inch

difference

to

in the

regarded
examples

N.A.

loup

when
the

should

be

illumination
"

or

WHICH

by the commencing
of Microscopy he has

to

should

be

the

in the
apochromat,
secondary spectrum
outstanding in the semi-apochromat. To the
opticallyinclined, and who is practicalrather

explanation

-3

scopic
Holo-

have

given

SHALL

r.i

the

this

desired.

in uniform

department
requiresa careful reply.
The
only difference, opticallyspeaking,
types

densers
con-

useful.

in what

matter

constructions

is not

similar

low-power

PURCHASED
This

we

to
image serves
specimens of workmanship

will suffer
A

so

admit

clean

and

Z^KW^SEMI-APOCHROMAT.

APOCHROMAT

of the

semi-apochromats from good

when
used
for the
length, save

condenser

the field of view

be

distinctive

sharp

no

large

opticianssell excellent
of fog with the full aperture
much
leading test, and how

most

suitable

design.

and

Their

effect

to

to

length varying

focal

proboscis seems
be

more

is

Holoscopic

N.A.

BELOW

no

absence

The

of

name

nothing

seems

photography.

distinguish the good

and

leaves

focal

There

this

of manufacture.

speciallylow-power
the

as

for this purpose^ and

opticians,although

OBJECTIVES

difficult feat,and

very

iris has

several

apochromats

with

achromats

excellent

very

performance

4 inches.

even

are

usually of

are

the

high powers,
centring apparatus

the

Sons, under

TESTING

accurately centred

so

with

this
; but

of

likingfor the

great

large dimensions

these
optical part only
simply to drop into the sleeve

by

condensers

many

to

loups

accomplish

the

longer required.
condensers
is usually made

are

for

granted them,

of

to be

used

are

Hence

substage.

objective. To

for them

illuminators

be

can

the

necessarilybe

consequence

no

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

VERSUS

affords

no

student,
cast

between

the

whilst

than

material

no

lot,

two

absence

entire

reader

his

it is left
who

is not

theoretical,
comfort

; in

APOCHROMAT
words, he is

other

wise

as

he

as

before.

was

practicaldifferencein

is the

know

SEM1-APOCHROMAT

VERSUS

daily

409
What

he wants

between

use

to

the

rival

systems.

place

and

lyra
TVh.

Whilst

shaped valve,

inclined

it

on

will

stillhe

they

is

he

will

he

be

to

that

raised

objective is

will not

of

spoken

colours

is

entirelyabsent, for the specimen

Then, too, he

correction.

chromatic

few

an

cannot

that

greater part of the

with

used

in

rival.

But

from

the

fact

is concentrated
spectrum
the apochromat, when
its head

far

has

their

all

we

furnish

than

of its shorter

off

cut

pointed

ago

resolution

greater

it would

(ii)because

and

tions
considera-

long

so

light,because

effect in white

of maximum

theoretical

gratitude)not

our

owe

lightwould

green

wave-length,

the

secondary

because
the
semi-apochromats, and lastly(iii)
in question was
focus
very closelythat of the minimum
if
it
these modern
should,
selectivelyemployed,
objectives
all

with

spectrum

"

if

that

such

residuals

recollected

be

should

seen

absent,
in

the

unless

of

absence
all the

combination
is

colour

the

definition

the

"blacks"

really looking

this "trick"

pleased
produced at the
(see page 364).
at

the

is

be

impaired by
as

expense

of

of
the

colour
finest

by

should

of

cloud

or

to

be

it is

Even

present, and

the

and

that

means

fog, which

effect,quite forgetting
definition

be

quite likely
computer
leaving

the

they should.

as

occasionally found

absence

colours

apochromat,

about

kind

these

preferred colour, which

the

black

that
an

brought
with

even

zones,

student

the

by

really is

lenses

arises

conscious

and

rays

feel

be

experimental researches

the

It

fail to

who

out

show

to

one

those

(to whom
(i)that as

of all

before,are

explained, holds

manner

length,

the

that

experience

despair," for

to

colour

then

now

taught the philosopher

keep us moving ahead
by

"never

their

the

diatoms

its

above

quite plain

It is

in it.

lightof

If

focal

same

excellent

greater brightness of the image which

total

colours

lines back.1

of the
a

the

are

pronounced

so

focus,

thick-edged border

of the

apochromat

the

at

the diatom, small

These

colour

are

closer attention

of

the

as

there

With

it.

Navicula

arrives

lowered.

or

the

notice

fail to

he

beyond

colours

same

secondary spectrum
the lens be changed for an

now

the

notice

as

semi-apochromatic
edge of the boat-

the little dots

that

the

show

far

such

using
focus

to

sure

of the

he

diatom

stage,

too

go

observe

soon

are,

the

when

the

bringing

he

purpleshould

and

take

visible,apple-green before

phenomena

as

so

reader

the

Let

prevents

with

modern

student
that

crispness of

the

may

such

is

image

APOCHROMAT

4io

the

improve

extent.

great

image with this type of lens-construction

found
This
has
been
to be actually the
marked

in the most

distinguishthe
the

and

to

which

the

"

another

has

screen

it does

that

colour

different

is,after

which

natural

Here

then

all,but

and

construction.

its

for
superiority,

its

combination

if the
bacteria

are

use

employed

as

red-stained, and
cases

as,

of

(visually)between
strikingly in

appeal

its

purposes
demanded.

The

purchased

three

The

such

and

like one-eighth

they
zones

rival

will

devoted
Addenda.

For
to

the

apply

to

which
of for

general
requirements

lower

powers

entirely
free from

lens.

less

considerably

spectrum

with

focus

are

the
one

its

than

eight

in these

reduced,
which

corrections

reader

Apochromatic

focal

mm.

justly

more

com-

lenses

in

differences

of

believe,to something

we

that

means

pra"

complete for

are

obtains

only,as

or

that

remarkable

that the actual

interestingdetails the
of

desired

for

question has to be discussed.

its simpler construction, can
be

the

to

but

the

the

to

the selected

be

originalmagnitude,

"Testing

all

is not

however, when

cases,

answer

refinement

such

; besides
objectiveinstead

further

in

possess

apochromat,

possible is
of

not

few

the

to

very

the

do

are

made

eliminated

of the

of lens.

of

their

resumes

type

brought

are

its manufacture

is

specimen

apochromatic

with

is corrected

either

side

positionsof

the various

are

the

screen

of

must

price

colours

manner

for

demanded
1

at

in the

semi-apochromat, owing

The

the

already

apochromat again

they

remarks

the economical

But

with

lens
of

Here

detail,the difference

same

colour,the apochromat

used
the

produce

have

we

and

"

just as good with all colours

be a reallygood one.1
If,however,
test-objects,seeing they are usually

finest definition

the

when

cheaper

for the

green

found).

when

for which

There

be

to

no

ordinary
performance

evidence.

have

may

well

the

first-rate

be

consequence

moreover,

refinement

any

green

suitable

different tint to

can

so

performance

in

to

easy

with

methyl

because
satisfy,

that

from

used

are

with

of

one

perform

not

and

case,

it is not

filter is not

used

fail to

may

very

use.

suitable

semi-apochromat

be

to

being prejudiced,has

itself is stained

that

(if indeed

contrast

both

to avoid

in

to

produced by the apochromatic

when

observer,

that

so

times, the green

at

perhaps

object

that

"

objectiveis

Unfortunately

of

results

much

so

"

clue

shown

semi-apochromatic
provided

so

manner

two

screens^
as

SEMI-APOCHROMAT

VERSUS

with

is referred

the
to

all the

older

type

the chapter

Objectives,"and

the

Hence

lenses.

ponent

COMBINATIONS

MAGNIFYING

LOW-POWER

everyday

in

details

perfectlywell

answers

when

the satisfaction

Yet

rival.
amateur,

or

good

one,

the

the

hand,

student,
what

; but

is

work

wish

be

can

its

more
or

said

be

can

we

ing,
of knowis used

accident

any

laboratory

no

is,too,

microscope

with

case

There

to

replaced

at

expensive
battery of an
be

to

be

occur

complete
is

understood

semi-apochromat, if it be really
but
of sufficient quality for all general purposes,

first-class

be

research

ordinary visual

that for

that

of

apochromats

without

on

other

the

when

work,

semi-apochromat

combinations

would

than

less cost

much

of

more

of the

resolution

made.

thing of joy, should

semi-apochromat it

as

of

lens

front

the

reallywell
using these cheaper

perhaps

are

the

then

purposes

if it be

hurry

than

tool rather

to

the

if in

that
as

for such

"

very

actually

is not

highest attainable degree of opticalexcellence

and
differences of form
shape
required,where
especiallysought after rather than the ultimate
minutest

the

perhaps

when

use,

411

the

should

apochromat

be

within

call

court

as

appeal.

of

With

respect

their

to

We

different.

do

in

use

photomicrography, however,
that

semi-apochromats,
when
used
in conjunction with
suitable
especially low powers,
produce excellent pictures as, for example, the lens with
screens,
taken
the frontispiecewas
which
; but, speaking in general,with
is

deny

all

not

some

"

high

powers

this

is not

the

case,

and

those

who

desire

to

obtain

finestresults possible,by the aid of photography, should

certainlyobtain the service of the apochromat rather than that
the

of

very

its

cheaper rival.
MAGNIFYING

LOW-POWER

COMBINATIONS

whole

insects,

few

for
same,

or

of

size,such

of small
a

arisen

has

demand

to

several

as

as

fleas

other

the

purposes,
entire

ON

for

photographs
of the

to

be

taken

of

animal

kingdom
magnificationsvarying from
Sometimes, in addition, principally
occupant

lice,at

or

diameters.

identification
such

of late

some

USED

MICROSCOPE

THE

NOT

head

request
and

that

is made
thorax

of

an

parts of the

insect,or

the

wings and body of a mosquito, shall be furnished at a greater

scopical
an
ordinary microscope and microamplification still. With
in many
found
instances
an
objective this has been
partly owing to the limit of view imposed by the
impossibility,

MAGNIFYING

LOW-POWER

412

of the draw-tube

by the diameter

ocular, or

other

the

COMBINATIONS

fact

that

the

on

hand,

one

ordinary objective constructed

large and flat field that is,
microscope gave a sufficiently
furnishing crisp definition simultaneously at the centre
as

the

on

by

no

for the
one

well

"

the

at

as

the

Giving
doing

for

with

; but

it is true

shorter

microscope

provided

camera

aforesaid, to

these

lenses

used

are

reallymicroscopes
said

been

would
There

about

are

and

in all

avoid

this

the

case.

using

an

it

to

Seeing
for

"

and

"

in

necessary,

that

they

that

but

are

little

was

of

edition

Microscopy."

relation

combinations

four
and

three,

in

"

four-inch,

of

sizes

objects

which

it

found

was

to

this

of different
this
be

to

the

single-handed.
(ii)The combinations

by

or

combination

purposes

considered

to have

being
graphed
photo-

and

also

extension

inconvenient

use

the

when

is obtained

lens

the

Hence
that

N.A.

of another

of

not,

as

that

N.A., but
better

final result.

(iii)The

field must

more

focus.

sometimes

This
to

be

N.A.

F/8, has

details

the

the

understood
of

as

to

F/6

necessary

photographic
F ratio into -5 (see page
145).
is
whereas
at
working
F/4
'125,

exceedingly
N.A.

but

required
small

that

half
be

to

as

to

be

can

the

resolving
photographed

require a great
employed, the

exceptionallyflat,so that the definition

its full aperture, shall be
at
negative,even
be

margins of the
sensibly equal to that
only employed (so far
the

at, say,

the

rule, so

still the

the

the

combination

working

It is true

power.

that

by dividing

large aperture, F/4

will be

This

is reminded

reader

of

be

must

being that mostly selected.

of

of

power

new

be

exceeding three feet,longer than

at

and

varying magnificationsdemanded,
of a camera
the employment
instances

to

object.

an

tube,

found

was

type
of

them,

different

the

to

wider

ing
thought the followsubject,accompanied by illustrations,

of

out

required owing

are

new

magnifying

the

upon

it

magnifying

subject, (i)It is necessary

focal
length, a one, two,

to

then

even

place in
five points to

be

not

of low

written

or

remarks

few

for

and

focussing jacket,assisted

design

large

so

altogether

the requirements
satisfactorily

meet

of

photograph

much

the

with

reasons

has

the

microscope

direction

one

of

edges

away

ordinary

to

and

severe

called

at
as

the

iris

possible)to give

demand
to

centre, the

the

diaphragm

the

being

required depth

imperative, as attention
of perhaj
special formation
is

has

of

foot

outstretched

insect,the

an

fine

the

fly,or

some

COMBINATIONS

MAGNIFYING

LOW-POWER

hairs

the

on

portions of the body.

of
(iv) An astigmatic condition
otherwise
markings that happen
called

(v)

this

of

introduction
In

comparing

an

ordinary

the

realms

from

results

length.

the

glass exposed

F/i6

of

quite sufficient
be
is

prepared

the

(compare,

for

to

depth of focus, we
length that can
of

the

to

inch-and-a-half

focussed

on

the

produced by

purposes.

type,

which

placed

are

focussing jacket,certain

combinations

actual

the

effect,that

as

should

and

which

"

surface

lens

of

operator

diaphragm
that

consequently of the less

proceedrequired. Before ing
first with
other
Both
two

"

by

side

closed

in
to

been

negatives'have

two

point, each at F/i6, the

focal length objective,and
the
(Figs. I and 2, Plate XX.).
of the blow-fly the
antennse
then

of

be

corollary,that the shortest focal

always be employed, because

mention

side

should
focus

be

to

are

is,if the

this

appendages hanging
The
diaphragm was

is

apo-

obtained

in area
example, the difference
F/i6 of a one-and-a-half-inch),is

obtained,

iris

should

illustrate

and-a-half-inch
an

used,

of the

further,we
made

add,

depth

greater

shutting down

be

be

true

proper

may

an

knowledge of the cause, and so

precautions. Seeing that the smaller
of the glass exposed^the greater the

the

of tlte diameter

amount

focus

change

of this

of

almost

for contrast

of

final

spoil the

take

found, being

imperative they
in the depth of

area

with

with

be

when

"

Variations
in

conversant

not

taneously,
simul-

"

it is

difference

to

focus

Putting aside the providing

of the light
the equal distribution
which
belongs to
photographed

and

three-inch

each

to

observed.

another,

with

focal

same

be

portion to be
of Photomicrography

one

be

not

sensible
screen

entire

compared

in

be

that, if

provided with

camera

to

evidence,

right angles

not

should

testing lenses

illumination

suitable
the

coloured

and

precautions have

of

being

is

be in

must

at

may

perfect

so

if any,
little,

light,but

over

be

to

for colour

order, anyhow

in white

the

variety

attention

as

cause.

corrections

The

chromatic

the

deciding

correction

for

looked

details

from

obliterated

of

time

wings of, say,

the

in

margins of the field, will

the

at

and

on

assist

proboscisof

to

other

the

of

edges

materially
mosquito (which may
it belongs), at the same
which
to

of

end

extreme

413

the

F/i6

centre

in

of

each

with

three-

that

lenses

of

were

sausage-like
the
case

pictures.
and

the

MAGNIFYING

LOW-POWER

414

COMBINATIONS

As the specimen is mounted

without
negatives made.
pressure,
it affords a good opportunity for comparing the relative amounts
of depth of focus provided by each
combination.
Let the reader
for

compare,

fine hairs

the

and

great

furnishes
of

existence

anything

the

It is true

focus.

combination

than

more

hairs

be said

that

if the

down

so

that

surface

be similar
in
exposed should
(putting aside, for the moment,

inch
the

value

the

same,

in

numerical

but

scientific to compare

F/22
F/i6,

for

in

It should

be

to

lengths
be

to

may

length
above

"

the
to

here

for the

first lens

The

to

save

lens

the

i'5-

effect upon

combination
in

remarks

these

loss

the

competing

to

numerical

ill-defined,but

and

apply just

truly

as

remark
A
was
compared.
utility of having different focal
it
inconveniently long cameras;

to

that

five feet,

remark, that the

with

mentioned

much

so

opticians,both

"

the

graph
photo-

was

and

success

"

the
was

foreign,

and

English

combinations

the

inconvenient

most

requirements

It met

that

it is

lenses

of

"5-inchlens (Fig. i),in taking

'

not

perhaps

passing, that
of

aperture
to

with

be

be

fulfil the

great demand,

computed

soon

the

of

reducing

illustrative of

as

Planar,"by Carl Zeiss.

in such

of

that

to

quite fuzzy

may

given, reached
to manipulate.

draw

camera

the

longer-focus

diameter

remarked

these

that

as

mentioned

camera

that

about

so

use,

the

the

one

the

will appear

apertures

previously

made

be

reduce

to

understood

other

any

iris of the

extent

instances, owing

some

aperture, the details

it must

of

F/i6

an

always possible

not

length

and

aperture),the depth of focus would

comparing lenses for efficiency,it is

when

of another.

facets

eyes

(Fig. i)
faint and
shadowy
are
distinctlyout of

the

shut

was

the

focal

three-and-a-half-inch

facets, whilst
it may

compound

shorter
of

many

the

the

The

thereto.

fairly sharp, whereas

hardly

of

appearances

attached

distinctlyshows

(Fig. 2)
hairs

the

example,

Holos"

by

"

by Leitz, the "Polar"

Beck-Steinheil
Beck, not
by Reichcrt, and the
by Messrs.
few others, all being combinations
of large working
to mention
a
Watson

"

Sons, the

"

Micro-Summar

"

"

aperture

and

of great excellence.

Illustrations
lenses
The

are

given

in the

work

and

performance

five Plates, XXIV.

of these

to

photographs will
requirements previously enumerated,

examination

of the

of the

of

XXVIII.
show
and

of these

most

the

inclusive.
realisation

it is of

interest

CHAPTER

THE

UNDULATORY

WHENEVER

instrument

certain

counter

can

only

be

the

the

to

acquire

as

transverse

as

it has

nor

has

it enters

of the
1

In

will

scientific

according

"

to

which

undulatory
essential

is not

difficult

so

; in

ether

in

the

undulatory
which

of

case

the

chemist's

properties

of

take

the

and

this

of
to

are

progression.
place

light

assigned
in

which

vibrations

sense

reality

physical

only

vibratory

or

aether," hypothetical

the

one,

can

polarisation

line

they

theories

medium
in
the

it, but
sense

by

in

far

so

word,
theless
never-

which

theories.

adopt

the

theory

language
the

"

or

the

of

to

the

"

rival

periodic

which

in

isolated

physical

undulatory

applying

therefore

this

that

right angles

material

any

here

is

conclusion

unquestionable
into

infinitely

by

this

interference

light

to

medium

been

had

of

problems.
of

to

phenomena

transmitted

never

an

We

i.e. at
for

are

the

fiction
of

and

rendered

victory
of

further

all-pervading

it

have
the

additional
"

call

they

which

attributing

the

Vibrations

elements

fortunately

which

the

consists

these

accepted,

and

consideration

points,
to

the

given

the

ones

the

of

into

light

in

which

optics,

rejecting

interference

facts

by

to

is

united

of

have

and

us

which

be

by

which

to

phenomena

explained

force

i.e.

facts

people imagine.

numerous

character,

taking

"

microscopy

many

and

by

any

beyond

power
with

geometrical

of

out

magnifying

of

universally

principal

impossible,

be

of

student

the

light

can

light, now

to

are

of

understanding

of

The

for

resolution

confronted

are

theories

principle

clear

theory

we

accounted

which

the

LIGHT

OF

utmost

increasing

optics according

rays

the

the

get

limit

nature

geometrical

instead

by

to

undulatory

thin

to

moderate

run

THEORY

try

we

optical

XV

ether

assumption

this
is

the

to

as

an

we

incompressible
416

the

early investigators
of

constitution
that

means

of

are

the

adopting

elastic

solid.

ether,1
the

vi/.

theory

THE
be treated

that it may

with

connected

disturbance
and

neighbours,
cannot

be

finite

though

conception
easier

to

so

is

its

As

the

position of

rest

grasp

and

process

of

than

the

follow

to

evolved

that

assume

vibrations
are

that

when

any

it communicates
in

turn

their

to

neighbouring particle

has

one

begun

do

to

the

propagated

it in

in

those

so, time

to

more

from

self-

of

the

is

body

composed.
surrounding ether,

the

all directions

if

vibrations

rapid
the

"

days.

light emanating

communicated

are

abstract

more

since

body is due to extremely

particles (molecules)of which

smallest

and

way

the
propagation, hence
exceedingly great velocity of light. This simple
for our
sufficient
is undoubtedly
and
purpose,

therefore

These

obviously

the

in

"

luminous

such

preceding

philosophical assumptions
We

particleselastically

minute

surrounding it,these

on.

consumed

must

from

those

until

move

in

another

to

417

consistingof

as

one

particle is displaced
the

ETHER

in

the

just

manner

described.

Referring

to

Fig. 208, where

Fig. 208.

point vibrating in the

be

communicated

particle;
at

some

rather

of

Nature

"

plane

of

is

supposed

to

little distance

the

paper,

the

from

luminous

Light-vibrations.

is that

the

vibration

this

surrounding ether
difficult investigation shows

to

be

from

particle to

that

ether

will

the

result

particlesare

ETHER-VIBRATIONS

4i8
in

vibrating

set

with

connecting them
or
length
P

point
the

and

remains

for

We

will

now

in

the

shown

signify

be

would

point

the

moment

lower

at

which

of

path of

particle

little

it.
in

more

the

particles whose
P.

transferred

by

figure,where
Supposing

or

minute

most

anything else
a

the

ether

line and

radial

from

so

of motion,

have

detail

black

as

dots

position

of

that at

certain

justcrossing

radial

find

we

rest

the

line,moving

particle9,

to

come

we

particles

elongation,and

lower

until

particle5

The

elongation.

or

reached

not

the

until

on

positionsindicated

successive

is

ether

in

is

reversing point

the

each

objects illuminated

radial line from

the

still farther
take

of

the

shown

manner

say

in

nor

movement

part

tude
ampli-

an

justcrossing its positionof rest, moving

particle 2 will be slightlylagging behind, thus

upwards, then
the

the

particleI

approaching

the

to

study

the

on

ether

neither

succession

rapidity,but

is thus

with

position of rest, vibrating across

its

to

is to

straight line

brightness of

it,in the

that

figure;

the

on

from

to

and

point

depending

extreme

luminous

luminous

distance

close

ever

it with

path

the

on

length. There
from

of

right angles

at

the

part of the

upper

around

direction

downwards.

The

succeeding particlesare found in various positionsabove the radial

line
elongation until we
finally
particle 13 being at upper
is in the same
to particle17, which
phase of the vibratory
come
the first particle t.e. crossing the radial
line in
movement
as
"

"

"

right

would

those

we

from

found

particleI
the

phase
P, and
grasp

of
is

repeat the

would

and

to

nearest

is called

movement,

particle17,
the

wave-length

after

the

time

we

when

as

shown

in

Fig.

successive

J vibration

ether

208

stage

A, would

has
particles

later

we

shall

of

its

be

also

that

the

curve

same

light from
Once

\vc

that,

see

the

be

particles
its

in

The

upper
spondingly
corre-

result, as

connecting

" wave-length
the

any

the

\.

reached

movement.

advanced
have

the

position of

in

advanced

of

easily

have
Fig. 208, particle I would
elongation and every other particlewould
is

in

letter

can

the

The

generally from

or

appearance

to

which

conform.

simultaneously

one

peculiar movement

vibration

the

to

to

curve

to

seen

usually designated by the Greek

this

further

positions exactly corresponding

vibrating particlesis

of

particle to

one

in

just studied,

have

distance

be

first series

the

Evidently particles still

direction.

upward

an

the

similarly

shown

in

LIGHT-WAVES

Fig.

208

forth

B, the
result

the

particles advances

ether

only existing in

line

moving

the

J length, and

curve

this

that

imagination

curve

alone

"

from

away

be looked

can

luminous

complete

mathematical

"

so

successive

connecting
wave-length for every

noted

direction

the

in

the

one

it is to be

vibration, and

as

that

being

advanced

having

curve

wave

419

upon

point

the

at

notice : The
must
light
velocity of light. One other point we
from
P proceeds simultaneously in all directions,hence
at
any
the ether particlesat some
given distance, such
given moment
as

from

that

in the

hence

on

sphere of

spheres

round

ether

similar

state

instant, all

at

upper

which

the

vibration

all of

their

small

elongation

parts
and

plane,

them, such
then

we

undisturbed

as

speak

spherical

property

always

are

upwards

at

of

uniform

medium

great

distance

so

light,and

slight that

enter

plane

waves

enter

waves

wave

long

as

they
from

are

their

regard
object-glass,as

we

small

still

called

are

one

wards
down-

moving
elongation at

source

At

plane

or

moving

lower

one

of

the

them

characterised

can

centre,
number

little later,all

reaching
thus

of

given

is the

have

one

any

becomes

curvature

of

on

an

position

unlimited

which

i.e.all

"

fronts ; near
surfaces or wave
the
as
light is proceeding in
have
as
we
just seen.
spherical,
source

given point

describe

can

Surfaces

moment.

crossing

their

points equidistant from

centre,

all

stage of vibration

same

will all be

particleslying
of

the

in

now

we

as

later, and

yet
later

that

conclude

we

be

diagram they

our

that all the

in

I, will all

to

travellingupwards

lie

point
of

of

case

of rest,

can

finally, when
kind

any

of

lens

they suffer refraction ; in the ideal case

they are turned
the
into truly spherical waves
converging towards
conjugate
focus of the lens system ; in realityall lens systems
are
more
system

afflicted

less

or

point
into
ideal

of

view,

refracted

means
waves

aberrations," which,

"

that
which

they
are

the

turn

more

or

from

present

our

arriving light-waves

less distorted

from

the

spherical form.

Perhaps
billions

the

most

remarkable

feature

of

light-waves

rapidity of vibration, which

ranges
of complete vibrations
second
for
per
for violet light,and
must
we
many

extreme

twice

with

as

that this number

1

The

of vibrations
billion is here

used

per
as

second

is the

signifyinga

from
red
here

is their

about

400

light to nearly
note

at

once

only characteristic

million

millions.

WAVE-LENGTHS

420

light

of

the

by

seen

of

rate

which

if

human

divide

we

connected

empty

or

find

about

micron, that

respectively,we
three-quartersof a

three-eighthsof
denser

In

colours,

is

have

one

in such

their

of

of

light as

light as

about

for

different

unchangeable

an

shortening
of the

statement

be

of

the

length
wave-

accompanied

it is measured
vacua

more

; it

by

ever,
is,how-

is meant

unless

the contrary.

to

particulardirection

light should

their rate of vibration,light-waves

was

have

We

vibrating in

; indeed, if we

hitherto

assumed

that

up-and-down direction ;
should
be
vibrating in that

it

necessity why

no

the

wave-length in

characteristic.

is

valent
equi-

billions
red

speeds
is

results

in which

that

point P

there

but

there

amplitude and

more

vibrations

Hence

media.

assumed

luminous

our

colour,

statement

Besides

violet

different

of

particularkind

always

of

the

glass,light travels

or

somewhat

of the medium

statement

water

as

number

one

any

of any

there

at

the

as

quantity for
wave-lengths

such

moreover

and

of

of

distance, and

800

wave-length

the

at

micron.1

media,

slowly, and

the

and

400

as

number

conveniently

by

vibrations

above

in this

more

microns

300,000,000,000,000

its colour

light travels

; the

contained

kilometres,

300,000

with

space

second

per

is therefore

second

per

In

eyes.

kilometres

300,000

vibrations

unchangeably

is

an

imagine

ourselves

looking at

the

point,it is just as probable that it may be vibratingin

This
horizontal
in the vertical one.
a
or
as
oblique direction
take place
the vibrations
distinction
in which
to the azimuth
as
luminous

of interference
secondary importance in the consideration
the
we
use
phenomena ; it becomes
important, however, when
of the vibrations
this azimuth
which
polariscope ; it is indeed
of the
determines
of polarisationof light. In some
the state
a
polariscopicexperiments the vibrations assume
yet different
their position of rest
form
particlesgyrate round
; i.e. the ether
in elliptical
arise the terms
circular
elliptical
or
paths, whence
is of

circular

and

polarisation.

In
in

ordinary light the vibrations

all possible azimuths, and
as

contains
which
the

are

an

vibrating more

lightfrom

such
1

source

or

every

of

number

enormous

take

less

vibrating molecules,

independently of

contains

Say yifa-s in. and

place indiscriminately
of light
useful source

vibrations

in

Triro in. respectively.

one

all

all

of

another,

possible

COMBINATION

of

of

are

viz.

polarisation.
now
proceed

will

We

where

Let

that

assume

us

the

in

number

of

would

point P2

another

produce the

wave

The

is

answer

II ; what

according
superposition,

of

particleis
to

of

such

result

have

we

same

result

the

if it

after

was

which

cases

physical principle

position of each ether

first displaced according

according

do

to

at

fundamental

which

to

immediately
All

II.

wave

would

as

I and

wave

the

any

given instant
I, Fig. 2OQA, that light
instant, if acting alone,
if both
act
together?

wave

the

from

optical instruments,
act
simultaneously.

point P1

is the

supplied by

of

theory
a

at

free

of those

vibrations

from

light

421

consequence

would, if acting alone, produce the

from

WAVES

the consideration

to

especialimportance

cases

is in

and

simultaneously,

azimuths
trace

OF

therefore

to

displacement

the

to

combined

the

get

J"H

Fig. 2O9A.

effect is to take
add

or

of

the

same

the
Here

the

components,
than

greater amplitude
The

two

phase

combining
we

result

that

combined

waves

at

that

very
waves

once

; the

in

different
are

notice

more

that

result

the
wave

waves.

combining
has

less

displacements
amplitude

B, and
Thus

the

to
new

the

2OQA

than

and
the

equal
the

the
to

both

ingly
accordof
of

wave

those

much

combining waves.
of nearly the
were

is obtained

hence

sum

if the

less

or

superpose
at

wave

opposed, as
nearly everywhere the

of

are

of

Fig.

Phase.

same

combined

either

opposite tendency,
gives displacements approximately
waves

position.

being

of

the

and

displacement equal

upward

an

nearly in
like A

points

displacements
upward displacements

gave

has

of

number

"Waves

in

the

waves

of two

Combination

"

phases

in

Fig. 2096.

two

separate

combination
the

of

now

difference

of

resulting combined

stronger

of

the

combining

COMBINATION

422

Having

learnt how

OF

combine

to

WAVES

two

waves,

we

immediately

can

proceed to combine
given number
any
by combining them first
in pairs,then the resultants
in
again
pairs,and so on until the
total

result is obtained

P,"

or

we

combine

may

the

displacements

"

"

Fig. 2OQB.
of all the

of two

Combination

"

separate

Waves

in

waves

opposed

operation

one

each

to

and

other

in Phases.

obtain

the

same

result.

taking

Before

the result

discuss

closely;

more

time,

same

of

the

what

or

have

we

how

matter

no

problem, we

co-operation of

what

whilst

all conditions,

under
the

for

of such

example

an

relation

two

or

learnt

is

waves

many

more

waves

strictlytrue
are

wave-length

to

as

ever
how-

must

acting
and

at

state

be in, the result as far as human

polarisationthey may
eyes
record
it or
it, is subject to
photographic plates can
see

of
can

decided

very

2096

found

we

if the

With

the

result

that

the
of

aid

the

of

and
Figs. 20QA
combination
depends
the combining
\v

phase-relationbetween
of great amplitude results,
in the same
phase a wave
are
phases are opposed to each other the result is a feeble
the

chiefly on
if both

differences.

wave.

consider

Now

wave-length
we

there

combined

strong
with
the

the

the

which

in

are

waves

two

in the
the

But

wave.

to

are

result

the

at

in

will

opposition to
We
resultingwave.

are

where

these

wave-length of

two

have

each

waves

of

be

combined.

in

arrived
we

sec

that

combining

waves,

thus

Supposing
A,

\\

phase, thus producing a

are
travellingalong

waves

other

slightlydifferent

position marked

same

velocityof light,therefore

parts shown

parts
weak

both

210,

shown,

considering

were

that

are

Fig.

an

extremely short
from
A, and
shall

if there
the

have

now

is

time

very

difference

resultingcombined

in

IMPORTANCE

424

OF

effects, the

regular interference

of

different
luminous
It
to

light have

of

portions

be

yet

not

may

luminous

clear

using
of

small

that

from

such

the

same

the

coloured

other

light from

independently

of

of

back
of

one

the

lens

of

these

"

colour

the

of

different

of

the

In

realitythe

merely
produced

intensities

two

portions

would

of

Now

send

field,and

the

the

luminous

two

microscope

act

acted

addition

patches.

are

which

source

two

light into

if both

brighter by

same

generally
would

would

the

"

origin, they

become

in

patches seen
the
light from
two

fainter and

is

light

these

the

by

of

source

if

Each

eyepiece,uniformly lighting up

together,the field

objective. Every
usually much
brighter

light.

another.

one

the

other

; the

lamp

were

difficult striation
-"n

the

of

diffracted

the

of

extremely oblique light,we

see
small
patches of lightat opposite

two

the

of

and

reader

resolution

get

that

patch is
of
light

patches

to

of

knows

the

tube

diameter

direct

the

originallycome

to

pencil
the

down

microscopist
the

being

nt
why it is important
that originating in differe
light from
therefore
vibrating independently. A
make
this
microscopical practice should
us

try

we

looking

than

from

taken
When

clear.

ends

and

sources,

example

on

inference

point.

distinguish coherent

by

COHERENCE

different

have

been

separated by the diffractive effect of the striae in the object,

when
in the
coherent, and
they meet
consequently they are
the
and
field of
produce alternate
eyepiece they interfere
of brightness after the manner
shown
maxima
and
minima
in
The
result is therefore
that
nate
alterour
Figs. 2O9A and 2090.
in the
field of view which
dark
and
light stripes appear
of
another
contrast
by reason
usually present considerable
important property of light-waves: the brightnessof the light
is proportional,not
its
to
corresponding to a given wave
if
amplitude itself,but to the square of the amplitude, hence
the
take
we
Figs. 2O9A and
approximate proportions of our
2O9B,

where

and

the
in

the
the

and

sum

combining
combined

the

square
the
which

of

the

these,

darkest

latter figures,or

comparatively
is

the

of

usually

marking

bold

seen

on

amplitudes

amplitudes

waves

difference

brightness between

have

waves

diatoms

or

in
and

proportion

5, the

brightest parts

and
as

as

in

25 !

the

This

about

as

of

difference
is

accounts

as

the
for

microscopical image
gratings, even
though,

PRINCIPLE

HUYGHENIAN
down

looking

on

weak

extremely
The
and

which

lead

to

of

be

These

cases

Light

from

of

The

the

these

point

former,

as

at

are

new

rule

universal

stipulating that

not

both

with

grounds,
those

who

look

the

it to

state, that

those

are

above.

the

with

in

up

Drude,

Longmans,

in

that

regular

"

point

that

all of

that

this

extended

diffracting apertures,
or
not, by

the

that
of

surface

the

direct

effect

combined

be

deduced

the

difficulties in connection

have

been

they

raised
have

strongly

are

with

Theoretical

due

at

regard

theoretical

on

been

overcome

recommended

;
to

Optics)- Suffice

investigationsjustifythe applications of
here

dealt

with.

these

the

of

interest

most

which

peculiar effects produced

leads

to

by gratings

structures.

Theory of Optics,translated
Green

any

wave-fronts

principleswhich is
microscopical vision is that

of

each

so

points in
relative
phases

with

Drude's

are

application of

other

light-effectat

Fresnel

the

in which

way

these

theory of
the explanation
and

deal

interested

the

in

to

principleswhich

The

ciple
prin-

ing
wave-surface, accord-

containing the

principleswhich

subject

any

Huyghenian

fictitious luminous

the

with

nor

at

same

the

of

points

coincide

attempt

these

tures
aper-

phase and state

disturbances
reaching the

the

the
assigned to them
light reaching these points, and
point beyond the surface must
any
these
to
phase-relations.
I will

light

light,but

the

in

have

must

the

the

of

source

stated

surface

surface

this

certain

by considering

moment

any

the

whether

of

phase

obtain

we

by combining

any

through

passes

wave-front

all these

principle to

will

above

by applying the

given point from

to

explanation

down

by Fresnel.

given

wave-front

vibration, and

of

which

apertures?

the

to

thus

intensity and

its extension

points

brief

with

met

those

are

principles laid

stated

is obtained

point beyond
the

be

those

According

in

on

luminous

solution
and

often

most

are

greatest importance
the

appears

visible.

diffraction-phenomena

may

point beyond

pencil

especial interest.

wanted,

"

the

phenomena

therefore

"

of

so-called

these

diffracted

which

interference

are

the

tube,

perhaps barely

or

of

cases

the

425

Co.,

1902.

by

C. R. Mann

and

R.

A.

Milliken.

INTERFERENCE

426

Limiting
grating

ourselves
from

comes

only allow

and

all directions

in

the coherent
other

as

which

slit ;

been

fought

thus

the

limit

ourselves

depends

of

result
to

must

now

we

produce
gradually

from

the

original direction

strong

consider

by
t

on

then

th

light startingfro
considering

to

that

distance

out

interferingwith

start

the

fallingupon

apertures
a

arranged
principles laid

the result

and

it is easy

wave
originallight-

will

slits

the

between

final

; and

sidered
con-

grating

exceedinglynarrow,

are

such

at

the

and

with

be

may

portions of light corresponding

the

arrived

out

startingfrom
and

when

established

of the

and

all

therefore

can

slits have

become

distance

wave-front,

one

interference

we

happens

several

lightfallingon

points in the slit send

these, however, being all caused

slits

first that the

sensible

no

one

what

that

they meet,
they meet.

as

soon

Assuming

any

the

accordance

of

vibrations

in
phase-relation

will be

in

first effect will be

the

wavelets

each

considerable

regular intervals

down,

where

case

practicallyconsisting of plane waves,

light to pass through its apertures or

as

at

the

to

the

the

to

battle

the
has

interference

has

see

that in

the

grating, all the light

in
again meet
light-wave the
"

points farther
of the light,it

the

the

same

direct

and

direction

phase
light. If

farther

is evident

away

that

the

with
a
light from the various slits will here meet
difference
of phase, and
will in general cancel
each
other
more
be
less completely.
directions
But
there
must
at
or
regular
be
intervals where
must
an
exceptional state prevails. There
where
the light
directions on
either side of the direct beam
two

portions

from

of

slit

one

any

difference

of

phase equal

from

that

meets
to

whole

with
neighbour
wave-length ; here then

shall

again have reinforcement, and

light-effect.Similarly there will be
where

light from

the

three

or

there

wJiole

more

will

be

phenomena

are

great range

of

adjoining slits

wave-lengths\

observed

less distance

maximum

with

of
white

wave-lengths, the

produced are different

of blue light,owing to
at

maxima

further

for red

from
with

for

the

in

aggregate

other
has
and

pairs

difference

in

all these

in which

different colours, the

the direct
much

of

a
we

strong

directions

of two,

or

directions

brightness. Usually
light,and as this contains

directions

its shorter

its

maxima

the
a
arc

effect

maximum

wave-lengths, being obtained

light than the corresponding

greater

wave-length.

The

result

PHASE
of it is that

through

either

on

projectingupon

grating, or

SPECTRA

DIFFRACTION

OF

the

screen

looking through

on

427

it at

lightpassing
distant

white

direct
obtain
a
image of the white light,flanked at
light,we
but
rapidly
regular intervals by spectra of increasing width
diminishing brightness,the familiar diffraction spectra.
of microscopical theory we
must
For
study, not only
purposes
and

direction

the

of

brightness

because
phase-relation,

the

have

we

spectra,
that

seen

but

the

also

latter

their
is

all-

the
bringing together of the
important in deciding whether
light of the different spectra at a given point will produce
This
final example
will form
of the
a
light or darkness.
which

method

graphical

have

we

dealt

with

in

the

earlier

part of this chapter.

It is desired

to

determine

Fig. 211

in

that
at

direct

which

Q'.

line

slit S

point P, the amplitude

obtain
at
point Q at
but

Formation

"

light reaching Q' from

to

be

the

with

light from

the

amplitude

the

phase

(Fig. 211) lighted from

compared

with

distance
and

centre

the

of

that

from

phase
the

of

the

Light.

of Diffracted

same

P,

and

to

distant

which
the
be

slit would

would

slit

as

referred

Q'
to

produce

PHASE-REVERSALS

428
P

Both

great

being

the

in

at

distance

phase,

same

which

of

the width

with

compared

as

reach

and

the

and

is assumed

slit,all the
shall

we

to

light

therefore

get

is the simple sum

of
resulting amplitude at Q, which
the slit. But
otherwise
disturbances
proceeding from
For

here

lightfrom

differences

through the different

will

there

hence

obvious

have

we

be

Q'

at

Q' through interference.

part

shown

process

will

the

have

Fig.

in

the

the

these

the

of

centre

Such

212.

inappreciable

an

Q'

the

divide

now

light from

the

in

we

at

whi

slit reaches
of

the

from

light

li^ht

slit into

our

any

parts in pairs of
slit

by

pair

close

to

phase,

and

of

shal

phase, we

same

the

difference

all

paths by

weakening

that

reach

from

less

narrow

the

portions of

or

If

so

to

combine

to

equidistant

parts

get

assumed

be

may

able

be

equal parts

of

number

more

of

the

two

simple

the

centre

shall

we

of
resulting amplitude nearly equal to the simple sum
two, Fig. 212
(a). But if we take a pair with a considerable
a

of

difference

will

there

shows

recedes

central
two

just

light as

And

the

the

other

inspection of Fig.

an

from

much

as

other

of

any

it,the

exceeds

nodes

for

as

the

(")

212

one

wave-

nodes

of

the

displacements of

the

always be equal

must

equal
then
slit,

an

of the

centre

striking peculiarity;

the

those

at

waves

light from

interference.

be

immediately
curve

being behind,

one

front, of the

in

amount

phase,

each

to

other,

the
principle of combination
opposite directions ; on
and
in Fig. 209
illustrated
will,
waves
again here, the two
invariably produce a node in tJie same
position as light
therefore,
but

in

the

from

centre

combined
But

either

the

with

to

is

wave

In

the

same

still in

wave

proceed

of the slit.

Fig.

than

from

wave

the

position of the

same

resultant

tJie centre
If

we

combine
result

that
the

sense

as

of

centre

but

nodes,

from

wave-length

the

of

two

to

as

centre.

of

phase

compared

still get

the

prod,

waves

of the

that

small

the

We

slit.

these

of tfie oppositecharacter

wave

that

results

difference

the

quarter

(b)there

212

(c),where

212

more

Fig.

wave

from

of tJie slit.

apply
the

; without

if the

"lit and

this

to

process

of

resultants

going

differences
its centre

into

of

all the

these,
the

phase

do

not

we

successive
shall

details, it may
between
exceed

the
a

pairs and
the

get
be

extreme

quarter

compl

pointed
edges
wave-len

PHASE-REVERSALS
all the

resultants
each

from

the

of

other

the

; for

combine

centre

pairs

light is weakened, and

429

are

wider

in

the

slit,the

and

phase

same

pairs

further

inforce
re-

removed

opposite effect hence the total

the edges
when
zero
eventually becomes
to

the

"

x,_.X

Fig. 212.
of the
the
the

slit

are

half
With

centre.

"

Phase-reversal.
Illustrating

wave-length

still wider

out

slits the

of

phase compared
light reappears,

with
but

in

oppositephase.

These

alternations

pointed out,

and

of

their

phase

in

importance

diffraction
for

the

spectra
proper

were

first

explanation

of
in

microscopical

610-633,

the
for
and

the

formation

of

these

taking
that

it

was

differentiation

narrow

their

discovery

of

will

gratings
into

indeed

the

the

microscope

similar

grating

careful
of

impossibility
between
of

very

only

wide

1904,

information

merely
can

found

for

fuller

here

be

to

paper

Society

desire

phase-relations

by
and

who
We

images

correct

Microscopical

those

referred.

are

in

upon,

Royal

which

to

subject

by

the

of

PHASE-REVERSALS

insisted

images

Journal

the

pages
on

OF

IMPORTANCE

430

that

state

be

accounted

consideration,
the

explaining
grating
slits

that

of

very
led

THEORY

AIRY'S

432

corresponding spurious discs,though partly overlapping, would

oval

an

difficult to

It is not
this

is

which

apply
in

used

not

the

microscope.

the

angular

to

of

rid

it

replace

and

microscopy,

corresponding

two

suggest

this limit

first get

must

we

purpose

thus

would

figure and
points of light.
form

For

measure

linear

by

dimensions.

Supposing

have

we

objective,would

of the

centre

focal

of

length

subtend

objective

our

of the

just referred to from the centre

and
by plane trigonometry
of the latter
be

may

as

put

linear

the

as

diameter

objectiveof D

i"

sin

of

inches

find
The

^,and

the

that

as

spurious

diameter

and

of

Let

the

distance

star-image,
diameter

angle

an

^^-,

inches

focal

inches

the

small

so

in

disc

the

linear

i"

sin

from

is the

the

sine

means

angle.

objectiveto

we

in.

sin

viewed

in.,then

be

; its

of arc, which

by it, when

star-image produced

the

diameter

in. in

^jseconds

is then

angular resolving power

that

objective of

an

we

for

length

find
our

__

206265
the numerical

where

the

with

limited

factor has

been

of the

accuracy

46000

rounded

accepted

off in accordance

value

of the

resolving

power.
Now

it

field is

required
"

effect

the

be

can

proved quite generally that where

and

produced

composition

exact

substitute

this is

any

by
of

it,

imaginary

always

lens

system

but

that,

lenses

investigation,provided
the object and
near
rays

for

that

of

the

will

make

our

meaning

the

in the

case

does

the

on

not

they

not

small

microscope"
depend on the

contrary,

it which
do

only

may
disturb

we

suit

may
a

the

image

clear.

Limit

of Resolution

course

respectively. Fig. 213

certain
a
Supposing that

r
Fig. 213." Airy's

ticular
par-

applied

to

the

Microscope.

LIMIT

objective refracted

objective
"

between

For

this result.

"

ray

P1

and

ray

the

as

by

lenses

of

set

any

present

our

433

light from an object O in such a way

OP
reappeared after traversing the
fill in the
P1O1, then we
may
space

the

incident

the

that

RESOLUTION

OF

which

imagine

we

purpose

would

Lx just strong enough to make

composed of a
and
a lens
L2 which
lightsent out by O parallel,
parallellightupon the conjugate point O1. The

our

the

lens

if its

objective,and
LgO1

preciselythe

under

acts

confusion)of

-^

the

and

angles

opticalaxis
introduce

in

that

radians

have

into

sin

or

there

our

is

or

the

into

tangent

; hence

between
we

may

by transposing,-"

the

gives

latter

for

formula

our

as

distance

with

size

of

the

The

in.

"

".

the
to

very

measure

that

J^

and

the

latter is

.S1"a if

sin

of the

medium

Hence

surrounding

our

spurious

disc

disc

resolving limit

in

the

is the

O1,

at

"

".

the
the

refractive index

corresponds

numerator

sm

We
.

and

"

".

to

/3

sm

sm
=

92000

sin

the

object.

the

object

that sin /3,occurring in both

and

92000
a

this

referred to
corresponding limit of resolution at O1 when
inverse
in
diminished
object O becomes
proportion to
with
of the
objective. In accordance
magnifying power
sine-condition

we

spurious disc,

spurious

sm

92000

the

its
say

of

microscope

makes

ray

introduced

telescope

importance, hence we will endeavour

formula.
The
angle ft is always

fcJ2,
whence,

marginal

fore
there-

(or circles

In

sensible difference

no

its sine

diameter.

L2

the

and

discs

spurious

in

the

ft which

lens
as

inches

produce
inches

of great

are

them

small, so

"

"

will

it

inches,

be

diameter

this

converges

conditions

same

produce
objective
diverging

sin

see

denominator,

crosses

is

of numerical
the measure
as
universallyknown
find the limit of
we
symbolised by N.A., hence
aperture and
for a microscope objective according to Airy's
resolvingpower
theory
out

"

Limit

of resolution

"

XT

92000

Thus

an

objectiveof N.A.

should

in.

N.A.

resolve two

points in the
28

OF

LIMIT

434

object

of

inch

an

RESOLUTION

apart ;

objective

an

of

N.A.

"50

92000

?
of
46000

points at
The

immediate

of
significance

if perfect will show

of the

the

just enable
separated if their
should

of

potency

of
its

even

its

finds

the limit,it is

below

image
shape if it
minute

exceeding

TJ^ of

size of

of

case

the

single

the latter

tell from

The

is well
ance
appear-

the real size of the

the

"

area

"

limit

large

as

its visible

it
indirectly,

out

actual

limit.

same

in the

even

particles

be, nor
particlemay
reallybe an elongated body, but with
below
the limit of resolution.
A brilliantly
with
dimension
one
no
particle say
and

as

be

would

"

with

the

be

cannot

decided

to

case

only

can

one

be

found
in

its appearance

by

of

tive
less reflec-

either

In

it is due

distribution

larger particleof

much

light; what

represented by

same

feebly illuminated.

or
more
power
a little blot of

sees

the

the

it

"

spurious disc just

light over

expression

such

two

that

should

longest dimension

illuminated

with

scope
micro-

formula, and

see

utterlyimpossible to

what

the

to

the

particlesas spurious

the

given by

agrees

fact that, once

the

luminous

observer

distance

limit

the

particlein

size

approximate

this result is that

minute

"

"

discs

inch,etc.

an

the

microscope.
Precisely the
objects of
certain

"

ultramicroscopical width,

bacteria

image of

(by integration)the

with

determined

that

that

all

has
be

particlemay

for

minute

said

been

long

to

flagellaof

the

as

for

when

in
light-distribution
to

above

very

agree

luminous

applied directlyto

regard

illumination

line, it is found

luminous

such

by dark-ground

seen

with

be made

may
"

determines

one

remarks

same

the

concerning
the

width

of

closely

and

area,

an

the

fore
thereminute

elon

object.
Similar

to

necessary
to

results

smudge

found

by

the

character

determine
dark

minute

are

the

objects
of

in

minute

a
image
"smudge"
agreeing closely
no
possiblecriterion by which

diameter

as

or

width

object of much

could

greater

carrying

integrations
image corresponding

of the

We
bright field.
black object,the

with
a

the

out

the

limit

of

get
width

grey
of

the

resolution, with

jet-blackobject of

very

minute

distinguished from a semi-opaque

size, so long as the real size remains
be

HELMHOLTZ

human

of the

not

black

less
slight(i.e.
a

than

narrower

skilled

view

; that

herring

it

be

to

some

drawn

that

literature
It will

is to say,

noted

Airy's theory
Abbe

on

in

Sine-condition

the

microscope

been

the

importance
which

the
which
send

is

scrutiny of

but

so

even

out

the

of

from

must

who

it

is

in

reallydeal
astronomical

deduced

the

on

with

Helmholtz

other

from

determined

produced

by
by

the

basis,but independently

same

in

also contained
many

that

diffraction

famous

to

excellent

an

the

paper

first optical proof of

interestingobservations

had, however,

; for

before

it

it

so

was

Professor

paper

by

which

shed

on

narrow

escape

happened
published, there

that

Ernst

Abbe,

entirely new

an

Helmholtz
in

himself

when

appeared

of

light

it

Jena,

on

the

upon

acknowledged

the

interestingpostscriptto his own,

fortunately,although it would
seem
reluctantly,
paper

an

withdrawing entirely.
the

importance

bear

in mind

to

self-luminous
the

scientific progress.

true

resolving limit thus

the

referred

type,

this

"

its action.

adopt the
microscope. Now
are

side of

matters.

at from

microscope.

realise

subject we
done

the

an

these

of

but

latter he

refrained
To

near

is formed

astronomers

basis

unpublished

the

to

closely

in

subject

theory of

this

information

left

set

same

the

here

epoch-making

an

if

image

escape

very

and
and

paper

being

had

its

objects, and
the

1873, which

the

The

the

arrived

was
object.
of Airy's work, by

published

that

agrees

It

from

black

absolutely
deficiency of light in

the

trail of

interest

finds most

one

be

Professor

the

across

self-luminous

with

largely

to

space

subject is chieflyof

The

to

as

of

It lies somewhere

eye.

this,then

about)

smallness

question
from
the microscopist's point of
really is worth
it has
used
been
recently as the proverbial red

because

"

5%

devoted

than

more

ness
sensitive-

observer.

have

We

than

the

to

"

part of the microscopic field where

the

limited

of

limit of resolution

g1^of the
object is

or

eye

accurately determined
be seen
can
by the

objects which
"V

the

to

"

be

to

(and

Owing

435

photographic plates also) to slight

brightness there is,however, a real limit
though

gradations of
one

resolution.

limit of

the

below

ABBE

AND

of

Abbe's

that

up

theory of the
the
telescope
objects

strictlycoherent

and

contribution
then

to

nothing

astronomical
is

to

had

light which

on

therefore

Airy

been

telescopeto

chiefly used

which

our

assumed

stars,

really
in

the form

the

attention

the contrary,

that, on
distant

by

of

source

that

legitimatelybe applied to
This

theory of microscopical
of objects by a distant
image
Abbe's

that it

first limited

ultimate

its

light;

reply to

his

less

or

result

to

Abbe

cannot

theory

he

this

the

circumstances.

considered

this

that

moreover

small

very

these

under

and

theory,

that
of

images

it

realised
he

had

supply
objects seen
must

all

he

he

the

as

which

objects,to

fence-poles,as

tersely put

the

by

it in

his

work

theory
a

; his

to

of

high degree

very

which

have

cations
publi-

own

limited

are

greatly
few

physical

in consequence

ordinary
misinterpreted in all sorts of extrastandard
of
fallingbelow the assumed

critics

by

his

readers, and

his
and

misunderstood
ways

of

assume

moreover

original thinkers,

many

accounts

subject of

the

which

like

Abbe,

opticalinsight in

been

for

clearly that

of

writing long
on

and

more

frankly accepts the illumination

of light and
how
indicates
the

source

of

even

Unfortunately

papers,

therefore

of his critics.

one

disliked

Airy's assumption

reason

application, but

explanation

borrowed

vision

merely

applied not

objects;

this

that

accounted

of his

feature

the

the

show

later papers

essential

at

be

is to

seen

that

was

by

microscope.
point underlying the

chief

is the

esca

illuminated

for

fulfilled,and

had

self-luminous

applied to

ever,

objects are

light;

means

no

THEORY

of the

seldom, if

is

microscope

ABBE'S

image. The fact which

of physicists,including Helmholtz,

determining

is

OF

FEATURES

436

knowledge.
result of all this has

The

attacked

been

never

appeared

from

that

prove

it

or

The

that

any

saw

elaborate

or

the

papers

of

way

theory

have

others

by
"

has

trying to
it," however, was

by Abbe

"

it "

misunderstanding

sented
repreAbbe's

in text-books.

Abbe's

from

unconsciously
source

the

put forward

between

latter start

the

consciously
We

as

of them

difference

whilst

at

theory

accounts

real

begins

time

the Abbe

physicist, there

competent

particularauthor's

the
papers,

to

that, while

entirely erroneous

was

Abbe

the

never

time

by

been

"

the
to

be

theory

and

object and

all others
assume

self-luminous, the

this

is
"

former

of light.

preceding chapter that the light vibrations of

point act independently of, and are
incapable of

in the

luminous

with,
interfering

those

from

any

other

luminous

point

Hence,

there

when

are

EXEMPLIFIED

THEORY

ABBE'S

neously,
points acting simultagiven point is the simple

luminous

of

number

resultinglighteffect in any
effects
all the
produced by

the
of

sum

points ;

then

to

proceed

all

from

the

in

points

particularpoint

from

far

Abbe

simple

that
reason,

possibly

of

do

nature

idea

A
occupy

Let

inevitable

and

of

natural

our

deal

the

vast

majority

objects
and

that

of

rather

deduction

that

theory
lished,
firmly estab"

security from
the

cases

is unknown
what

to

to how

as

selected

with

obtained

image

from

of natural

few

in this

share

must

how

is to

circumstances

images

direct

theory looks

to

attack.

problem

is

the

results

much

faith

such

may

and

cases

we

in

the

All

study

various

then

may

have

to

under

cases

obtained
we

structural

polarise light.

simple
in

cannot

we

us,

these

extent

obscure, retard, accelerate,or

may

can

some

image
(in reality,a

for

determine

elements

the

final

rigorous solution, in fact we

may
go further
is generally impossible ; for this
the strict solution
that the object itself modifies the light,
and, as the

final structure

we

Abbe

the

form

that in the

complicated
say

the

brightness of

true

the

theory

It is obvious

and

sum

any

obtain

"

the

too

the

undulatory theory, and as

is daily becoming
more
losing ground
of

laws

the

from

in

the

light;
is the

thus

we

be

may

image.

is,however,

it

of

there

as

point

any

formed

abstract

this

in

formidable

in the

to

source

multiple integral)thus
Stated

produced

light transmitted

of

amount

effects

therefore

point of light; we
light by repeating

of
far

so

mental
funda-

the

must

we

mere

source

it in

of

point

the

between

difference

extended

an

for each

operation

produced by

luminous

with

and
in accordance
proceed logically,
principles of the undulatory theory,

the effect

the

individual

the

to

first determine
can

437

form

everyday

objects.

simple examples

of

this

kind

must

therefore

next

attention.

L, Fig. 214, be

luminous

Isolation

of the

an

object lighted

Fig. 214."

point, OO'

Direct

Light passing through

point.

DIFFRACTION

438

the

by it,and OG
object OO'.
that

see

we

If

but

fix

we

of

the

the

through

onwards

which

aperture

plenty of

room

effect

on

the

down

the

both

and

diameter,

point

the

would

under

the

thereby

something

that whenever
of

minute

aperture

in

singleray,

that

the

image

become

very

should

we

diaphragm D,
There

and

of

image

is

therefore

is

spreading

otherwise
incident

spread

preceding chapter

out

the

interposition
of

out

limits, owing

light
ference
inter-

to

point P to
plate,theory and

assume

our

opaque

far

lighc,so
that

so

the

from

being

light proceeds

in

the

tiny aperture, and as all this light is

luminous
sent
out
to the vibrations
by the one
point L, it is
forms regular sphericalwaves
and
coherent
proceeding from

every

all

and

lightby

determined

the

reduced

due

determination

the

in

of

beam

an

that

experiment
a

cut

small

experiment

if,for instance, we

show

to

learnt

results

there

phenomena
be

down

geometrically

the

no

object.

already

cut

we

diaphragm,

beyond

the

indeed

have

with

however

to

us

up.

very

have

objective,the

sharpened

very

the

the

with

of

geometrical optics in this case, and that

first to point out, is the diffraction of
was

Abbe

lightby

the incident
We

full aperture of

with

wrong

withdraw

we

it ;

rules

single ray

would

the

making

immediately

is

something,"as

"

in

moment

the

expose

point

our

But

show

conditions

would

theoretical

object,
passing

ray

therefore

objective

therefore

these

large diffusion-disc.
also find that

the

Airy's

practicalexperiment
of

of

aperture

should

the

the

to

the

on

through

this

the

pass

of

pass

to

diaphragm

can

due

were

which

and

Such

image.
.

nevertheless

spare,

useful

point

light from

image

would

to

on

microscope, according
could
place a diaphragm

geometricaloptics we
small

of

OBJECT

microscope focussed

attention

our

single ray

THE

object glassof

formation

if the

BY

as

direction

their

centre

with

accordance

leads

minute
the

to
as

than

half

its diffractive

to

become,

to

all intents

microscope will form

Airy's theory, viz. a

same

result

aperture

our

soon

owing

by faint diffraction rings.

is the
only one
aperture

surrounded
and

the

and

luminous,

indeed

has

aperture

from

as

that

exceeds

wave-length) the

of
very

But

effect
and

diffraction

case

the

and

minute

self-

image of it in
spurious disc

small

where

Airy

purposes,

an

this

minute

our

of

Abbe

Hclmholtz.
diameter

effect

becomes

solitary
theory
As
less
(i.e.
more

THEORY

440
of

lines

to

exist in the

having

without
rebel

totally different

object,and

the

Probably

has

done

comment

Abbe

highly

diffraction
of

head

indeed

trained

students

by

object

the

the

without

circumstance.

devised

true

source

and

fountain-

less

scientific

before

put

experiments had

same

These
observers
knew,
opposite effect.
such
utter
felt,that
dissimilaritybetween
object and
almost

an

convince

to

University professor that

the

comment,

proper

text-books

microscopists

other

any

but

in

known

well.

as

make

to

more

the

was

microscopical images

observers

apart

admirably
of

those

experiments

than

theory

were

from

different distance

these

experiments

the

direction

description of

adequate
against the

These

PRACTICE

VERSUS

least

at

or

did

image

in

the
everyday practice ; that, on
contrary, the
with
to
a
low-power object glass was
only added
image seen
and
improved in its finer details with a stronger objective,but
not

occur

find

the task, they followed

the

theory," or

in the

the

by sittingon
We

to

Mr.
his

use
"

"

state

at

once

all the

that

Conrady

possibly
require

the

in

occur

the

which

objectiveby

of

use

would

the

cause

of

"

"

to

would

well-known

for further

that

they

unable

physicistwho

thus
make

take
under-

text-book

light."

it has

recently been pointed

startlingnightmares
"

most

"

them

obtained
normal

diffraction

certain

otherwise

once

image

under

conditions

of

use

the

the

with

produced

"

which

microscope

suitably cut diaphragms behind

suppressed that would

at

lead

picturesque description of

are
Diffractions-platte

all

any

waiting

"

cannot

they

fence,

well

as

may

by

Abbe

totally dissimilar
although they were

to

hole

out

distrustful, and

became
a

replaced by

never

was

"

enter,

nightmares

spectra
and
"

are

which,
to

vanish

the

deliberately
if

admitted,
and

to

be

image reasonably similar to the object. If the

had pointed
of the experiments in earlier text-books
descriptions
of misunderstanding
and
amount
this out, a vast
scepticism
replaced by

an

nipped in the bud.

Before
examining the first of the objectionsraised against the
Abbe
theory it is only fair to point out that Abbe's first paper
the one
which
of 1873 1
so
deeply was
impressed Helmholtz
of optical theory, and
with
mcnmatters
largely concerned
have

would

been

"

"

Mikroskops und der mikroskopischcn BilderAnatomic, ix. pp. 413-68

zeugung," Ma.xSchu\tze'sArc/iiv/urmi"ros"0/"is":/ie
1

"

Beitrage

(1873).

zur

Theorie

des

he

first paper

did

of Hermann

had

Abbe

by Helmholtz
in

of

mystery

tJie dark

of

use

for

space

"

when

only

seen

dark

wide

his

on

the
the

The

if

above,

stated

only just

as

is

that

admit

ruined

immediately
conclusion

we

to

the

reduce

irresistible that

lightwhich, although
invisible,is
Abbe

had

of

claimed

diffraction

to

it

the

in

lens-action

was

accounted
he

claimed

be

due

theory

"

the

to

of this
1

"

detail

the

apparently

was

no

the

be,

light in

need

to

Theorie

der

that

this

dark

with

what

was

the

objective so

completely lost.

very

dark

space

faint

adaptation
we

have

Dr.

of

the

Altmann,

the

"

dark

depart from
the theory

and

is

The
tributes
con-

indeed

"

space
the
of the

whatever

objective more

Bilderzeugung,"Archiv
(Anatomische Abteilung),1880, pp. 111-84.
Zur

of

light,definition

fine

sometimes

devoid

"

microscope, for, said

light may

of

bright

importance in building up the image.

that this lightin the "dark
due
was
space
tried to make
the object.
Altmann
that
out
structural
elements
which
by small
cipally
prinfor that
faint
light. But, apart from
this,

the

i.e.from

aperture

of

tube

utmost

that, whatever

to, there

of

the

narrow

the

patch
apparently

bright patch

much

and

clear

down

shows
light,that then experiment nevertheless
plays an important role ; for,in accordance
space

vailing
prethus

called

with

small

space

advanced

task

aptly

looking
a

little

conditions

work

we

above-

very

theory

been

has
when

viz. that

is

base

microscope.

what

frequently,on

microscope, there
by a
light, surrounded

the

opinion
that
justification,

to

with

1873
the

only

deductions

reconcile

to

of

paper

the

of

theory

considerable

attempted

account

to

was

light,and

of

those

in

penetrating insight

having

"

Abbe

with

ordinary

the

attempted

this

theory appeared in
medical
journal by

German

far-reaching

his

in

in

of the

very

then

He

Abbe's

gentleman

This

based

evidence.

it the

on

on

paper

claimed, perhaps

"

cone

brief account

mentioned
Upon

attack

of

form

Altmann.1

Dr.

bear

to

impression

deep

very

that

seem

Helmholtz.

elaborate

the

in

indeed

; it would

at

bring

not

von

first

The

importance
by microscopical objects and the

produce

not

could

who

readers

arrived

had

conclusions

the great

of

himself

convinced

produced

diffraction

the

1880

had

author

the

which

441

experimental investigations by

only quite briefly the

tioncd

of

THEORY

ALTMANN

THE

fiirAnatomie

Helmholtz

telescope
the

or

und

might

less

origin
com-

Physiologic

ABBE'S

442

pletely filled with

therefore

have

DEFENCE
of

light,though
do

is to carry

varying intensity;

the

all

we

integration which Airy

and
Helmholtz
performed for a uniformly filled objective so as
distribution
of the light into account.
to take the intensityand
to

out

"

"

shall

We

disc,
of

thus

he

as

arrive

called

at

modified

it, and

consider

can

overlapping diffusion-discs
Such,

theory

in

attached
from

both

to

of

defence

the

which

his claim

scattered

of carefullyconducted

oil and

grooves

of

degree

These
computed.
light far beyond

prism
the
only gave
up
himself
by these
the

explain

and

sought
He

further

then

for the

and

distant

earlier part of
suffice

to

show

Altmann

Dr.

treated

theory

dark

objects
We

source.

brief

the
and

have

that it is indeed

lightat

in

in

when

by

their

that

he

he

had

that

and

that

in diffraction
brief account

importance
those

of

it

reference

to

lens

or

himself

convinced
could

only then

not

he

by the object.
of his

theory,

distinguishing

illuminated

anticipatedmuch

history,and

objectsscattered

stated

space,

his former

described

glass threads

for

experiments

dealt with

that the

in the

the

elaborated

our

indeed

explanation

the

self-luminous

between

from

of

first time

be accounted

similar

and

refraction

diamond

that the

showed

Abbe

refraction

mystery
found

to

of

glass
the
possible intensity and
light could be accurately

refracted

limits

the

Abbe

with

cut

which

experiments

Professor

action.

shape

the

of

deflection

is

reply l

theory

than

with

experiments

oil for

born

rather

light,Professor

of determined

filled with

newly

Abbe

interest

immediate

an

for diffraction

number

slipsand

the

the

indeed.

badly

very

of the

cause

in

of

Particular

theory.

built up

as

type.

criticisms

they brought

Abbe,
fared

Altmann

In

because

diffusion-

or

image

of this modified

rival

suggested

Professor

Dr.

as

his

and

the

Altmann's

Dr.

brief, were

spurious disc

by light

of this in the

that

part will

with
quite impossible to assume
the back
of an objectivecould be

if it had

regular spherical
from
waves
was
only distinguished
points in the object and
from
Helmholtz
that assumed
by its intensity
by Airy and
varying in different parts of the aperture of the objective. As
bound
have shown, we
to begin by considering lightfrom
we
are
and
one
capable
point only so as to be sure of its being coherent
1

"

Ueber

die

same

as

way

Grenzen

Jenaischen Gesellschaft
fur

der

started

in

geometrischen Optik," Sitsungsl't

Naturwisscnschaft,1880, pp.

Medizinund

71-109.

regular co-operation ;

of

get only

object,which

the

in

"ray" of

one

is

at the

more

of

back

coherent
from

direct
latter

of

capable

portions which

must

due

it

account

after

the

we

so

point of
the

with

undulatory theory of light.

Curiously enough, speculation of much
formed
the subject of
of Dr. Altmann

treated

be

the

light

into

the

of

source

as

of

manner

subdivided

be

must

one

collision

into

come

to

no

on

co-operating

each

are

we

do

we

point
lightpassing through any one
can
distinguishableby
only become

object ;

self-luminous

otherwise

443

when

that

saw

we

objective,it

the

and

and

THEORY

light,generally by the process of diffraction. If

visible
less extended
area
brightly illuminated
or

scattering the
there

ALTMANN

OF

REVIVAL

light,

interpretation

proper

of the

which

read

was

meeting

Apart from a
conception of the Abbe
been
not
anticipated by

in

Society
author's
had

that

at

of

consequently

we

the

curious

need

Altmann
devote

not

that

as

of

account

the

nothing

it contained

theory
Dr.

sort

same

extraordinary paper
Microscopical
Royal

an

highly

1901.

earlier,and

the

twenty-one

years

further

space

any

it.

to

We

hope
in

point that
the

sensational
been

ultimate

in which

way

that here

the

was

deduction

necessary

of

undulatory theory
dismissed

in
of

manner

is

no

indeed

and

short

bridged gulf
the
source

the

other.
of

Abbe

the

the

theory

put forward.
"

has

The

been
rather

"

have

Diffractions-platte
the

average

matter,

whilst

leaving

of the

towards

way

student

the far

to

more

theory as a direct and

from
the
fundamental
principles of the
entirelyor
light has been either omitted
introductory paragraph or chapter in the
real

the

Abbe

"

"

addition

on

kernel

in

this

to

up

Dippel in his Handbuch, of which, unfortunately,

the
best
English translation, although it contains
official
of the Abbe
semi-official
account
theory ; semi-

inasmuch
In

of

the

thus

remarks

our

obstacle

been

with

foreground,

important position

there

latter has

the

in

of

adoption

experiments

put in the

think

it clear

made

opinion the chief

our

inevitable

the

have

to

the

it had

as

there

always
the Abbe

between

has

been

theory

Abbe's
that
as

sanction.

yawning

described

and

in the

un-

books
text-

hand, and

one

In

Professor

the

lightand
objective,whilst

everyday microscopical practice on

small
and
remote
we
use
a
experiments
all sorts of oddly shaped diaphragms behind
"

"c

in

serious

microscopy

we

shun

both

these

OF

DEVELOPMENT

444

things by
will

bear

natural

and

glad

are

as

touch

For
has

Abbe

although

it is

difference

stars, and
distant

its scope,

undoubtedly
the

first to
and

recognise

interpretationof

from

this

to

day

in circles,and
for

and

importance

with
insist

in

connection
And

be

must

he

in

attached

to

so

of

theory

any

its limits, first drew

and

which

vision

in this field

much

besides

this

upon

with

just

as

the

world,

name

recognises

Dr.

was

the

artificially

and

Johnstone

work

experimental
attention

we

moving

as

feel that Abbe's

we

he

slightestreason

self-luminous

between

lighted objects.
The
most
distinguished worker
Stoney, F.R.S., who,

the

give

not

this manner,

difference

fundamental

could

less

it, as

to

optical images.

sun,

as

or

the

although

moving

their

of

nises
recog-

more

of
Copernican system
the
planets
although Copernicus wrongly described

speak

indeed

objects,such

connected

name

its

Abbe

theory, and has

theory which
any

self-luminous

his

Professor

of his

objects lighted

difference

correct

vainglorious

any

that

true

feel that

have

the

was

fundamental

being bridged

for his greatest achievement.

credit

undoubtedly

we

and

must

source,

of the

between

nebulae,

free from

are

briefest accounts

the

outlined

the

attempts

Professor

given only

only

last

are

these

that

effort to rob

is at

gulf

to bring the Abbe

being made
theory
vation
everyday microscopical manipulation and obser-

with

; and

that this

think

to

that at last attempts

into

THEORY

the
as
large an
illuminatingcone
object
by carefullyrefrainingfrom
interferingwith the
aperture of our objectives.

using

round

We

ABBE

lution
reso-

on

important
peculiarity of artificially
lighted microscopical objects which
of the Abbe
the
extends
theory into regions in which
sway
it would

otherwise

not

other

illumination, in
of

image

the

observation.
in

the

and

point
object ;

the
and

source

of

Under

these

light is
flame-image
as

object so
would

illuminated

thus

conditions

behave

would
as

expect

also send
if the

the

the

also

out

on

one

the
a

each

use

sharp
under

point

corresponding
point

light sends
that

critical

object

light from

of

source

by

condenser

upon

therefore

and

so-called
where

upon
the

very

to

cases

concentrated

should

one

those

is thrown

point of

each

vibrations,

to

refer

We

carefullyfocussed

light

of

source

of

and

words,

highly corrected
of

apply.

to

out

of

the

pendent
inde-

the

points of an
independent vibrations

object itself

were

self-luminous.

Dr.

Stoney

case.

We
of

be
may
the condenser

regular structure
shall

always

careful

so

ever
so

to

give

rise

be

able

to

in

; if the

Abbe's

observe

realityfor

possible to determine
respect

every

the

would

substitution

direct

call for the

to

The

preciselythe

the

event

be fulfilled.

by claiming physical

either

this

Abbe

as

the

that this

theorem
diffraction

would

it does

would
as

however

seem

physical reality.

spectra under
such

an

apply

to

under

the

on

improbable

most

sideration.
con-

principles

physical reality;
as

in

matical
mathe-

think

to

one

Stoney

theory

in

be

under

fundamental

upon

Dr.

would

vibrations

lead

cated
compli-

be, it is always

may
which

the

the

how

matter

no

explain without

to

manner

same

would

of the

existence

impossible

in that

and

of

acceptance

continuous

lightseems

discovery

The

suggestion.

in

or

of

same

skylight of
the object,

fall upon

waves

for

looked

always been

contrary, it has

spectra,
the

theorem.

become

ever

critical

sufficiently

of

nothing

proof of this theorem

undulatory theory that

is of

cone

anomaly

plane

however

is

ment
adjust-

of

exactly

course

perfectsubstitute

There

of

of

set

and

in

to

the

is not

conditions

lightvibrations

of simultaneous

train

choice

object

mathematically that

be shown

can

this

them

mathematical

well-known

of

this

Stoney has explained

Dr.

It

would

assumption

445

recognisable diffraction

to

positionsand relative intensityas if a

allowed
the same
were
angular extent
when

that

the
the

realise

to

as

fullest extent

the

to

WORK

startlingdiscovery

the

made

illumination

we

STONEY'S

JOHNSTONE

DR.

less

critical

assumption
such

in

cases

carefullyregulated

illumination.

indefatigable worker

Another

in

the

field of

microscopic vision is Mr. Julius Rheinberg,

has resulted
and
of the experimental order
of

great interest

from
In

the

in

theoretical

recent

years

themselves

and

point of view.
Mr. Conrady read

of

whose
in

the
work

many

considerable'

several

theory

papers

is

of

chiefly

discoveries

importance
before

the

Royal Microscopical Society with a view to bringing forward the

Abbe
real significance of the
with
theory in accordance
our
Mr.
of it in this chapter. In these papers
brief account
Conrady
the image of a
begun the task of demonstrating how
microscopical object is built up according to Abbe's
theory and
of showing that, when
tions
applied to the ordinary working condi-

has

also

of

the

microscope

"

in

contradistinction

to

the

artificial

EFFORTS

446

conditions

gross

this

It is

and
the

of

usual

IMAGE!

experiments

theory fullyaccounts

for all

with

the

tion-plate
diffrac-

of
peculiarities

this

that

instrument

extent

same

the

as

within

everything

any

depended

telescopeto give
the

natural

obstructed

way

tions
indica-

correct

round

But

this

with

by stops or irregulardiaphragms placed anywhere between

reasonable
the eye ; (2) That
of
amount
a
object and
uniformly bright illumination

centred

and

that

looking down

on

lens

extent

any

diameter
of

the

object ;
work

this kind

that

(3)

and
of

This

That

the

on

is

of

to

one-third
to

say,

light is
the

light
of

is avoided

proved

capable of giving false images of

character.

and

nature

concluded

be

with
of

requirements

few

the

general

theoretical

As
there is now
investigations that it deals with.
only
theory of light,namely the undulatory theory, the theory of

particularopticalinstrument,
the

application

of

the

prevailingin
the

effects it

the direction
of such

test

between

the

results

and

the

theory

direct

for

spectroscope,

respectively

which

are

not

present

case

that
in the

the

here
other

the
For
and

which

means

ditions
particular con-

view

to

explaining
to

as

The

precise conditions
the

telescope and

Lord

Raylcigh
fully satisfy tluse

microscope,

Abbe

was

peculiar difficulties
two.

any

proving agreement
ditions
perfectlydefined con-

investigation.
Sir George
Airy
of

realised

who

under

one

in

it under

the

first

the

consist

always

theories

In

man

must

supplied

requirements.

to

with

theoretical

have

microscope, simply

giving indications
possible,
instrument
might be improved.

observation

in the

if

predictedby

assumed
the

as

instrument,

produces and,

such

undulatory theory

that

in which

its

the nature

easily be

can

well-

with

illumination

it

the

filled with

diameter, according

description,as

aptly

may

be

perhaps

dark-ground

of illumination

chapter

remarks

its full

any

decidedly dangerous

of

disc

concentric

latter may

minimum

nearly

to

up

for critical

from

and

area,

which
objective,

the

of

used, that is

perfectlyround

its whole

equally bright over

back
to

the tube

is

of

aperture

interfered

or

to

upon

of resolvingpower.

(i) That

in

not

be

may

its limit

condition

objectives is

seen,

the

only applies on
the

EVERYDAY

result of these
gations
investiparticularlysatisfactory
that they lead to the conclusion
that
the possibility
of
deception by a properly used
microscope is extremely

remote,
almost

EXPLAIN

prevailing in the
"

image.

TO

One

of these

come

the
in

difficulties

44$

TO

EFFORTS

This

point,

theoretical

as

EXPLAIN

worth

is

purposes,

several

would-be

theoretical

dealt

with

observations

of

attaches
from

from

to

such

the

For

glass.

on

any

observations,

practical

finding

marked

deductions

however

microscopist's

objects

because

there

supposed
interesting

point

of

view.

of

fine

whatever

to

the

which

or

value

no

have

times

recent

diatoms,

stated,

reason

suitable

in

papers

finely

the

theoretical

IMAGE

emphasising,

been

rulings

of

difficulty

the

to

EVERYDAY

latter

be

drawn

may

be

XVII

CHAPTER

AND

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

USE

TO

HOW

THEM

Holder

Metal

for

the

Metallurgist

for studying its

piece of metal
is
when
often
the observer
fracture
structure
or
arises,especially
has been
met
not provided with a metallurgicalmicroscope. This
"
(Fig. 215) by Messrs. Watson
by an ingenious arrangement
THE

difficultyof holding

A(
Fig. 215."

Sons, which
with

little

we

believe

Metal

can

difficulty.It

be

Holder

for

the

adapted

to

combines

metal

Metallurgist.
almost

holder

any
and

microscope
the

means

with
screws
rotatingjaws grip
levellinga specimen. Two
the specimen C, and
if its plane be not
at
right angles to the
of
desired
be tilted to the
position by means
objective it can
Bi.
It should
be mentioned
the adjusting screws
A, B, and
this holder
is also
supplied in a simpler form, without
any
Blocks
if
of
metal
also
for
can
levelling, required.
adjustments
be held
in the jaws of this arrangement
at any
angle required
be rotated, thus
and
can
obviating the necessity for the long
of

and

tedious

process

of

cutting and
449

mounting specimens.
2Q

ACCESSORY

450
An

Illuminator
A

for

APPARATUS

Metallurgical

Specimens

by Mr.

simple and yet very effectual method

metallurgical specimens when
employing lowobjectives,such as a I, 2, or 3 inch, is
power
shown

in

The

The

Fig. 216.

will be

obvious

metal

box

by inspecting the woodcut.

has

condenser

eye

the

of its sides

one

; the

of the

body

This

cut

of

method
In

the

scale and
which

by

collar

is not

reading

the

simple

and

is illuminated
bull'son

Fig.
Stead's

on

moving

but

in

general construction

the

scale

whole

divisions

attached

are

the

read

the

read

are

to

In

measuring wire.

sub-divisions

itself and

novel.

are

drum

2 1 6.

Illuminator.

Eyepiece

only different

sub-divisions

sub-divisions

pattern,

small

Micrometer

ordinary micrometer,
the

an

pushing

regular screw-micrometer,

carries

at

objective.

micrometer
the

from

circular

Diffraction

The

illuminating

tion
principleof illumina-

angle of 45", this being faced with

of glass the
surface
of which
square
of a lamp or small
by means
to

of

very

Stead

on

milled

the
this

head

tion
diffrac-

new

the

directly on

scale

absolutely precise means.

To

fine

hair
across

the

screw,

carrying

of

sliding.

frame

be

moved

greater portion
field

the
When

it

approximately

in

micrometer

the

This

use.

assists

in

rapid working.
Thescalc

of the object
extremities
design. The
in
web
of the moving
taken
by means

is

is

screw

brought into
materially

by
the

position required,

Diffraction Micrometer.
Fig. 217-Thc
By Mr. J. w. Gordon.

travelling

the

can

the

of

use

unnecessary

the

and

time

save

under
the

is of

special

measurement

usual

way,

are

and

for

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

451

ascertaining fractions of a whole division a diffraction grating is

By rotating this cap, a supersupplied in the eyepiece cap.
position
wire is produced upon
of the image of the micrometer
Attached
is
to the cap
the image of the adjacent scale division.
moves
against a portion of a divided circle when
a
reader, which
the

eyepiece
of

hundredths

The

eyepiece

flash

images
only

Gauges

but

convenience,

aimed

it is

makes

(Fig. 218).
in

taking

nut) and

the

move

resulting

superposition,

in

this way

not

Slips

is if the best results

are

its

the thickness

cellence
ex-

required is

illustration,
to
place the

tached
at-

end, when

at a

show

glance.
Fig.

pinching

prevent

great

the

by examining
is

of

latter,by

will

windows

micrometer

the

of the thimble
to

vision

direct

all that

(or hexagonal
the spindle,and

To

and

that
necessity,

measure

"anvil"

the

reading

exact

It is seen,

between

means

of

moment

the

cover-glasses and slips is always

objects requiring high-power dark-

object

to

use,

when

at.

Ciceri Smith

that

in

plate

of

with

illumination

ground

is

Cover-glasses

for

thickness

the

know

To

the

an

this

ordinary observations

diffraction

the

plate

at

of

one-

certain.

but

easy

black

taking

the

make

thus

and

dead

out

represent

immediately.
that

so

diffraction

the

When

desired.

read

of

independently

made

be

be

can

removable,

is

divisions

By reference,therefore, to

division.

fractions

cap

These

rotating.

whole

circle the

divided

may

is

cap

218."

Ciceri Smiths

Micrometer.

too

and
is only
friction-tight,"
strongly,the thimble
readily slips
in its fittingif too
great a force be employed ; hence fracture
of a cover-glassvery
rarely occurs.
shown
in Fig. 219
Zeiss's arrangement
is of different design
"

although

direct

little machine
opens
the

the
needle

We

reading.

is excellent
which

jaws,
showing

in every

close

the

by

testifyfrom

can

thickness

Turning

respect.

themselves
in

terms

long

on

the
of

use

this

the

handle

slip or

cover,

millimetres

and

ACCESSORY

452
Care

inches.
docs

be

should

drag

not

the

on

APPARATUS

taken, when

jaws

measuring

it rests

as

the

on

slip,that

table

will

(for the jaws

hold

not

it

for,
cover-glass),
the

do

if this

inevitably

1 f the needle
flies

it

back

to

come

be

can

Zeiss's

set

verified

be

can

by using platinum

not

The

shown

which

wire

does

mount.

measures

dial

when

underneath

the wooden

Cover-glassand Slip Micrometer,

sult.
re-

exactly, it
justing
by the ad-

zero

screw

Fig. 219."

false reading

case,

will

pended
sus-

they

as

be

it

by

the

is obtainable

thicknesses.

of standard

Goniometer
Goniometer

is

formed

those
particularly

more

also

for the

employed

in bi-axial
optic axes
which
Stage Goniometer

angles, but

measuring
faces

the

by

of

It is

crystals.

of

determining the separation of

crystals. Messrs. Swift " Sons make

purpose

the
a

for

instrument

an

efficient.

is very

It is fixed

to

the

revolving stage, and is used as follows : A section of the mineral

cut
perpendicularly to the principalaxis is placed on the forceps
of the instrument
(when fixed to stage) and so arranged that the
line joining the optic axis is inclined
Nicol's
45" to the crossed
in an
prisms (these being set parallelto the cross-wires
eyepiece
while
line
is
the
at
same
right angles to
especiallyso provided)
the

direction

turned

round

in

until the

the

intersection

the

amount

opposite
covers

is made.

the

of

of

direction

until

measurements

of

one

the

darkest

air.
arc

placed Jiorizon tally. Very

is

Much
taken

part of

small

same

oil ;

sections

brushes

the
a

but

of
the

reading

the apparent

ineth

of minerals

in

other

second

the

is then

is taken

turned

indicates

two

the
in

the

then

cross-wires, when
the

pointer

reading

pointer

between

difference
in

The

of the

intersection
The

part of

cross-wires, when

the

The

forceps point.

darker

rotation.

angular separation
when

the

which

"pted

microscope
arc

is

attached

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

by
to

to the

wax

take

their

point

of the

forceps or

has

Mention

been
a

for

colour-filters

suggested by

Mr.

microscopist.

It

at

the

contrast

top by

placed

These

position.
the

when

and

tightening
the

part
the

screws,

can

be

and

sold

and

are

as

supplied

of

circle

screw

or

glass faces, which

and

screws,

outer
an

band

brass

circular,in

are

is

the

material

same

the

gripped by
metal

The

of the

the

the

on

of

brass, drawn

screws.

Kingsford'sTroughs.

are

arrangement

of

221."

discs

solutions

requirement

outer

blocks

use

india-rubber
increased

by
absolutely watertight fittingis

is that every
advantage of the invention
be easily taken
to
pieces to clean by merely releasing
and
either of the glass plates,if accidentally broken,
A

result.
can

keep

glass

tension
the

an

hold

to

The

every

india-rubber,and

to

as

meets

of

means

Figs.220
so

is

mately
obtaining approxi-

for

illumination.

green

consists

trough
or

purposes

Kingsford

with

circle is lined

are

that

discussing the

text, when
useful

and

cheap

monochromatic

together

needle

Troughs

in the

made

colour-screens, of

as

place.
Kingsford's

of

to

453

distinct

readily replaced
by

Messrs.

manufactured

Watson
in two

for
"

few

Sons

forms

They

pence.
at

very

(Figs, 220

and

are

moderate

221).

made

cost,

PHOTOGRAPHY

454

WITH

Photography
obtain

To

Green,
Taverner,
a

and

who

merely

slide

and

the

to

well-known

artists such

arrangement

desire

of

satisfied with

are

this purpose,

For

be

may

memento

required,several

this

kind

draw-tube,

Son

"

Sons

"

or

whilst

a
a

another

(Fig.223)
"

an

Pringle,Rodman,
service

some

; but

those

to

special position

some

photograph

where

fixingon

held

sell

(Fig. 222).
a
clamp at

laboratory, when
device

of

of

not

so

in

finished

great magnification is

the

not

Microscope.

manufacturing opticians make

is arranged to be dropped

which

Swift

with

sell

for

microscope, being

Messrs.

water,
Bousfield, Fresh-

Fig. 223.
Cameras

the

photomicrographs

Messrs.

as

Fig. 222,

apparatus

Microscope

others,requires a first-class equipment

many

who

character.

the

MICROSCOPE

Lees-Curties, Nelson, Norman,

modest

more

with

results similar

by highly experienced

THE

It

is

one

neat

and

formed
end

in

on

to

on

the

suitable

some

useful

means.

the

taken

to

other.

photograph is wanted,
Watson
in mahogany
by Messrs.
Messrs.
R. " J. Beck
convenient.

devised

by

Mr.

J.

of

top

being

it is attached
to

portable

of

arrangement

aluminium,

whereby

is fixed

quickly

is very

by

very

camera

made

arrangement

there

little

\V. Gordon

vided
prothe
In

this
"
also

(attachable

ACCESSORY

456

APPARATUS

The

the numerical
still there

times, especially

-are

it for

employ

of

that

is affixed

which

other

the

whilst

market

Davis

is

is very

to

apt

only

inconvenient

be

is that

the

iris then
to

not

shut

words, when

To

of

centre

Now
the

of

to

field

the

the

the

about

the

microscope

as

diatom

of

and

the

when

seen

Davis

On
should
the

looking

Davis

part of

be

pointed

out

in

of

state

objective.
on

single diatom,

like

an

that

so

lie in the

it shall

down

the

eyepiece.

place,and attach
the microscope and

in its

in

diatom

Having nearly
its

own

should

collar,
remain

central.
It should

the

inch

down

the

is,

made, place an

diaphragm

instrument;

other

whilst

Such

still central.

be

is

objective

that

side

the

looking

fixing the

end.

leaves, rotate
axis

well

stage, arranging it

inch

its lower

refocussing,the
closed

the

on

remove

lens

the

be

the

tube

one

of

the

with

"truly"; in
diaphragm

other.

action

if this apparatus

nosepiccc

Aulacodiscus

the

spoil

the

on

of

the

on

closed

to

apt

ascertain

the

the

looking down
of the objective is in use
on

is very

things

iris does

consequence

lens

closcd

not

Diaphragm.

is all but

this,not

concentrically
back

their

to

"

the

no

imperfectly in

particular viz., the

is

zone

it is

and

Besides

The

of

leaves

them

very

axis.

quence,
conse-

apparatus

one

that

middle

in

The

return

made

are

optical

zone

containing

fall out,

matter

the

upon

the

taking

instrument.

few

are

case

originalpositions.

the outer

sisting
con-

substituted

together, and,
when

the

easy

such

Many

apart

come

hhut, it will be found

to

arrangement,
then

may

sprung

the

half

powers

the

several

off

Fig. 224-Davis

low

end,
microscope by one
the objective. It is called, after

hold

of

fault

be

useful

Diaphragm.

diaphragm

actual

the

to

of

required ;

amount

any

it may

very

lowers

diaphragm

employing

diaphragm,

tube

the

serves

the

but

iris

to

inventor, the

its

purpose.

enclosed

an

whilst

illumination, when

dark-ground

and

iris

substage
objective to

of the

aperture

Diaphragm

the

down

cutting

Although

Davis

addition, that the

lower

porti-

ACCESSORY

APPARATUS

457

in its own
to revolve
fittingabout
being made
of the microscope, is of great service (not being found
the axis
of use
Besides
in the originalmodel).
as
explained in the previous
the
useful
of
it
serves
paragraph,
arranging the
purpose
operating the leaves can be placed
apparatus so that the handle
the

arrangement,

front,at the sides,or

the

at

who

Those

amount

It has

verniers

of

that

so

any

future

this

method

mind

in

be

it

used

exact

be

found

uncertain

been

devised.
a

to

end, and
The

"dummy"
the
the

indicate

in

lowered

this

marker, upon

collar

around

the

difficulty,

Marker"

Fig. 225,
is

This

it

not

sists
con-

very

with

pin projecting
centrally placed with
a

fine

is very

pin

furnished
time

Barker.
Cover^fass

has

with

upon

the

the

its

diamond.

minute

being removed,
boldly

towards

"

dummy
cover-glass,no

"

pin rests, within the mount

milled
an
exceedinglydelicate spring. The
rotated,
being now
body of the "dummy"

injury resultingthereto
of the

the

at

use

of

and

objective provided

optical axis.
actual
tip is

substituted, and

the

mistake, is

any

extremity which

objective in

the

on

precise field

meet

shown

As

of

another

troublesome

very

To

aid

laboratory

to

Cover-glass

its lower

respect

matter.

the

of

be

to

"Diamond

from

Hence,

there

always

by

specimen

to

to

or

cannot

registerany

instrument,

it away

the

that

to

slide

given

if the

spot of interest,or
so

view,

how

obvious, however,

different

sending

photographed.

be

in

avail

no

upon

when

occurs

in this book

readily found

It is

occasion.
is of

be

can

Marker

Cover-glass

interest

microscopist to examine,

is

bear

the

elsewhere

shown

been

particular place

to

should

arrangement

Diamond

The

to

of

tube-length

the

hence

as

this

employ

convenient.

position most

any

by its use,
microscope is increased
needs
that the draw-tube
adjustment by pushing it in an
equal to the length of the apparatus.

that

has

at

because

the

point to revolve, and

the cover-glassa minute
and
on
ring
thereby describe
engrave
the
encloses
which
special portion of the specimen recently
circle on
the
viewed
by the objective. This delicatelymarked

causes

the

eccentricallyplaced

diamond

ACCESSORY

458

be

cover-glasscan
who

its exact

It

readily recognised by

first instance

the

in

APPARATUS

uses

be

employed

low-power objectiveto

easily understood
follow

to

the

of

use

when

the

lower

power,

ring is requiredto be of sensible

large field of view exhibited
by such
the

required

is obtained

size

so

optical axis, produces

On

high

hand,

such

power,

enclosing

circle

is made

be

minute

Some
time

to
to

which

move,

the

screw

possible. This

in

the

the milled

opposite

be

may

glass exactly
To

this Herr

direct

by

to

with

the

record

the

the

be

engraved

arrangement
The
to

use

upon

the

is shown

following hints
either of these

may

Fig.

very

about

far

as

it

as

near

as

exceedingly

an

the

(without
the

adds

certain

mediate
im-

cover-

objective
a

in

use.

small

figures which

will furnish
It

time

this little

turn

ring on

the
is

with

user

best

to

combinations

try
and

produce circ!"
each objective. When

at

future

at

the

the

on

time

by

once,

previously

circle of suitable

specimen
in

size of the

as

Reichert

for

to
a

has

figures which

micrometer

figures,that

desired.

brought

it shall

to

using any combination

the
microscopist knows

Fig. 226.

any

"

conjunction

the

to

different

diameter

correct

in

which

much

records

experiment

this micrometer

may

be

the

experienced from

requisite information.

the

mount;

turned

diamond

how

suitable

that

little

from

direction

the

adjusting-screwso that
experiment) make

micrometer

the

is

is

exact

is turned.

by microscopists in knowing

overcome

the

the

away

it to describe

ring

little difficulty,
however,

embrace

restrict

as

forces

diameter

of

that

example,

by bringing

of

employed

requisiteto

opticalaxis

circle when

is

for

yVn"

much

as

by turning the little

to

as

field of view, it becomes

small

can

marker

the

turning

ring

enclosing ring

the

when

milled

the

\\hen

"

is

objective. The

an

readily by

very

of the

of diameter

the other

with

locate

arrangement

to

as

adjusting-screw seen
projecting from the side
this, by bringing the diamond
point farther
increase

observer

position.

can

limit

second

then,

setting

ascertained

dimensions

stage.

This

will
little

226.

assist the

microscopist when

little arrangements

"

learning

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

sensible

is

point

be

to

; if this

amount

be

the

tube

of

firmly

the

microscope
fail
sufficientlyit may

done

not

somewhat

pressed

cover-glass by lowering

the

to

on

diamond

The

1.

459

mark.

to

the

milled

ring

the

better

of

afterwards
to

settle

first

glass around
after

little pieces of

being taken

and

blotting

not

to

other;

adhered

be

diamond

to

longer always

the actual

circle described.

objective

the

oil should

cover-glass by applying
in

succession, great

slipwhilst

the

apt

are

microscopical splinterswhich

upon

paper

move

sufficient ; two

be

immersion

an

off the

gently soaked

revolving
the

in

should

the

should

several

of

the

used

it is turned

life of

revolution

formation

4. When

when

direction.

same

the
on

made

discovered

the

it preserves

be

can

when

when

two

complete

cause

cut

than

way

the

as

3. One
to

one

it in the

move

cleaner

possible a

is

It

2.

so

one

two

or

of

care

be

course

doing.

be wiped
cutting the circle the cover-glassmust
very
soft
of
A
few
material.
with
of
a
splinters
piece
carefully
glass
with
the
remain
which, getting entangled
oil, may
are
apt to

5. After

objective,and, if the front lens be

homogeneous
scratches
it in
cause
some
wiped immediately after,may
upon
so
doing.
the whereabouts
of a circle,
6. In searching a slide to discover
adhere

to

it must

be

recollected

and

the

not

specimen ; and
it be

Especially should

the upper surface of the

focus

to

low

power

avoided

ought always
hunt

to

for

the

cover-glass
be

to

ring

used.

with

an

objective,as the cedar oil,filling

up the engraved line
refractive index
fluid of approximately the same
the
as

immersion
with

entirelyhide
cover-glassitself,
may
A still simpler arrangement
was
the

"dummy"

having

piece.

The

end

front
blunt
"

"

brass

that
lens

little

point a
(such being
from

be

used

author, and

front

any

with

recorded,
A

the

little

by

him

very

it from

view.

devised

some

considerably.

in
objective turned
would
correspond to
is

seen

larger
about

in
than
mm.

brass

in

diameter), which
found

objective is removed

the

ink

to

of

rubber-type manufacturer.
After
seccotine.
having

common

fit the

dabbed

and
on

It

to

in

nose-

the little hemispherical

made

diameter*

by

ago

It consists

to

where

ordinary, is
the

years

is

to

taper

rubber
can

fixed

letter
be
to

tained
ob-

the

the

position to
tuted.
substi"dummy"
the

rubber

"O"

ACCESSORY

460
makes

mark

Fig. 227, is for

audience
of indicating to an

of

focus

the
of

amount

the

looked

shifted

upon

place
the

Fig. 227.
Indicator

of

deal

of

approximately

be

the

lies

which

is

several

the

the

special

reach

of

delicately

handle

above

looking

are

in

of

To

succession,

interest

saves

Ocular

Measuring

by employing

made

instrument

special point

the

then

When

of

measurement
"

the

ocular

within

described.
the

of

the

until

stage

of

accurate

object, whilst

means

The
An

the

adjusted by

indicatingthe
explanation.

of

it is attached.

Eyepiece.

means

special

means

through

at

interest

needle,

through

purpose

field

by

which

to

being

the

is sharply in
pointer, which
limited
a
eye-lens,possesses

arrangement

of

the

movement

little handle
use

in

interest

actual

The

The

cover.

in

position of

great

the

it

Eyepiece

useful contrivance, sho\vn

This

this

with

contact

Indicator

The

adjustment lowers

O."

"

the

in

is found

object then

fine

the

in

gently

it

to bring
sufficiently

when

slide

the

on

APPARATUS

Measuring

an

object

Ocular."

may

This

little

is usually a
simple Huyghenian
piece of apparatus
eyepiece
with
that
divided
a
a
sliding eye-lens so
specially provided
scale"
called an
eyepiece micrometer," that is dropped on to
"

the

After this
accurately focussed.
done, the eyepiece is dropped into the draw-tube

diaphragm

ordinary
3

with

with

ascertain

those

sliphaving
lines

be

can

To

way.

compared

"

known

of

the

value

of the

divisions

is

distance

apart,

placed

on

the

stage

the

tru

stage-micrometer, the name

cover-glass fixed upon it that has been
a

fully
care-

in

for

ruled
of

the

is divided
into
microscope. Supposing the stage micrometer
of these
is contained
TJ^ of a millimetre, and that one
spaces
then it is obvious
each of these
in 5 of the eyepiece micrometer,
This
value
is 3JV of a millimetre.
being arrived at by
spaces

micrometer

whilst

touched

their

and

made

mean

removed

is

stage

substituted,

measured
not

the

on

be

to

is

draw-tube

the

that

the

mean,

object

the

and

being taken

care

their

employing

and

observations

several

taking

461

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

be
should
Several
measurements
doing so.
adopted. See Rheinbergh's inventions,

Addenda.
of

form

broad

scale

of

The

area

division.

of

process

each

black

into

diagonally

of

counting

of

clear

and

figured

of

group

It

with

tenth

every

is divided
the

facilitates

which

spaces,

measuring.

or

at

divisions

ten

L'Es-

"

glass disc

ruled

and

divisions

100

Sons, called

"

Watson

by

consists

Eyepiece Micrometer,"

calier
a

sold

micrometer

originallysuggested

was

Leitz.

by
has

of

form

scale

in

brass

as

"

Micrometer

slides,in approximate focus

that

mount

Jackson's

"

known

micrometer

the axis of the eye-piece. Means

are
eye-lens,across
and
provided for accurately focussing this scale by the eye-lens,
facilitate
the
fine screw
is added
to
placing of the lines
a
the

with

the

laterally upon
apparatus,
has

called

drum

of

Both

to

to

Zeiss

micrometers

The

This

of

consists

first to

describe

rulings actually employed.

evaluated
of a stageby means

Ocular

Spectroscope

set

the

micrometer,"

combination
to

arid

up

being

so

microscope.

the

it will be

same,

of the

general details

with

constructed

ordinary

an
use

conjunction

in

as

Before

convenient

arrangement.

diameter
as
an
Fig. 228 is of the same
ordinary
of
and
the
draw-tube
the
into
ocular,
drops entirely
microscope,
being held firmly in position(so as to prevent the whole apparatus
from
The
swinging round) by tightening the fixing-screw B.
in Fig. 229) contains
C (the interior of which
is shown
drum
the
The

slit and
of

the

being

tube

in

comparison prism, the

the

former, whilst
thrown

reflects the

the

to

similar

very

of

Spectroscopic

Huyghcnian
eyepiece, the
be readily attachable
to
describing how

with

ocular

"drum

are

measured.

explained.

above

as

be

number

the

record

these

micrometer

by

object

in

or

controls

F
out

lightthrough

springs

I, I upon

the

of
the

screw

ils

regulating the length

width, the comparison

the

lever

G.

by
comparison object

use

stage

"

"

on

to

the

The

prism

mirror

placed beneath

prism within

the

another

placed
and

these

in the ocular

observer

they

as

convenient

A.

tube

the two

casts

stage of the

the

on

As

the

no

by

but

merely
simple

this

readily

be very

can

the

interfere with

way

spectra

scope
micro-

seen

really superimposed,
in juxtaposition. By

other

arrangement

G,

view, lying immediately

spectra in

two

not

are

the

above

one

the

through

arrives

which

object

the

from

the spectrum

above

field of

the

into

comparison spectrum

lever

by the

action

into

brought

This, when

drum.

one

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

462

compared.

,P

Fig. 228."
The

eye-lens of the Huyghenian

mounted
a

in

limited

which
The

point

lies

prism

as

"

so

have

we

with

the

tube

can

the

catch
in

black

underside
L

holds

be

can

lies at

pulled out
the
the

"

the

be

ocular

accurately to focus
within
already said

as

field-lens of

the

tube,

separate

extent

dusting or
The

SpectroscopicOcular.

ocular
line

is

crossing

seen

separated
of the
the

tube

placed

when

in
the

the

slit demands
M

lens

of

the

pushed in to
edges of the slit
or

C.

drum

position

sponding
corre-

A,

which

tube

surface

at

requires

attention.

containing

situ,but by pressing the end

K, and, being

the

lever

spcctroscopic
the

wh

ACCESSORY

464

along the jaws whilst

drawn

breath.

the

After

If,however, after
the

slit

should

(which

L, black

lever

has

matter

be

must

The
of

their entire

the

towards

is

stage

as

the

drum

is

far

illuminant

when

brought

brilliant

be

can

through

the

the

the

the

that

the

of

the

edges of
foreign

some

of

operation

the

cleaning

the

mirror

possible

instrument, and
field of

view.

the

which

is

the

the

observer
plished
accom-

two

spectra

having

lower

furnish

spectroscopic

done,

one

upper

S,

microscope is
of lightinto

beam

said, they do

have

will

Having

this

the

stage

P.

When

be

from

of

within

next

eye

through

the

towards

the

in

thence

ocular, the

we

turn

prism

of the

mirror

to

as

prism, and

comparison

the

firmly

is directed

light

hole

diaphragm

so

way

to

it

must

of

experiment,

draw-tube

hold

lever

means

beam

the

stage

the

turned

"

direct

in the

same

As

the

centrally placed

hole

proper.

of

which

"

reflects

by

through

seen

microscope

go

spectrum

in the

of the

into

face

adjustment, the substage

manipulated
prism

the

it

the

the

at

action

position found

this

tube

click

be

to

into

until

through

placed

the

replacing

by

indicate

and

Having

it will

as

fidgeted about

most

and

dropped into
being tightened to

ready

now

illuminant.

the

the

carefully focussing

closed)

unrcmoved,

microscope, the screw

situ,care
being taken that

the

but

and

again repeated.

apparatus

and

length^they

the

in

lens

running parallel witJi

seen

left

is

centrality notified

are

still been

gives a gentle blow of

probable no dirt will be left.

operator

all

be
to

lines

jaws along

the

doing this,it
returning the

spectroscopic prism
the

APPARATUS

arrived
the

through

one

interfere

not

with

they simply lie in juxtaposition,in which situation

If they are
of
not
they are conveniently placed for comparison.
H
of the microscope
the mirror
or
equal brilliancythe mirror
each

other, as

be

must

To

until

manipulated

illuminate

projectedupon

the
both

of

lines

the

slit,the

adjacent to
in

the

of

mirror
about

within
the

scale

scale

so

that

in

luminosity.

it shall

appear

operation,being effected
whilst
the sharpening up of

next

by sliding in

or

the

out

lens

in

O.
not

are

milled

ring

minor

satisfactoryposition.

difference

no

spectra is the

contained

If the

is

wave-length

by fidgeting about the

the details is brought
draw-tube

there

at

the

is turned

perpendicular
end
on

of

the

its axis

to

the

k;

draw-tube
until

they

O
arc

ACCESSORY
With

exception

one

little consideration
scale

of

of the

be

quite

is

for

ready

now

that

it understood
real service

any

the

use.

if the

orientation

properly set with respect to the different

wave-length figures,for,say, yellow light,
the

over

To

vice

or

green,

reading.

erroneous

an

make

be of

is to

the

appearing

illuminant

is

instrument
to

465

be

must

colours,for,if not,

might

the

suffices

wave-lengths

divisions

APPARATUS

this

set

and

give
correctly the

versa,

scale

so

spectroscope, the

has had
large spirit-lamp,which
in the spirit,
table-salt dissolved
substituted.
of the microscope reflects this lightinto the
of the observer
placed at the opening P
eye

in the

sees

plenty

of

When

the

and

removed,

common

mirror

diaphragm
especiallyluminous

with

now,

the

slit open,

spectrum

more

yellow. On closing the slit by unscrewing

the screw
and
F, the yellow colour becomes
narrower
until at length, when
the jaws are
all but touching, it
narrower
is reduced
and
defined
to a brilliantly
line.
exceedingly narrow
Presuming the scale is illuminated
properly by its mirror N,
the microscopist can, by turning Q, adjust the figures in such
a
that the graduation 59 lies directlycoincident
with the
manner
yellow line (or D line,as it is scientifically
called)in question ;
should

and

the

with

the

tube

within

is

the

59 line of

the

line its entire

yellow
O

in

should

be

properly placed,

scale

until

absolutely coincident

not

the
lengtJi,

turned
and

be

milled

of the

end

it is made

draw-

The

so.

scale

the

wave-lengths read correctlyif

the maker
has
made
the graduations properly. It is possible
here for two
The
to occur.
pitfalls
yellow line may not appear
sharp this requires the lens at K to be raised or lowered
a
the
D
"Sodium
it
is
also called)may
trifle;or perhaps
as
(or
li-ne,"
be too faint
this requiresa stronger light. If it be impossible
should
to get a largerlamp, the whole
be removed
arrangement
now

"

"

from
In

the

most

cases

brilliancyof
that
this

to

make

to

brilliant

the
the

sodium

the

trouble

it is not
the

easy

mentioned
to

other

bodies.

so

scale,alter

the
as

be

is far

spirit-lamp.
relates

borne

to

in

the

mind

difficult in

more

keep the apparatus

its adjustments, and

steady
keep

to

line

simultaneously.
The
micro-spectroscope is used for
the absorption bands
of liquids and

far

it should

line, but

adjustments

illuminate
D

pointed directly at

this remedies

because

way,

enough

and

microscope

In

the

first instance

two

the
the

purposes,

spectrum
fluid is

to

ascertain

displayed by
placed in a cell
30

ACCESSORY

466

APPARATUS
if the

stage of the microscope, a deep one

if concentrated.
one
attenuated, and a shallow
the

on

used
what

power

If the

place.
by

microscope, but it does not

is
is employed, for there

the

on

fluid,that fluid may

other

some

presents bands

spectrum

its spectrum

clips I, I, and

at

An

make

inch

much

be

may

difference

focussing to

no

those

resembling

be

put in

tube

compared

once

fluid be very

take

shown

within

by using

the

the
parison
com-

prism.
the

In

instance, if

second
it is

that

objective used
nearly

placed

the

on

will

stage

if necessary

of all lightsave

exclusion

the

on

highly important.
objective than
necessary,

brilliancyof

the

another

spoken of,

as

been

for

low

changing

exclude

to

not

such

to

slit

the

as

traneous
ex-

length

other.

The

examination

employ

is apt

an

all

hand, whilst

one

this work

higher

lessen

to

objective-changershave
has

no

enthusiastic

because

powers,

such

much

been

the

there

we

the
have

excepting perhaps

exists
that

manner

been
of

made

employed,

of its use,

supporters

centring the objectivesin

another

closed

sideration,
con-

and

Nose-piece

particularmention
revolving nose-piece." Although

never

under

the

It is well

Revolving

of

part

but

of

object

spectrum.
The

In

the

by manipulating E on the
that from
the objectunder

course,

power

be

microscope
to fill the
sufficiently

possible,the jaws being

as

is reduced

is,of

it

magnify

light by turning

"

solid

no

of

means

when

they follow

the

particularpart of the fieldin view n"ith tJic first

shall be in the fieldof view
It is true
the
of the second or third.
is very
made
revolving nose-piece as now
perfect, but no
one

in the

accuracy
in

the

centring

of

individual

contrivance

is present, and

ever

We

seen.

opinion of

some

"changers."
be

obtains

perhaps three
saving of wear
must

be

very

this

slightvariations
some
objectives unless
special
can

get

is absent

over

in

all forms

we

be contrary
to
although it may
microscopists,we greatly prefer to use the
must

say,

Another

advantage

overlooked, namely,

which

itself

arrangement

when

the

the

tear

sensible.

gained by doing
the

less

so

is attached

to

the

nose-piece.

adjustments, both coarse

is employed, due
Whichever

on

the

the

mu

tube

to
weight on
rotating objective changer charged

objectives
and

much

have

and

that
with
The

fine,

allowance

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY

the

draw-tube

the

shortening

amount.

Transformer

suggested
auxiliary lens was
objective into a long-tube combination,
the

vice versa,

or

and

first purpose

short-tube

negative
positive one for
a

by Commander
originalsuggestion that

conducted

Experiments

second.

the

for

added

being

change

to

This

form

tube-lengthby

mechanical

the

correct

Heurck

Van

The

of

increase

for the

made

be

must

467

Ainslie

the best
Heurck's
verifyVan
Uncorwas
focal length to employ for these purposes
500 mm.
Ainslie, bi-convex
rected lenses were
employed by Commander
combinations
of simple crown
bi-concaves
glass. Achromatic
or
substituted
Heurck, who
finallystated "nothing
by Van
were

appear

to

by

lost

was

form

uncorrected

our

suit

not

remarks
the

12

that
mm.

due

produced, possibly
apochromatic utilisingthe edge

of the

In

does

effects

chromatic
lens

Ainslie

use."

their

are

with

experiments

own

several

upon

semi-apochromatic, dry

of

kinds
and

these

certainly the
apochromatic, as
the large back
to

of the

transformer.

uncorrected

units

objectives,apochromatic

immersion

systems,

we

found

ployed
em-

and

that

pronounced haze over

loss of superlative definition,both
field with
the entire
being
evident
especiallyapparent with apochromatics, although more
others.
than
to
instances
in some
Dry lenses did not appear
definition was
suffer in most
actuallyimproved in one
cases, and

combinations

instance.
we

N.A.

over

What

cannot

say,

1*30

exhibited

happen with achromatised

depends upon
evidently much

would
but

transformers

the individual

objective.
A

of preparing Metallurgical Specimens

Simplified Method
A.
R. Aird
suggested by Mr. W.

difficultyin preparing metallurgical specimens is too

be
The
refute.
known
can
to
well
following simple means
relied upon
as
being both practical and effectual.
off a ^V r"d
of the material
cut
sections
are
Four
to twelve
The

Fig. 230."

Hack-saw

with

gauge.

ACCESSORY

468
under

by

examination,
to

gauge,

all

ensure

"tl3f $3"

and

lhe

oblique surface.

The

the

twelve

Fig. 233

is

set-screw

is

which

in

the

specimen

the

consists

alluded

of

simply

to

of

plate

drical
cylinarc

of

means

treatment

any

investigation.
and
refixing
have

holder, they

"

to

now

carried

operation is

out

with

Nos.

or

easily understood
one

and

the

means

same

the

which
six

being

diamantine
the

covers

that

polished.

piece of
polishing taking
of

"

is

grades

3, 2, I, o, OO, ooo,

surface

removing specimen.

by

and

to

(Fig. 235),

234-

ground

three-quartersof an hour
of the rubber
effected by means
half

is

Holder.

be

in. in size ; whilst

"

The

F"g- 233."

from

at

above

figure,and

carborundum

treated

holder

illustrated

same

former

It is

polishing.

its under

manner

in the

Handle

and

moving,

the

metal

from

Replacing
The

upon

whilst

(Fig.234),
pushed through

is under

them

engage

is

rod

subjectedto
that

of

by

holder

side in

to

which

"

screws

little

pieces
the handled

and

The

the

removed

232

the

under-

readily

and

holdcr

of

axis

be

flat

small

provided

"

tops filed flat.

in

which

"

recesses,

the

grinding

placed

now

circular

with

released,

of

ing
contain-

of which

the

to

will

as

"

the

prevent

bronze

each

of

sct.screw

so

are

in

phosphor

side

(see Fig. 230).

whilst

vice

obliquely

one

processes

sections
shown

on

in

and

undergoing

thickness

same

with

provided

by consulting Figs. 231

stood

filingfor

after

hack-saw

placed

filed

is

cylinder

before

Specimcns

the

the

is then

surface

Figs. 231 " 232.

now

of

being

Each

of

means

g^

"2?s

and

APPARATUS

all

time,

the
and

covered
of
the

obtained
on

block
twelve
that

the
shown

sively
succes-

emery

final

actual

by using

parchment
in

that

Fig. 236.

specimens
moreover

paper,

the

can

be

holder

APPARATUS

ACCESSORY
under

placed

be

can

examining
is

which

that

one

sections

of

deal

great

saves

at

the

from

for
any

block,

great convenience, and

of

matter

the

its removal

without

moment

microscope

of

one

any

the

469

time

Fig 235

and

trouble.

each

factory,

237)

whilst

tube

of

is

specimen

loosed

steel

the

in

held

and

considered

is

polishing

forceps (Fig.
Fig. 236." Parchment

the

in

covered

in Fig. 238.
etching fluid,as shown
in this
By tilting the forceps when
the
examine
observer
can
specimen

etching

from

"

time

to

of

Mr.
by the suggestion
of a dish, more
commonly

are

tube

of

one

"

"

filled with

been

the

by

to

of metal

has

advantage
once

been

of

for

the

the
the

instead

this

chemical

commencing
chemical

front

of

cular
partiaction

of

"

is

to

such

held

which

as

has

lime-

immediately
in

position

is shown

in

it is intended

time

to

the

cylinder

the

the

now

the

the

that

specimens
very

great
of

one

apparent, for

vertical

ing
illuminat-

ordinary microscope
tedious
and
lengthy
samples may be quickly

an

somewhat

and

rack

subjected.

adjusting

proceeding),all

individual

of

the

operations

action

rack

the

of

back

the

at

neutralisingfluid

some

the

each

having

apparatus

examined

before

mentioned

be

(generally a

shown

reference, details

definite thickness
after

employed

"

which

should

use

tube

gained

advantage

to

little

future

for

far

from

springs,only one
which
figure is a strip of paper
upon
write
from
the experimenter shall^

the

treatment

It

At

ceases.

specimen.

time,

see

the

When

all further

when

water,

with

those

which

(Fig. 239)

ceps
for-

how

sufficiently
progressed, the forceps and specimen
of the fluid and
lifted out
dropped into another

has

Steel

with

even

its removal

Aird

part of the process.

Fig. 237.

to

progressed, without
is an
example of

has

which

tube,

time

rubber.

position, the

"

hand-lens

^^

the

from

immersion

undergoing

j^-..

satis-

paper

^^^^

^-

the

When

holder

for emery

Rubber

compared

witJiout

any

re-

Fig. 238." Etching tube.

ACCESSORY

470

APPARATUS

adjustment of the light,which

If desired
trouble.
they may
with

provided

be

loosely arranged on
allows
two
specimens
any
brought into the field

ledge, which

great saving of time

means

time,

or

under

passed

the
that

order

any

series

be

to
at

one

parison
com-

be

may

objective

in

be

sidered
con-

By

this

may

desirable.

simple

slip

facilitating

so

and

too, the

arrangement,

out
microscope can be inclined withaffecting the examination

Fig. 239."

Table

in

rack.

any

whole

simplicityof method
employed, betokens
thoroughly

for

and
the

voice

acquainted

with

the
of

of

been

eyepiece,

an

in

which

picture of

the

is held

it is used

eikonometer

object
is

measurement

obtained

by

of

millimetre

stage micrometer

in the
on

which

how

be

of

the

taneously
instan-

examined

and

its actual

eikonometer

scale

the

upon
the

size

this

which

is
be

may

microscope,
the

seen

represent one-tenth
of

of

box.

eyepiece ;

five divisions

the

millimetres

many

obtain

hundredth

of

superimposed

seen

millimetres, will be

thus, if the
measures

in use,

the stage of
the

over

represent

is

any

object being

not

To

card

eikonometer

divisions

ocular

the

over

magnifying power,
eikonometer
as
follows,and

stage micrometer

divisions,which
micrometer

on

piece of apparatus

by the

of the

means

of

the

were

measures.

divided

kept for reference

the

their

obtaining the magnifying

than
by the usually adopted

representing millimetres
shows
at
once
object. This

hold

one

and

way

any

When

if the

just as

Place

of

for

divisions
the

apparatus
that

as

interferingwith
instrument, and the object can

measured.
seen

invented

microscope otherwise
It consists
previously described.

microscope without
adjustments of the
is

well

as

ordinary methods

the

unlike

not

has

instrument

methods

the

of

for

Eikonometer

Wright's

power

authority

all

both

arrangement,

cheapness

the

troubles.

attendant

This

Altogether

way.

or
a

and

eikonometer
over

the stage

one-hundredth

millimetre

of

of the eikonometer,

the
the

CHAPTER

XVIII
HINTS

UPON

COMMON

SEVERAL

FAULTS

MICROSCOPE
Their

i.

the

If when

lightbe

using

found

too

Cause

low

ITS

and

Means

if this be

; but

thin

piece of very
ground glass

special green

glass

If the illuminant be too

faint.

This

2.

is

the

from
With

of

use

often"
with

more

form
as

the

subif

or

N.A.

than

know

miniature
the

nants."

field

no

is

alternative

no

for

high

powers

be

can

\V"_-

dark-ground
wanted

"

than

better

is

attached

circuit

one

too

but

illuminant.

save

powerful illuminant

more

472

used,

of Nernst, which

it

ordinary house

in

the

powerful electric lamp

cheapest

we

tried.

smaller

stronger

not

illumination
a

piece

when

when

is

there

dark,
h;ive

as

of the

it arises
objective. Sometimes
critical
to
use
light.
omitting
very high-power objective^

high oculars,
to

light.

such

is not

condenser

stage

employed

of

recommended,

as

occur

may

a
or

between

source

be

by the author, may

opal

or

screen,
filter or a

F-line

tion
illumina-

placed

the

monochromatic

Gifford's

be

little

sufficient

not

black

may

and

mirror

the

2.

THE

Lowering the condenser

the intensityof the
ease

may

USING

of Removal

1.

power

IN

ACCESSORIES

AND

powerful.

WITH

MET

to

but, if
be
than

the
venient,
con-

tinstill

required,
the

new

arc-lamp by Leitz described

chapter

devoted

to

"

Illumi-

If

3.

when

using

fluid

the
between

its

all work

far

runs

oil

an

the

over

slides, making

473

stage

cleaned

them

used

and

with
the

then

they

work

at

it be

Let

xylol.

use
stiffly

tool-shops, more
makers'
dealing with watch-

requirements,such

using

immersion

rVth

or

"taking
view, as

looking

seen

ocular, becomes

of

field

slide,"the

in

after

objective, just
the

to

the

down
with

dark

a
quite
it,
running across
tion
entirely obliteratingthe illuminathe
definition.
or
spoiling

kind

of

This

4.

any

wave

from

comes

oil

the

the

on

objectiveback
returning to
Under

recurs.

and

the

cures

had

objectivewith
field
of

oiled

lightand

condenser

loses

suddenly

immersion

an

specimen
totally deprived

almost

the

definition,no

being

distinct

the

the

fine

place

first noticed.

use

Occasionally

settingthe

when

in

mirror,
light being
position,the whole
the

-back
no

lens

refuses

adjustment

avail,and

to be

seems

of

the

illuminated
to

be

of

twice

one

as

any

yet the oilingis complete.

that

be

edge

at

Raise

the
or

back

lower

the
of

or

the

angle

illuminant.
not

The

illuminate

iris-holder.

they

will be

lens
the

of

the

relation

This

seen

the

light,or

on

is
can

proved by putting the fingers in

when
position,

and

If the

cover

at, with

the

will

of the

of

of it.

another

lies in

microscope
the positionof

the

with

used

underside

sides

is bent

portion

be

thick.

to
\

thin,and

top lens

the

add

fault

6. The

ticular
par-

the

recurs,

usually

cover-glass

slip,oilingboth

tive
objecxylol.

This

to

be

slipbetween

slipis rather

and

the

bubble

with

left the

it between

trouble

raise

and

cleaned

is made

one.

oil.

nearly always

cover

Take

illuminator
the

6.

the

condenser

thick

cedar

If the

condenser.

arises when

ness
of dark-

wave

the

and

it

becomes
of

oil has

5. The

deal

great

This

be

better

clean,

cover

slide it off and

merely

trouble.

again

circumstances

fresh

persistent,the

very

using

cover

it.

return

air

slide and

used, don't

be

changers

of

this

these

again with

start

then

off the

objective and

both

wipe

bubble

again
the

objective,but

5. If whilst

thoroughly

objective,or on the
after
liftingthe

Sometimes

cover.

If

After

cloth.

clean

If when

Coopers

as

London.

Garden,

wipe nearly dry with

oiling,

4.

that

as

the

of

most

Hatton

If

small

very

oil,such

clock

particularlythose
in

freely

parts carefullywiped.

quantity of good
sold

be

its slides must

stage and

3. The

denser
con-

stiffly.

too

WORKERS

TO

HINTS

the

ing
look-

objective.
alter

the

HINTS

474

TO

WORKERS
of

angle

If

known
as

good

no

cause.

definition

specimen
as

usual

of

some

fails to

7. This

wellappear

apparentlyfrom

instrument.
the

The

microscope

arise from

may

light may

is too

truly critical
be

not

may

have

may

The

become

the correct

with respect to aperture.

one

faults.

several

be

not

the condenser

iris

The

accidentallyclosed.

objective,ocular, or illuminator
turned
foggy, this accident
unfrequentlyhappening with some
have

may
not

kinds
of

of the

these

with
a

It mostly

inclined.

much

7.

the

when

occurs

Jena glass. Take

and

look

rather

them

carefully
light,
turning them
and
holding them
at

feeble

little edgeways

little distance

some

They

be

must

off each

from

sent

the

the

to

if faulty ; don't attempt

in cold

Sometimes
ocular

steam

may

easily.

the

or

fallen

have

may

oil may

The

condenser

objective, or
carefulnot

to

scrape

wipes

or

off

left the
dirt

the ba'ck of the

of

camel's-hair

to

the

Some

piece

with

Remove

weather

have

cover.

on

ing.
unscrew-

this

eye.

turer
manufac-

thick

fluff.

brush.

injure

(he

lens

when
by rough usage
so
doing.
in which
Occasionally the medium
the
have
become
specimen lies may
If
lens
using a dry
a
opaque.
spot of
oil may
have
accidentallyfallen on its
front lens, or perhaps on
the coverat the
glass. Look
objective,and if
oil be there use
xylol,avoiding spirit
of

kind

any

the

with

cover

objectivemay
wide

open,

same

working
the

or

and

with

flooded

the

be

tube-length,

it with.

clean

to

the

light.

specimen

happens

if the illuminator

aperture

than

latter

have

Sometimes

used,
or

be

the
a

be

out

poor

the

wrong
be

is

too

being

usually only
is of greater

outer

the

zone.

bull's-eyeis
of its best

placed edgeways"

axis of

The

objective,unless

very

when

it may

at the

iris may

This

\Yipe

fluid.

that

auxiliary condenser

being
position
is, the
may

HINTS

TO

WORKERS
be

not

475

in line with

the mirror

and

the

illuminator.
will

object

8. The

rapidly going out

being carefullyset.

of

persist
focus

8. This

in

after

arise if the

microscope
slightlyinclined or horizontal from
fine
adjustment having become

be
the

may

stiff from
for

of

non-use

time,

some

the

instrument

the

lubricating

from

or

oil having

become

dried

immediate

remedy,

but

the

the

screw

curative

and

used.

If

mechanic,

(in

the

to
a

more

cause

dab

of

the

than

the

for

and

9.
out

view.

If
of

the
focus

object keeps floating

and

up

the

field

of

9.

then

stage
of

and

the

Lower

critical
from

occur

just

latter

ing
rest-

the

on

is too
with

thick.
the

fall

keeps bending

Instantly raise objective,

don't

attempt

This

arises

specimen
8.

from

stage.

bends

objective
while.

made
No.

the

it

hold

the

re-obtain

fault

because

the

occurs

lens

light.
may
the
objective working

the

cover

condenser,

front

on

and

The

of

in

on

usually
this

the

to

on

latter

the

vaseline

will

It

condenser

cover

the

but

resting firmly on

illuminator

The

If

specimen) slowly
slip. If time cannot
allow
of
it drying

the

oiled

although

the

the

Sometimes

slipnot

the

the

maker.

arise from

edge.
tern.

not

return

made

properly, put
pro

to

be

horizontally placed,
light, the above

it may

slidingdown
be
spared
lower

lubricant

best

be

newly

way."

direct

may

addition

harm's

microscopist be

be

using

trouble

other

to

microscope
in

or

is

it

instrument

very

specimen

ment
adjustpieces,cleaned,

to

the

run

the

taken

oil

fresh

"

of

treatment

be

must

as

"

out

and

down

the

freely

adjustment

and

up

quickly and
being removed

an

of

one

times

finger several

fine

As

only

fine

palliativenature, tap
with

As

up.

It may

"

to

it.

use

from

arise from

actually moving

in

too

remedy

as
a

fluid

newly

above

in

specimen
medium

4/6

HINTS

TO

WORKERS
down

between

Use

the

the

slipand the cover.

microscope vertically. It

usually cures
rack

of

allow

so

the

the

trouble

stage

the

directly.The
be

may

whole

loose

travel

to

stage

and

downwards.
If when

10.

N.A.

over

the

slip has

out

with

lens

using

aperture

an

oiling to

when

i'o, and

carefully carried

been

precautions,the back
not
completelyfill with

all

will

light.

11.

If bacteria

appear
around
12.

have

to

like

or

white

using

If when

very
condenser

o-ular, and

power

looks

one)

defined"

the

or

high-

more

fuzzy

ill-

and

it should.

than

so

condenser

for the

This

12.

iris

than

iris to

the

of

put away

unwiped,

their

sometimes

little time

some

definition

appears

If

materiallyinjured.

to

time

edge

tially
par-

become

front

lens,

little rebate

of the mount

tween
be-

and

This

takes

in fresh

oil.

itself.

dissolve

to

oil has

minute

into the

front

immersion

if

free from

"

the

sunk

may

possible-

objective and

and

immersion

the

glass

oil.

Open

green

if

blue

condenser,

are

13. The
dried
on

having

light ;

clean

becomes

improvement,

front of the

the

the

down,

cut

inch.

an
no

employ

minating
illu-

small,

too

of

full.

dried

an

the

much

too

rfoth

that the

systems,

objectiveshave

small

from

being

monochromatic

that

for

mitting
trans-

shutdown,

the circle of confusion

larger

See

If immersion

much

arise

been

suffice,but

13.

only

so

objective.
may

having

hence

use

been

objectbeing

is of too

cone

perly
pro-

object (an extremely

oiled,the
minute

the

air, and

iris is too

The

11.

N.A.

them.

arises from
in

N.A.
ro
approximately an
No
cone.
remedy save
remounting
when
properly. This is often seen
diatom
in
mounted
mistake
using a dry
in a highly refractive medium.
for one

objects
capsule

This

10.

mounted

the
some

Clean

piece
cambric
and
xylol.
using
or
anything else.
spirits of wine
Never
use
a
piece of stick to clean
gently

very

with

soft

Avoid

lens

the

front

with

suggested" simply

"

sometimes

as

moistened

piece

of cambric.
14.

Using

immersion
an

dry

after

oil immersion,

ill-defined.

lens

water

employed
object looks

having
the

or

14.

This

often

layer of oil being

^lass.
to

Clean

with

from

arises
left

the

on

xylol.

thin

cover-

Dnn'tf.

regulate the aperture of

the

iris

to

TO

HINTS

WORKERS

477

the

meet

of

change

the

between

N.A.

objectives.
looking at a diatom,
torting
cast
sideways, dislightseems
the object.

15. If when
the

or

If when

light and

rainbow

colours"

effects

with

centre

oblique
using extreme
sion,
high-power oil immer-

6. The

correctly set,
extremely out of

is

be

not

may

opticalaxis.

the

to

respect

specimen
1

is not

condenser

the

The

16.

mirror

15. The

mounted

is

condenser

flat.
matic.
achro-

not

are

"

seen.

17.

which

If

specks

appear

with

move

the

in the

field

eyepiece.

quantityof
a piece of cambric.
lenses, but merely

the

with

them

Separate
8. If

above

the

when

eyepiece

although they
the

appear

seem

to

stationary
is

rotated,

float

about

field of view.

vitreous

the
and

up
head

from

often

be

cast

health

be

19.

If

the

draw-tube

becomes

stifffor

too

correct

easilyadjusting to the
tube-length of an objective.

quite

few

likewise.

be

with

xylol

Oil both

other

both

very

together, separate,
This
a

20.

If racks

run

stiffly.

must

treatment

cloth-lined

observer's
may

wiped

its sleeve

with

the

oil

(see No.

3), or
preparation,and
fairly dry. Fit
and

again
be

not

wipe.

used

with

draw-tube.

Lubricate

20.

sionally
occa-

order

and

well

non-acid

wipe

then

They

way.

hours, but

removed

previously mentioned
some

will

cause.

must

clean

eyes

roll the

They

the

some
days"
being in good

the

It

19.

of

the

not

often

Lift the

side.

to

out

in

take

specks

violently,and

side

disappear

fabric.

has

eye

humour.

down

swab

firmly wipe

if necessary.

ocular

observer's

8. The

in

used

Don't

moistened

the

the

with

dirty; clean
spiritsof wine

small

with

is

ocular

The

17.

with

the

tioned
above-men-

oil and
the

teeth

stick first
when

wipe nearly dry. Should

dirty,clean with a matchbefore
oiling. Occasionally,

be

instrument

an

accurately, the
grease

to

removal,
lard
answers

rack

prevent
fresh

must

thickened
very

well.

is

made

not

is filled with
"

backlash."
be

with

used.

white

stiff
After

fied
Clariwax

473
21.

If

substage

22.

If

oculars

the

TO

HINTS

WORKERS

stiffly.

runs

drop stifflyinto

draw-tube.

Clean

22.

Clean

23.
of

the Continental

If with

suddenly appears
is the

or, what

out

same

form

iris

the

illuminating apparatus

draw-tube

in No.

as

centrality,
having worn
denser
turning it to arrange
thing,the conof

suddenly appears

eccentric.

it has

become

using illumination
object, as the tube

If when

clickingarrangement
loose

so

for

make

It is because

24.

focussing,the

object becomes

Place

25.

do

the colours
and

using the polariscope

If when

vivid

as

not

they

appear

as

bright

should.

do

arises

The

causes.

Remove

lowered.

was

one

regard

mirror.

plate,
keep rotating the
until, when
turning the

analyser, the

wave

and

best

black

effects

and

are
produced.
position for "maximum
the
selenite,and after

Then

for

same

po-

its best

at

the

to

two

or

(the

placed

selenite,quarter

polarizer

with

the

lightand

nicol

be

not

specimen,

best

tighter.

of

the

from

lower

lariser)may
position with
and

the

obliquely,so that
strike the objective.

not

This

25.

Bend

lightmore

the

the rays

badly illuminated.

oblique light,

the mount

accomplish accurate

dull and

that when

it hold

an
opaque
is lowered
to

very

clean

the iris slipping

objectivehas got between

the object as
the tube

for

ocular

wipe

detached.

clicking-springto

24.

and

arises from

of centrality,the

out

tioned.
men-

19.

This

23.

before

as

xylol, oil and

with

mount

oil

and

21.

the

quarter

employing

circular

the

are

colours

not

white
find

the

effect"
that

the

plate if

wave

polarisation.
as

If

expected, diffei-

those
obtained
with
other
ing from
objectives,the objectivefurnishingthe

faulty appearance
it off the

Take
between
one

If

26.

If

when

the field is

using polariscope

unequally

illuminated.

microscope
nicols.

two

other

or

26.

not

side

This

the

is

not

turned

the

the

or

(or

appear.

maker.

objective,the

properly placed,

place

revo!

should

is because
suit

not

to

faulty.

and

On

colours

no

they do, return

does

itself be

may

tn

condct
min"
con*

the

HINTS

TO

WORKERS

lumination
due to a dirty coverare
using dark-ground il32. These
with a wheel
glass. If wiping carefully does
not
diaphragm
them
ous-looking
Wenham's
remove
they are on the inside of
a
or
paraboloid, curithe cover.
streaks
the specimen
ill-defined
This shows
or
is mounted
"dry," and that dirt has
patches of lightare seen scattered
32. When

either

the field.

over

has

condenser,
the
with

attempting

iris cannot
a

be

it may

low-power

to centre

the

found

focussed
objective.

be

that
even

33. This

cover

it

or

cleaning this surface will

objectionableparticles.

but

remove

the

on

got there after mounting,

somehow

Nothing

53. When

left

been

is

serious

structural

fect
de-

tinental
in Coninfrequentlyfound
microscopes of older types
ment
instru(so in selectinga second-hand
should be looked for previous to
making a purchase),and arises from
the positionof the iris with respect to
the condenser
being incorrect ; usually
not

close.

too

when

from

This

the

opticalparts

are

made

below

to

fit into its sleeve

taking
far. By

drop

too

its distance

from

the

adapter,"

R.

Messrs.

tube
so

towards
tube

be

tube

to

the

have

iris fitting

instead
similar

of

with

its

the

its

c.\

axis

nail

hen

can

closed
for

of

the

optical axis

the

aperture

manner,

this

fit accurately,and

to

the

an

iris

the

of

instrument) by

this minute

half

Provided

minor.

is

so

If

centring-

the

leaves

the

the

on

effect.

protrudes about

made

and

by

satisfactory there

but

perforated at
(corresponding with
end

made

same

drop into

to

below

be

"centring

as

the

found

its end

that

inch

has

alternative
made

an

J. Beck, described

"

p. 45, which
this be
not

is no

plan

may

one

not

As

trouble.

into

fit

to

docs

iris this

condenser

such

above

increasing

thus

the

the

condenser

it

care

alternative

arranged

sleeve

from

usually remedies
the

nator
illumi-

remedy

the

have

to

the

To

upwards.

downwards,
in

of

occurs

fit into the

to

it is best

defect
made

uncommonly

not

be

iris, and
the

purpose

of

hole,
used
in

of

HINTS

TO

WORKERS

481

If however
centring the condenser.
best
a
rises
it
is
to
difficulty
any
consult an
optician. Perhaps the iris
does
close small
not
enough for the
in question.
purpose

34.

When

using

binocular

the

image looks ill-defined.

This

34.

left

to the

eye

from

tube, then
the

are

not

the left
into the

look

right eye. Focus

should
be similar (withnormal
vision).
make
If not, try and
so
by altering
of eyepiece. If none
the draw-tube
exists,try altering the depth of the
in the tubes.
If
eyepiecesthemselves
no
haps
improvement, change oculars ; perrighttube

with

several

objectwith

the

Focus

causes.

arise

may

they
If

tubes.

box

prism
prism and

if

quite

not

improvement
pushing home
improvement,

"

If still no

box.

scope.
into micro-

with box

return

See

by

proper

improvement, remove
with its prism. Clean

no

the

their

in

results
"

the

liftout

and
prism with its cell from the
note
position of prism in cell. Try
small alteration in positionof prism ;
box

it is not

perhaps

exactly

set

to

your

improved by any
fix
by dropping a
slightadjustment,
small quantityof gum
between
prism
definition.

best

its cell

and

face

maker

to

return

or

end

The

adjustment.
should

If

plane
right angles to

at

for

prism

of

axis

the

of the lens.

35. When
oil condenser
becomes

dried.

the
or

fixed

front
of

an

with

lens
oil

of

an

objective

oil that

has

35. No
should be

helped,
likely to

pincers or
if it

used

injury

as

liberallypainted

allowed
The

remain

to

union

line

cleaned

of the

quently
fre-

xylol

several
then

the

night.

will

line of union

with

for

again, leavingall

over

whole

nearly always

should

and

possibly

parts

if the

separate
be

be

can

is

The

occur.

instrument

other

and

hours.
be

fully
care-

painting done
at

rest, say, the

In

the

morning

the

parts

will usually separate

use

of the

fingersonly.

by
31

the

CONCERNING

As
of

an

of

resolution, it

details

be

can

readily

by photography,

understood

of

the

limit

of

allowance

fallingoff
with

first two

the

Plates, the

Isochromatic

"

"

In

the emulsion.

that

Seeing

of

limelight
of

Beard, concerning

oxygen

sensitiveness

extreme

negatives were

new

well

as

as

in

the

of

made
the

upon

would

illuminationwe

as

feel

procurable from
482

we

the

It

pure

the

as

ought

to

of

well-known

which

it is
been

posures
ex-

strongest

we

essential

was

have

the British

used

employment

by
especiallymade
the
performance of
be

is

needed,

are

entailed

should

and
intensity),
of that

illumination

highest praise.

the

used

(otherwise the

excellence

Edwards's

on

the

Chromatic,

This

jet,one

in bestowing
justified

reduced

the

duration

necessary.

was

firm

obtain

able
unavoid-

"Flashlight" of
being employed for Amphipleura

Rapid

sensible

some

powerful mixed

the

of

amount

and

taken

were

Plates,or

monochromatic

when

very

that

excellence

or

Imperial manufactures.

and

Barnet

and

author's

the

certain

not

reproduction.

of

account

ance
perform-

visuallyused,

inevitable

the third edition, the

Medium

Ilford

with

last

the

distinctlywarned

for

editions

Barnet
the

Imperial Company,
on
pellucidain dots

the

the

to

objectivesare

seems

of

method

negatives of

The

Hence

utmost.

perfection

made

respect, which

known

any

of

the

when

always be

must

this

in

limit

true

difficulty

reproduce its
perfection,taxes

perfection displayed by

photomicrographs as the
capable of being witnessed
due

be

its

to

respect

objectives should

various
the

regard

to

the

photomicrographer to
the plates with
criticising

when

of

approximate

to

even

defining power

that

skill of the

reader

as

PLATES

test-objectfor showing the separating and

account
on
objectiveis especially chosen

the

THE

feel
also

possible

to

considerably
mention

Oxygen

the

Company

positively, from

know

impurities
the

As

than

more

jet was
well

gas

hard

Nottingham

their

fallingto pieces

On

pellucida,a
The

oxygen

of

often

found

The

of

almost

being

made

were

of

paper

daughter
With

his

indebtedness

supervision

Mr.

third

Walker
of

place
for the

great

the

out

Mr.

Alfred

Dent
of

167 being

to

his

as

author

for

care

his

blocks,

expressed
personal

and

all

that

so

has

ticulars
par-

accurately represented.

be

blocks

new

desirous

trouble

and

unceasing pains
which

(war),

difficulties

the

is very

perfection

shiny

himself,

editions

author

of

issue

the

on

second

reproduce

daughters

work.

war

unforeseen

to

second

third

the

author

The

ideals

the

sometimes

the

originals should

asked

of

of

Dent.

same

some

Imperial Company

the

the

first and

the

issue, owing

was

with

reproductions, the

manufacture

in the

the

this

to

Mr.

the

in

shown
In

and

by

actual

the

to

"

XV.

2, Plate

first and

one

photographs

Company

Preface

in the

already

of

P.O.P.

material

same

to

respect

employed

page

the

by

pre-occupied by honorary

was

Amphipleura

Fig.

on

for

negatives

new

Criterion

the

of

all taken

were

described

arc

the

or

The

the

on

possible

as

was

and

XIII.,

entirely executed

employed.

much

exposure.

Zeiss

by

edition

the

author, "Nikko"

the

an

best

the

photographing

lamp

little

as

of

hour

an

employ

to

prevent

cent.

useful.
off

from

to

Plate

6,

in this third

extremely

was

the

as

electric

light,the

printing

editions

such

and

contains

feet

ten

necessary

cracking during

or

Figs. 5

electric

was

procurable

limes

photographs

form

it

"

3""ampere

with

notably

as

occasions,

certain

using about

to

reason

of 5 per

vanishing point

"

coal

as

almost

powerful

so

have

we

frequent testings, never

very

the

483

which

Co.), Westminster,

"

Brin

(formerly

PLATES

THE

CONCERNING

he

thank

to

taken

has

to

aimed

were

the

in

him
carry

by

at

his

predecessor.
his

indebtedness
for

executive
the

"

Plates
;

incurred
well

the

addition

In

as

as

to

the
so

well
in

the

as

as

to

trouble

and

care

"

Hazell,

Messrs.

to

obtain

Mr.

John
This

they

Murray
remark

this

matter.

two

previous editions

"

Watson

much

as

of

desirous

is further

author

of

for

and

Viney

have
from

acknowledging

taken

blocks

the

sparing

applies
MICROSCOPY.

in

to

no

the

their

printing
as

sible
pos-

expense

third

as

APPENDIX
THE

RELATIONS

The

BETWEEN

Image

terms

Point, Equivalent
Cardinal

and
WITHIN

certain

point on

their

limits

lenses

opticalaxis

explained

lens systems

or

Length, Principal

Focal

Planes

IMAGE

AND

OBJECT

; the purpose

of

produce images

can

is to show

this note

at

any

how

the

erect
or
inverted) of this image and
position (i.e.whether
be most
the corresponding positionof the object may
easilyascertained.

and

size

In

doing various

so

into

come

The

the

limits

which

in

used, i.e. within

lens

which

derived

is

from

of lenses

the

if

And

ray.

we

image point

must

fixed
definitely

now

Any

two

to

way

from

rays

image

second

this

side

and

that
the

select

to

pass

through

any

lie somewhere

this

on

its

positionis

of the

it is found

rays

already

we

ray ; hence

second

of

out

by
these

objectpoint in

selected

two

far

entering

parallelrays
two

system,

one

then
first,

point of intersection
of

trace

can

the

the

course

we

the

differingfrom

lie

on

if

lens

it must

ray,

of

conjugate, point

or

also

the

parallelrays, which
the

at

the

might be chosen, but

determine

either

for

trace

can

fully
success-

gives sufficiently
sharp images, all rays
with sufficient
any point in the object are

object point through

geometrical locus

be

can

that

it

necessarily follows

it

the

from

single ray
have

this

From

consideration

the

system

or

entering the lens system from

in the
precision reunited
corresponding,
object.

explained as they

are

use.

underlying principle

within

in this book

employed

terms

the

lens system

the

bundles

two

order

rays.

simplest

to

of

determine

positionof the image point.

In

Fig.24 11 let the

system

of

space

whatever.

lenses

enclosed

between

it be

Let

known

and near
parallelto the opticalaxis
emerging from the lens proceeds in the

ray

incident
evident
contains

to

"

and
that

the
if

refracted
very

Qlf it would

thin

until

ray
lens

refract

the

were

ray

484

LL

such

"

direction

they

so

FI

intersect

placed
i

experiment

from
it

as

in
to

lens

represent any

as

Qi

the

then

same

i, when

plane 1'iPi

have

that

Produce

i.

"

at

the

the ray

or

the
it is
which
final

APPENDIX

position and direction

had
its principalfocus
acts

thin

lens

of

position PiPi
The
Principal

the

equivalentlens

The

lens

of the

for let

Fj.

placed
of

the

provided

Hence

is described

The

assumed

thin lens

the

that

say

lens

exactlyin the
its

having

Plane,
as

the

may

equivalent thin

that

once

lens

is known

and

system

same

way

principalfocus

the

by

focal

Equivalent

have

we

object of certain size,such

an

that

left side

and

PiPi

at

we

the

from

Cardinal

or

at

seen

figure,be

the

given, and

; then
must

at

i,

"

FI

at

the

name

length C^

Focal

of

Length

system.

It will be

the

F!

parallellightincident

on

would

as

as

485

the

as

be somewhere

point of
on

the

the

as

its

the

ray

at

the

the

on

QiFi

ray

problem

to

Ql5

"

be

mined
deter-

its

image

its continuation.

or

for the

suitable distance

image

from

the

left of

extreme

image be required

geometrical locus

arrow

in the

arrow

lies

arrow

refracted

stated above, this ray is the

point. By placing the

size of

already solved half

As

of the

arrow

lens

system

A'

Fig. 241.

"The

between

Relations

Object

and

Image.

image at practically
any point. Supposing
at
once
we
thus produce a sharp image at A1B1, then
for example we
this
in
the
of
for determining the size
position:
the means
have
image
has
and
been
CiFi
already
CiQi is obviouslyequal to the object arrow,
it is

possibleto produce

determined

the

as

trianglesQiCiFi
or

its

equivalent focal

and

B1A1Fi

are

length

of

similar ; hence

the

lens

we

system.

have

the

The

equation

proportion
"

or,

in words

transposed,

focalplane
This

is of

The
to

Magnification

magnificationis found by dividing the distance from the

the image by the equivalentfocal length of the lens system.

course

the rule which

has

been

made

use

of

in

the

text

of

APPENDIX

486
this book

for the

and

To
process

the

parallelray passing from

of the

In

arrow.

P2P2 and

Plane

the

locus

is the

only produce
and

the

point

that
lens

the

that

if

are

they

Putting

Focal

F2
We

Length C2F2.

in

study a

next

found,

are

with

again reason
; hence

sponding
corre-

that the ray

the latter

where

AB,

at

the

can

rays

if

they are
in

formed

the

divided

both

different

way,
from

by

the

media,
the

upper

and

the

the
same

lower)of
medium

any

(air),

two

be said to be

focal plane of the

equal to the optical

objectiveto the sharp

equivalent focal length of the combination

the latter quantity is the denominator,

tance
impor-

equivalentfocal
indices of the media.
refractive

magnificationmay
the

less

however,
investigationshows

in the

formed

proportion as

same

upper

is of

It is necessary,

difficult theoretical

somewhat

equal
are

problem

part of the

automaticallyby focussing.
a

this another

primary image)
as

this

purpose

tube-length (the distance

Hence,

Principal Focus

equivalentfocal lengths (the

two

lengths are
1

second

point of the objectarrow

sharp image at A1B1 if placed

present

out

system

whilst

before

as

repeat the

to

point B1 of the image

Principalor Cardinal

the

for the

it is settled

to

through

Focal

intersect.

For

way

second

left

rightto

same

Equivalent

determiningthe Equivalent
Plane
(page 125 et se?.).1

positionof the Focal

complete the subject,however, it is only necessary
already employed in the oppositedirection" i.e. to

Length

Q2F2

of

opposite purpose

in

use.

the larger it is,the less the magnification

given tube-length. It is evident, therefore,the magnificationchanges

shown
in inverse
as
in
proportionwith the equivalentfocal length of the objective,
the following two figures,
241- and 241*.
on

"

Same

any

size of object

Fig. 24i3

APPENDIX

488

Seeing

is

that

quantity

constant

then,

the

becomes

rule

very

by

multiply

and

by

finally

be

imperative
using
with

(as
if

blood-count)

the

the

How

if

ascertain

to

of
of

be

that

is

when

dealing

demands

wise
other-

re-determination

required.

are

Working-Distance

the

it

as

when

case

specimen

results

accurate

the

in

recollected

and

draw-tube,

the

be

used

and

objective

the

should

be

the

itself,

employed,

shall

cover-glass

made

It

would

micrometer

by

by

draw-tube

same

the

multiplied

displayed

of

likely

most

with

field
be

ocular.

length
the

the

to

area

adjustment

be

must

area

the

the

ordinary

then

particular

occasions

future

objective

dry

than
of

of

of

has

the

the

taken

on

with

used

note

result

furnishes

which

when

diameter

apparent
This

*oi.

785,

question
that

the

Ascertain

simple.

of

given

Objective

and

polished

highly

and

strip

Raise

the

objective

the

cover-glass

Zeiss

their

other

with

follow

combined

objective

or

'17

required.

care

pieces

to

of

gauge

thickness

slip

as

or

will

in

many,

strips

the

front

between

(not

place

the

scratch

Ciceri

Smith

represent

Cut

between

one

the
in

lens

fact,

strip

the

other

few

the

question
or

between

placed

thickness.

mm.

paper,

cover-glass
and

'18

and

not

object

well-defined

note-paper,

taking

cover-glass,

upon

of

cover-glass

the

objective

the

Focus

strips

objective

in

so

and

Then

objective).

the

the

jaws

micrometer,

working-distance

the

between

pass

between

of

and

doing.

will

as

slip

of

when
of

the

ADDENDA
Binocular

New

Arrangements

spoken about the binocular microscope in Chapter XL, page

of the advantage especiallyheld
by some
microscopists of
253, and
simple binocular
seeing the object simultaneously with both eyes
have
the effect produced by certain
mentioned
In addition, we
vision.
which
of
give to the image a curious sense
arrangements
"
and, further still,
stereoscopiceffect,"
depth, called the
yet
which
sensation
the
is
another
depth-effect
arrangement, by
have

WE

"

reversed,
are

now

image appearing quite differently for reliefs

in a somewhat
remarkable
expressed as hollows
called
pseudoscopic vision," the subject being
the

"

"

"

manner,

again referred to in footnote

259.
3, on
page
p.
in
interest
taken
later
the
in this
to
Owing
great
years
\venham''s
attention
has
of viewing objects,much
Prism,
stereoscopicmethod
in
been
the
to
a
subject by opticians
general, great
given
the
made
exhibition of an excellent
by
impulse being
devised
manufacturer
by a continental
arrangement
some

years
and

for low
To
has

high

the

war,

which

be

could

and

yet

amplify what

to

is necessary

so

shall be

that

we
thoroughly understood),
hitherto
binocular
microscopes

into

employed

powers.

recapitulatesomewhat,
already been said (which

follows
out

before

three

each

having
groups,
practicaldifferences.1
Type i is that already described, and
invented
In
by the illustrious Wenham.

that what

point

must

be

may

their

ranged
ar-

mental
instru-

and

Fig. 243.
Powell

"

Lealand's

repeated, although
in

The

substance

of

figures)is taken, by

interestingbrochure
entirety.

Fig. 149,
what

the
upon

page

in

255.

here

different
It is here

form,
seen

which

was

Fig. 242

what
that

is

is shown
the

full

immediately follows
(including the explanatory
Beck, from his
permission of the writer, Mr. Conrad
the subject,which
the student is invited to read
in its

kind

489

ADDENDA

490
beam

of

light emerging

going to one eye, and the

a
necessityat that time.

from

the

other

half

As

half
object glass is bisected,one
the
other
this
to
being thought
eye,

never

can

the

of

in this ment
arrangebe equal to that

fact,vision

of

matter

because

monocular,
the

size

light which

of

beam

the

forms

ducing
re-

of

the

image,
the resolving
necessarilyreduces
of the objective. The
rangement
arpower
is also

cause
fault,be-

at

be
high powers can never
employed, as the prism cannot
be placed near
enough to the
back

lens

properly bisect

to

Further,

rays.

be

cannot

the

instrument

constructed

for

tube-length. Type

short

the
is

improvement, because

the

issuing from

is not

the

and

the

from

each

lens

that

sected,
biwas

light
object-

some

portion of

an

beam

arrangement

constructed

so

the

the

utilised by each
glass was
eye.
The
believe
invented
we
prism,
"
Lealand, is shown
by Powell

Fig. 243.

in

the

whole

'back

it is

Here
of

the

rays

greater
thick

part

Eyepiece.

H.

H.

I"raw-tube.

C.

Revolving

I.
K.

flange

for

raking draw-tubes.
D.

Body.

E.

Course

L.
M.

focussingad-

with

Object glass.
Stage.
Substage condenser.
Iris diaphr.
focussing
Substage
adjustment.

but
reflected
of the

justment.
box knob.
F. Prism

N.

Mirror.

shown

'

G.

P.

1'illar.
Base.

same

Sliding prism box.

"

of
that

the

to

beam

which

tube

the

drawback

that

equal

"

the

must

main

of

forms
be

monocular

the

the

long

"

defect

image
which
is

that

the

glass

"

certain

into

the

see

figure.
in

quant/

in the

prism
type

reduced.

is considered
the

by

tube
manner

in

the

quickly

the

-instrument,because
is not

tinuous
con-

second

It will be

this

the

tion
direc-

almost

the

the

tion;
originaldirec-

instrument,

noticed
is

and

in
glass emerging

Beck's Binocular.

A.

the

through

pass

parallel,and
Fig. 244A."

from

lens

impinge on
plate (i, Fig. 243),

that

seen

tion
resolutli

Putting
great

many

li^ht reflected

is

so

ex-

ADDENDA

ceedinglyfeeble,there being a

491

difference

about

of

six to

one

between

the eyes.

Type

is that

Binocular,after

brought

its inventor.

Fig. 24415.
,-cy.

x'y'.
x"
z

y"
z'.

about

"

Path

by

Zeiss

and

called

It is illustrated and

of Rays in Beck's

the

Greenough

explainedon

page

Binocular.

Object.
by object glass.
Image formed
Virtual image formed
by eyepiece.
Ramsden
discs" conjugate images of back equivalent plane
object glass.

ot

only objection to this form is that, whilst perfect for low

be employed
provided they are carefullymatched, it cannot
powers,
with those of short focal length in any form
or
shape.
In the Beck
in Fig. 244A
and 2446, we
see
an
rangement
arBinocular, shown
is a
Above
the object-glass
of quite a novel
construction.
257.

The

ADDENDA

492

prism shaped
the

in

shown

as

through
with a semi-transparentlayerof
this

to

into
Thus

to

Part

second,

no

each

direct effect is that

at

F,

and

goes

has,

eye

each

light passes

which

is coated

lightpasses

to

resolution

through
reflected

part is

the

dotted

form

each

lines.

image,
from

occurs

image

manufacture

according

to

the

to

its

too, in consequence
of resolution.

carefullyattended

is

The

equally bright,

in the

process

amount

of

of

silver

additional

The

length of the path of

the other is regulatedby the introduction
ray over
of a piece of plate glasswhich
is placed
focal length of the beam
as
explained in Fig.

one

the

increases

of

A,

in

for this is

deposited.
Prism,

the

it the maximum

to

shown

as

lack

of the

the other

full-size beam

hence

presented

Beck's

of

tube, whilst

bisection,and

Fig. 245."

whole

surface

silver.

the

and

one

the

The

245.

glass B

of the

surface

Fig.

ordinarilyfocussing at A, is shown
prolonged by
of
be
If
of
this means
this
made
to B.
glass
piece
exactlythe required
obtained
in
thickness, equal focus and equality of magnification are
the

246,

where

each

eyepiece.

ray,

interocular

The

distance

by turning

is varied

the

milled

ring C in
adjustments being

in or
both tubes to move
out,
Fig. 244A ; it causes
standard
The
is 160 mm.
capable from 2\ to 2| inches.
tube-length
The
stereoscopic and pseudoscopic effects are
ment
brought about by simply looking into the instruclosely,or by removing the head a very short
A
distance
no
quired.
limiting diaphragms being reaway,
1-iij;.
246.
The
peculiarease of obtainingthis change
Glass increasing
of
effect is brought about by one
tube being so
Length of Kays.
"

"

much

inclined, whilst the

Pushing

the

prisms

becomes
The

path

The
In

The

this

new

away

other

is

by using

quite straight.
knob
F (see Fig. 244A),the

the

first-class monocular

of the rays

is shown

in

Watson-Conrady
binocular
the

attachment

of short

strument
in-

tube-length.

Fig. 2446.

Binocular
a

novel

Attachment

departure has

been

made.

to that
to be similar
optical system appears
dividing the lightcoming from the ol";
employed by Abbe
lateral
the
(see page 258),
prism being provided with a glass extension.
of
is adopted to allow
Beyond this the following ingenious method
the
adjustment for width of eyes without any alteration of tube-length,
of the older type.
instruments
plan usuallyadopted in most

arrangement

of

for

ADDENDA

493

carrying the lateral eyepiece are

mounted
hinged bearings set in such a positionthat the
positionwith
beam
light always occupiesthe same
of doubly reflected
C in
By turning the screw
referenceto the axis of the lateral tube.
Fig. 247, the binocular tube is gently altered in its angular position
prism
together on

and

the

width

of

eyes

lateral

The

user's

until the

tube

If, then, it be

is suited.

necessary

to

change the tube-length,the interocular

distance
The

be

can

of the size of

the

easilyreset.

once

be used

cannot

arrangement

all patterns of

On

at

microscopes
the prism.

account

on

length
Wave-

Short

of

use

with

Screens

on

ful
Power-

Illuminants
be

To

able

to

the
long been
scopist(seepage

gained

in

use

blue

desire

of

169).

The

micro-

the

advantage

is very

resolution

has

screen

great,

as

alreadyexplained. Experimentally this

is illustrated by two
reproductions in
Plate

where

XIX.,

Fig.

shows

Amdiatom

phipleurapellucidaand

another

photographed with

light,and Fig.
as
they appear

where

they

blue

with

are

red
seen

illumination.

Amphipleura, which

lines

The

specimen

this

in

are

about

not

representedat all in the first

but

are

YT^Q^O

"f

mcn

an

visible
distinctly

in

aParr"

in the

are

figure,

second.

Fig. 247.

Unfortunately,however, immediately
the

student

attempts
he

by
easy
does

to

make

finds himself

the

"Bicor"

periment,
ex-

confronted

Attachment.

Binocular

A.

Screw

to

attach

B.
C.

Screw

to

receive

Screw

to

adjust

monocular

to

body.

objectives.
for width

of eyes.

not
great physiologicaldifficulty
to
not

sensitive

overcome.

This

appreciate every
to

all the

diagram, Fig. 248,

different
shows

consists
colour

in

the

alike, the

wave-lengths
this

fact

of

that

retina
the

the

not

human

eye

being equally

spectrum.

simple

served
it is readily obplainly. Here
that the greatest appreciation lies approximately in the yellowin
(often called the apple-green),which, it might be mentioned
green
this colour
is selected
for the correction
of all
passing,is the reason
visual objectives,
of the
as
previouslyexplained. Following the course
very

ADDENDA

494
it will be

curve,

"seeing"

further

the

that, as

seen

colour

approaches blue, the

the eye

of

that
experiences a great drop, so much
so
about G in the blue it becomes
exceedingly limited,and all appears to
black and dark, especially
farther into the
as
we
us
as
get farther and
About
violet at H.
47o/A/n wave-length (4700 in tenth-metres)is the
power

that

limit, so

usual

been

has

be

microscopistswho
unable

do

to

in

the dots

we

cannot
a

with the

employed

ordinaryoil lamp used

the electric light or even

obtain

cannot

wave-length is of any
the image in it.
see
blue screen
(even if passing some

this at present, at least not

with

use

the
first,

The

of shorter

find

to

but

Amphipleura,

suitable for

are

screen

desire

our

could

green)that
are

blue

visually,because

service
It

no

of

A'B

two

suitablyshow
blue films that

It transmits,when
of

48 film

used

the

alone,

red

end

the spectrum

HH

(besidessome

which

green

does

materiallyinterfere
and
action),
The

"

Sensitiveness

Different
A
C

C.

to

Deep
Pale

E.
G.

Yellow
Green

to

F.

Deep

green

HH.

red

not

Blue

to

deep

the

be

image

spectrum

to

(so far

and

as

seen

be

as

the

38

such

as

blue

best

with

38.

of

two

48 and

this

the

required,and
appearance

it suppresses.

formed
compound screen
38 produces a pure monochromatic

it passes

great deal

4700
the

film called

on
"

transmission

page

is much

as

by
the

wave-length (Ang. units),so

moment,

for

no

obtainable, except by employing

"

but

of green,

of
It

this

procurableat
is

are

end, which

red

the

save

that described

its maximum

in the ocular

film, number

scarcelyaffects

screen

lies at about

know)

we

visual

to be combined

Sometimes

thought, however, that

it appears

green,

spoils the

its

this

remove

it

another

green.

with

violet.

The

transmission

second

to

blue.

to

deep

maximum

has

to

not

green.

jointaction of numbers
blue or blue-violet,
because

arrangement

for

yellow.

apple-green

the

blue

"

number

part of

must

to

red.

to

orange

third at times.

Eye

"

D.

any

pale

to

even

of the

Colours.

red

,
,

of

4"ouu

U./J

248.
.frig.

We

gas.

the two, is called number

by Kodak, Ltd.

sold

some

580

will

many

powerful illuminants.

transparent

more

in the list of those

are

we

that

one

able to suggest

by

reallypure
a

prismatic

170.

denser, but

lies at about

4000

it passes

less

wave-length.

study of Fig. 248, to utilise these blue sc:

it is necessary
to
employ very powerful illuminants,such as tinarc
lamp, or an ordinary mixed
oxy-hydrogen gas jet.
Taking the Argus lamp (about 700 candle-power) first,
Fig. 108, page
167, it is used in the following manner:
Having placed the la:
that the illuminated
of the transverse
area
or
positivecarbon (called
It is

obvious,

from

"

ADDENDA

496
by this method,

mination

visual results,that the

which

with

perfectionof
about

revolving the

left undisturbed.

being

the

think

We

the

final

be

sought by
instrument, or by very

mirror, the

to

substage diaphragm

this unconventional

oblique lightyields a brighterimage

excellent

yields

image is

axis of the

the

specimen
slightlyalteringthe position of

practice also

than

of

taining
ob-

secured

by

the

it must

be

means

that

ordinary method.
save
limelightrequires no special mention
the
and
mixed
powerful form, namely,
jet,

The

its most
be

of the very

best

quality.

are

is

aware

condenser

will also

the little arc

with

be

lamp
distinctlyarranged

of the

the

limes

type

lamp

no

in

shall

that

as

used

which

of

microscopic work.

usually be employed.
Pointolite
lamp of 100
candle-power

screens

that

same

required,for
for

that

we

The

same

can

The

employed with
form
sold by the

the

be

though

seen,

500

candle

the

Argus

the

addition

48 and

Kodak

somewhat

called

number

imperfectly,the

condenser

is

use

to

cemented

which

have

we

Amphipleura. The
is certainlya competitor with
requires(as well as the 100)

make
lamp of the same
lamp justdescribed,but it

of

to

38aM, with
in

dots

power
arc

powerful enough

the best

38 films,and

firm

is not

similar to that fitted

the

to

Argus

ment.
arrange-

The

brilliant as the arc, being

so
500 candle-power lamp is not
candles less in illuminatingpower, hence it can
only just be used

many
with

the

48 and

38 films.
How

of

Depth

Focus

by
Denser

page

how
is
IM

the

cone

rays

to

F'.

difficult

by

is effected.

turned

Fig.

meeting

and
of

the

the

called

G.

let the

circle CC

From

ray

this

to

change

diagram

be

shown

as

been

readers
such

let the

at

has

It

upside down,

249,

is shown

meeting

some

Let

the

Specimens

how

quite understand

of

use

Fig. 838,

of

creased
in-

in

of

99,

produced

found

the

Media

Mounting
On

is

in

point

of

the

with

be

as

centre

the

Fig. 249.

"

creased
in

How

Depth

by the

use

of Focus
of I "en"cr

Mounting Specimens.

normal

NN

be

described,

be

drawn

Media

angles to MM.
passing from

Seeing
a

rare

into

right

at

'.

that
a

and

denser

ADDENDA
is

always turned towards

passing straightalong as shown
F'. The
same
thing happens

medium
of
to

the

to F'

elevation

as

The

497
the normal,

by
on

shown

Index

the
the

the

so

dotted

line
side

other

in

Fig. 836.

of

Visibility

to

instead

OG,

ray

F, is deflected

of the

cone,

ducing
pro-

depth of focus, it has been pointed out

before that, in the mounting of diatoms, the greater the difference
the refractive index of the mounting medium
between
and
that of the
silicious frustule,the better the resolution,
and consequentlythe greater
afforded
for the discoveryof details.
It may
be said,in fact,
facility
is visible according to the
that any
object inserted in a medium
the refractive indices of the medium
between
of difference
amount
and
of that object.
Besides

the

increase

in

silica of diatoms

The

is 1*33.

water

believe

The

has

between

difference

firstchristened

was

refractive

by

the

index

of

these

late Dr. Van

1*43, whilst

two

is

Heurck

10,
as

that of

which

the

"

we

Index

of refraction
balsam
index
has an
of 1-53,
Visibility."Canada
with
hence
its index
of visibility
Pure
its index of i'58,
is 10.
styrax,
of
index
reaches a higher
visibility
amounting to 15. Mono-bromide
of naphalene, the refractive
is i'66, has a visibility
index of which
of
iodide
with
of
its
but
of
refractive
index
the
still
methyl,
174,
23,
level
substance
of
If
this
be quite
should
higher
oily
(which
31.
be saturated with
colourless)
sulphur, its index of refraction is still
further
raised to 1*78, and
the visibility
so
figureis increased to 35.
all these "visibility
But
indices"
that of
are
put in the shade when
artificial realgaris being dealt with, for its refractive
index
reaching to
for
index
fluid
is arrived
known
medium
2 '55, the
visibility
highest
any
of

at, namely, that of

1*12.

Annular

Light

of
occluding the centre of the cone
condenser, either by the use of a Traviss's expanding
rays
in
stop (page 174),or by a suitablysized diaphragm made
wheel
form
for darkground illumination,
as
was
formerly often spoken
certain
in place of oblique
circumstances
of as
being useful under
light. It has fallen out of use, as most
microscopistshave found the
have ourselves
that the results so
been led to believe,viz.,
same
as we

light,which
coming from the

Annular

obtained
has

are

so

never

given his attention

deficiencyin

effects

in his

own

consists

in

fine

represented.

to

is

the

as

matter, and

reasonably

words.

"

The

to

be

Mr.,

explainsthe
expected.

diffraction

Prof.

now

Conrady,

why such
give his explanation
spectra produced by
reason

We

32

ADDENDA

498
form
regularstructures
that
of the objective,

is to

say, however

we

oblique-light
arrangement),the

of the

(by use

when

perfectlyfixed pattern

back

the

at

seen

place the direct ray

travel
diffraction-spectra

may

exactlysimilar amount, and rigorouslykeep their distances from the

From
this it follows that to annular
direct lightand from each other.
diffraction
direct light there corresponds a set of annular
spectra, of
which, however, only a

an

certain part

Ring of Direct Light

back

the

at

of

jective,if,as
annular

be

can

seen

the

ob-

usual,

light

the

fills the

of
the
marginal zone
objective. In Fig. 250,

under

these
the

only

conditions,

portion of

the

diffractedrings falling
Riners
.Diffracted

Fig. 250."

of

-AT
within

Light

*i
the

be

would
"

Light explained.

Annular

"

j-

direct

ray

visible.

larly
Further, only simi-

placed portions(or
portions which
various
rings
admitted
"

are

useless

of

be

never

and

produce
of

purposes

now

so

to

two

these

expected

the

remarks

to

be

image,

and

rings)of
other

the

parts

resolution.

effective

Annual

"Illustrated

as

Fig. 251.

showing through

several

it is pretty evident

so

difficult to obtain, and

Rheinberg'sdiscs

an

the

only possibleif similarlyplaced portionsof direct

diffracted rings are
by the
simultaneously admitted

Rheinberg's
Owing

of

is

objective." From
can

for

azimuth

same

interfere

can

Dot-resolution

light and

the

in

are

"

for their

"

use

as

that

annular

light

oblique illumination.

Screens
of
have

Microscopy
been

1899" being
Mr.

growing in popularity v.
diagrams i, 2, 3, 4, in Fig. 251,

the

we

asked

for

for details of

Rheinberg'sScreens.
seems

his courtesy, in

"

ADDENDA

499

leading forms, although any design of figure furnishes interesting

results.
This and No. 3 are
No. 4 requiresmounting on a glassdisc.
useful to show
illuminated
will

and

and

green

Using

vertical

and

peculiaralterations

letters

used,

horizontal

with different colours.

effect

The

the

red

red

suitingsome

Nicol's

Certain

silk handkerchief
the

of

changes, too,

with
colours, particularly

of the

denote

of

strands

blue, but other

and

mirror

No.

colours

4.

be

can

specimens extremely well.

Prism

Ocular

the

over

the

improve

to

Definition
For
that

little time

some

certain

on

Whether

occasions

diatoms

of

definition

it

of

occurred, became

laconicallyremarks

it

where

when

fact,that

this, and

"a

as

resolving striae

or

microscopists

different

an

was

to

improvement in the
placed over the ocular.

what

extent,

and

under

subjectof inquiry,and

the

experiments. We
"Carpenter" (page 381

in

statement

prism

several

objectof making

by

noticed

Nicol's

corroborate

circumstances

what

stated

they have

when

could

we

been

it has

not

were

of

the

time

eighth edition, 1901),

and

curious

at the

aware

the

hitherto

unexplained
the effect is
with oblique light,

lines

the eyepiece."
strengthened by placing a Nicol's prism over
of a discovery,
be regarded in the nature
the subject cannot
Hence
although,up to the present, nothing so far as we know in the nature of
explanationhas been offered.
an
after the
of the experiments it came
commencement
Quite soon
in the nature
of a surpriseto find that any
in
betterment
somewhat

much

definition
lines in

limited

was

specimen,

noticeable

was

it

Further,
that

such

that

dots

no

increase

evident,
with

the

with

which

in

of

in

the

closelyapproximated
distinctness

is not
not

was

of vision

easy

to

understand,

quantity;

constant

in

stances,
inspecimens, for in some
Amphipleura pellucida,nothing of

all types

lines

up

examination.1

under

were

common
as

sharpening

improvement

limited

not

was

and

became

soon

this

even

fact,it

when

the

to

of

place,while in other instances, such as with

striaein Nitzschia singalensis,
a distinct and
pronounced sharpening
Moreover, it was
was
plainlyevident.
quickly recognised that in

the

appeared

sort

the
up

case

any

be

to

of

take

improvement,

revolved

merely

course,

to

to witness

its axis

upon

verified

the

to

fact

the

maximum

find the
that

the

"

best
rays

effect,the

nicol

had

position ; but this,of

being dealt with were
"

polarisedbeams.
Further, the experiments seemed
1

by

This
Dr.

has
peculiarity

Burton-Brown,

been

who

to
distinctly

show

that

the

most

previouslynoticed, we find,by other observers, notably

little attention to the subject.
has paid some

ADDENDA

500
effects occurred

marked

with

sixth,and

seemed

well

use

the

most

part

With

obtain, for

to

of this

the

with

that

of
brilliancy

in

as

using highly apertured objectiveslike

but littleif any improvement was
noticeable
quite low powers, such as an inch, the reverse

twelfth ; that

immersion

an

when

there

respect

in

definition

types of valves, and

of

highly apertured

very

consideration

of

the

Journal of the Royal MicroscopicalSocietyfor the

552, by Prof. Conrady, states that "diffracted light at

page

from

angle
out

as

too, that the

the

lightis polarised,"it being

direct

remarkable

as

the

of

confirmation

subject does

lend

diffraction

the

itself to

case,

the

in

as

then, resultingfrom

to certain
use

theoretical

the

to

the

to

both

Improvement

limited

restricted

fallingoff

image.

the

prism, seemed
was

was

for

binations.
com-

paper

year

1905,

able
consider-

further

pointed

It appears,

theory.
theoretical

tion,
investigacomplete explanationof polarised diffracted light calls for
not

exact

of

mathematics

high order,

diffracted

and

beam

be

that

applied
as

the

to

which

is

it seems,

for certain.

however,

be

especially
diatoms

really known,

knowable

even

would
"

of

case

nothing

lems,
probknowledge of

structure

required, of
the

it cannot

concrete

exact

an

minute

in

then

even

of

"

or

But

interest

show

roughly how the effect

questionarises,and this may
and
ether-vibrations,
remembering
to

Fig. 2S2.-Luier-Waves.

in

best

be
that

SS

by sketching

done
those

only
in Fig.

252

shown

which

by

slit,and

the

produce

transverse

are

be

to

the

vibrations

the
If

light effect. Suppose

in the plane of the

off
light went
of the arrows,
there would
in the direction
be only longitudinalvibrations
which
do not produce a lighteffect.
Light then, polarised in the
plane of the paper, would produce no diffracted light in the direction
shown, but light polarised at right angles to the plane of the paper
as

paper

would.
the

result

The

diffracted

then

and

only

contrast

so

Based

Conrady
direct

the

on
"

and

when

is that

beams

analyserin

an

arrow.

direct

the

direction

light
"

diffracted

diffraction takes

weakened

are

the

now

which

compared
which
is

place

at

the

to

the

transmits

unpolariscd
"

will

great

direct.

By

diffracted

be

plying
ap-

li.uht,

weakened,

will be

this

improved.
simple theory
"

the effect should

diffracted

beams

be

at

is

which

has

its maximum

90".

With

been
when

balsam

suggested by
the angle be
and

Prof.

monobromide

ADDENDA

for

be the

this would

mounts

twelfth

and

"

case

that

501

in other

"

is confirmed

suitable
words, with test-objects

by

With

experiments.

our

the angle between

the direct and
the first
objectives,
beam
is,however, too small to produce a sensible effect,which
with the results experimentallyascertained.
in accordance
of nicol which
The
form
that
gives the best results is one
of a Prazmowski's
ended, reminding one
prism, having about
power

aperture, with

axis,and
curtailed,and
been

use

be

little

to

at
too

than
of

"

alters the

position
the

obtain

mm.

broad

slit.

It

in

all

or

nearly

round

spar

diaphragm which

is

have
if the

all instruments

obtain

to

has

"the

being used

oblique illumination,and all the arrangements have to be

some
English stands this objection does not obtain,as

changed. In
the prism is in
the

apart from

the

positionof

is square

analyser,and we
this suggestion,for

in the iris

usual
as
fitting,
foreign manufacture, moving the

again is

an

endorse

cannot

diffracted

scopical
right angles to the microlong,the field is unpleasantly

more

polariserinstead

We

mounted

of

best

faces

if the spar

limited

often

it recommended.

prism be

to

short,for

suggested to

seen

bottom

top and

the

low-

sleeve

iris

which

its own,

of

Even

diaphragm.

then

be

can

think

we

separatelyrevolved
the plan objectionable,

into the object is charged with

light which
passes
any
imperfectionsresultingfrom an unsymmetrically cut prism,which, when
it is revolved, it is easy to understand
seriouslyaffect the definition
may
of an analyserplaced over
of a highly apertured objective. In the case
the

as

the

eyepiece,this
the

to

is not

The

extent.

same

and

Ainslie,who

is

of

productive

indeed

prism

similar

be

can

recommended

so

certainlynot

the objective,
placed directlyover
believe by Commander
we
this subject; but of course
it

attention
to
paid some
implies a specialarrangement, and it is better to have the nicol especially
for use
in this position. For convenience, simplicity,
cut
and
the ocular.
rapidityof application,we prefer placing the prism over
Wherever

placed, what

diatoms,
and

has

trouble,or

why

or

does

not

restricts the

increase

extend

Summary

of clearness
"

the

to

of the

merit

respect
the

to

followingmanner
In

an

colour

be

may

of

in definition to certain

is limited

to

the "lines"

immediately apparent.

not

Corrections

Colour

required

in

Objectives

corrections

distinguishingtitles of

Apochromatic, it
the

the

of vision

dots," is

Different
With

improvement

for

objectivesto
Achromatic, Semi-apochromatic, and

interest

to

required

enumerate

those

that

obtain

in

ordinary flint and crown

but for one
zone
only.

two
objective,

colours

are

united,

ADDENDA

502
In

the

In

the

the

In

united

flint and
F

and

in the

for two

zones.

two

colours

whilst

spectrum,

the

usually

selected

zone

lies

of full aperture.

apochromatic the

the

zones.

colours

objective,the

crown

semi-apochromatic the
united being the centre

zones

In

at

two-thirds

the

In
the

ordinary

for two

apochromatic, three

complete

are

at about

colours

two
semi-apochromatic,

colours

two

and

three

the

united

also at C

are

and

F,

outer.

colours

somewhat, being

vary

pendent
de-

whilst the zones

of unition
glassused and the fluorite,
the preceding,viz.,the central and
the same
the outer.
as
are
In all the above
viduality
especiallythe semi-apochromatic, the indicases,
of the artist in selectinghis wave-lengthsto be united
is always
in evidence, and
can, with experience,be easilyrecognised when
using
the Abbe
see
test-plate,
71, 367-8.
pages
the

on

by Different

Magnification

the

Concerning

lenses
ordinary achromatic
largerimage of the object than

the

length (justthe

focal

than

more

one

In this type of combination

may

almost

vary

greater between

4862

and

6563
part in

to

and

are

inch

of shorter

magnifies

of the

magnification
apochromatic it is not

an

(thatis,between

about

number

result

25,400

1-2

wave-lengths

cent., or, say,

per

additional
is

one

are

1,000
=

1,000

cypher
more

to

inch"

Vice

one

Versa

by

the term

to

the

inch."

divided

into

in the

tnus

25,400,000

in a
(/x/x)

tenth-metres,

Vice

versa,

the

nine-figured

same

followingmanner

millimetre
microns

micron

/*//. (double

254,000,000

place down

the

in

"tenth-metres."

(/t) y^VirP^t of a
(25-4x 1,000) 25,400

make

Waves

"

25*4 millimetres,

double

into

divided

obtained

are

inch

Tenth-metres

waves

result in

the

are

of

the

to

micron

there

be

"number

figures254,000,000

there

and

254,000,000

is the

hence

in

Inch

metre

difference
in

spectrum

Wave-lengths

figures in "waves
quantity furnishes

are

the rays

furnishes

eighty-three.

If the

But

spectrum

magnifier,an

extent, but

any

per

The

hand

than
approximately)

Converting

the

because

absolute

the

in the

of the

length).

focal

of two-inch

blue end

the red

in

as

same

in

Objectives

Microscopical
In

Colours

the sea!

is

in

;
an

therefore
(/x),

mils) in an
required,because
"

"

inch.

inch.
the

15'.. 268, 269.

there
The
tenth-

ADDENDA

504

is,they exhibit

pronouncedly flat
noticeable when
examining an object from the edge
field,particularly
the centre, for there seems
to
no
They
necessityto adjust the focus.
the
that
is at
also a very
distant
have
eye-point,so
conveniently
eye
quite a long distance

in

before.

system

one

One

such

the

from
We

have

able

to

front

lens.

been

not

the

examine

whole

series, but,

judging

from

that

have

mented
experi-

upon,

it really

we

for
a

be

to

appears

the

perfect

and

difficulty

discover

does

that

suit

not

chromatic

have

we

the greatest
to

an

apo-

as

with

1.

The

Incandescent

tube, containing
cigarette,protruding about
pencil will be found a convenient

incandescent

of

material
should

forward
be

presents
holding the

Cradle

serving

movement
to

in

the
in the

rotated

material
2.

Barnard

convex

Gas

material

surface

the flame.
slides easily in

tube, which
to
approximate

to

the

it,this sliding

incandescent

4.

of incandescent
material
be adjusted
to flame
can
Bunsen
flame
emitted
from
the slit,A, it is fed

adjustment

screw,

by

means

of which

the relative

screw,

NOTE."

powerful.

test-plate
being

employed.
called

"the

in

jet is a compound
by Messrs. H.

Society,has recentlyarranged
be all that

one

F.

and

Angus

is

one

Fig. 253.
descent
Incan-

Lamp
of

High

Power

Barnard,

more

"

Co.

President

of

the

Royal Microscopical
highly ingenious and powerful gas lamp

which

appears

in the

Journal of the Royal Microscopical

Society,Part IV., 1918.

to

are

mediar

Barnard's

Mr.
latest pattern the
It is manufactured

They

shown

K.

In the

Abbe

position

connection, B, and controlled

regulates the supply of gas, and
the supply of air.
Metal
chimney enclosingthe flame supported by the gallery,E,
I
it is clamped by the screws,
to which
Bull's-eye condenser
adjustable for focus by sliding in sleeve,
H, and for inclination by hinged joint with clamping screw,
the gallery of the lamp
to
cl:
J ; it is attached
by clamping

is

exceedingly fine, an

oculars," and

exactly.
through the
by the milled head, C, which
the lever,D, which
regulates

gas

immersion

an

material

the flame.

3.

5.

form

in use
i inch when
; a lead
plug with which to push the
tube.
When
first used, the tube
cradle, 2, until the incandescent

Fine

6.

in the

So, too,

twelfth,the image

Lamp.

rolled

low-

combinations

do.
certainly

"

as

ordinarysemi-apo-

power

Fig. 254.

it

well

chromatic; the

Metal

to

up

with

success,

an

usable

all powers
sixth

one

is desired.

full account

will

be

found
It is

ADDENDA

505

sufficiently
powerful to be used with the blue

not, however,

and

screens

high magnifications.

satisfaction,although

of

consists

which

house

is not

light,and the disc lasts a

high-power illuminant,and

the

and

which

those

commenced,

whilst

or

going

As

we

our

notice, most

were

which

of

the

justly merit
unable

of

attention

illustrate

to

It
wire

jet (ormore) of
it should
be, this

small
as

gives

in

made

steady and

very

It

cracking.
disc

lamp.

of

all

just before

the

few

which

brought before

were

by

made

Messrs.
have

we

in

this

hostilities

part unobtainable.

most

issue.

Swift

seen

microscopists,and

their

objectives,

introducingnew
either

for

been

have

apochromatic series,several

Their

what
some-

its final form.

long time without

however,

press,

it is still

is attached

good

as

done

they lasted,are
to

press

Objectives

and

computed

were

to

is called the Thorium

been

little has

war

far,to be giving much

that

and

very

New

Some

During

be

pressure

minated
illu-

small

very

so

playsone

highly luminous,

becomes

little disc

uniform

If the

gas.

relates to

as

material

(capableof being adjusted),upon

ordinary

going

far

so

incandescent

of

disc

seems,

of

moment

experimental stage

the

in

the

at

with

ingenious lamp

an

microscope, which

for the

area

Microscope

the

for

Lamp

invented

has

Traviss

Mr.

Gas

New

"

and

regret

we

Son.

tested,

being

performance
1*30
fine
lens
exceedingly
yieldingan irreproachable
of
in
fine colour
and
has
dots,
Amphipleura pellucida
a very
rection
corimage
after the styleof Zeiss, Leitz (theirlatest pattern),
and
Koristka,
to

immersion

that

than

rather
deserve

(25 and

that

has

which

that

with
are

pleased to

any

of

the

The
also

have

immersions

water

Messrs.

began

introduced

the

for

powers

examination

also
some

of

give great satisfaction,

supplying a

to

felt.

lower

to

make

Watson

"

their

Sons, before

the

apochromatic systems,

the

then

say

them.

We
that

it

glad

to

hear

soon

as

circumstances

elsewhere

war,

firm

same

appear

long

Reichert.

cellence.
privilegeof examining a sixth of very great exWe
compared the image
put it through several tests, and
afforded by combinations
by Zeiss, Leitz,and Reichert, and

had

we

been
of

commencement

and

and

mm.)

16

aquaticorganisms
want

Hartnack

of

geneous
homo-

an

great praise. The

very

low-power

is

The

impossibleto distinguishits performance

was

offer
a

the

firm

completion

in this book.

permit.
It has

from

hearty congratulations,and are

their series will be forthcoming as

our

of

Their

been

new

Versalic

designed

for

TVth is mentioned
hard laboratory
use,

ADDENDA

5o6
is said

and
that

be

to

during rough

fixingthe front lens

of its being pushed in
possibility

out

with

of the

old firm

The

"

from

Lustrar

is

of

grams

29

full aperture,

at

apochro-

any

microscopic
public, but at

F/6'3.

In

entire

short

focal

insects,etc.,

of.

for

with

diluted

of

the

photographing

Immersion

Oil

(Guibert),sometimes

oily Tacamaque

white,

Virginiana),and

by

its series

before

in

(Fagara oetandra), dissolved

Tacamahaca

perus

furnished

more

Original Formula

Abbe's

if indeed
difficult,

Their
photographic combinations.
combination, giving an exceptionally

already spoken

have

we

as

it is very

down

once

now

suitable for

be very

lengths it would
such

is

to
output
remarkable

very

irreproachableperformance.

one

closed

which

perfectdefinition

flat field with

have

we

length.

war,

the

of

illumination

green

Wray,

the

limits

present
"

of

during

lenses

focal

same

combinations, and

new

frds

to distinguishthe image
possible,

matic

few

remarkable

very

this,that

fine is

brought

has

just examined
So

of

treatment.

Baker

Charles

method

new

entirelythe

almost

prevents

with

provided

of

14 c.c.

of

c.c.

22

cedar

oil

castor

called
oil

(Juni-

(Rid tins

Com-

munis).

This

heads

milled

prevented
bar

is apparent

either

flat surface

cut

the

on

speed,
pitch of the

i, therefore

body

milled

one

*i

mm.

heads
of

the

the

to

micrometer

complete
The

parativelylong

range

calibrated

it is

accuratelyto

cut

groove

heads

the

controlling
the

of

mm.

3 mm.,

possibleby

the second

of the

end
the

of
i

and
its

place,and

lever
is

movement

is attached

is divided

or

lug is

to

bears

steel

lug
on

into

the

/*.

drum

This

all parts
means

to

conveyed, at a
the
body-slide.

and

the lever ratio is 5

of the milled heads raises or lo.

revolution

division

lug

of

micrometer
B ; this

round
the
along
H, H1, being turned, the

is "5 mm.,

screw

drum

bronze

The

coarse

action

it bears

which

E,

roller

through one
body of *ooi

that

which

illustration.

carries

rightor left. One

the lug, SQ that

the

to

milled

the

on

reduced
The

as
rotating,

from

Hence

C.

travels

the

from

and
is fitted horizontally,

Adjustment

it has

mechanism

screw

in

movement

Fine

parallelto those of
placed horizontally,
itself
most
proved
satisfactory.The

were

adjustment, and
the

"

Climax

Improved

"

first micrometer

the

was

Son's

"

Swift

James

to

turning the
ment
corresponds to a movehas
the
com
adjustment
parts, so

100

are

so

measure

approximately to

carefullymade

and

refractive indices
the

third

place

of

ADDENDA

working parts is reduced to a minimum,

and
all are
completely enclosed, it is practicallyimpossible for this
deranged.
Owing to the design explained
adjustment to become
show
no
sign of backlash or loss of time on suddenly
above, it can
decimals.

the

As

number

507

of its

its

reversing

while

action

focussing,even
after
constant

use

backlash,

this
we

of

years

say, is

may

herent
in-

generallyan

trouble
with

similarly

placed adjustments
which
have

medean
Archi-

an

worm

and

wheel

in

of

the

place
aforemen-

meter
micro-

tioned

screw.

the

with

As

ment,
adjust-

coarse

turning
the
heads

Fig. 255." "Improved

the

from

observer

opposite direction
ceases

to

act

no
practically

Details

should

always

lowers

the

always raises it. The

the objective touch

chance

of

concerning

body

Fine

Adjustment.

turning them in the

adjustment automatically

the

injuringthe specimen

the

and
The

Climax"

milled

approximate focal
long body microscope.

and

Power

length

of

glass,so there
damaging the lens.

cover
or

Focal

Huyghenian

Ordinary

is

pensating
of ComLength
Eyepieces

compensating eyepieces

for

the

ADDENDA

508
short

For

the

The

focal

body.

length of Huyghenian eyepieces.

Index

of

Refraction

of

Different

Substances

ADDENDA

509

Substance.

Mono-br.

Index

Naphthalene

of

Piperine

1*658

i'68i

.......

methylene di-iodide

in

Sulphur

of Refraction.

Phosphorus

Diamond

1778

.2*224
2*470

.......

Realgar (artificial)
few of

different
types of glass now

the

Messrs.

Boro-silicate
Zinc
Soft

manufactured by

Brothers1

Chance

1*5087

crown

crown

1*5149

.......

I'5I52

crown

Telescope

crown

Hard

crown

Extra

lightflint

Light

barium

crown

Light
Light

barium

flint

.1*5155

1*5290
.

Dense

flint
dense

I'55I5

crown

r6n8

(No. 361)

1-6214

flint

1*6469

......

Different

Maximum

Parts

Transmission
and

Tenth-metres,
Number

1*5744

....

crown

of the

Wave-lengths

to

of the

of

the

of Waves

7606

Spectrum,

Different

the

Inch

of the

(B),6870
Orange (C), 6563
Yellow
(D), 5893

same

(F),4861

For

This

of the
that

glass

details
has

46,182

made

combined

with

leading), corrected
use

of three

curves

of

....

reader

the

been

Imperial College

when

crown

the

further

(H

33,394

43,102

K),

and

the Inch.

38,702

.....

Apple-green, 5500
Violet

to

36,972

...

in

Approximate

Waves

Red

with

Screens

Corresponding

Tenth-metres.

Blue

1*5407

1*5632

barium

Red,

.1*5153

......

barium

Dense

Very

flint

Medium

the

2'549

3950

match

64,304

....

is referred
the

52,253

to

the

long list publishedby

calculated

the

Prof.

firm.

by
Conrady,
peculiaradvantage
flint type (No. 361), small
dense
cemented
objectives(with
for sphericaland
chromatic
aberration, are obtainable by
equal radii and a flat surface.

of

to

Science

and

constants,

Technology,

and

has

the

ADDENDA

510

for

accurate
figuresare sufficiently
light contains the whole range

These
White

of

experience gives its monochromatic

tenth-metres, equivalentto 47,500 waves
reference

With

light,No.

has

61, green,

equivalent to

metres,

has
Filter),

called

films

the

to

maximum

46,605
a

equivalent to 54,042
tenth-metres, equivalent to
about
No.

38

the

out

cuts

red

waves

allowing the

metres,

Some

the

to

of

remainder

the
of

to

5347

the

about

inch ; No.
the

small

about

to

for

to

waves

to

pass

the

(often
tenth-

4700

No.

arc

tenth-

at about

inch;

51,836

colours

Substances

about

5450
blue
48,

; No.
at

spectrum

the

scopical
micro-

at about

inch

to

waves

55,217

Specially Good

the

but

the inch.

transmission

waves

end

to

conjunction with

to

tenth-metres, equivalent

4900

spectrum;

transmission

maximum

metres,

the

working microscopist.

equivalent as

in

used

the

4600

3.8aM
the

6200

at

inch;
tenth-

unaltered.
practically

Polariscope

Platino-cyanideof magnesia, of barium, of thallium, of potassium, of

and
citric acids.
Tartaric
of
Chlorate
yttrium, and of strontium.
potash. Borax, menthol, ammonia-phosphate, thymol, chrysammate
of lead, cinchonine,ferro-cyanideof potassium,grape
sugar, nitrate of
of soda,
potash,nitro-prusside

on

cadmium,
the

slip.

Crystalline Objects for

soda, and
These

The

prepare,

Two
Two

are

are

best
in

different

are

Light

bought ready
little
the

water

or

slip and

obtained

by using concentrated
if
solutions quite dilute; and
as
compared
dried quickly or dry spontaneously.
results

solutions

specimens

and

a
mostly dissolved
drops (one or two) being placed on

group

few

evaporated. Quite

Polarised

potassium.

difficult to

former

wine,

spiritsof

Convergent

titania,calcspar,mica, nitre, topaz, nitrate

ferro-cyanideof

crystalsare

made.

with

use

Aragonite,baryta,sugar,
of

of

chromium,

potash, and of
Pyrogallic acid, salacine, santonine, sulphate of copper,
of nickel, of potash,and of magnesia.
Acetalinide,melted

ammonia.
of

of

oxalate

New

are

often

with

Methods

of

Adjusting

Tube-Length

Ainslie,
proposed respectivelyby Commander
F.R.A.S., R.N., Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College,Greenwich, in
the English Mechanic^ June i8th, July 2nd, and July 9th, 1915, and
by
Dr. Hartridge,Fellow
of King's College,in Part II. of the June number
of the Journal of the Royal MicroscopicalSociety,page
119, will be
found

new

of

methods,

owing to the limits of space, being

unable to add a full account
of either suggestion,for both
tions
communicaof considerable
interest and of much
are
practicalimportance.
great interest.

We

regret,

LIST

ADDRESS
OF

OPTICIANS

BOOK

THIS
tube-lengthfor

(The

H.

Angus,

F., 83, Wigmore

Baker, Charles, 244,

Bausch

their

which

Lomb

"

IN

MENTIONED

OTHERS)

(AND

objectivesare

is mentioned

corrected

in

brackets)

Street, London, W.i.

High Holborn, London,

(Agents),37

and

Garden, London,

Hatton

38,

(160 mm.)

W.C.i.

E.C.i.

(160 mm.)
R.

Beck,

"

J.,68, Cornhill, London,

"

Kodak,

Ltd., Kingsway, London,

309,

Korista, F., Via G. Revere, N.

"

Powell

Rheinberg

W.C.2.

"

160

(160 mm.)

2, Milan.

Lealand, "Emsdale,"

(250 and

(160 mm.)

Road, Manchester.

Oxford

Flatters

Garnet,

".0.3.

Road,

Greenham

Co., 57-60, Holborn

Viaduct, London,

Swift

Son, 81, Tottenham

Court

"

Holborn, London,

Co., Buffalo, N.Y.

Son,

313,

High

E.C.i.

(160 mm.)

Lens

Watson

N.io.

mm.)

Spencer
"

London,

Road,

London,

W.i.

W.C.i.

(160 mm.)
(6, 8, and

inches.)
Wray, Ltd., Grove
Most

Road, Bromley, Kent.

of the above

will correct

within

to
prescribedlimits,

order.

The

cover-glassselected

is

their

objectivesfor other tube-lenj

usually-17
512

or

-18

mm.

for all

opticians.

INDEX
his

Abbe,
"

"

"

artificial

the

Abbe's

81

with

low

apochromats,

"

condenser,

"

"

"

powers,

to

the

former's

"

"

"

cones,

diaphragms

for

Abuse

95

"

"

attack

upon

theory, 442
stereoscopic vision,

"

"

diffraction

gratings, 439
diffraction-plate, 439
magnification, 136, 137
empty
evaluation

method

of

eye-lens, 113, 114

image in Huyghenian
ocular, 107
objectives, 63

"

"

"

Achromatisation

tion,
magnifica-

diffraction

on

spectra,

formula

Law

"

- "

of

microscopical
oil, 506

value

of

nomenclature,
sin U
Law,

"

by, 362
stereoscopic eyepiece, 258
substage arrangement,
44

"

table

thickness

glasses,
"

of

the

colours

sented
pre-

"

"

Theory,

an

of different

"

for
to

33

apo-

by collar
works, 75
substage,
of

test-

to

opticians,
of

jective,
ob-

512

objective :

232

rays,
method

cover-

of cutting, grinding,
polishing metallurgical specimens,
467
Airy's theory of diffraction
by the
object, 431
of resolution, 432
of limit
jectives
Algae, Burton's
suggestions for obfor studying, 346
and

cover-

by Dr. Altmann,
of,

adjustment

glass,60, 233
tubeshort
long into
change
there
is a
length objective where
collar adjustment, and
vice versa,
details how
produced, 78

Aird's

"

441

development

collar

thickness

Affluent

351

attack

it

fine, for

"

colours
shown
by, 352
direct
oblique and
light, 351
precautions before
using, 356
testing objectives with, 356
the

trick, 364

visual, of lens, 67

75
list of different

Adjustment

Test-plate, 350

"

of

how

plate,

"

spectrum,

and
apochromatism
compared,
71
Boliviensis
as
Actinotychus
object, 406

Address

130
82

"

"

"

the

semi

Action

objectives, 131
of
ascertaining resolution
objective, 87, 155, 169
limit deduced
by his theory, 435
n

"

"

objective, 132

""

"

computer's

for

objective

an

of

chromatism

immersion

for

imaginary
initial

the

"

Achromatism,

explanation
images, 439

"

of

folding-over
361-2

experiments

"

substage diaphragm,

449

81
"

419
of

Acarina, Freeman's
suggestions for
for
studying, 347
objectives
Accessory apparatus for microscope,

121
"

use

Achromatic

"

"

and
J53

259
"

191

Aberrations,

341

142
Altmann's

defence

of by Dr.
Theory, extension
Johnstone Stoney, 444
of resolution, 436
of resolution
exemplified, 437
view
of stereoscopic projection, 259
views
and
narrow
large
upon

of

limit

lution,
resotheory
436
Abbe's
analysing eyepiece, 213
angular magnification of oculars
and
eyepieces, 131
apertometer, 94
before
precautions
using the
same

rulings,

of

his

444

INDEX

5*4

Aplanatic

Aligning battery of objectives,240

of objectives, use
of, 242
Alignment
Abbe's
attack
Theory,
Altmann's
on

size

Apochromat

Theory

Abbe's

on

fence,
de-

Abbe's

442
purposes,

for, Karop's

pellucida
object, 378
as
a test-objectfor

eyepiece,

346
Angle in oil, 92
of aperture,
of deviation

prism,

93

of

magnitude
how

eyepieces,

of compensating
obtained, 134

lars,
ocu"

light, 142, 374, 497

Apertometer
by Zeiss after Abbe, 94
precautions to be used, 95
diffraction
and
Aperture
tra,
spec"

"

8
"

"

"

numerical

-with

and

"

by Conrady's
versus
angle, 93
of telescope, 79
N.A.

of
;

view,

diameter

of

of

"

cone,

of

field

of

487

stop for dark-ground

"

ture,"
aper-

magnifying

"

scope,
N.A. of

"

various

method,

"

nation,
illumi-

conden-;.T-v

corresponding
lenses

of

type.

145

of
"

number

simple micro

to

ordinary

148
th-

photographic

obj
of

specimen,
prin

98

of

power
8

lines

to

the

length

substage

5^

of
subvarious
aperture
table
condensers,
of, 152
diagram
of, 148

condenser,

149

)')
"

inch

266

Aplanatic
stage

semi-

43

Ascertaining

of
aperture
telescope compared,
79, 80
of microscopical
objective, 79,
82, 195
of microscopical objective, how
ascertained
apertomeby Abbe's

numerical

cor.

for

173

contrasted

total

correction

and

"

-65, testingof, 402

in, 389

"

79
"

focus,

2-mm.

lamp, 167
for
Arrangements
producing monochromatic
light, 169, 493
various, for substage centring,

"

"

343

487
Argus arc

131,

Annular

"

work,

apochromatic
objectives, 358
Smith's
Arachnide,
suggestions for
objectives for studying, 346
Area
of field of view, how
to ascertain

134
"

i'30-i'40,

N.A. '95 to N.A.

colour
residual

"

92

magnification

Critical

testing of, 389

92

Angular aperture,
"

N.A.

"

gestions
sug-

Apple-green
of

71, 402

work
high- power
by
Hartnack,
345
Koristka, 343
Leitz, 344
Powell
tS: Lealand,
343
Reichert, 344
Zeiss, 341

"

aperture,

versus

for

Apochromats

obliquity, 88

of

achromatic

"

ing,
objectives for study-

for

"

objectives, 61, 408

Prazmow-

Wesche's

202

61

and
semi-apochromatic
objectives compared,
Apochromatism,
70, 402

after

i'6,

of

408
condenser, 14^5, 144
of lens, 70, 409

correction

"

"

213

ski, 213
by Abbe, 213
of insects,
Anatomy

"

test-

408

405,

same,

"

as

brightness

semi-apochromat,

versus

"

sixth, 402
spectra of, 195

diffraction

Analyser,
Analysing

"

suggestions,

submoon
position of crescentshow
the
to
diaphragm
stage
dots, ig^et seq.
inch, an inch and a half, a twoinch
testing
objective, etc. :

An

"

"

Apochromatic

348
Amphipleura
"

tives
objec-

taining
ascer-

semi-apochromat,
in

images, 391
a
X.A.
special form
the Monochromat,

"

general

Amateur's

condensers,

of, 149

and

difference

441

"

of

cone

working- distance

of

an

of

Icr,

in

INDEX

515

Ashe's

Bacteriology,

suggestions for objectives for

purposes," 347
sixth
and
a
quarter-inch, testing
with
Abbe
plate, 394, 402
and
a quarter-inch, testing with
industrial

"

"

third-inch

Author's

for

"

"

producing

""

Bands

how

to

the

test
of

accuracy
Heurck's
Van
of

stand

and

steadiness

by

light
phenomena,

of

of

of

centring

and

"

"

circular

finding a specimen,

"

footnote,

"

"

"

"

slides
fixing and
removing
prevent injury, 227
of
slides
for
future
marking
reference, 246-8
glass, 171, 299
pot- green
suggestions for objectives to be
used
when
studying diatoms, 349

Auxiliary stages,

37-41
from

deviation

micrometer

"

the

mean

be

to

filled

light, 162
in obtaining

light, 161
Bacteriological microscope,
microscopes by :
Baker, 285
Bausch
" Lomb,
286
Beck, 287
Koristka, 288
Leitz, 289
Reichert, 290
Co., 292
Spencer Lens

Best

Son,

"

Watson

"

"

of

Bacteriology,
for

the

upon
whether
for

the

Lens,

219,
for

454

304

Bull's-eye

denser,
con-

for

to

eye

when

occupy

using

simple microscope, 23
Bi-axial
crystals, list of several, 218
Bicor
binocular
attachment,
492
Binocular
by Zeiss, 256
eyepiece by Zeiss, 258
489
microscope, 254,
"
Lealand, 255,
prism by Powell
"

489

for

284
Holder's

gestions
sug-

ing,
objectives for study-

349
"

"

Black-dot

focus, 265
glass polariser by Mr.

Black

Cheshire,

212

of the

Body

compound
microscope,
microscope, 272
microscopes by :
"
Bausch
Lomb,
273
Beck, 274
Himmler,
272

34

Botanical
294

"

working- distance
discussed, 296-300

discussion

upon

the

required
adjustment
microscope, 296
what

Photographing

Biological microscopes,
and
Biology, Paulson

of fine

type

"

"

and

twelfths

for

Microscope,

position

285

293

Sons,

"

Zeiss, 295
objectives

denser,
Con-

203

of

"

Swift

the

Bertrand's

264

critical

Camera

Small
with

in

objective, necessity

fillingwith

of, 242

Bull's-eye

"

"

"

observations,

of

align,

centring substage, 45
Metallurgical Microscope after Ro
senhain, 313
new
binocular, 491
objectives, 276, 277,
315
reflecting condenser, 184
model
Regent
microscope, 287

"

lens

to

objectives, 300

"

stage,

to

Back

166

Beck's
a

235
of

Average,

lamp,

vapour

Lomb's

"

jectives,
ob-

removing

246

"

157

164

attaching

of

276

diffraction

of alignment

use

225
"

dark

objectives, how

240
of

"

and

.240

Bausch
jectives,
ob-

of

battery

506

lamp, 504
prisms, 7

Battery

using

Microscope, 278
Microscope,

mercury

test-object,55

aligning

Microscope,

gas

new

Base

"

"

of

Barnard's
"

"

Plantation

"

for
coverdummy
glass positions, 459
method
for
teaching a beginner
How
to set the
mirror," 225

"

"

Histological
objectives, 300,

"

light, 170
marking

"

"

405

same,

"

Diagnostic

"

arrangement

monochromatic

"

321
"

the

testing

for, 301
studying specimens,

in

use

301

Baker's

test-objects,402
A

illuminants

for

screens

"

stage

or
simple
microscope,

to

select,

compound,
291

Reichert,

Botany

275

and

Textile

Trade, objectives

for, 276
Bousfield's

Brebissonia

385

photographs,
Boeckii

as

454
a

test-

object,

INDEX

"

Circular

Brewers'
microscopes, 283
Bryce's suggestions for objectives for
studying Rotifera, 348
and
critical
condenser
Bull's-eye
light, 232
condensers,
162-5
best position for, 203
Achromatised
Aplanat,
by
WatsonConrady,
163
of rays
in denser
Bunching-up

stage, how
method,

"

Climax

"

506

Closing

iris diaphragm,
objective, 154

effects

upon

size of circle (or

upon

rack

and

pinion of, 34
for

objectives

how

See

clean.

to

Common

Algae, 346

studying

for

effects

disc) of confusion, 155

Coarse
adj ustment, diagonal

"

media,
92
Burton,
suggestions

centre
by
246
of immersion
objectives, 78
fine adjustment by Swift,

Cleaning

"

"

to

Author's

Faults,

chapter

on

472

of

of circle

Calculating diameter
of confusion,

(or disc)

155
with

photographing

for

Camera

454

plane, 485

Cardinal
Care

compound
microscope, 34
light, 423
importance
of, 424
microscope,
Collar
adjustment, explanation
of,
footnote
78
74,
75,
Coherent

in

for

immersion

of

use

different

thicknesses

cover-glass 74-75,
to change
long

systems,

239

of

78
short

into

tube

planation
objectives and vice versx
(centiemes de millimetre),exCollective
See
of, 271.
lens, focal length of, 8
footnote,
Colour
of Abbe's
effects
test-plate, 352
385
tion,
illuminafree
for
Central
dark-ground
semi-apochromatic
objt
spot
diameter
to calculate
how
364

C.D.M.

"

how

of, i?3

Centring appliance for using objective

condenser,

as
"

45

247
"

condenser,

use

of

diaphragm,

iris

by,

231

high-power

"

slip, 245

condensers,

condenser,

the

"

236

230

"

for
suggestions
objectives for studying, 347
focal length of objectives,
Changing
Rossiter's

Cestoda,

how

effected
of

in

manufacture

use

collar

of

142
of spherical aberration,

69
Ciceri-Smith's

shown

"

and

micrometer,
451
conventional
of confusion,

Circle

permitted,
"

"

139,

how

how

to calculate

of

of

117,

focus,

353

72,

wa

scope,
using the micro-

wlu-n

faults

to

of

472

cure,

s-7

rye;

light transmitted

suiting

hi.uh and

by

conik-n

eyepiece,

Compensating
size

the

63

low-power

slip

test-plate,352

without

formed,

Comparison

to

107,

118

polarised light, 216

in,

objr

1 [nyghenian

of,

"

"

Ramsden,

Circular

and

how

closing of

diameter

focus
semi-

Holoscopi

increased

*55
"

Coma,

155

by
:i,ij"hra-m, 156

how

the

using

tion
objective,explana-

Abbe's

by

within

"

"

cover-glass

without
\\hrn

of, 72

Common

aberration, 66

differences

"

object

Combination

condenser,

"

an

apochromatic

"

M7
Chromatic

502

71,

and

within

seen

"

and

correction, 78
Cheshire's
apertometers, 96
black
glass polariser, 212
of focal lengths for condensers,
Choice

by

puter's
com-

explanation
of, with
respect to
and
ordinary
compensating
oculars, 112
primary, 352

"

"

by

"

method,

stage by Author's

circular

obtained

trick, 364
"the
in
preferred,"
objectives,
67, 68, 69, 365
Colours, different size of image produced

ocular, function
oculars, 109-1
how

ml

explained

157, 359

|.

nlai

"K

of.

71

edge

to

diaphr.

INDEX
oculars,

Compensating
form

Swift

by

Mediar,"

special

new

called

Condensers,

"The

by

for

by Swift,

foot

nose-piece of,

33
57

efforts

"

of, 35
substage of, 39
tube
of, 33

"

"

various

"

fine

Computer's

trick

adjustments of, 48
in

"

achromatisation,

Holoscopic condensers,
eyepieces, 107, in,

of

"

objectives below
Continental

faults

"

"

"

"

"

how

of, 151

from

to

of, 472

143,

152,

"

150,

reflecting by
Beck, 184
Leitz, 183
Zeiss, 1-84

"

table

"

of

151

powers

to

use

various

in

into

terms

of

the

5"9
tenththe

opticians,

by

"

numbers

to

tenth-metres,
metres,

into

"

the

138,
bers
num-

inch," 156
cover-glass thickness

ticians,Correcting for
opby draw- tube,

collar

60, 233

adjustment,

75,

233
for

convergent

polarised

light, 218
"

"

to

various

into

wave-lengths

in

different

266

measures,

inch, 269

T52
-

of

tenth-metres

"

156,

of

169,

inches
into
terms
of
Converting
tenth-metres, 269
method
explained, 502
long into short- tube objectives,78
into
N.A.
F/ratio, 145

inch

152
of

"

"

of

299

"

"

N.A.

upon,

screens,
171
Author's
glass, 171,
green
films
Kodak,
by
green

Conversion

"

objective, 202
object of having a large aplanatic
cone,

views

"

1-6

"

Nelson's

by Rheinberg, 175, 498

Convergent
polarised light, 217

162

230

"

"

98

i"o,

494

of
of
diameter
back
lens,
146
low-power, using a Zeiss
loup
in place of, 229
N.A.
of using, 230
-45, advantage
N.A.
to suit N.A.
1-6, special form

"

"

tube-length,

"

absence

centre,

N.A.

and

Contrast

limit

"

357,

223

oil-immersion, 236
lengths, 147, 152

Holoscopic,

"

"

114,

English microscopes,
lengths of draw-tubes, 33
forms
of substage, 44
oculars, diameter
of, 112
Standard
microscope, 32
substage by Zeiss, 46

focal

definition

"

of

centring
choice

"

163

152,

330,
method

bull's-eye,162-4

"

image,

objectives, 87, 277, 282, 300,

396, 408
for
of
ascertaining N.A.

165

"

""

object

and

359

the
Plates, 482
Condenser, Bull's-eye,by Baker,
" Lomb,
by Bausch
164
162
by Conrady- Watson,
by Leitz, 163
Condensers, achromatic, 143
after
Abbe, 143
of, 148
aplanatic cone
apochromatic,
143
ascertaining N.A.
of, 148
size of aplanatic cone,
149
"

larity
dissimi-

concerning

"

"

fulfil,

440

"

"

various

must

of
scopic
Holocomputation
lenses, 87
to explain everyday images,

between

Concerning

"

perfection

446
explanation

"

3H

"

of

161

Conrady's

stage

"

those

of light, 142
Confusion, disc of, 138, 139, 155
his views
critical
Conrady,
on
light,

optical portion of, 57

"

"

with

Cones

portion of, 30

objective of,

"

apparently
low-

?i

of, 33

mechanical
"

than

powers,
147
that
objectives of

degrees

"

"

with

greater

high

Conditions

"

"

much

condensers

power
Kor-

intensity is

why

so

503

Compound
Hand-magnifier
istka, 29
Metallurgical Microscope
316, 317
315,
microscope, 30
body of, 34
draw-tube
of, 33
"

"

517

powers

of, 152

"

for
semiCorrection,
apple- green
apochromatic
objectives,358
collar, 75, 233

INDEX

5i8

Crystals,

generally of objectives :
semi-apochromatic,

Correction

and

62,

apochromatic,

501

sine-

"

law,

of draw-tube,

60,

74,

Cymbella

when

by draw-tube,

"

rected
cor-

how

marker,

"

rule

ment,
adjust-

devised
"

objective

the

by

used

See

list

"

thicknesses,
usual

end

at

test-

of,

thickness

"

149
Plate

See
"

light, 149,
and

161,

149,

xvii.

of

views

upon,

microscopes

161

Diameter
how

by:

"

333

"

"

of

and
to

Zeiss,32,

of

Diameters

"

334

332

444
coarse

field

of

487
mination,
illu173
how

Diamond

circle, 118
"

and

terms

"

"

areas

pared
com-

explained

cover-glass

marker,

polarising angle, 212

Diaphragm
quarter-moon

457

"

for oblique

lighl
Diaphragms

used

with
,

331,

of

pupil, 114-16

Diatoms,

342

at

34

ascertain,

340

"son,

Theory,
pinion

area

of Ramsden

"

Lomb,

"

the

objective

stop for dark-ground

how
to ascertain,
of circle (or disc)of confusion,
to calculate, 155
of oculars, 112

"

Beck, 335
"tka, 288
Leitz. 336
Powell
" Lealand,
31, 330
Reichert,
338
Spencer Lens Co., 339
Swift,

test,

of central

"

for, 330

objectives for, 330

Bausch

1-4

and

adjustment,

237
Poser's

Baker,

to

bunch-up

Abbe

of

rack

Diagonal

217

work,

"

N.A.

Development

237

bull's-eyecondenser,

232,

"

how

diameters, 103
Still's suggestions
for objectives
Desmids,
for studying, 348
Determining
amplitude and
phase
of light, 427

162,

161
Conrady's views
upon,
lens, 161
fillingthe back
how
to
obtain, 149, 161, 162,

"

substage iris,

1,000

161, 232,

use

203,

of

102

with

thin, adjustments

237

image,

of

of condenser,

visual,

233

and

illumination,

232,

179

diameter

of focus, 98
formula
for ascertaining

Depth

plate, 351

for, 233
Critical

instead

mediums

Denser

of

233

glasses, thick

Cover-

finding

Leitz,
et sej.

92

of Abbe's

thickness
"

those

to

151

volume.
"

for

174
Definition

author, 459
different
by

selected

opticians.

hints

stop, 173
Diaphragm,
456

Davis

is in

457

thickness

172

180

powers,

Beck,
by
Reichert, and Zeiss, 183
and
false images, 179
as
suggested by Gordon,

with, 234

contact

illumination,

high

central

75,
tell when

to

test-object

object

illuminators

"

233

"

high powers,
using, 186

60, 74, 75,

collar

by

gastroides as

and

233
451
gauges,
corrected
how

"

test-

ground
and

"

using,

of, how

thicknesses

different

75,

234
"

as

385

draw-

by

solea

387

Darkthickness

467

Cymatopleura

233

correcting for
tube, precautions

and

method,

as
a
asteromphalus
383
test-object,
Cottam's
suggestions for objectives
for studying diatoms,
349
Cover- glass,
for,
by
adjustment

Coscinodiscus

"

show
rings and
polarised light
bi- axial, 218

Cutting, grinding, and

polishing
metallurgical specimens, Aird's

64

means

to

with

uni- axial

"

photographic, 68, 361

"

how

brushes

achromatic,

Author's

objectives

Abbe's

stereo-

259

suggestions

for studying,

349

for

INDEX

520
Explanation

of

Eye

"

"

"

"

218

how

to

ordinary

employed

find

use,

for

if

244

with

for

field- lens

"

new

Swift

"

"

par- focal,

"

108,

standard

"

the

"

different

the

use,

""

"

Indicator," 460
Eyepieces, 104
angular magnifications
how
the

"

new

their

"

fictitious
of

Eye-point
ring

"

Mediar

"

of, 131

by

Swift, 503

values,

oculars,

Facility

Factors

"

131

"

oculars),
effects

133

produced

by

closing

diaphragm,
155
images produced by dark-ground
illumination, experiments
ing,
prov-

for

narrow

of Abbe's

cones,

Theory,

nomenclature

of

for

"

Filling

the

critical

objectives, 355
back

light,

lens
IM

for

when
how

and

tcillini

using

formed.

semi-

353

light

dr;

finding

spot

in

diameter

finding diameter
circle, 118

"

to

focus

for

"

487
in

so

102

of

"

in

for stud

colours

of

of diffracted

""

"

of, 147

99, etc.
161

objectives

Formula

436
eyepieces,

eyepieces, 131
Field lens of eyepiece, 105
of view, area
to ascertain,
of, how

choice

Earland's

apochromat,

155,

IS'
-value

scope,
micro-

of, 47

accidents, 227
difficulty
xviii.
S-cc Chapter

Formation

"

Fictitious

forms

avoid

to

Foraminifcra.

179

Features

57

iris, occasional

outside

produced by

33,

compound

doing.
of spectrum
form
to
Folding-over
:
secondary
diagram
spectrum
illustrating,
Foot
of compound
microscope, 3 }

iris

"

how

"

"

Objective-changer, 243
magnification
(Abbe's

of

False

depth of,
of illuminant,
Focussing, 227
Focus,

1 1 1

Eye- shade, 244

"

of

152
of condensers,

eye-circle,118

or

by

"

Hints, 472
nomenclature,
134

Abbe's

in

"

"

See

clean.

to

Climax,"

"

"

"

55

Fitting, "Universal
Fitting," details
of, 33. 57
Fixing slip on stage, 227
Flatness
of field in low-power
jectives,
obthe
testing with
boscis
proof the Blow-fly, 406
F-line screen
by Gifford, 299
Flooding a specimen with light, 157
Fluorite
lenses, 58
properties of, 58
Focal
length of collective lens. 19
how
change of, is effected, 78
of negative lenses, 1 7
of objective, obtaining, 125-7
of different, in
lengths, effects
condensers, 162
of condensers,
by various
ticians,
op-

112

Zeiss, 258
sizes
of, in

112
"

tion
sugges-

"

for,

gauges

49,

Van

"

Son,

"

various

129

stereoscopic, by

"

ascertain
of

use

fitting,details of,

spectroscopic, 461

"

in

author,

test-object," a

adjustments

"

in

Kamsden,

"

235
to

by

by Author,
substage, 232
"Improved

to

Holos, 107, in,

114, 357, 359
Huyghenian,
104
focal plane, 129
locating lower
ordinary, 104

"

"

made

well

Heurck's

of, 71
of, 105

function

and

Finding the specimen,

Fine
adjustment, how

microscope,

best

assist

to

by Kodak

169, 494

rays,

use
position
simple magnifier, 23
Eye-lens, achromatic,
113
of eyepiece or ocular, 105
overcorrected, 113
of, 127, 128
Eyepiece, evaluation
Abbe's
analysing, 213
analysing, 213
compensating,
109-14

to

"

"

212,
not

and

contrast

definition

470
and

Extraordinary

for

Films

Wright's

of

use

Eikonomcter,

for

Huvu'

for

Ham

obtain

obtained

ho\\

to

N.A
,

145

of

central

173
of Ramsden

correspond

ii

INDEX
how

photographic lens,

of

F/ratio

converted

Hemidiscus

347

cuneiformis, 407
aperture
apochromats
remarks
Abbe
on
testing with
plate, 389
remarks
on
testing with

454

test-

numerical

into

521

High- angle

ture,
aper-

145

suggestions for
studying Acarina,
Freshwater's
photographs,

Freeman's
for

Fresnel,

"

Huyghenian

of

extension

his

objectives

objects,

390

Apertures, test-objects for, 378

objectives, 82
principles, 425
for Bacteriology
saxonica
as
a
Frustule
test-object,
discussed, 298
apbchromats
383
by :
power
and
Full
tion.
magnificaHartnack,
empty
345
Koristka, 343
136, 137
Leitz, 344
objectives, 375
Full-aperture with
of
Powell
" Lealand,
Function
ocular,
compensating
343
Reichert, 344
71
jectives
suggestions for obZeiss, 341
Fungi : Massee's
for studying, 348
to use, 236
dry, how
powers,
Hilton's
for
suggestions
objectives
for studying
Rousselet's
Gastrotricha,
suggestion
Mycetozoa,
346
for objectives for studying, 348
Sporangia, 346
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Screen,

Glass,

Monochromatic

F-line

Gifford's

171,

299

"

recommended

green,

Himmler's

by Author,

Botanical

Hints

for

"

with

polariser, 2 12
212
angle,
polarising
signal-green,
171
Goniometer
eyepiece by Zeiss, 452
plates

as

Swift's

make,

452
166

illuminating apparatus,
for
dark-ground
suggestion

Gordon's
""

472

cure,

"

""

Common

upon

"

mination,
illu-

179

replicas by Thorp, 171

the magnification, the smaller
Greater
the
pupil, 115
N.A., the larger the pupil, 115
Green's
photographs,
454
of Gifford, 171
F-line
Green
screen
suggestion, 171
glass : Author's
and
films
Author, 169,
by Kodak
Grating

272

300

nation
illumidark-ground
186
high powers,
to
Faults, how

using

171
"

Microscope,

objectives, 283,

Histological Microscope by C. Baker,

278
Holoscopic condensers, 143, 152, 162
eyepiece, 107, in,
114,
357,
359
objectives,87, 204, 277, 282, 297,
300, 330, 396, 408
Homogeneous
systems, 82
How
to align a battery of objectives,
"

"

240
ascertain
with

Van

by

"

if fine

"

of

area

objective

field

and

of

view

ocular,

Heurck's

test-object
made,

be

adjustment

487

well

"

493

resolving

"

if its

Half-inch

objective ;

testing

be

same,

4"5

"

by

Hand-magnifier
after
"

Nelson,

Watson

Sons,

"

stop

Stoney,
Helmholtz

by

dark

tion,
illumina-

Dr.

the

focal

limit

of

of

jectives,
ob-

microscope,

225
tenth-

clean

vice

versa,

terms
1

objectives, 78
the

of the

use

scope,
micro-

221

by

"

"

convert
and

the

inches
reverse,

of

66

See Hints, 472

eyepieces.

commence

solution
re-

into

metres
and

inch

immersion

Abbe's

the

objectives on

"

Johnstone

theory, 435
Helmholtz's
theory of diffraction
the
object, 435

236

230,

length

78

168
and

"

of

ground

condensers,

change

the
"

dark-

173
centre

168
Heliostat

diameter

for

"

jective
ob-

any

aperture

87

calculate

29

microscope, 29
by Koristka,
29
by Leitz, 321
by Zeiss, 29
Hartnack's
objectives, 300, 345
Heliometer
by Dr. Johnstone Stoney,
"

known,

of

power
numerical

into
266

microns

INDEX

522
How

to
in

convert

into

unit

one

Illumination

expressed

measures

of

terms

those

by
dark-ground,

of others, 266
the tops of condensers
remove
when
fixed
with
they are
oil,

such

the

inch

as

the

"

Traviss's

in

number

Expanding Stop, 173

Stops for objective, 173
differential, after Rheinberg, 175,
498
methods
of, 160

of

lines

"

given specimen

diatom, 266
working- distance

"

of

"

126

"

125,
obtain

critical

162, 232,
read

light, 149,

after

161,

237

and

use

450
nator.
illumi-

parabolic

polarised light,209
and

on

Stead,

See

parabolic.

"

verniers, 249

screw

"

of

"

length of objective,

focal

of opaque

objects, 203
ultra-microscopicalparticles by
Siedentopf, 189
Illuminator
for Metallurgical Specimens,

an

objective, 488
the

of central

Zeiss's

determine
the

light,160

stop for, 173

etc., 481
to

direct

172, 180
ascertaining diameter

"

take

off

often
used
to
Illuminators, a term
See
densers.
Consignify condensers.

tives,
objec-

226
the

set

"

mirror, 224

definition

test

of

and
Image
object distances, 12
critical, 149 and plate xvii.
plane, 123

condenser,

"

I5I

"

for

objectives

fixed

definition,

etc., 350
Diamond

use

"

Cover-glass

Marker,
"

"

"

130
of

457
Indicator

Eyepiece, 460

Spectroscopic

Ocular,

the

employed

not

eye

microscope, 244
the microscope,
"

Traviss's

formed

for
"

Stop,

Imaginary

Wright's Eikonometer,
Huyghenian
eyepiece, 104
"

formula

for, 104

passage

of rays

104
achromatic

how

the

diaphragm
principle, 425

"

of

"

in, 107
blue
of
edge
is formed,
112

"

extension

of coherent

Inches

into

microns,"

into

terms

for
Index

of refraction,
of

Illuminant,
Barnard's

"

new

focus

"

for

"

monochromatic

Author's
for

arrangement

mercury
gas

light, 170

vapour,

lamp,

of, 161
hi^h power

blue

166

504

dark-ground

arrangement,

Traviss's

new

Illuminants
301
selection

for

gas
use

of, 165
Illumination, 161"209
"

166

lamp,
in bacteriology,

4,

"

duced
pro-

media,

496

89

substances, 508

visibility,497
Eyepiece,

Indicator

460

Ashe's
sugges.
purposes,
tions
for objectives for, 347
Initial value
of objectives, 131
Industrial

Iris

Gordon's

different

of

mination,Interference
illu-

185
"

"

vert
con-

of focus, how

different

by

to

266

9
rays,
of depth

Increase

Fresnel, 425
suggestions
Hydrachnid.r,
objectives for studying, 346

how

of, 266

millimetres,"
Incident

by

light, 423

phase-reversals, 430

the

Soar's

of, 239

use

clean, 78

to

Importance

image

and

objectives,care
how

105

planation
ex-

of, 73
"

through,

according

502

71,

470

ocular,

"

to

objective, Abbe's, 132

and
dry objectives,

Immersion

of

object, 392
of brilliancy when
and
apochromat

with

colour,

to

*74

objective,

semi-apochromat,
391
of different
magnitude

221

Expanding

brightness

difference

Images,

461

for

objective, location

relative

"

"

position

diaphragm,

light, 426
.ppcarance

"

objects produced

of

by

"

dori
"

upon

objective produced by

closing, 154,
false
155

effects

155

produced

tl.

INDEX
how

diaphragm,

Iris

to

mark

523
Length

denser
con-

fitting,to indicate

"

values

of
of

Length

optical tube,
tube," what

124,
125
is meant

by,

in N.A.,

closing, 158
centring condenser,
See
xviii.
Chapter
231.
utility of closing, 157
of
direct
Isolation
light passing
through a point, 438
Lewis's
for
suggestions
Ixodidae,
for
studying, 346
objectives
limit

"

of, in

use

"

159
of useful

Lens, aplanatic, diagram

of, 148
correction, 70
apochromatic
ascertaining focal length of, 15
best
for convergent
to use
ised
polarlight, 219

"

"

"

bi- concave,
bi- convex,

"

"

"

for

suggestion
for

purposes,

Kingsford's
Koristka's

useful

and

amateur

combinations

tives
objec-

for

"

scope,
Micro-

"

how

"

by Traviss,

"

29

"

167

""

Law

ascertaining

for
disc

confusion,

of

governing

"

upon,

diffraction

"

of

"

under"

"

of

87,

Lenses,

155,

454

"

"

fine

"

"

"

"

adjustments,

50,

"

"

"

"

"

"

Vertical

"

Length
"

of

of

Illuminator,
tube

in

66

used

often

to

jectives.
Ob-

62

signify objectives.

Objectives.

suggestions for objectives for

studying Ixodidse, 346
Leybold's Troughs,
171
Lieberkiihn's
Reflector, 206
Light, annular, 142, 497
of
to
microscope
arrangement
show
convergent polarised light,

Lewis's

"

217

coherent,

"

423
transmitted

of amount

comparison
high
by

"

and

low-power

denser,
con-

147

polarised, 217

convergent

"

"

tinental
Con-

aberration,
of, 2

kinds

spherical aberration,
term

209
and

of, 67

58
peculiar properties of, 58
See
Holoscopic.
Holoscopic

"

51

English
microscopes,
mechanical
tube, 124

See

289

68

Fluorite,

"

"

Hand-microscope,
321
Museum
Microscope, 328
objectives, 282, 300, 330, 344, 396
object-marker,
457
Latest
Semi-apochromat,
-^a, 300
Petrological Microscope, 304, 305
and
Pharmacy
Dairy-teacher's
Microscope, 279
Portable
Microscope, 324, 325
Reflecting condenser, 183
Universal
Microscope, 336

"

is,

10

3,

of,

of, 66, 148

of, 67, 148

chromatic

Leitz's

Auxiliary Stage, 38
Bacteriological Microscope,

other,
an-

achromatism
it

different

"

"

photographs,

to

diagram

correction

visual
what

"

169
Snell, 4, 89

Lees-Curteis's

uncorrected,

"

"

155
phenomena

oblique light, 198

of
resolution
by Abbe,

changed

of,

curvature,
66
unachromatic,

"

192
diameter

correction

of

radius

""

and

Abbe's

cones,
views

Nelson's

is

2
plano-concave,
2
plano-convex,
prismatic construction

"

"

narrow

versus

tube-length

one

photographic

"

microscopists' ordinary, 165

-Welsbach,
165
to
measure
Large
objects, how
Nelson's
suggestions, 266

"

over-corrected, 66
of, 66, 148
diagram
of rays
through,
passage

"

505

166

Nernst,

"

scope,
micro-

78

504

by Stearn, 166
electric,by Watson,

"

"

on

the

construction

its

from

"

166,

of

place

crossed, 2
focal
length of,

"

by Barnard,
Lamp
166
by Gordon,

in

used

411

"

Hand-magnifier,
Compound
objectives, 283, 300, 343

be

concavo-convex,

"

288
"

length of,
to

camera

general

348
Troughs, 204, 453
Bacteriological

focal

collective,

"

Karop's

2
2

"

critical, 149,
of, 427

33
"

diffracted,

161,

162, 232,

amplitude

determining
81

and

237

phase

INDEX
from

Light

self-luminous

body,

417

luminous

point
passing
certain
through
apertures :
wanted, intensity and
phase of,
at any
point beyond apertures,

from

"

425
interference

"

Author's

"

"
"

"
"

diameters,"
and
empty

full," 136, 137

nomenclature,

"

Abbe's

of

in

119

"

factors

"

colours

133

of, 426

monochromatic,

"

Magnification by different
an
objective, 502

limits

"

169, 493
arrangement

"
"

for

ducing,
pro-

of useful, 136
of times,"

number

119-21

rational

"

system, 123
so
times," 119
many
iris diaphragm
Marking
"

170,
"

"

493

"

of, 142

narrow

cone

passage

of, through

parallel glass,6

values

phase-reversals,428

"

proceeds

directions,
"

"

solid

of, 142

violet

"

Marten's

of, 416

et

92

of

Abbe,

back

lens

of

Helmholtz

of

and

closing of iris diaphragm,

numerical

of

of useful
per
"

aperture, 85
magnification, 136, 137
converted
into
inch, how

per mm.,"
271
addresses
of
different

lines

of

and

book,

this

lower

Locating

trology,
Pe-

suggestionsfor objectives

"

Maxima

and

"

Minima,"

effects,

others
512
focal

"

265

in

of

piece,
eye-

Nelson's

"

"

123

tube

into

short
is

the

change
optician, 78
and

short

suggestions

position of micrometer,
with
verniers, 249

for

the

265

of
portion
compound
microscope, 30
in bactorio
stage for microscope
logy, 291
tube-length, 124, 125
Medical
Microscopes, 284
Mechanical

plane of objective, 125

of image- plane of objective,

upper
Location

Nelson's
suggestions, 266
objects, 261
small
objects, Nelson's
tions,
sugges-

"

ticians
op-

mentioned

plane

"

129

Long

for

phenomena,
157
of
Meaning
length of tube," 75
units
of, 267
Measurement,
how
unit
Measures,
changed from one
to another, 266, 270,
271
Measuring
large objects, 266

focal

"

Long

objectives

Fungi, 348
Myxomycetes,
348

"

136

List

264
Microscope,

for studying

435

435

useful

Lines

248
by, in

diffraction

Theories

"

found

347

seT.

Limits

for

suggestion

"

condenser, 146
of resolution, Airy's Theory,

"

Metallurgical

Massee's

417
diameter

waves,
of

"

Limit

reference, 245,

Ewell,
errors
micrometers,
stage

of, 81

of

312

theory
red, 91,

and

for

indicate

to

aperture

159

Marshall

419

propagation

cone

all

in

objects

rectilinear

undulatory

"

slides

"

from

numerical

condenser,

illustrated, 429

"

"

of

objective
effected
by
"

how

"

the
"

tube,

powers

different

of oculars,

nifying
mag2^3

work,

Mercury
1

objectives
vapour

for. 296

lamp

by

Barnard,

66

Navicula
observations
of
cal
mechaniMerlin's
"optical" and
and
Smithii, 386
tube-lengths compared
Holder
Metal
for Metallurgist
explained, 124, 125
Metallurgical
subject discussed, 221
microscopes, 309
Low-power
microscope, 272
by
of
of
Beck, after Rosenhnin.
ctives, use
proboscis
314
flatness
of
Swift, after Stead, 316
J;iow-fly to ascertain
:'t Royal
Arsenal
Model.
field, 406
^17
""
\\
Wat,
cating
lofocal
of
Lower
}i8
on,
plane
eyepiece,
Martens
after
\\ i
position of, 129
Holder, 449
Metallurgist's Metal
"

"

"

"

Methods

aification, 119
"

Abbe

evaluation

method,

130

of illumination,
268

160

INDEX
Metrical

525
for
Critical
Work
by
(continued) :
Powell
" Lealand,
31
Reichert, 338
Spencer Lens
Co., 339
Swift, 340, 341
Watson,
319,
342
Zeiss, 332
several
for
High-power
Work,
Portable
forms
different
by
opticians, 320-7
for
Work,
High-power
special
Portable
Form, by Watson,
327

Microscopes

units, 268

suggestion for polariser, 212

jectives
Microalgr, Still's suggestion for obfor studying,
348
"The
Diffraction," by
Micrometer,
Gordon,
450
evaluation
of, 263, 264
Micrometer,
Michael's

from

average
"

the

mean

spider-line,

"

stage,

"

Rheinberg's

"

by

503

268

Micron,

of

explanation

Micron,"

changing

"

"

261

eyepiece

process,
"

explained, 264

121

and

"

deviation

"

observations,

"

of, into

measures

and

inches,
for
arranged
Microscope
polarised light, 218
of

mm.

"

for

Medical

purposes,

"

for

Medical

purposes

Baker,

terms

284
by :

285

Bausch

266

"

286

Lomb,

Beck, 287
288
Koristka,
Leitz, 289
Reichert,
290

convergent

Metallurgical,by Swift,

Compound

"

term,

266

317
.

explanation of term,
Hand
type by Leitz,

"

"

how

"

if

ascertain

to

is well

"

"

the
use

of,

"
"

fine

justment
ad-

for

Metallurgical use, 309

Metallurgical use by :
Beck, after Rosenhain,
313,

"

for

"

"

Model

"

Zeiss

by

Bacteriology, 295
for both
adapted
Microscopes
lengths, 224
for Bacteriology,
284, etc.
for Bacteriology
by :
Baker, 285
Bausch
" Lomb,
286
Beck, 287
Koristka, 288

"

tube-

"

Co.,

"

"

Leitz,

Botany, 272
Botany
by
Bausch
" Lomb,
Beck, 274
Himmler,
272
"

"

and

Critical

Work,

Critical

Work

Beck,

Dairy

278

273

"

for

Textile

Trade,

"

for

Textile

Trade

Bausch

Beck,
list

of, 283

330

by

"

"

- "

Lomb,

335

Koristka,
Leitz, 336

Dairy Teachers,

Zeiss,. 281

for

333
"

and

by:
Baker,

292

for

Bausch

and

277
for Pharmacy

Lomb,

"

288

334

272

by
273

274

Himmler,

Reichert,
275
for Brewers,

Baker,

308
Pharmacy

for

Leitz, 279
280
Watson,

for

"

304

Watson,
"

for

"

Museums,
328, 329
Petrology, 302
for Petrology
by :
Bausch
" Lomb,
303
Swift, 307

Zeiss, 295
"

for

for

"

"

Spencer Lens
Swift, 293
Watson, 294

"

"

for

"

Leitz, 289
Reichert, 290

314

Swift, 316, 317

Works
Watson,
Model, 318
Zeiss, after
Martens, 311, 312

221

1905

292

Watson,
294
Zeiss, 295

49

two

the

"

made,

kinds, i
Diagnostic," 321
simple form, 18

of

"

321
the

Co.,

Spencer Lens
Swift, 293

272

Reichert, 275
Low
Power,
272
Portable, 320
Portable, by :

Baker,

321

Leitz,

321,

Swift,

322

Watson,

324,

326

325

Teachers

INDEX

526
"

and
scopic
teleaperture
compared, 80
aperture
Microscopical objective, aperture of,
"

Microscopic

Navicula

"

"

objectives

"

for

.341
vision, theories

"

Millimetres

into

critical

work,

330,

"

"

Author's

arrangement,

170, 493

mercurial

his

"

169

powers,
for

"

"

"

Barnard's

screens,

169,

170,

171,

suggestion for
for studying
diatoms,
the term
and
use
(fJL),

266
"

views

493-4

348

explained,

Nicol's

how

to

values

upon
mount,
159
of various
aperture

the

condensers,
how

"

iris

Nitzschia

curvula

maxima

definition,

"

"

as

test-objectfor

object, 399
test-object,385
sigma as a test-object,387
singalensis as a test-object.393
scalaris as a test-object,398
as

obtusa

"

as

test-

Nomenclature,
Abbe,
fictitious, 134

130

"

Nonfulfilment
test

of

sine-law,

how

objective, 63, 64, 368

Norman's

photographs,

Nosepiece

of

454
mici

compound

revolving, 466

"

substage

of

lines

specimen,

the

to

how

to

on

248

Numerical
"

inch

Number!:

152

obtain, for different F/ratios

combinations,
photographic

aperture.

Nu:

"

7-1. 195
of an
"

rture

obj"

ti\

1.5

vd,

scop'
false

produce

cones

"

499

improve

to

one-sixth, 399

Number

to

of

cases,

of,

definition

improve

mark

diaphragm
total

to

495

405
condenser

211

used

use

"

by Cheshire's
apertometers, 96
by Conrady's method, 97
tives
-65 ; testing objec-95 to N.A.
with
Abbe
plate, 394
test- objects, 396
testing with
N.A.
-2 ;
testing semi-65 to
and
apochromats,
apochromats

"

Prism,

in certain

"

94

Lamp,

66
how

N.A.

lens, 162
large cones,

Five-shilling Electric
1

microscopes,

of

and

narrow

191

Nernst

objectives

N.A., ascertaining by the apertometer,

"

fillingback

upon

upon

328
suggestions for
Mycetozoa, Hilton's
objectives for studying, 346
Massee's
suggestions
Myxomycetes,
for objectives for studying, 348

"

small

measuring

"

Museum

"

for

29

for position of micrometer

when
small
measuring
objects
when
measuring
large objects,

66

268

"

Continental

the

upon

objects, 265

vapour,

Morland's
Mu

views

suggestion

"

apparatus,
170 493
objects of using, 169
screen
by use of a green _pot-glass
suggested by Author, 171, 299
Gifford's
F-line, 171
"

an

tube-length, 223
Nelson's
Hand-magnifier,
photographs, 454

Nelson's

"

386
inch, 407
Negative lens, focal length of, etc., 17
Nelson, his suggestion for arranging
to
show
microscope
conver
polarised light, 219

of, 431
inches, 266

microns, 266
Mirror, setting of, 224
Monochromat,
the, special objective
by Zeiss, 6r
Monochromatic
light, 169
for
producing,
arrangements

lyra as
major

"

79

firma

as
a test-object,386
test-object,380, 393
as
test-object,392
rhomboides
as
a
test-object,387
Smithii
as
a
test-object for high

"

"

images;

amples
ex-

80, 8 1
Counting

of, 192
"

versus

large

"

Natural
ula

Abbe

cones;
s

sines, table
cuspida as

upon.

KJI

of, 511
a

test-object,403

of
with
of

with

oi

Abb'

oi
Cheshire's

apcrtometers,

of

INDEX

528

Objectivesfor studying Myxomycetes

suggested by Mr. Massee, 348
objects "in general by Mr.
Karop, 348
Kotifera
suggested by Mr.

polarising angle of, 212

Obtaining focal length of objective,
Obsidian,

125-7

Ocular,

Bryce,

348
Mr.

by

suggested

Rousselet, 348
suggested
Sporangia
Hilton,

346
and
full aperture

"

how

"

to

375

cone,

"

with

battery

objective-changers,

240

"

"

"

with

in

when

with

contact

cover-glass, 234
cleaning of, 78
immersion,
initial values
of, 131
jective
obthe
above
Nicol
prism, used
an
as
analyser, 213
obtaining focal length of, 125-7
to
of all types, testing conditions
be fulfilled by, 367
of varying
degrees of perfection,
fulfil,
the conditions
they must

"

"

"

and

resolution

"

78
of, by

the

"

"

""

"

"

different
the

"

field of

view,

how

"

use

values,

short

and

131

magnifying
tube

explained,

"

self-contained

with

polarised light, after

and
dry
Oil-immersion

"

nicol

for

Abbe

objt

""

88

how

condensers,

to

236

use,

of, 203
scope,
micro-

57

tube-length, i".\
for obtaining
trick
Optician's
colour
correction
good
Ordinary and extraordinary ra
Orienting the spider-line micrometer,

by

of, 76, 488

to obtain,

"

"

263

types of, 01
of outer-zone,

with

of

variation

"

487
three

112

fictitious

their

"

"

colours,

working-distance
:r

"

of,

sizes

"

objects, illumination
Optical portion of compound

numerical

aperture, 85
preferred colour, 67, 365
produced
the
magnifications

"

length,

focal

Opaque

the

"

and

power

eye-point of, 1 1 1
for long- tube
discussed, 222
See Hints, .j-_"
how
to cleans
the new
by Swift
"Medlar,"
in
focal,
par-

"

87,

61, 358

useful

of

limit

of, 131

magnifications
of

details

"

112

use,

104-11

angular

"

semi-apochromatic,

"

mersions,
oil-im-

Law,

Abbe's

129

Spectroscopic," 461

"

Oculars,
"

"

i"9

155.

plane,

223
61

visual,
cleaning

in

precautions

"

359

129

in

sizes

different
the

"

68, 361

correction,

photographic

357,

Stereoscopic, by Zeiss, 258

7i

"

108,

Ramsden,

"

long

photo

"

114,

Polarising, 213

"

ocular, 487
from
long to short
change
is effected, 78
vice
and
tube
versa
and
on
off, 225
screw
tell

"

"

of field of view

area

used

when

of, 105
Holoscopic, 107, in,
I luyghenian,
104
Indicating," 460
focal
locating lower
"

solid
a

ascertain

field lens

"

arrange

Zeiss's

"

"

Mr.

by

"

109-14

70, 71,

of, 71
evaluation
of, 127
eye-lens of, 105

"

Rotifera

compensating,

function

"

extra

Outer

use

zone,

of, in ""bj-

lens,

Over-corn

377

long working-distance,

and

Over-correction

1 1

of

lens, diagram

"

un"

297
and

Oblique

light with

direct

Abbe

-."late,351
"

light,
and

of
"

357
diftraction

of

object.

an

lens, 66

191,

diagrammatically

reflector.

Parabolic

phcnomen

Stokcs's

Mr.

repre-

cheap

sub-"titi

for

200
""

testing
ith

180

phenomena,
and

one-twelfth

objective-,

for

one

spli-

Parallel

polar-

at

Ii'-;Iitdia^ramnia4

presented,

214

INDEX
Parallel-sided
of

ray
rays,
Par- focal
"

glass, transmission
light through, 6

529

of

Pointolite

lamp, 496
Polariscopic objects, 214,
Polarised
light, 209

1 1

oculars,

circular, 216

in

ultra-microscopical

of

Particles

mension,
di-

convergent,

434

"

through achromatic
and
apochromatic
microscope, 59
ocular, iiy,
through compensating
of

Passage
"

106,

107

Portable

lens, 10-14
Holder's

and

suggestions

for

studying Biology, 349

Penetrating power," explanation
term, 98
Petrological microscopes, 302
by:
" Lomb,
Bausch
303

Dairy

by

Teacher's

visual

282

form

Standard

objective, 68,

Power

visual

objectives

of

"

"

the

with

microscope,

as

test-object,
"

"

211

419

by Baker, 276
Plates, the, in this book
: concerning
their
production, 482
Pleurosigma angulatum,
381, 396
Microscope

diffraction

through,
34

spectra
as

of

the

299
Binocular

Prism,

343

Microscope,

condensers,

31
table

of, 194

test-object, 384,

of direct

substage

light passing
"

condensers,

of, 152

prism, 213
using

before

Abbe

test-

plate, 356
when
tives,
objeccleaning immersion
78
of
when
correcting for thickness
altering tubecover-glass by
length, 234
off the
when
specimen
removing
in
are
high powers
stage and
use,
when

228,

229

with

using apertometer

powers,
Preferred

colour,

Preparing

metallurgicalspecimens

Aird's

"

437

various

Precautions

"

393,
399
Point, isolation

different

of

Prazmowski's

objectives, specially
of low-power
bination
comby
formerly made

"

scale

object-

an

shoulder

the

English

table

61

image, 123
polarised light, 209
crossed
beams,
parallel and
diagrammatic
representation of,

"

of

of, 152
and

37i

"

171,
Lealand's

"

489
objectives,300,

"

Plane,

Podura

plane

260,

"

of

nobilis

waves,
Plantation

objective,

Postage- stamp fracture of Pleurosigma

angulatum,
383 and Plate vi.
Pot- green
glass recommended
by

objectives for,

correction

"

of

135

Author,

361, 362
Photographic
discussed,

"

focal

upper

same,

reversals, 428
illustrated, 429

454
Pinnularia

of

Powell

Wray,
277
Photographing

plane

130

to

and

Phase-

useful

324

Swift, 322
Watson, 326
Position
of image

Leitz, 279
280
Watson,
Zeiss, 281

and

320

tive, 125

microscopes
Baker, 278

Photo-

microscopes,

Baker,
321
Leitz, 321,

"

Pharmaceutical

specimens,

stances,
sub-

by:

of

Leitz, 305
Swift, 307
Watson,
308

"

"

212

"

"

bundle

of glass plates, 212

suggestion by Michael, 212
by Prof. Cheshire, 212
Polarising angle for different
"

eyepiece, 105

Huyghenian

Paulson

"

211

212

"

oculars,

different

"

217

plane polarisation,

Polariser,

rays

"3

"

510

95

67, 68, 69, 365

by

method,
467
colours, 352

Primary
Principal plane, 484
Pringle's photographs,
454
Prism, angle of deviation,
"
Binocular
by Powell
260,
480
for Binocular
by Wenham,
"

low

Lealand,
255,

489

INDEX

530
explanation of,

Nicol's

Prism,

of

passage

"

light through,

Prazmowski's,

"

Prismatic

"

instead

kinds

the

of

of

275

3(

sixth, with specially long workingdi."tance, 297

Relations

as

Microscope,

344

of, 7

Blow-fly

Botanical

object marker,
457
objectives, 282, 283, 297,

of lens, 8

used

mirror, 160
Prisms, different
Proboscis

"

213

construction

illuminator

"

Reichert's

211

between

object and

image

484

test-

Relative

brightness of object and

image, 392
Remarks
of field for lowflatness
on
of
testing apochromats
high
aperture, 389
objectives, 406
power
on
test-objects with
Properties of Fluorite, 58
apochromato
of
high power,
Pseudoscopic versus
stereoscopic projection,
390
Replicas of grating by Thorpe, 171
259, 489
colours
in apochromats,
Residual
of, 114-16
Pupil, diameter
389
Resolution
Law
of Abbe,
8
Pygidium of flea as a test-object,389,
of

"

object for low powers,

the
Blow-fly useful

406

for

taining
ascer-

"

400

deduced

limit

"

from

Abbe

theory,

435

Quarter-inch

apochromat

Zeiss,

by

instrument

402

semi-apochromatic

objective,

"

obtainable

utmost

"

contributions

"

of

eyepiece, 108,

"

and

R.

--

"

"

Bacteriological

Microscope, 287
Botanical
Microscope, 274
objectives. 276, 277, 300
sixth
for
use
special immersion
with
Metallurgical Microscope,

315
Rational

Rays,

system
ordinary

of

magnification, 121
extraordinary,

of,

"

112,

compensating

Rule

and

Reflector,
"

propagation
violet

light,

of
91,

313

suggestions

studying

for

obj.
348

field

of

view.

487

::^diamet"
for

and

for

kotifera,

u^ert.-iinii,

for

light, 81
494,

cr

217

Metallurgical Microscope

"f
"

Rectilinear
Red

for

eyepiece,

I()5

in

objectives, 300
Rosseter's
suggestions for objectives
for studying Cestoda,
347
for
suggestions
objectives for
studying Entozoa,
347
Rousselet's
Rotifera, Bryce and
gestions
sugfor objectives for studying

oculars,

Huyghenian

dark

-round

illui;

tion

Liebcrkiihn, 206

logy, 300

para!

:n.n

on

an
.

'

live

Index,
"

of

Reichcrt's

angle of prism, 7
4, 89

several

substances,

Bacteriological
290

of

$48

113

through

"

brushes

show,

Rousselet's

through

instead

160

Beck,

microscope,

59
"

filmless

"

Ross's

achromatic

through

to

by

and

apochromatic

and

how

Rosenhain's

212

passage
and

"

Rings

175

445

by the new
photography,"
503
Right-angled prism used
mirror,

mination,
illu-

of, 175

micrometers

175-76,

illumination,

experiments,

129

Beck's

J.

differential

"

"

curvature,
3
circle, 116-18

Ramsden

list

"

Radius

416

differential

on

"

"

optical

an

Revolving
nose-piece, 466
Rheinberg's contrast
screens,
498

testing the same,

402
for oblique
Quarter- moon
diaphragm
light, 193
wave-plate, 216
Quartz lenses and oculars, 140
polarising angle of, 212

from

discussed,

Secondary
"

axes

scope,
Micro-

illustrating

for;
"

jj5

lei;

spcctru:

diagram

508

of

spherical aberration, 68

how

INDEX
illuminant,

Selection

of

Selenite,

215

Solid

165

"

Semi-apochromat,

apple-green

Specimen,

Lomb,
Koristka,

Hartnack,

how

" "

"

Himmler,

human

colours,

Separating

power
law
Resolution
the

Setting

mirror,

eye

marker,

of,
diagram
of objectives.
of

Microscope,
No.

See

Abbe.

224

Shadbolt's

and

tube

long

wave-length

"

screens,

141,

170,

171,

suggestions for objectives

studying Entomostraca,
349
of
scopical
microSiedentopf's illumination
particles, 189
Signal-green glass, 171
Simple microscope, 18
ascertaining magnifying
power

Sidwell's
for

"

"

"

position
23
does

how

"

microscopes
64

"

for

the

eye

waves,

"

Spot

Size

"

Slides, how
from
"

"

how

of

to

fix

upon

Snell's

gauges

"

remove

"

5,

objectives
suggestions
studying Hydrachmdae,
346

Continental
for

Microscope

Microscope, 32
eyepieces, 112
"
Leland,
by Powell

3i

"

by Zeiss, 32
microscopical

Stauroneis

Stead's
for

thread

33, 57
Phenicenteron

for

as

tives,
objeca

test-

object, 401

89
for

35

auxiliary, 37

"

for

4,

by

163

stage, 22.7, 228

to number,
248
245,

Law,

of

compound,
35
stability, 49, 55
condenser,
joint, for

universal

"

the

thickness

Soar's

of

"

Stand

112

and

diameter

173

microscope,
microscope,
microscope,
testing the

of

"

oculars,

calculate

to

spot,"

micrometer,
121
micrometers,
errors
in, found
Marshall
Ewell, 264

"

reflecting condensers
various
makers,
by
183, 184, 185
Smith's
suggestions for objectives for
studying Arachnidae, 346
"

how

Standard

502
of different

for

Stage

it

proof, 82
specially long
objectives with
working-distances,
297
coloured
of different
images, 71,

confusion."

lens, 172

"

"

magnify ? 20
illustrated, 26-9

of

Sporangia, Hilton's
suggestions
objectives for studying, 346

mathematical

"

objectives for,

419

Disc

"

to

Sine-law,
Sixth

68

261
Spider-line micrometer,
special form
by Gordon,
450,
and
Spirits of wine, its abuse
use,
respectively, 78, 477
See also
Spurious disc, 138, 139, 155.

"

occupy,
"

Microscope

339

testing different

"

best

292
Work

357

"

of,

10,

zones,

"

cussed,
dis-

subject

493

299,

seq.

357

221
- "

to

any
particular
of 'the object-

sixth
with
specially long
working-distance,
297
Spheres of light, 419
Spherical aberration, 62
secondary, 68
aberration, testing objectives for,

78
Short

Critical

"

494

paraboloid, 178
in the fine adj ustment,
Author's
Shake
to show
suggestion how
by Van
Heurck's
test- object, 55
into
Short- tube
long- tube
objective :
is effected
how
change
by optician,

et

459

cover-glass

of

Spectroscopic ocular, 461

the
Spectrum,
folding-over in achromatisation, 361
Lens
Spencer
Co., Bacteriological

ferent
dif-

to

the

position
portion by use

"

of

mark

to

show

Lea"
Leitz, Powell
land,
Reichert,
Ross,
Swift,
Zeiss, 300
Watson,
of
N.A.,
Semi-apochromats
high
testing of, 365
of N. A. -95 to N.A.
-65, testing, 394
Sensitiveness

"

find, 235

to

how

"

142
times

magnification,
explained, 119
flooding by light, 157

many

rection
cor-

for, 358
apochromat,
408
objective, 61
Semi-apochromatic
Bausch
twelfths
by : Baker,

cone,

So

term

versus

"

"

531

"

Illuminator,

450

Metallurgical Microscope
315

by

Swift,

INDEX

532
Steam's

166
Lamp,
Stereoscopic Eyepiece by Zeiss, after
Abbe,
258
views, 259
projection, Abbe's
versus
pseudoscopic
projection,

Table

of

conversions

metric
of

"

focal

of

"

152
of
different

vision,

253
Abbe's

showing

"

for, 259
for
Still's suggestions
objectives for
studying Dcsmids,
348
for
suggestions
objectives for
studying Micronlg;e, 348
Stokes's
for
substitute
suggested
parabolic reflector, 206
Stoney, Dr. Johnstone, his extension
"

diaphragms

of the

Abbe

his

Substage

Theory,

form,

of, 42

abuse

"

"

of

of, 153

use

"

sleeve

forms

compound

condenser

for

"

39
ard
stand-

R.M.S.

"

objective,

359

as

to

as

object
xvii,

Swift

Son's

"

for

-95 to

N.A.

-65

with

image,

an

"

Fig. 4
xv.,
Nitzschia

"

sixth

with

Nitzschia

"

sixth

with

Nitzschia

sixth

with

latum,

396

a
"

"

--

"

sixth
sixth

twelfth

"

definition
low- power

scope,
Micro-

"

ocular

new

Microscope,

"The

objectives, 300,

"

crystallinaas

Table
of

151

all

boscis
Pro-

with

objectives
of Blowfly

ct *c ".
kinds
350
be
fulfilled with

to

of

all

ty;

non-fulfilment

sine-law,

of

368
with

293

the

centring

true

Abbe

of

components

plate, 369

stability

of

by Van

330

of

colours

test-object,385
with

Abbe

plate,

362
"

370

condenser,

of

an.^u-

scale, 399
bacilli, 399

Semi-apo,"
of

399

scalar;

Tubercle

combinations

lar,
ocu-

50 ^

curvula, 399

the

tine

Heiink's

ment
adjusttest

capitata, 388

Synedra
"

Medlar,"

394

maxima,

Produra

with

objectives

"

scj.

Pleurosigma

with

for
"

Discovery

plate,

with

et

394

amphipleura pelluattempted photograph

sixth

"

to

-2, 405

107
"
"

Abbe

conditions

adjustable

-65,

to

1-40

with

of, Plate

for
and

of

terms

N.A.

N.A.

cida

372

Bacteriological

compensating

expl
into

from

sixth

291
"

tures
aper-

269

from
sixth

"

test-object,

critical

fig. 2,

term

convert

inch,

384
Plate

":

"

79

dry quarter, 395

dry twelfth, 365
from
apochromats
ct
I"3", 365
sci.

"

"

experiments
concerning
ditlruction
phenomena,
84
Summit
of prism, 7
gemma

compared,

how

"

of

Surirella

454

microscope

footnote,

46
the diameter,
adopted by Leitz,
Reichert
and
Zeiss, footnote
46
make
Substances
that
mens
good specifor polarised light, 220
when
ing
measurSuggestions by Nelson
large objects, 266
small
when
measuring
by Nelson
objects, 265
to
eyepiece
Suiting
compensating
Summary

numerical

"

microscope,

diameter,

tion
magnifica-

on

Tertiary spectrum,
389
Testing a dry eighth, 395

of, 42
fine adjustment
to, 232
Knglish

jc

and

metre

the

46

44,
and

apo-

268

142

diaphragm,

"

Tenth-

"

Abbe,

and

photographs,

Telescopic

"

Continental

Taverner's

47

condenser,

"

achromatism,

different

apertures,

444

after

arrangements

44.

with

168

Heliostat,

objectives

for

semi-apochromatism,
chromatism,
71
limits
to be placed

"

centring arrangements
"

densers,
con-

conde

conditions
fulfil

must

"

"

N.A.

and

!52

259
"

British

270
of different

lengths

"

"

of

measures,

conversions,N.A,
146

into

F/ratios,

"

the

three

Test
low

for

medium

Test-

an

hik'h powers,

for

of

zones

powers,

406

p"

plate, Abbe's,

350

ol"j

378

INDEX
Trade,

Textile
Bausch

"

for, by

microscopes

Lomb,

533
Heurckia

Van

Louisiana

object,

273
Van

Beck,
274
Himmler,
272
Reichert, 275

Heurck's

test-

for

use,

as

test-

402

object,

fine

of

how

adjustment,

to

ness
steadi-

the

ascertaining

55

microscopical vision, 431

"transformer,
467
223,
Theoretical
Verniers, 245 et seq.
Optics, by Drude, 425
justment
Thick
and
thin
Versalic
cover-glasses, adobjective by Watson, 300
Vertical
for, 233, 234
illuminators, 207, 208, 209
of
Vibrations
of ether, 416
Thickness
rected
corcoverglass, how
and
collar
of light, 416
by draw-tube
of light-waves,
correction, 74, 75
of, 416
range
Violet
and
red
Thorpe's grating replicas, 171
light, 91, 92, and
Three
Plate
xix.
types of objectives, 61
Virtual
of
an
zones
objective, testing for,
image, 21, 22
Visual
achromatism
of lens, 67
359
and
Transformer
Heurck,
by Van
photographic
objectives, 68
223,
of average,
light, wave-length
467
87
Traviss's
Expanding
Stop, 174
how
Waterhouse
Museum
to use,
Microscope, 329
174
Water-immersion
for
new
lamp, 505
bacteriological
gas
Trick
of the computer,
364
use, egg
Water
Troughs by Kingsford, 204, 442
polarising angle, 212
Watson
" Sons'
Student's
Leybold s, 171
Edinburgh
of
of
True
centring
Microscope, 294
components
Abbe
Fram
objective, testing for with
Microscope, 280
devised
Hand-magnifier,
by Mr.
plate, 369
Tube
of compound
Nelson,
microscope, 33
29
the
thread
on
Holoscopic series of objectives,87,
nosepiece details,
Theories

of

""

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

282, 297,

277,
Tube-

length, mechanical
explained, 124, 125
of microscope,
how

"

effects

differences

thickness

of

cover-glasses,

"

"

the
the

"

"

"

struction
change in conis effected, 78
be
altered
when
a
adding
or
a
revolving
nosepiece
Zeiss
changer," 467

how

distance,
Small

"

illumination

apparatus,

"

Unachromatic

of

unit,
"

33,

's

"

for

of
short

Wave

"

fronts, 419

"

inch

objectives,

"

tube

to

long,

explained, 78

to
and

"

502
of different

adjust

vice versa,

to

the

into

tenth-

of

and

vice

conversion

parts

into

inch," 156,

tenth-metres,

into

method

correction

turned

how

mettfes, 156, 269, 502

in tenth-metres,
how
turned

Heurck's

57
focal

collar

scope,
Micro-

Metallurgical

"numbers

fitting

208

Wave-length
(average) in visual light,
87
Wave-lengths,
420
in
"'numbers
the
to
expressed

218

of
plane
objective,
locating position of, 125 et seq.

Use

"

Works

271

Universal

Upper

Van

diatoms,

454

318

189
lens, 66

Under-correction, 66, 67, 75, 361

Undulatory theory of light, 416
Uni-axial
crystals, list of a few,
Units
of measurement,
267

Photographing.

Versalic," 300
Vertical
Illuminator,
"

"

for

Microscope,

"

"

"

particles, 434
of by Siedentopf

392

297

Camera

with

"

Ultra-microscopical

330,

Microscope, 329
objective-changer, 243
ordinary objectives, 277
and
Teacher's
Pharmacy
Dairy
280
Microscope,
sixth
with
specially long working-

74,

233

objective,

to

in

300,

Museum

"

"

it

for

of

"

optical,

correction

75,
"

and

of

502

versa,

explained,

the

spectrum,

5"9
"

equivalent
5"9

waves

to

the

inch,

INDEX

534
surfaces,

Wave

Xylol, its

419

light, 421
plane, 421
Welsbach
Lamp,
165
Wenham's
Paraboloid, 178
Prism, 255, 489
Wesche's
suggestions for objectives
sects,"
of infor
studying
anatomy
346
Wheelstop," 172
find
to
correct
Wheel-stops : how
of the
diameter
box," 173
of vibrations
White
light : number
the
inch
to
usually adopted,

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Systems
light as

Dry
much

not

the

gather

Monochromat

so

Immersion,

"

"

88, 89

"

"

objectives, 82
of objectives, 76,
Working-distance
Wide-angled

488
Metallurgical Microscope
318
by Watson,
2-Inch
useful
Photographic
Wray's
for visual
work, 277
and
how
to
Wright's
Eikonometer,
"

300,
Works

use,

Printed

by

Htutll

n 'atson

"

"

lens, 61

1-6, 202
objective N.A.
objective-changers, 240
objectives, 202, 277, 282, 283, 300,
33",

34i

and
Teacher's
Dairy
Pharmacy
Microscope, 281
reflecting condenser, 184
for
Standard
the
microscope
class
of
critical
highest
work, 32,

"

"

470

HandLoup
microscope, 29, 408
Metallurgical Microscope,
312
model, 295
Microscope,
1905
"

"

do

"

229

"

87

apochromatics,
341
Bacteriological Microscope, 295
Binocular, 256
centring substage for objectives to
be used
as
condensers, 45
Continental
substage, 46
coverglass gauge,
451,
452
Handmicroscope, 29
low- power
as
Loup
condenser,
"

"

Why

78

Zeiss's

of

"

use,

of, 421

qombination

Waves,

"

"

332
"

stereoscopic eyepiece, 258

Zigzag lamp, 166, 185, 217

I'iney,Ld.t

London

and

AyUtbury,

England.

LIST
PLATE

OF

PLATES

I.

Figs.

Figs. 3A
Figs. 4A

and

2.

and

Ileurck's

Van

Test-Object.

Navicula

and
"Full"
lyra : "Empty"'
Magnification.
and
Abbe
Test-plate.
4B.
shown
Spectral (diffraction) beams
as
back
Figs. 5 and 6.
lens of
at
N.A.
I '40
Objective when
Pleurosigma angulatum is on the Stage.

PLATE

II.

Figs,
PLATE

i,

2,

3,

and

Abbe's

4.

Test- Plate

in

use.

III.

Figs,

Fig. 3.
PLATE

31$.

and

2.

Abbe's

Objective

Test- Plate
corrected

not

in
for

use.

Sine-law

Image

outside

the

focus.

IV.

Fig. I.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
PLATE

V.

PLATE

VI.

for Sine-law:
Objective not corrected
Amphipleura pellucida.
Coscinodiscus
opthalanthus.

Navicula

Fig.

I.

lyra.

Amphipleura

Pleurosigma
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3. Pleurosigma
Fig. 3A. Pleurosigma
PLATE

VII.

PLATE

VIII.

pellucida in

dots.

angulatum.
angulatum.
angulatum.

Pleurosigma angulatum.

Fig. I.
Figs. 2
Fig. 4.

Coscinodiscus
Podura
3.
Surirella gemma.

and

asteromphalus.
Scale.

Image

within

tlie focus.

PLATE

i.

Pleurosigma angulatum.

2.

Nitzschia

3-

Stauroneis

PLATE

the

Hemidiscus

Blow-fly.

cuneiformis.
Smithii.

Navicula

I.

Pinnularia

2.

Surirella

I.

Pygidium

of

the

Pygidium
Pygidium

of

the

Flea.

of

the

Flea.

nobilis.
gemma.

XVIII.
Flea.

XIX.

Pygidium of the Flea.

Pygidium of the Flea.
Amphipleura
pellucida.

Amphipleura pellucida.

XX.

Fig. I.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3-

The

Head

and

Proboscis

of the

The

Head

and

Proboscis

of the

of

Pygidium

the

Blow-fly.
Blow-fly.

Flea.

XXI.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
PLATE

of

Proboscis

Fig.

Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3Fig. 4.

PLATE

Louisiana.

Amphipleura
pellucida.
Actinoptychus boliviencis.
Amphipleura
pellucida.

Fig.

Fig.

PLATE

Heurckia

Van

XVII.

Fig. 2.
Fig. 3PLATE

phenicenteron.

XVI.

Fig. i.
Fig. 2,
Fig. 3PLATE

obtusa.

XV.

Fig" i.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3Fig- 4PLATE

537

XIV.

Fig.
Fig.
FigPLATE

PLATES

OF

LIST

I.

Navicula

2.

Synedra

3.

Navicula

major.

Nitzschia

singalensis.

cuspida.
capitata.

XXII.

Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
PLATE

XXIII.

PLATE

XXIV.

PLATE

XXV.

PLATE

XXVI.

PLATE

XXVII.

PLATE

XXVIII.

Fig.
Fig.

Amphipleura
Nitzschia
Navicula
The

The
The

cuspida (enlarged).

Soldier
Foot

pellucida.

singalensis.

of

Beetle.

African

an

Spider.

Spiney Spider.

Juncus lamprocarpus.

i.

Pulex

2.

The

irritans.
Female

Corn-fly.
35

PLATE

Figs.

and

is

balls

in

seen

"

Fig.

The

38."

seen

distinctly

Fig.

rendered.

which

on

black

"white

it

be

rests

in

shown

as

little

the

their

Fig.

2.

six
of

lens

portion

outer

the

because

spectra

See

6.

each

3A

and

dots

The

photographed

but
The

aperture.

(the

by

3
and

351

slip

dots

can

be

no\v

The

stretching

glimpsed

which

upon

the

cover

362.

enlarged.

plate

around

seen

of

spectral
emulsion

"venue"

The

Photomicrography.

aperture

an

it.

called

Abbe

magnification,

same

N.A.

lines

used

the

floor

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N.A.

i'35

to

good

about.

page
x

one

and

386.
1300.

the

spherical,
hemi-

scattered
it

See

the

is

another

at

semi-apochromat,

apochromat.

apochromat

seen

of

impossible

certain

circular,

appear

fluffiness

no

well

appear

almost

be

to

easy

dots

correction

colour

correction
with

irregular-shaped

should

be

it

make

to

not

ones

of

should

as

is

the

plane

whiteness

the

1*35

of

row

sufficiently,

there

bent

and

one

of

N.A.

double

The

irregular-shaped

type

focus

magnified

floor;

the

valve

and

cleanness

ascertain

both

apochromat

2-mm.

when

satisfactorily,
focus,

correct

flat,

siime

TURGIDA.

diatom,

The

photograph

at

separated,
not

dots
from

2.

above

background.

the

Reichert

EPITHEMIA
in

markings

is

valve

small
free

386.

enlarged

subsequently

exceedingly

discretely

the

visible

are

Photographed

The

appear

As

"effects

specimen.

Fig.

to

defined.

crisply

XL

to

the

PLATE

Fig.

favourite

objectwith

lest

This

RHOMBOIDES.

NAVICULA

i."

XII.

opticiansto

many
and

is

the

test

old

an

still very

but

type of colour-correction

in the
perfection brought about
The
black-and-white
apochromat.
effects
visible with this diatom
dot
are
by focussing the different planes.
be intenselyblack, and
The
focus should
the whole
dots at the back
diatom
brisk and
entire
absence
look particularly
of all
should
bright, with an

a
semi-apochromat,
computation and workmanship

of

ot

So

the white

too

valve,

with

using

fluffiness when

traces

dots

ought
of

appearance

no

to

an

with

Photographed
CYMATO

Fig. 2-

Zeiss

be

objective of high
pearls laid

3-mm.

SO

LEA.

three-quarter

use

387.
apochromat

green

A.

and

1^40

aperture.
surface

of

perfect definition
light to remove
x

1200.

useful and

most

cone

striae should

transverse

the

upon

obtain

To
to

necessary

page

PLEURA

object. If looked at with

white
light" faintlymarked

like

fog being visible.

See

spectrum.

well-made

appear

it may
semi-apochioir.at

secondary

the

the

of

"

4k

the

also

delicate testocular

12

direct

"

visible when

be

just

fine semi-apochromat or an
a
apochromatic objective. Oblique
the median
line particularly
lightreveals these striations towards
striation should
be so distinctly
defined that
as
abruptly interrupted. Each
in rather a round-shaped extremity.
be seen
An
inferior
it can
to terminate
will most
the blunt ends, or
combination
likelyfail to show
perhaps may
the striations at all,the floor of the valve
fail to show
even
appearing a
a
(which is usually
foggy desert void of detail. With
three-quartercone
the
enable
necessary) this object is a very searching test, and may

employing
white

"

"

objectiveswhich
microscopistto differentiate between
See
well.
equally
387.
perform
page
Photographed with a Koristka 15-111111.apochromat
Fig. 3." EUPLEURIA

frequentlymentioned
white

diiect

it appears

in the

light(the outer

although
quadrilateral,

are

if the

surface

upper
dots

about

1*35

few

are

sections,

eighteen
triangular in shape.

carefully focussed,

be

N.A.

appear

to

1200.

PULCHELLA
diatom
is not
(Arnot). This
with
literature of the subject. When
examined
zone
being cut off by the irissubstage diaphragm
into

divided

be

to

otherwise

presents

of

most

Each

'

which

section,

extremely

numerous

finest of
Even
full aperture
the
with
together.
With
of
these
distinct
will
indications
faint
dots.
though
apochromats
give
should
illumination
white
they
oblique
appear
very distinctlyseparated with
far
of
course
rendering {heir presence
both types of objectives,
light
green
will j.how
the dots, it is true, but they
combinations
Second-rate
better.
far from
melted
distinctlyseparated. Third-class
together and
appear
minute

crowded

fail

objectives may
illumination.
This

diatom

extreme

law

has

dots

to

good

with

even

presence

oblique

green

387.

page

outer

their

reveal

to

is also

in the

definition
the

See

good test for ascertaining the

very
If the diatom
of
the
field "f view.
part
a

qualityof the
be placed at

the sine
edge of the field,and an objectivebe used in which
the
will
amount
bring
been
no
properly fulfilled,
of focussing
affords
the
of
definition
the
The
a
microscopist
quality
focus.

not
a

of

means

otherwise

classifyingobjectivesthat

perform

very

sensibly

equal.
1'hotographedwith
Fig.

4.

Hartnack

2-mm.

apochromat

PELLUCIDA.

AMPHIPLEURA

lines with

oblique green
Photographed with a

To

light suitably placed.

Zeiss 3mm.
apochromat

N.A.

1*40

show

the

1600.

See

1000.

longitudinal
page

196,

footnote.

Kig. 5." AM PHI

suitablyarranged to
Taken

with

Zeiss

show

With

PELLUCIDA.

PLEURA
the

dots.

Compare

apochromat
3-111111.

with

1400.

oblique green

5 and 6, Plate XIII.

See page
196.

light

PLATE

XII.

Fig. 4.

Fig- 5-

Fig.

Fie.

2.

PLATE

i.-NITZSCHIA

Fig.

by

closed,

partially

Fig.

NITZSCHIA

2."

for

test

specimen

the

test

Leland

central

TVth

iris

the
medial

and

apochromat

very

diaphragm

zones.

N.A.

1*40

1440.

impinge

not

particularly

with

with

of

should

the

upon

the

they
and

power

and

light

substage
N.A.

apochromat

4-mm.

seen,

necessary,

that

semi-

or

but

sufficient

be

taken

be

obliquity

any

Zeiss

be

ocular

be

only

not

light

oblique

must

care

the

exceedingly

an

apochromatic

an

should

provided

is

diatom

whether

dots

No

one

critical)

does

This

The

separable,

good

be

to

Photographed

(for

from

the

condenser.

0*95

800.

See

398.

page

Fig.
almost

NITZSCHIA

3"
as

faint,

the

use

of

Fig.

blue

the

as

See

glass).

the
of

of

be

Reichert

not

N.A.

the

haze,

usually

are

See
x

page

show

the

399.

1000.

in this

dots
to

4-111111.

corrected,

0*95

required

feeble

case

well

accompanying

all
a

this

markings.

diatom

are

without

them

photomicrograph.

which

is

visible

readily

character.

apochromat

4-mm.

See

N.A.

0*95

Oblique

blue

399.

page
720.

light

(Zeiss

Leitz

apochromat

2-mm.

PELLUCIDA.

N.A.

1^30

Oblique

blue

1600.

light

(Zeiss

glass).

Photographed
page

with

if

196.
a

AMPHIPLEURA

6."

is

PELLUCIDA.

page
with

in

absence

combination
a

be

Although

displayed

entire

in

apochromat

objective

good

for

test-object

dots

secondary

the

4-mm.

AMPHIPLEURA

5."

Photographed
Fig.

an

with

Photographed

blue

light,
be

of

hide

MAXIMA.

easily,

green

should
correction

the

combination

the

Leitz

NITZSCHIA

4."

fairly

There

if

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Another
The

preceding.

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Photographed

icsolved

the

as

flurfiness

resulting

Fig.

CURVULA.

difficult

exceedingly

See

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(-Jth) objective

4-mm.

distinctly

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trans-

and

completely

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SCALARIS.

combination.

apochromatic
should

should

mm.

exceedingly

and

small

very

387.

page

good

"

Powell

especially

more

with

These

dots.

first-class

test

Photographed
See

minute

resolved

distinctly

is

SIGMA

with

diatom

XIII.

Reichert

mm.

apochromat

N.A.

1*30

1500.

PLATE

XIII.

"0

bb

tUO

PLATE

Fig.

test

i."

PLEUROSIGMA

To

show

objective

the

be

to

the

test

Ard.

Using

for

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and

specimen
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It

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fail

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the

will

and

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to

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lines

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in

shown

will

well-marked

very

Fig.

Plate

i,

exceptionally

be

superiority

Owing

resolving
be

\\a-

1000.

severe

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the

prove

fail.

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point

mentioned

see

with

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theoretical

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the

reached,

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0*95

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Occasionally,

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396.

diatom,

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fine

respect.

searching

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the

This

the

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in

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and

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This

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to

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See

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with

Photographed

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"

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of

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PHENICENTERON.

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shown.

8-mm.

360

and

2.

STAURONEIS

distinctly

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Zeiss

enlarged

subsequently

-mm.,

transparency

page

and

is

required.

381

pages

4-111111.

OBTUSA.

over

nearly

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Koristka

and

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ance.
appearis

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by

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firmly glimpsed

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separated,
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the

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In

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NITZSCHIA

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Photographed
Fig.

focus
of

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closed

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ANGULATUM

this

correction

the

XIV.

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8-mm.

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to

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Sec

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page

them

but

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about

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discretely

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in fog.

illumination
401.

is

dots

The

aperture.

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diatom

To
x

700

show
with

PLATE

XIV.

Fig.

Fig.

i.

Fig. 3-

2.

PLATE

Fig.
for

HEURCKIA

-VAN

i.

6-mm.

full

at

even

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than

when

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'/),

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is

made

li^nt

the

photomicrograph).
azimuth,

correct

distinctly
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is

"

photomicrograph
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perhaps

Lomb,

seen

Fig.

See

1000

blue

is

to

Of

four

to

necessary

micrographs
photo-

It
dots

the

402.

page

magnification.
show

Bausch

by

the

but

test,

See

dots.

tin-

enlarged

those

notably

smallest

the

at

be

which

with

Watson.

by
in

See

1000.

196

pages

and

Koristka

will

to

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thing
any-

with

Photographed

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380.

BOLIVIENCIS.

inch.

an

with

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3.-ACTINOPTYCHUS

i-inch

Zeiss

difficult

rather

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diatom

270.

406.

page

Fig.

is

diameters

(Zeiss

with

see

this

diatom

that

Photographed
i'35

nearly,

very

will

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privilege

our

Holoscopic

the

up

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into

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like

N.A.

has

PELLUCIDA
this

of

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approach

2.-AMFHIPLEURA

therefore

it

quarter

particularly

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Fig.

to

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in

turned

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was

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by

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between

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to

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A

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12

LOUISIANA.

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XV.

4."

AMPHIPLEURA

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Details

within

positions.

and

PELLUCIDA
the

the

Spec

imc-n

Author's

limits
about

new

of

as

blue

possibility.
110,000

lines

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screen

Even

to

dots
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i apochromatic

with

seen

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can

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See

the

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page

Addenda.
in

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402.

PLATE

Fig.

PROBOSCIS

i."

objectives

not

as

No

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if

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limited

good

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and

at

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Photographed

Fig.

Zeiss

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Fig.

into

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[Fig.
graf/iy.}

has

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(taken
two

Holoscopic

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SMITHII.
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by

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Scientific

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Press

270.

from

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diatom

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fat-

407.

far

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for

objects

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page

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Zeiss

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Green

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HEMIDISCUS

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Frontispiece
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OF

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Slight
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407.

book

I'hotomuro-

PLATE

XVI.

Fig.

Fig.

2.

i.

Fig.

3-

PLATE

Fig.
about
Zeiss

to

'40.

learn

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PINNULARIA

T."

SURIRELLA
learn

page

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XVII.

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GEMMA.

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372.

of

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high

moderately

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powers.

powers.

photograph

to

those
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Photographed

371.

instruction

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photograph
with

to

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,V

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N.A.

PLATE

XVII.

flfll'h
Fig.

i.

Fig.

2.

PLATE

Fig.
long

PYGIDIUM

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romatic

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Note

With

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340.

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OF

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for

389

pages

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OF

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into

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hair.
clean.

PLATE

XVIII.

Fig.

i.

PLATE

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
No

2.

Part

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Fig.

to

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The
"

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"

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page

page

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page

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as

400.

page

400.

in

photographed

red

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493.

photographed
493.

600.

PELLUCIDA
be

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The

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OF

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XIX.

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blue

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PLATE

Fig.

HEAD

i.-THE
without

Mounted

Fig.

in

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specimen

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the

of
of

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photographs,
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discs.

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page

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page

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to

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XX.

view

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In
of

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XX.

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Fig.

i.

3-

2.

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Fig.

of

well

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Fig.
with
the

are

length

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shown

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Zeiss

flat.

Fig.

3.

diatom

the

and

than

some

MAJOR.

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392.

very

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light,

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1500.

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of

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page

403.

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resolve

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valve

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NAVICULA
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CUSPIDA.

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BEETLE.

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animal

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SPIDER.

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414

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and

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415.

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whole
See

LAMPROCARPUS.
of

pages

XXVI

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414

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415.

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the

Note

same

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the

30.

PLATE

XXVII.

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Fig.

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definition
See

28.

adapt

pages

415.

2."

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body

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over.

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414

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IRRITANS.

1'ULEX

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8.

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corrected

414

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the

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415.

in

difficulty
body

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play

havoc