Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
T.A. Santos
Ordem dos Engenheiros, Portugal
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Table of contents
Preface
Organisation
XI
XIII
Ship traffic
Maritime situational awareness indicators based on AIS and MONICAP information
R.P. Gonalves de Deus, R.M. Correia Guerreiro & R.M. Alves Francisco
The importance of satellite-based vessel monitoring system (VMS) for fisheries management:
A case study in the Portuguese trawl fleet
T. Pilar-Fonseca, A. Campos, P. Fonseca, B. Mendes, V. Henriques, J. Parente & M. Afonso-Dias
19
An algorithm for minimum-time ship-routing for the North Indian Ocean region
D. Sen & C.P. Padhy
25
35
Ship design
Experimental study of the performance of a rigid wing sail
J.H. Bettencourt, N. Fonseca & C. Guedes Soares
45
53
63
73
79
87
Design development of an oil and garbage collector and boom layer vessel
J.A. Valente, P. Antunes, L. Batista & S. Ribeiro e Silva
97
107
115
Conversion of large-bore diesel engines for heavy fuel oil and natural gas dual fuel operation
J.M. Gomes Antunes, R. Mikalsen & A.P. Roskilly
121
127
133
Onboard systems
Broadband communications with adhoc networks case study with simulated scenarios
F. Correia, J. Santos & P. Mesquita
141
147
Decision support system for the safe operation of fishing vessels in waves
J.M. Rodrigues, L.P. Perera & C. Guedes Soares
153
165
173
181
189
A static analytical method for the preliminary design of multiple line mooring systems
A. Monarcha & N. Fonseca
195
Estimation of hull bending moment and shear force from ship motions using neural networks
L. Moreira & C. Guedes Soares
205
213
Experiment and time domain method comparison for the responses of a containership
induced by the three sisters abnormal waves
S. Rajendran, N. Fonseca, & C. Guedes Soares
223
Dynamic analysis of a purse seiner and a trawler fishing vessels in the Portuguese coastal zone
M. Tello, S. Ribeiro e Silva & C. Guedes Soares
231
241
Ship structures
Influence of boundary constraints on the residual stresses and deformations in a
high strength steel plate after welding
M. Adak & C. Guedes Soares
253
Innovation protecting ballast tanks of new ships against corrosion: An IMO PSPC-compliant
Portuguese-born new coating concept
J. Azevedo
261
269
Structural reinforcement study of a floating dock mooring structure using FEM software
T. Carvalho, E. Mota & A. Correia Rodrigues
277
VI
285
293
301
309
A new trigonometric shear deformation theory for sandwich and composite laminated plates
J.L. Mantari, A.S. Oktem & C. Guedes Soares
317
Layerwise finite element formulation for the analysis of laminates and sandwich panels
J.L. Mantari, A.S. Oktem & C. Guedes Soares
323
331
339
Comparison of numerical and experimental results of the modal analysis of a ship deck panel
G. timac, H. Luo & C. Guedes Soares
349
Ultimate strength assessment accounting for the effect of finite element modelling
M. Tekgoz, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
353
Fatigue damage assessment of a tanker structural detail based on the effective notch stress approach
K. Tran Nguyen, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
363
375
381
393
399
407
415
425
433
441
VII
Reliability assessment of a plate subjected to randomly non-uniform corrosion and compressive load
J.E. Silva, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
451
459
467
Comparison of two wind and wave data sets from the North Atlantic
R.M. Campos & C. Guedes Soares
473
Evaluation of the wave models SWAN and STWAVE in shallow water using nested schemes
M. Gonalves, E. Rusu & C. Guedes Soares
481
Assessment of wave height extreme quantiles in the North Atlantic using regional frequency analysis
C. Lucas, G. Muraleedharan & C. Guedes Soares
487
Maximum entropy modelling of extreme significant wave heights on the Portuguese coast
V. Petrov, C. Guedes Soares & H. Gotovac
497
Boussinesq-type numerical model for wave propagation near shore and wave penetration in harbors
L. Pinheiro, C.J. Fortes, J.A. Santos, L. Fernandes & M. Walkley
505
Influence of wave data bases on the long term prediction of wave induced loads on ships
J. Queirs, M. Bernardino & C. Guedes Soares
513
Study of the wave transformation in the central part of the Portuguese nearshore with
high resolution models
E. Rusu, M. Gonalves & C. Guedes Soares
525
533
539
Renewable energy
Effect of the environment on the design loads on monopile offshore wind turbine
H. Bagbanci, D. Karmakar & C. Guedes Soares
547
553
563
Reflection and transmission of gravity waves by a large floating circular elastic plate
J. Bhattacharjee & C. Guedes Soares
571
VIII
579
585
595
607
613
623
Development of an integrated system for personnel and equipment transfer to offshore wind turbines
T.A. Santos, E. Carichas, N. Fonseca, J. Pessoa, F. Duarte, J. Abreu Valente, L. Baptista,
J. Cruz & M. Leal
631
647
655
Diverse
The CARCACE project deepwater platforms Modular designs for in situ experiments
D. Ribeiro & A. Hilrio
669
677
Author index
683
IX
Preface
Since 1987, the Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering branch of the Portuguese Association of Engineers
(Ordem dos Engenheiros) and the Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC) of the Instituto
Superior Tcnico (IST), Technical University of Lisbon, have been organizing national conferences on Naval
Architecture and Marine Engineering. Initially, they were organised annually and later became biannual events.
These meetings had the objective of bringing together Portuguese professionals and giving them an opportunity
to present and discuss the ongoing technical activities. The meetings have been typically attended by 150 to 200
participants and the number of papers presented at each meeting was in the order of 30 in the beginning and 50
at later events.
The papers presented in these meetings have been collected in a series of books written in Portuguese:
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1987), Design of Ships and Marine Structures, Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering in Portugal (in Portuguese), Vol. I, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-00-2).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1987), Maritime Transport and Shipyards, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
in Portugal (in Portuguese), Vol. II, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-01-0).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1988), The Achievements of Portuguese Engineering, Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering in Portugal (in Portuguese), Vol. III, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-02-9).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1989), Maritime Safety, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering in Portugal
(in Portuguese), Vol. IV, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-03-7).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1989), Maritime Safety, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering in Portugal
(in Portuguese), Vol. V, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-04-5).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1989), The Teaching of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Naval Architecture
and Marine Engineering in Portugal (in Portuguese), Vol. VI, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-05-3).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1990), The Merchant Fleet, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering in Portugal
(in Portuguese), Vol. VII, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-06-1).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1990), The Fishing Fleet, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering in Portugal
(in Portuguese), Vol. VIII, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-07-X).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1992), Exploitation of the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone, Naval Architecture
and Marine Engineering in Portugal (in Portuguese), Vol. IX, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-08-8).
Guedes Soares, C. (Ed.) (1995), The Portuguese Maritime Industry in an European Context, Naval Architecture
and Marine Engineering in Portugal (in Portuguese), Vol. X, IST, Lisbon, (ISBN: 972-8348-09-6).
Guedes Soares, C. and Mira Monerris, A. (Eds.) (1997), Safety, Quality and Environment in the Maritime
Industries (in Portuguese), Instituto Superior Tcnico, (ISBN: 972-8348-10-X).
Guedes Soares, C. and Beiro Reis, J. (Eds.) (2000), The Sea and the Challenges of the Future (in Portuguese),
Edies Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon, Vol. XI, (ISBN: 972-689-179-5).
Guedes Soares, C., Beiro Reis, J. and Martins Guerreiro, M.B. (Eds.) (2002), The Sea, Source of Sustainable
Development (in Portuguese), Edies Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon, Vol. XII, (ISBN: 972-689-215-5).
Guedes Soares, C. and Brito, V.G. (Eds.) (2004), Maritime Activities and Engineering (in Portuguese), Edies
Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon, Vol. XIII, (ISBN: 972-68-229-5).
Guedes Soares, C. and Brito, V.G. (Eds.) (2006), Innovation and Development in Maritime Activities,
(in Portuguese), Edies Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon, Vol. XIV, (ISBN: 978-972-689-232-8).
Guedes Soares, C. and Costa Monteiro, C. (Eds.) (2008), The Portuguese Maritime Sector (in Portuguese),
Vol. XV, Edies Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon, (ISBN: 978-972-689-237-3).
At the same time, as the conferences have become more mature, the international contacts have also increased
and the industry became more international in such a way that the fact that the conference was in Portuguese
started to hinder its further development with wider participation. Therefore, for the session that was planned
for 2010, a decision was made to experiment with having also papers in English, mixed with the usual papers
in Portuguese.
The national meetings have normally taken place around the month of November but, given that IST was
completing 100 years of existence in May 2011, another decision was made to postpone this Conference to
1012 May 2011 so as to associate it also with the commemorations of the 100 years of IST.
Thus, the Naval Architecture component of the 100 years commemorations of IST has become the First
International Conference of Maritime Technology and Engineering (MARTECH 2011). In this transitional
XI
situation, the papers and sessions were in English and in Portuguese, so that the MARTECH proceedings are
two books, the present one in English and another one in Portuguese.
As the decision to change the nature of the Conference was made at a relatively late stage, it was also decided
that the papers from the Conference would be published afterwards instead of being published at the time of the
Conference. This is the reason for the publication of this book at this stage.
The Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering of the Instituto Superior Tcnico (IST) completed its 15th
anniversary during 2010 and during that year an anniversary book was prepared with contributions from several
experts that have cooperated with CENTEC during the years. The publication of that book was postponed to
coincide with MARTECH 2011 and some of the authors of that book made presentations of their papers during
the Conference.
The MARTECH Conference is planned to be continued at two-year intervals and it is planned that at future
events papers will be prepared beforehand and the book with the proceedings will be ready for the Conference.
The contents of the present book are organized in the main subject areas corresponding to the main sessions
in the Conference and within each group the papers are listed by the alphabetic order of the authors.
We want to thank all contributors for their efforts and we hope that this Conference will be continued and
improved in the future.
C. Guedes Soares, Y. Garbatov, S. Sutulo & T.A. Santos
XII
Organisation
Conference Chairmen
Prof. Carlos Guedes Soares, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Eng. Nuno Santos, Ordem dos Engenheiros, Portugal
Organizing Committee
Prof. ngelo Teixeira, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Eng. Dina Dimas, Ordem dos Engenheiros, Portugal
Dr. Leigh Sutherland, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Eng. Paulo Viana, Ordem dos Engenheiros, Portugal
Prof. Serge Sutulo, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Prof. Srgio Ribeiro e Silva, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr. Tiago A. Santos, Ordem dos Engenheiros, Portugal
Prof. Yordan Garbatov, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Technical Programme & Conference Secretariat
Maria de Ftima Pina, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Sandra Ponce, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
In commemoration of the
100 years of Instituto Superior Tcnico
(1911/2011)
Organised by:
XIII
Sponsored by:
XIV
Ship traffic
ABSTRACT: In this paper we present a set of statistical indicators built from AIS and MONICAP data, which
we designate as maritime situational awareness indicators. To achieve this purpose a prototype was built in order
to easily manipulate large amounts of data and to rapidly implement the necessary routines to build and visualize
these indicators.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
INFORMATION SOURCES
Figure 1. Image
information.
of
SADAP
showing
MONICAP
MONICAP data
MONICAP is a monitoring system for fishery activities that uses GPS (Global Positioning System) for
positioning and Inmarsat C for satellite communications between vessels and shore control centers.
This system started has a pilot project in 1998 by
INOV in Portugal and its results have transformed
the way technology is used in fishery control worldwide. MONICAP system has been industrialized and
his currently installed in more than 800 fishing vessels
in countries such as Portugal, Spain, France, Ireland
and Angola.
The MONICAP system sends information regarding the position, name, speed and heading of fishing
vessels through satellite to a coordinator center in
Norway. This data is sent to each country according
to its maritime areas for which they have jurisdiction
regarding fishing activities. In Portugal the information is received by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, which is then sent to the Portuguese Navy.
MONICAP information is received by internet in
every 6 hour period and stored in a local database.
The storage is performed by an Information System
developed exclusively by the Portuguese Navy called
SADAP (Sistema de Apoio Deciso para a Actividade de Patrulha1 ). SADAP integrates a GIS system
(Geographical Information System) that allows the
user to access statistics regarding fishery inspection
activities and accesses the latest position of fishing
vessels operating in the Portuguese EEZ. The main
purpose of the MONICAP capability in SADAP is
1
Dominant course
INFORMATION ARCHITECURE
Several routines were implemented to build the previous indicators. These routines were embedded on a
prototype developed in MATLAB and a more thorough
description can be found in Melo (2010) and Filipe
2
Kts
3
Hours
4
Nm
5
Course
Sunday (1th)
Monday (2th)
Tuesday (3th)
Wednesday (4th)
Thursday (5th)
Friday (6th)
Saturday (7th)
156
138
135
124
133
152
137
13.2
13.3
13.7
13.4
13.4
12.8
13.1
4.7
5.1
4.6
4.9
4.6
5.1
4.7
29.8
30.7
29.1
30.3
31.8
28
30.6
SE-E
SE-E
N-NE
SE-E
SE-E
NW-N
NW-N
Polygon 1
4.4 Reporting
After choosing a polygon and a day, the user selects
the button to load the AIS and MONICAP data from
the database. This action will draw in the map all
the positions regarding these two types of information
and loads all the list boxes mentioned before. The user
can also export the information contained in the list
boxes to Excel. This option simply copies the content
of the lists to an Excel table.
In order to produce the Maritime Situational
Indicators for a specific polygon and day, the user only
needs to press the ICS button in the toolbar. This
button will produce a small report in a text file with
all the indicators described in this article.
The user can edit the report by filling the polygons
name or add other relevant information. To exemplify
these indicators we have drawn a circle with 70 nautical
miles radius westward from cape Roca, has shown in
Figure 5.
Table 1 shows a weekly variation of the indicators defined in this work. The prototype can be used
to produce this information for a full year. The only
requirement is that the data exists in the database.
5
CONCLUSIONS
J.P. Carvalho
INESC-ID, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
C. Guedes Soares
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tecnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal.
ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on an overview of an autonomous navigation system in maritime transportation that is supplied with intelligent guidance to avoid collision, while respecting the COLREGs rules and
regulations and using expert knowledge in navigation for close quarters manoeuvres. The proposed collision
avoidance process consists of two modules: a fuzzy logic based parallel decision making module and a Bayesian
network based sequential action formulation module. Successful simulation results of the intelligent guidance in
collision avoidance of maritime transportation that is capable of making multiple collision avoidance decisions
and actions in order to avoid complex multi-vessel collision situations are also illustrated in this study.
1
INTRODUCTION
RELATED WORK
The decision making process and strategies in interaction situations of avoidance of collision in maritime
transportation are presented in Chauvin & Lardjane
(2008). Sato & Ishii (1998) proposed combining radar
and infrared imaging method to detect the target
vessel position conditions as a part of the collision
avoidance system. Lisowski et al. (2000) used neuralclassifiers to support the navigator in the process
10
A block diagram for the proposed Collision Avoidance System (CAS) is presented in the Figure 3. The
complete CAS consists of four modules: the Vessel
Tracking & Trajectory Prediction (VTTP) module, the
Collision Risk Assessment (CRA) module, the Parallel
Decision Making (PDM) module, and the Sequential
Action Formation (SAF) module.
The inputs into the VTTP module are the realtime position of the own vessel (xo (k), yo (k)), that
can be measured or estimated by the GPS integrated
Inertial navigational systems, in the Cartesian coordinates, and the real-time position of each target vessels
(Ri (k), i (k)) that is measured in Polar coordinates.
The Range (Ri (k)) and Bearing (i (k)) values of the
ith target vessel can be obtained using Radar or Laser
measurement systems by the kth time instant as further
discussed by Perera and Guedes Soares (2010a).
The VTTP module consists of four units: the Scan
Unit, the Data Classification Unit, the Clustered Data
11
Defuzzification
The collision avoidance decisions, Di (k), for each target vessel are generated by the Defuzzification Unit.
The Fuzzy inference results from the previous unit
are defuzzified based on the output Course Change
FMF and Speed change FMF to obtain the Course
change decisions, Di (k), and Speed change decisions, DVi (k), that will be formulated for collision
avoidance actions in the own vessel navigation.
12
where 2 i is the normalization constant. The conditional observation model for collision risk is assumed
to be a Gaussian distribution with the constant covariance z2 and can be written as:
where 3 i is the normalization constant. Considering the Bayesian Rule, the CRF update from the
observations can be written:
The Collision Risk Functions (CRF) of the own vessel (i (k)) due to the ith target vessel in the kth
time instant are modeled as a Gaussian distribu2
tion i (k) N (i (k), i
(k)), with the mean value
i (k) that is estimated by the average time until
collision, Ti (k), which can be defined as:
where |OPi (k)| is the relative range and Vi,o (k) the
relative speed of the ith target vessel with respect to
the own vessel at the kth time instant. Furthermore, the
2
covariance i
(k) is considered in this distribution.
It is assumed that the CRF, i (k), can be obtained
from noisy Observation Function of Zi (k) and can be
written as:
13
5.5
COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATIONS
14
15
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author has been supported by the Doctoral
Fellowship of the Portuguese Foundation for Science
and Technology (Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia) under contract no. SFRH/BD/46270/2008.
Furthermore, this work contributes to the project of
Methodology for ships manoeuvrability tests with
self-propelled models, which is being funded by the
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
(Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia) under contract
no. PTDC/TRA/74332/2006.
REFERENCES
Anto, P. ]and Guedes Soares, C. 2008, Causal factors in
accidents of high speed craft and conventional ocean
going vessels, Reliability Engineering and System Safety,
vol. 93, pp. 12921304.
Benjamin, M. R., and Curcio, J. A., 2004, COLREGS
based navigation of autonomous marine vehicles, in
IEEE/OES Autonomous Underwater Vehicles, pp. 3239.
Benjamin, M. R., Curcio, J. A., and Newman, P. M., 2006,
Navigation of unmanned marine vehicles in accordance
with the rules of the road, in Proceedings of the 2006
IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp. 35813587.
Chauvin, C., and Lardjane, S. 2008, Decision making and
strategies in an interaction situation: Collision avoidance
at sea, Transportation Research, vol. Part F, no. 11,
pp. 259262.
Cheng, X. D., Liu, Z. Y., and Zhang, X. T., 2006, Trajectory
optimization for ship collision avoidance system using
genetic algorithm, in OCEANS Asia Pacific, pp. 15.
Cockcroft, A. N., and Lameijer, J. N. F., 2001, A Guide to
The Collision Avoidance Rules. Burlington, MA. USA:
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Guedes Soares, C. and Teixeira, A. P. 2001, Risk Assessment
in Maritime Transportation. Reliability Engineering and
System Safety, Vol. 74, pp. 299309.
Hasegawa, K., 1987, Automatic collision avoidance system
for ship using fuzzy control, in Proceedings of 8th Ship
Control System Symposium, pp. 234258.
Hong, X., Harris, C. J., and Wilson, P. A., 1999, Autonomous
ship collision free trajectory navigation and control
algorithms, in Proceedings of 7th IEEE International
Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory
Automation, vol. 2, pp. 923929.
16
17
M. Afonso-Dias
Centro de Investigao Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
ABSTRACT: Satellite-based Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) data, consisting of vessel location and speed,
have been used for fisheries control. However, the usefulness of these data can be extended to fisheries research,
as the outputs provided by this system make it possible to map and quantify the fishing activity. One possible
application is the estimation of effective fishing effort. Moreover, the cross analysis of effort with the corresponding vessel landings, allows the estimation of landings per unit effort (LPUE), used as a proxy of stock
abundance in fisheries management. VMS data with 10-minute interval was processed for a Portuguese coastal
trawler operating off the west coast, using GeoCrust 2.0, a geographical information system which identifies
fishing trips and towing events (hauls) within trips. This information was then used to characterize vessel activity.
It is demonstrated how high-resolution VMS data allows to understanding fishing tactics and derive more precise
series of effort estimates.
The Portuguese vessel monitoring system (MONICAP), created in 1987, was the first implemented
in Europe, being presently operating in vessels with
length overall (LOA) higher than 15 meters (EC,
2003). Global Positioning System (GPS) data for
each vessel, consisting of a succession of geographical locations (latitude, longitude), dates, times, speed
and course, are received by a blue-box (satellitetracking device installed on board Community fishing
vessels), recorded and automatically transmitted via
satellite (Loran-C) to the Portuguese Fishery Directorate (DGPA/IGP), the national monitoring authority responsible for marine surveillance. Until 2004,
records were obtained each 10 minutes, but since then,
according to European Union (EU) regulations the frequency of data transmission may be at least once every
two hours, if the national Fisheries Monitoring Center
(FMC) has the possibility of polling the actual position
of the fishing vessels (EC, 2003), which is the case of
Portugal.
These geo-referenced data have been exclusively
used with the purpose of fisheries control, in particular to check whether vessels are operating outside the
six nautical miles line off the coast as required by law.
However, the usefulness of MONICAP data can be
extended to fisheries research purposes, as the analyses of data provided by this system makes it possible
to map and quantify the fishing activity. One possible application is the estimation of series of effective
fishing effort. Moreover, the cross analysis of effort
19
(Merluccius merluccius). A different fleet component exploits deepwater crustaceans including the rose
shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) and the Norway
lobster (Nephrops norvegicus).
Herein, we demonstrate the utility of satellite-based
VMS information to map the activity of a Portuguese
coastal fish trawler mainly involved in the capture
of horse mackerel and cephalopods, identify fishing
tactics and estimate effective effort.
DATA ANALYSIS
20
Number of hours
trawled per trip*
Number of hours in
navigation*
Speed in navigation* (kt)
Trawling speed* (kt)
Total trip duration (h)
Total number of hours
trawled
Total number of hauls
Proportion of trawling
time within trips*
RESULTS
LPUE
Octopodidae LPUE*
(kg/h)
Horse mackerel LPUE*
(kg/h)
Total landings in weight
per trip* (kg/trip)
Total landings in value
per trip* (Euros/trip)
Total landings in value
per hours trawled*
(Euro/h)
LP1
LP3
LP5
Total
53
8
28.1
(14.9)
18.9
(10.9)
9.2
35
5
15.7
(9.3)
8.1
(5.5)
7.6
26
6
22.4
(18.9)
12.5
(12.4)
9.9
128
7
23
(15.0)
14.0
(11.0)
9.0
5.9
3.8
1488
1001
7.0
4.1
549
282
6.6
4.0
582
326
6.0
4.0
2899
1770
430
0.65
172
0.50
168
0.53
849
10.9
5.6
4.7
7.0
6.2
61.8
130.3
49.0
886
866
1660
1034
2376
1849
3170
2364
58
140
170
108
*Average estimates.
21
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The fisheries data was supplied to IPIMAR by
the Portuguese General-Directorate for Fisheries and
Aquaculture (DGPA). The processed VMS data was
provided by the University of Algarve (GeoPescas
research project). This work is the continuation of
previous work under the Programme MARE: Fishing
22
Analyses in Fishery andAquatic Sciences (Vol. 2). FisheryAquatic GIS Research Group, Saitama, Japan, 323340.
DGPA, 2010. Recursos da pesca. Srie estatstica, Vol. 23AB, ano 2009. Direco-Geral das pescas e Aquicultura,
Lisboa, Julho 2010, 181p.
EC, 2003. Commission Regulation No. 2244/2003 of 18
December 2003, laying down detailed provisions regarding satellite-based vessel monitoring systems. Official
Journal of the European Union 2003. L333:1727.
Pilar-Fonseca, T., Campos, A., Afonso-Dias, M.,
Fonseca, P., & Mendes, B. 2009. Fleet segmentation of
the Portuguese coastal trawl fishery: a contribution to
fisheries management. ICES CM 2009/O:29.
23
Chinmaya P. Padhy
WIPRO, Kolkata, India
ABSTRACT: This paper presents development of a ship weather routing algorithm for determining minimumtime route. The optimization is based on a form of Dijkstras algorithm. The developed algorithm is investigated
using various realistic wave data for the North Indian Ocean region obtained from the 3rd generation WAM
model. Illustrative minimum-time sea routes on Arabian sea and Bay-of-Bengal have been determined and
presented. The algorithm permits incorporation of all relevant practical and realistic constraints such as presence
of land boundaries, consideration of non-navigable water, effects of wind and current, voluntary speed reduction
due to multiple seakeeping criteria within the framework of the optimization scheme.
INTRODUCTION
Ship routing is concerned with determining an optimal track for ocean voyages based on wave and
weather forecasts of weather, and the vessels seakeeping characteristics. There are a number of different
approaches to calculate the shortest or in some sense
optimal path/route between two nodes representing
the start and destination ports. Within specified limits of weather and sea conditions, the term optimum
may be defined to mean maximum safety and crew
comfort, minimum fuel consumption, minimum time
underway, or any combination of these factors.
It is evident that development of optimal shipweather-routing requires a combination of the following three different areas:
i. Forecasting the sea-conditions (i.e. ocean-state
forecast)
ii. Estimating ship behavior in such ocean wave
conditions
iii. Development of an appropriate and efficient track
or path optimization algorithm.
The last aspect above, i.e. a track-optimization algorithm wherein some objective function is optimized
(maximized/minimized) combines the first two areas.
The optimal ship trajectory problem, or the
so-called problem of weather-routing of ships is a
fairly old problem, and quite a few works can be
traced over the past half a century. A glimpse of
the works done over the past 50 may be seen in
the works of Hanssen and James (1960), Haltiner
et al. (1962), Faulkner (1962), Zoppoli (1972), Chen
(1978), Mitchell and Papadimitriou (1986), Hagiwara
(1985,1989), Perakis and Papadakis (1988), Chen
25
26
or,
of advance, which is the velocity of water past the propeller. Va is related to ship speed by Va = (1 w)V
where w is the wake fraction for the hull.
For a given ship in operation at a given engine
setting, the parameters N , D, t, w are fixed. Thus
J is a direct function of V . Therefore effective
thrust T (1 t) = KT N 2 D4 (1 t) as a function of V
can be plotted if the propulsion characteristics, i.e.
KT KQ J is available. The ship speed will then be
given by the intersection of the effective thrust line and
the resistance line, as shown in Figure 1.
The above procedure is the most proper way to
determine the speed given the total resistance. However, for the present purpose of ship routing application, it has the following difficulties. It needs to
be recognized that the speed has to be determined
between each adjacent grids for all possible path lines
connecting the grids. This will a very large number,
and this number will increase rapidly if the navigational domain is large (i.e. the possible area of the sea
within which the route is expected to lie, e.g. for large
ocean crossings). The other issue is that for each path
line, the value of RT will be different depending on
the prevailing environmental conditions even if RSW is
constant. Thus for each possible path line, one has to
determine the curves (1 t)T and RT against speed,
and then determine the intersection of these two lines
to find VR . This procedure, besides needing the propulsion characteristics in terms of KT KQ J curves,
is therefore extremely time and computer intensive,
and may not be feasible for the present application.
We therefore need to consider some simplified and
approximate methods to determine wij , which is fast
and yet gives the weights within practically acceptable
limits of accuracy.
Before going to simplified methods, we note that
KT J curve can usually be approximated by a straight
line of the form:
or,
with
Thus,
27
wind data. Further, it also needs to be noted that prevailing weather conditions are all assumed constant
over a grid, which itself is an averaging process introducing some inaccuracy. It also needs to be noted that
the error introduced in assuming thrust to remain constant will have similar order of error for all possible
paths, and therefore the determined optimal path will
still remain optimal or near optimal. Thus determination of the reduced speed based on the assumption
that effective thrust is constant over the small range of
speed around the prevailing calm water speed may be
acceptable for practical calculations.
Based on the above assumption, the reduced speed
will be as depicted in Figure 3. If we write
then
To make further simplification, we now made an adhoc assumption that the effective thrust, i.e. (1 t)T
does not vary much over the range VR to V , and
therefore we can take it as constant as far as determination of reduced speed VR is concerned. We note that
the procedure to determine the total added resistance
are all based on approximate theoretical and/or semiempirical formulations, and therefore there is quite
some uncertainty in these values.
Additionally, there will also be some uncertainty in
the forecast weather information like wave data and
28
Thus, by optimizing (minimizing) wi,j for the complete path, the minimum time travel route for the ship
can be found. Here the route optimization due only
for involuntary speed reduction, that is, due to additional drag arising from environmental factors have
been considered. It may be noted that in case of calm
water, w(i,j) reduces to t0 (i, j) = Li,j /V , which is the
travel time taken at constant calm water resistance, and
the minimum-time route becomes the shortest route.
In the present work, both (11) and (14) are used,
and it is found that the difference in the predicted
path from these two is marginal. Therefore finally the
approximate formula (14) is retained, as it is found to
be the most convenient and easy to apply.
The procedure can now be summarized as follows:
Read at each grid the input wave conditions (significant wave height Hs , some typical spectral
period parameter like peak period or average zeroupcrossing period, and direction w ); also read wind
and current data (speed and directions).
Read the initial steady speed (V ) of the vessel.
For each path joining adjacent nodes i and j,
determine the ship heading angle s .
Determine for each grid, the relative heading angle
= s w .
Determine the added resistance Radd for speed V .
Here RAW which is the most significant component can be determined from interpolation from the
database, and the other components (RW and RC ),
if these apply, can be directly computed.
Determine the distance L between the nodes i.e. for
the path joining i and j. This is easily achieved from
the known lat.-long. values of the nodes.
Determine the weights for each grid from eqn. (11)
or (14). Note that this is the weight considering only
the involuntary speed reduction.
A large number of results have been previously published for demonstrating the working of the algorithm,
and its correctness in achieving the minimal time route
(e.g. Padhy 2010), and thus these are not repeated here.
Here we apply the algorithm to determine minimumtime optimal route for two ships termed Ship 1 and
Ship 2 for routes lying in the North Indian Ocean
region, for which realistic wave data are generated
using the 3rd generation WAM. The wave model is
29
Such constraints are also easily handled by thealgorithm, by simply blocking selected areas of ocean.
This is achieved by simply taking such areas as part of
land mass. Thus isolated areas on open ocean which
are not open to navigation can be treated as islands by
simply assigning very large wave heights associated
with those grids. Result shown in Figure 8.
Figure 9 and 10 show the result from the algorithm where the monthly average wave-data is used.
Although the algorithm is run for all twelve months,
here for brevity we show results for only two months,
January and July, the former being a winter month
with relatively calm sea and the latter being a monsoon month with high sea conditions. Note that here
30
31
CONCLUDING REMARKS
32
33
ABSTRACT: This paper aims at studying the maritime traffic off the coast of Portugal. This study is based
on AIS (Automatic Identification Scheme) data, which is registered and maintained by the Portuguese coastal
VTS control centre (CCTMC), referring to the time period between the 9th July and the 9th August 2008.
The decoding of AIS messages is briefly described and computer programs are developed for the analysis and
visualization of the AIS information available for the present study. From the analysis of the AIS information,
the maritime traffic off the coast of Portugal is characterised and a statistical analysis of the ships in the Traffic
Separation Schemes (TSS) is provided. An algorithm is developed to assess the risk profile and the relative
importance of routes associated with ports.
INTRODUCTION
35
2 AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEM (AIS)
Table 1.
Messages
Number
Percentage
Types 1, 2 and 3
Type 5
Type 18
Type 19
Total
122930797
6144137
286371
1466
129362771
95.028%
4.750%
0.221%
0.001%
The AIS information used during this study was provided in raw format. Information contained in AIS
messages is encoded for transmission using appropriate protocols (NMEA AIVDM/AIVDO (Raymond
2009)), and had to be decoded in order to be usable. To
accomplish this, a program was developed in Python
programming language (Python Software Foundation,
2011) that decodes AIS messages of type 1, 2, 3,
5, 18, 19 and 24. Messages of type 1, 2 and 3 are
class A position reports, type 5 messages are ship
static and voyage related data from class A equipments, type 18 messages are standard class B position
reports, type 19 messages are extended class B position reports and type 24 messages, that were not found
in the sample provided, are class B static data reports.
The information decoded from the various message
types was:
Message type 1, 2 and 3: date/time; MMSI; navigation state; rate of turn; speed over ground; position
accuracy; latitude, longitude; course over ground;
heading;
Message type 5: date/time; MMSI, IMO number; ship type; length; breadth; position fix type;
draught;
Message type 18: date/time; MMSI; speed over
ground; position accuracy; latitude; longitude;
course over ground; heading;
Message type 19: date/time; MMSI; speed over
ground; position accuracy; latitude; longitude;
course over ground; heading; ship type; length;
breadth; position fix type.
36
Figure 2 shows the TSS off Cape Roca and the Berlengas area to be avoided, Figure 3 shows the TSS off
Cape S. Vicente.
3.3
37
Non.
dangerous
Table 4.
Southbound lanes
Dangerous
13.95
262
14.86
1237
Non.
dangerous
139.92
12.81 knots
1.96
18.41 knots
233.17 meters
95.94
13 knots
146.83 meters
27.57
12.99 knots
161.73 meters
11.06
10.11 knots
88.1 meters
Figure 4. Ship distribution, TSS off Cape Roca, non dangerous cargo traffic lane, Northbound.
38
Figure 8. Average speeds, TSS off Cape Roca, non dangerous cargo traffic lane, Northbound.
3.5
39
Table 5. Ships out of traffic lanes limits, mean values and standard deviation of lateral position relative to traffic flow, off
Cape Roca TSS.
Ships out of limits
Lateral position
Left
Right
Mean
St. deviation
0.00%
0.00%
0.56%
0.38%
0.47%
0.34%
0.24%
0.00%
0.642
0.573
0.440
0.457
0.185
0.147
0.205
0.166
CONCLUSIONS
40
REFERENCES
Costa, A. 2002. Apontamentos da disciplina de Navegao e
Planeamento, ENIDH.
Goerlandt, F. & Kujala, P. 2010. Traffic simulation based ship
collision probability modeling, Reliability Engineering
and System Safety 96, 91107.
Gouveia, J., Anto, P. & Guedes Soares, C., 2007. Statistical analysis of ship accidents in the Portuguese
waters (in Portuguese), Riscos Pblicos e Industriais, C.
Guedes Soares, A.P. Teixeira e P. Anto (Eds), Edies
Salamandra, Lisboa, Vol. I, pp: 499516.
Guedes Soares, C. & Teixeira, A. 2001. Risk assessment
in maritime transportation, Reliability Engineering and
System Safety 74, 299309.
IMO 2002. Regulation 19 of SOLAS Chapter V Carriage
requirements for shipborne navigational systems and
equipment, International Maritime Organization, available at http://www.imo.org/
Ylitalo, J. 2009. Ship-Ship Collision Probability of the
Crossing Area between Helsinki and Tallinn, A student research project, Helsinki University of Technology,
Espoo, Finland.
Kujala, P., Hanninen, M., Arola, T. & Ylitalo, J. 2008.
Analysis of the marine traffic safety in the Gulf of
Finland, Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 94,
13491357.
Lloyds Register of Shippings 2010. World Fleet Statistics, available at: http://shipbuildinghistory.com/today/
statistics/wldfltgrowth.htm (October 12th 2010).
Montewka, J., Hinz, T., Kujala, P. & Matusiak, J. 2010.
Pro bability modelling of vessel collisions, Reliability
Engineering and System Safety 95, 573589.
Mou J., Tak C., Ligteringen H. 2010. Study on collision
avoidance in busy waterways by using AIS data, Ocean
Engineering 37, 483490.
Python Software Foundation, 2011. Python Programming
Language, http://www.python.org/, April 11, 2011.
Raymond, E. 2009, AIVDM/AIVDO protocol decoding, available at http://gpsd.berlios.de/AIVDM.html
(November 26th 2009).
5650
1121
595
2040
1276
7908
1701
1230
1340
1283
% Total
13558 43.05
2822 8.96
1825 5.79
3380 10.73
2559 8.12
Total 76.66
41
Ship design
ABSTRACT: The performance of a rigid wing sail was studied by wind tunnel experiments. The lift and drag
forces were measured for a range of angles of attack and flap deflections in order to get information about the
sails performance envelope. The results obtained show that the rigid wing sail behaves like a traditional cloth
sail when sailing against the wind, but has limitations on its performance when sailing in favour of the wind.
These limitations are related to the rigid sails design as an airplane wing which does not account for operation
in the low lift to drag ratio regime, contrary to the design of traditional cloth sails.
1
INTRODUCTION
In equilibrium conditions this propulsion forces balances the hydrodynamic resistance produced by the
hull and appendages moving through the water. The
sails also produce another force, the heeling or lateral
force FL that acts in a perpendicular direction to the
vehicles track (hence perpendicular to the propulsion
force).
This lateral force is balanced by the hydrodynamic
lateral force of the hull and appendages and its heeling
moment is balanced by righting moment of the hull
and appendages.
Due to the motion of the vehicle, the incident wind
the wind seen by the sails is a vector composition of
the true wind vector and the vehicles velocity vector.
This apparent wind is then defined by its magnitude VA
and angle with respect to the vehicles centreline A ,
as in Figure 1, and its dependence on the true winds
magnitude and direction and on the vehicles speed is
given by:
45
2.3
46
Figure 2. Polar curve of a sail showing the different aerodynamic efficiency measures.
47
Wing span b
Root chord cr
Tip chord ct
Flap span bf
Flap chord cf
0.785 m
0.397 m
0.255 m
80% b
20% chord
Experimental platform
48
49
50
CONCLUSIONS
51
of the lift force, L, is opposite to that of D, contributing to the propulsion force at low A and to a negative
lateral force for A larger than 100 .
The maximum propulsive force is obtained for an
apparent wind angle around 100 and in this case
the use of a deflected flap increases significantly the
propulsive force. The advantage of using the flap
reduces as A reduces because, although the lateral
force increases, the projection of this force along the
propulsive direction tends reduce and even become
negative below a specific value of A .
REFERENCES
Brederode V. 1997. Fundamentos de Aerodinmica Incompressvel, Edition by the author.
Campbell I. M. C. & Dijkstra G. 2000. Wind Tunnel Tests
on Schooner Rigs and their use in Performance Prediction by VPP Calculations, 16th HISWA Symposium,
pp. 91105, 2000.
Claughton A. R., Campbell I. M. C., Wind Tunnel Testing of Sailing Yacht Rigs, 13th HISWA Symposium,
pp. 89106.
52
ABSTRACT: The paper discusses the design requirements for development of sailing yachts adapted to disabled
people. A significant percentage of the population has some kind of limitation, either in terms of mobility,
sensorial, or intellectual capabilities. In general this prevents the practice of sailing because the boats and yachts
are not adapted to deal with these limitations. This paper starts by identifying and categorizing the disabilities
and the consequences on the sailing activity. Then a list of design requirements is established and a procedure is
recommended to include these requirements into the design of a sailing yacht. Finally, the development of the
layout design for a 10 m sailing yacht for disabled sailors is presented as an illustrative example.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
A disability is often associated with several limitations that may change according to the demands of
the activity performed, for example a paraplegic sailor
may not have a mobility limitation if all the controls are within arm reach. Therefore it is important
to identify which are the limitations that common disabilities have regarding the operation of conventional
sailing yachts. However, there is little published information on disabled people sailing, the most relevant
53
Table 1.
Disability
Physical
Paraplegia e
Quadriplegia
Amputations
Intellectual
Intellectual
disability
Acquired Brain
Injury
Cerebral Palsy
Sensory
Blindness or Visual
Impairment
Hearing Impairment
Secondary
Diabetes
Asthma
Non-permanent adaptations
Personal adaptations
Simple
Low
Direction/
Low
Large &
heel Balance Mobility High Aid to go Sail
Electronic Physical
Body
Colourful
angle aids
aids
boom onboard Controls equipment Performance Protected Controls
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2.2
54
controls should be considered. All the considerations made in terms of the control systems are nonpermanent and may be changed according to the crew
needs. Modular solutions are recommended to adjust
to the individual requests.
Simple controls are required when the user cannot
understand intuitively the system operation or when
there is no physical ability to cope with it. Electric
devices are often employed because they reduce the
physical requests and are able to be operated by a
variety of interfaces. However, there are people who
benefit from several adaptations but still wish to sail
as a sport and search for intense physical activity, and
again a solution may be found with modularity, providing for example the possibility to operate the systems
manually or with the aid of an electric system.
Little literature exists on the causes of injuries sustained whilst sailing and most of the studies are
concerned with high performance athletes, which suffer from specific injuries mostly related with overuse
of particular areas of the body. For more representative,
normal sailing a relevant study was made of cruising sailors who spend most of the year on offshore
cruising yachts (Rouvillian, et al., 2007). Figure 1
reports the most frequent places where trauma occur
onboard cruising yachts. The deck is the most dangerous area due to the high exposure to the environment
and equipment without effective means of protection.
The cockpit is more protected than the deck but most
of the work is performed here with the associated risk
of injury. The companionway is also a critical area
because people are moving from one level to another
where it is easy to lose balance or slip and fall. Many
reported injuries also occur at the companionway by
colliding with moving equipment when coming out of
the interior. The kitchen is also of concern, in particular
when using a gimballed stove.
55
56
lateral
entrance
open
57
Table 2.
Displacement
Ballast
LOA
LWL
BMAX
Draft
Sail area
(www.martin16.com). This system provides the interface between the major controls of the boat and people
with severe limitations. The main part of the system
is a joystick module, which contains the main computer and a joystick control. The left and right axis of
the joystick operates the helm drive motor to steer the
boat, while the forward and backward axis of the joystick operates a windlass to trim the sails. The joystick
module can control up to three motors and operate
several trimming lines. Other way to control this system is with the sip and puff module presented in
Figure 4, which provides a sensitive pneumatic control interface, to allow highly quadriplegic sailors to
control the system functions with their breath. The sip
and puff interface is a chest mounted control stalk
with two pneumatic straws within reach of the sailors
lips, one to control the helm and one to control the
windlass.
The development of such electronic equipment
has allowed important improvements to be made in
the adaptability of sailing vessels. It is important to
remember that a quadriplegic person, for example,
is limited in most daily life activities, but that with
an interface like the sip and puff system he or she may
go on the water and enjoy an active days sailing.
6400 kg
3400 kg
9.8 m
9.1 m
3.6 m
1.8 m
42.7 m2
5.1 Mobility
The mobility onboard was simplified by a single sole
level, common to the interior and cockpit and similar to a sports yacht. It was decided to use a single
sole level to avoid the use of the unsafe ladders or lifting platforms, which are not suitable for the wider
disabled population. In addition, it was decided to
accommodate for wheelchairs onboard since most disabled people are familiar with their operation and
the interface with shore is thus easier. However, to
enable the use of wheelchairs onboard it is necessary
to have a general arrangement with spaces of larger
than usual dimensions, defined according to the guidelines of Universal Design architecture (Goldsmith,
2000). Figure 6 presents the access routes available
for wheelchair users.
5.2 Heel angle
The second design requirement for the integration of
disabled people is low heel angle. For the present
project the maximum heel angle for normal sailing
conditions (15 knots true windspeed) was 10 which
was assumed to be the safe limit for wheelchair operation; for wind speeds above 15 knots the crew should
start reefing the sails. This was guaranteed by the hull
shape and the design of the appendages.
The hull shape was designed with a large waterline beam to increase the form stability, which is the
major stability component at low heel angles. In terms
of the appendages it was necessary to find a balance
between the two options of a lower than normal sail
area and a heavier than normal keel. The Inclusion 32
was designed with a conventional sail planform with
a sail area and aspect ratio slightly lower than those of
conventional yachts of this size to reduce heel angle,
but the external appearance is of a conventional cruiser.
In addition, it is always possible to reef the sails as the
wind increases. The aesthetically pleasing sail plan
is balanced by the unseen heavy keel and bulb designed
according to the results of a Velocity Prediction Program which had to be specifically developed as part
58
Modularity
In order to include both wheelchair users and nonwheel chair users in the cockpit a modular solution
59
5.6
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Allen, J. B., De Jong, M.R., 2006. Sailing and sports
medicine: a literature review. British Journal of Sports
Medicine.
Cerveira, F. 2011. Development of a Sailing Yacht for Disabled People, Master of Science Thesis, Instituto Superior
Tcnico, Technical University of Lisbon.
Goldsmith, S. 2000. Universal design A Manual of Practical
Guidance for Architects. Oxford: Architectural Press
The Disabled Sailors Association, Verity K, http://www.
disabledsailing.org/data/dsahq/verity k/Verity K.html
Impossible Dream Sailing Catamaran, http://www.
impossibledream.org.uk/idream.html
Injury prevent
60
Martin 16 Power-Assisted Self-contained, portable, powerassisted steering and sail sheeting system, http://www.
martin16.com/resources/autobrochure.pdf
Sailability Online Manuals, http://www.sailability.org/
manuals.cfm
IFDS International Association for Disabled Sailing, http://
www.sailing.org/disabled/classes&adaptations.php
MacLeod, D. 2000. The Rules of Work: A practical Engineering Guide to Ergonomics. Tailor & Francis.
Nevile, V., Folland, J. P. 2009. The Epidemiology and Aetiology of Injuries in Sailing. Loughborough University.
61
ABSTRACT: In order to design the hull shape of a compressed natural gas ship (CNG), a parametric model
was integrated with forward resistance and seakeeping commercial codes. This integration allowed dynamic
results analysis using only a program interface with external codes experimentally verified. With regard to
motions in waves, potential and strip method were used to evaluate the RAO (Response Amplitude Operator) of
the hull forms in different conditions (with/without forward speed). The seakeeping has been defined through
acceleration and comfort indices based on spectral analysis. The forward resistance was determined using nonlinear potential method for the wave resistance and finite volume method without free surface effect for the
viscous resistance. Both numerical models were validated with results achieved in the IPT towing tank. The
evaluation of some design output parameters, generated with the parametric model, assist to determine which
variables influence the most in CNG ship forward resistance and seakeeping. The same methodology can be
applied in other type of hull shape designs.
INTRODUCTION
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
63
results verified according to pre-established requirements. Thus the methodology for the vessel design is
summarized in Figure 1.
First, the initial main dimensions were obtained by
the regressions in Watson (1995) and Lewis (1989),
which are described in Matlab routines (MATLAB,
2005). For instance, these routines are used to define
the necessary displacement based on transport capacity and other design requirements, so the initial main
dimensions can be set to construct the hull surface.
With this parameterization and all model evaluations described above, it was possible to define a CNG
ship hull. The same methodology can be applied to
other vessels designs.
3
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION
Input parameters
The hull was divided into three areas: bow, stern and
parallel body. It was created two parameters to define
their length: the bow length (L_bow) and the parallel
body length (L_body). The stern length is defined as
the total length minus bow and parallel body lengths.
Throughout the hull, points were placed to form
the body plan. These points were interpolated by ten
spline curves, named as B00 up to B09, which were
used to construct the surfaces as presented at Figure 2.
To set the angle with which the ship cuts the water,
there is a parameter called (bow_angle | L_bow),
which provides the relationship as the section B07
is positioned in proportion to the length of the bow
defined by the section B06.
3.2
Bow parameters
64
Hydrostatic evaluation
65
66
Table 1.
Direction
Size (*Lbp)
Forward
Aft
Depth
Width
1
2
1.5
1
Table 2.
Boundary conditions.
Surface
Boundary condition
Ship
Entrance plan
Exit plan
Symmetry plan
Free surface
Lateral wall
Bottom plan
Full adherence
Evanescence
Symmetry
Impermeability
Mathematical
expression
V=0
V = Vaway
p = patm
Vn=0
MODEL RESULTS
67
Bow angle
Parallel length
Bow length
Bilge radius
B07 inclination
Bow radius
68
Figure 27. Non-linear waves generation of bow optimization (Original at top and least wave resistance at bottom).
69
Figure 31. Non-linear waves generation of stern optimization (Original at top and least wave resistance at bottom).
Figure 28. Body plan comparison with non-linear free
surface (original at right and hull with least resistance at left).
resistance
evaluation
of
stern
Sobol was used to generate 298 hulls. Wave coefficient variation according to 6 stern parameters can be
observed in Figure 29 and Figure 30.
Stern initial slope, stern final slope and stern tangent are the parameters that most influenced wave
making resistance. They were set as variables in an
optimization process using the tangent method and a
28.8% wave resistance reduction (relative to original
hull) was achieved.
4.2.4 Stern shape influence in viscous resistance
The viscous resistance results of the 243 hulls generated with the variation of stern parameters (final
slope, initial slope, transom beam, immersion and
stern tangent) were organized in such a manner that
70
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank TRANSPETRO for
all the support during this project.
REFERENCES
Abt, C., Bade, S.D., Birk, L. & Harries, S. 2001. Parametric Hull Form Design A Step Towards One Week
Ship Design. In 8th International Symposium on Practical
Design of Ships and Other Floating Structures PRADS.
Ahmed Y. & Guedes Soares, C. 2009. Simulation of free
surface flow around a VLCC hull using viscous and potential flow methods. In Ocean Engineering, Volume 36,
pp. 691696.
Benford, H. 1991. Naval Architecture for Non-Naval
Architects, Jersey City, NJ, 239p.
Choi, J.E., Min, K.-S., Kim, J.H., Lee, S.B. & Seo,
H.W. 2010. Resistance and propulsion characteristics of
various commercial ships based on results. In CFD Ocean
Engineering, Volume 37, pp. 549566.
Flowtech International AB. 2008. Shipflow User Manual,
Gotenburgo.
Kracht, A.M. 1978. Design of Bulbous Bows, Transactions
SNAME, Vol. 86.
Lewis, E.V. 1989. (Editor), Principles of Naval Architecture,
SNAME, 2nd Edition, New York, SNAME.
Lloyd, A.R.J.M. 1989. Seakeeping: Ship Behaviour in
Rough Weather, Chapter 21 Effects of ship motions on
passengers and crew, Ellis Horwood Limited.
MATLAB USER MANUAL, 2005.
Seakeeper user manual. 2009. Formation Design Systems
Pty Ltd.
Stromgren, C. 1995. A comparison of Alternative Bow
Configurations, Marine Technology, vol. 32.
Watson, D.G. 1998. Practical Ship Design, Elsevier Ocean
Engineering Book Series.
CONCLUSIONS
71
A. Moura
University of Aveiro, Campus Universitrio de Santiago, Aveiro, Portugal
ABSTRACT: Short Sea Shipping is the name given to the use of ships to transport cargo within a country,
or between neighboring countries. The European Union considers all intra-European sea transport as Short Sea
Shipping, and has defined its efficient use as a strategic goal. This form of transport has many recognized
advantages over rail and road, but suffers from lack of flexibility. In this paper we propose a logistic model
for short sea shipping that greatly increases flexibility, and that may reduce costs substantially. The model is
described and formalized, and a genetic algorithm based optimization procedure is presented, to assign cargo
and routes to each ship, as well as provide stowage plans. The proposed method is used on a small problem that
illustrates the advantages that can be obtained.
1
INTRODUCTION
The work that has been developed, tackles disadvantages (7) and (8), proposing a managing model for
a fleet of cargo ships with no pre-defined routes, and
where these are defined dynamically, depending on
cargo arrival at ports, due dates and delivery deadlines.
The model complexity depends on the vessels and
73
74
Table 1.
Input variables
n of containers
containers origin
containers destination
containers characteristics
(weight, dimensions, etc.)
distances between ports
n of ships
ships characteristics
Decision variables
Constraints
Cost function
ship routes
port visit sequences
containers location
within the vessel
minimize transportation
cost
minimize port visit cost
minimize harbors
containers shift cost
minimize time at port
the same route but 1-black ship can follow the dashed
route or the filled route. Further, after selecting the
route one must determine the cargo distribution that is
not represented.
4
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
Having introduced the concept of CSSRP and characterised the optimization problem and all that is
necessary to proceed with the formulation, then it
will be presented in several sections, beginning to
define the input, auxiliary and decision variables, the
cost function, and finally the constraints to which the
problem is subjected to.
4.1
Input variables
G(P, A)
P = {1, ..., p}
A directed graph;
Gs set of nodes. The nodes 1 to
p represent the ports that could be
visited;
A = {(i, j) : i, j P, i = j}
Gs set of arcs joint node i to j that
represents a journey performed by
a vessel;
This set of variables is put together to help to understand the problem and make the constraints and cost
function mathematical expressions easier:
uik = ucrew + uport Visiting cost in Euros by time unit
(hours) of vessel k at port i,
during journey (includes
crews and taxes costs);
75
ck = cfuelk + ccrewk
the second component includes the cost of containers shifts (including crane maneuvers and
time components);
the third is the cost of loading/ unloading containers.
Number of containers to
load in vessel k at port i during
journey ;
k
Cdestjk = # : e = j
ik(zx ,zy ,zz ) xijk = 1
(i,j,zx ,zy ,zz )
Number of containers to
unload in vessel k at port i during
journey ;
ik
Number of shifts performed by
vessel k at port i during
journey ;
moveik = Corigik + Cdestik
Number of movements
performed by vessel k at port i
during journey ;
sik
Time at which vessel k arrives
port i in journey ;
tik = ik
ik + bik moveik
Service time of vessel k at port i
at journey .
To ensure that the solution found is viable, candidate solutions must comply with several constraints.
The ones introduced in the model are the ones stated
bellow; however, with further research there may be
the need to introduce some others.
Expression (3) presents the flow conservation constraint that aims to ensure that if a vessel k arrives to
port i then in the next journey he will part from that
same port.
xijk
4.5 Constraints
Expressions (5), (6) and (7) are related to the containers and their delivery obligations. The first guarantees
that the containers deadline is not violated, the second one the weight capacity of the vessels is not
exceeded, and the third guarantees that each container
is transported by one and just one vessel between ports.
76
generated was used, taking into account the same starting ports for each vessel. As Table 2 shows, in only one
round of visits to the ports is not possible to deliver all
containers, and therefore more than one visit to each
port was allowed. In such case, if a circular type strict
route planning is used after nine port calls there are still
100 containers that were not delivered. On the other
hand, if the ships are allowed to change their routes
as a function of cargo delivery needs, not only all containers were delivered but also only 68 containers in a
total of 1400 containers surpassed their deadlines.
These results are probably not the optimal solution
since Genetic algorithms not always provide the optimum solution and may be trapped in a local minimum
of the solutions space. Nevertheless, it is better than
most.
CONCLUSIONS
77
REFERENCES
Ambrosino, D., A. Sciomachen, et al. 2006. A decomposition heuristics for the container ship stowage problem.
Journal of Heuristics 12(3): 211233.
Appelgren, L. H. 1969. A column generation algorithm for
a ship scheduling problem. Transportation Science 3:
5368.
Appelgren, L. H. 1971. Integer programming methods for
a vessel scheduling problem. Transportation Science 5:
6478.
Avriel, M., M. Penn, et al. 1998. Stowage Planning for Container Ships to Reduce the Number of Shifts. Annals of
Operations Research 76: 5571.
Botter, R. C. and M. A. Brinati. 1992. Stowage Container
Planning: A Model for Getting an Optimal Solution. IFIP
Transactions B (Applications in Technology) B-5.
Brown, G. G., G. W. Graves, et al. 1987. Scheduling ocean
transportation of crude oil. Management Science 33:
335346.
Christiansen, M. and B. Nygreen. 1998. A method for solving ship routing problemswith inventory constraints
Annals of Operations Research 81: 357378.
Dubrovsky, O., G. Levitin, et al. 2002. A genetic algorithm
with a compact solution encoding for the container ship
stowage problem. Journal of Heuristics 8: 585599.
78
ABSTRACT: Ship preliminary design optimization has been studied in two main areas, the models that
allow the determination of the optimum characteristics and the optimization algorithms used. In this work,
special relevance is given to the nonlinear optimization algorithms, with a focus in the evolutionary and directsearch methods. First, the results of a set of selected methods are compared using a simple bulk carrier ship
model commonly used in the literature, next a new optimization process is proposed and is validated with the
mentioned model.
INTRODUCTION
OPTIMIZATION METHODS
79
Table 1.
points, around the initial point, which should be evaluated. To this class of algorithms are often pointed
three problems: the convergence to global minimum
of the function is not always guaranteed, they can not,
in the original codes, support constraints and they
can not perform multi-objective optimization. It is
often stated that they are faster than the evolutionary
algorithms. In this work the direct search algorithms
tested are Hooke-Jeeves 1961), Rosenbrock (1960)
and Nelder-Mead (1965).
To guarantee the convergence of these methods it
was used a random number generator to create a sparse
set of starting points within the domain of the objective function, similarly to what is done in evolutionary
algorithms to create the initial population. Each starting point will be optimized and the best solutions will
be selected. To apply the constraints it was created an
external penalty function which should be connected
to the optimization program to penalize the solutions
that are not in the hyperspace wanted. The penalty
grows with the distance to the hyperspace wanted, if
the point evaluated is farther from the hyperspace, the
penalty will be greater and this brings in, even the initial point generated out of the hyperspace. To use these
codes for multi-objective optimization it was used a
weighted objective function, where the weights were
obtained with the Multi-Objective Decision Making
(MODM), comparison matrix followed by eigenvector
technique (Ray and Sha, 1995).
The evolutionary algorithms are based on natures
phenomena and aim to reproduce them computationally. These methods have different ways of optimizing
so it is appropriated to describe them separately. In
this work two evolutionary methods were studied, a
genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) and a particle swarm
optimization (MOPSO-CD).
Genetic Algorithms (GA) are inspired in the evolutionary theory of Darwin based on the natural selection
which assumes that the best genes survive. First an initial population is generated and then sorted from the
best to worst and to those individuals are attributed
a probability of being parents of the next generation
based on their fitness. This process is repeated until
the pre-defined number of generations or the fitness
stated is reached (Holland, 1975).
The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is based
on a bird flock searching for food. The initial population of particles is spread through the search-space.
Each particle has its own memory and the swarm has
a global memory, the particles communicate with the
flock by the global memory. In the global memory it
is stored the best position reached by one particle, in
the individual memory it is stored the best position of
each particle. The point to where the particle should
fly is obtained calculating a new velocity, according
to individual and global memories (Raquel and Naval,
2005).
The evolutionary algorithms were created to perform multi-objective optimizations, and although they
can support constraints, they require a large computation time. When they are used for multi-objective
Optimum Solution
Methods
CM
EM
WOF
TOPSIS
Direct Search
Evolutionary
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
No
yes
COMPARISON OF RESULTS
To validate the algorithms selected, the results are compared with those obtained by Xuebin (2009) using
Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP). The preliminary ship model for bulk carriers used is taken
from Sen and Yang (1998), and includes 6 design variables, 3 objectives, 11 constrains and about 30 equations. The objectives are the Transportation Cost (TC),
the Light Weight (LW) and the Annual Cargo (AC).
The selection of the configuration parameters for
each method is very important for the results. So, for
direct search it was used a maximum number of 100
iterations, a minimum step length of 1010 , and 0.9 as
the first step.
The initial points for each method are generated
randomly. For each algorithm 10 runs with 500 points
were made. The Nelder-Mead algorithm needs 7 initial
points (n + 1, where n is the number of design variables). One of the initial points is generated with the
random generator and the other 6 are given (this points
are close to global minimum for TC).
For NSGA-II the dimension of the initial population
has 100 individuals and the number of generations is
1000, the probability of crossover was set 0.9 and the
mutation probability 0.33. For MOPSO-CD the number of individuals and generations are the same used
with NSGA-II, the mutation probability is 0.5 and the
non-dominated solutions in the archive, are 100.
80
Table 2. Algorithms results for transportation cost and comparison with Xuebins (2009) results.
Methods
SQP
Rosenbrock
Hooke-Jeeves
Nelder-Mead
NSGA-II
MOPSO-CD
TC [t/$]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
7.972
13 718
749 689
221.83
36.97
19.82
14.57
0.72
14.00
74 504
7 968
7.979
13 464.19
733 625.60
222.17
37.00
19.52
14.36
0.70
14.02
71 047.10
7 441.74
7.973
13 638.20
741 600.34
222.58
37.10
19.67
14.47
0.71
14.00
72 785.00
7 624.66
7.972
13 713.45
748 658.25
222.01
37.00
19.80
14.56
0.72
14.00
74 279.06
7 915.63
7.981
13 364.05
730 178.99
221.48
36.91
19.42
14.29
0.70
14.00
70 453.05
7 393.07
8.209
11 776.34
637 662.62
218.16
36.21
17.00
12.52
0.65
14.00
54 117.56
5 662.74
Table 3.
Comparison of direct search results for light weight and annual cargo with Xuebins (2009) results.
Minimization of light weight
SQP
Rosenbrock
TC [t/$]
9.474
9.4123
LW [t]
5 240.30
5 312.9809
AC [t]
386 500 386 939.8525
L [m]
150.73
152.4972
B [m]
25.12
25.4162
D [m]
13.84
13.8540
T [m]
10.39
10.3890
Cb
0.75
0.7344
V [kn]
14.00
14.0134
DWT [t]
25 000 24 998.3715
Ps [kW]
5 018
4 822.7718
Hooke-Jeeves
Rosenbrock
Hooke-Jeeves
Nelder-Mead
9.4360
9.5745
10.026
10.1057
10.0259
10.1536
5 332.5935
5 351.4430
25 759
26 209.0167
25 758.7674
26 530.1051
386 682.4744 392 688.3097 1 039 267 1 037 374.3292 1 039 260.5577 1 034 000.3475
152.8956
152.0583
274.32
274.3200
274.3199
274.2913
25.4824
25.3430
45.72
45.7199
45.7199
45.7152
13.7026
13.9798
24.76
25.9971
24.7635
27.1496
10.2918
10.3918
18.03
17.9797
18.0343
17.9229
0.7380
0.7400
0.75
0.7500
0.7500
0.7459
14.0000
14.3345
18.00
17.9932
17.9999
17.9957
24 999.8433 25 023.2674
148 123
147 143.5649
148 120.1508
145 294.5224
4 841.5691
5 394.2144
32 377
32 261.0298
32 375.6503
31 796.5462
81
Table 4.
Methods
SQP
Rosenbrock
Hooke
Nelder
NSGA-II
MOPSO
TC [/t]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
WOF
9.342
5 385.50
386 947
154.39
25.73
13.84
10.39
0.72
14.00
25 000
4 590
0.8231
9.2563
6 116.5376
388 035.1774
166.6534
27.7534
15.0399
10.3890
0.6318
14.0024
25 001.1719
3 605.6824
0.8472
9.3268
5 422.4521
387 033.6993
155.2534
25.8721
13.8036
10.3625
0.7131
14.0000
25 001.2227
4 521.0396
0.8239
9.2178
5 593.2529
387 512.7990
159.2689
26.5417
13.8700
10.3899
0.6797
14.0004
25 006.1016
4 114.9004
0.8251
9.8976
6 222.5703
457 865.3409
159.7290
16.5450
14.5410
10.8260
0.7470
15.6220
28 923.6797
8 511.1406
0.9103
9.3200
5 628.7866
397 842.2862
157.6780
25.6824
14.1106
10.4561
0.7282
14.0009
25 883.0781
5 005.3921
0.8356
Table 5.
Methods
SQP
Rosenbrock
Hooke
Nelder
NSGA-II
MOPSO
TC [/t]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
WOF
9.184
5 657.50
387 590
160.88
26.81
13.84
10.39
0.68
14.00
25 000
4 146
0.9816
9.1178
5 818.8140
406 495.2195
160.7575
26.7257
14.1261
10.5883
0.6973
14.0189
26 695.1641
4 486.3672
0.9865
9.1882
5 666.4092
387 599.3657
155.2534
25.8721
13.8036
10.3625
0.7131
14.0000
24 999.8906
3 972.5833
0.9824
9.2270
5 564.6353
388 623.4802
158.4512
26.4065
13.8610
10.4027
0.6876
14.0000
25 006.1016
4 114.9004
0.9816
8.9990
7 276.1634
513 602.1627
171.1980
28.3830
15.5210
11.5530
0.7480
14.9000
35 764.2969
7 603.8379
1.0538
9.0461
6 081.3940
432 215.4910
161.0240
26.7639
14.6603
10.8848
0.7317
14.0440
29 100.3516
5 180.7207
0.9961
The results presented on Table 2 and Table 3 from single objective optimization are introduced in equation
(1) and produces the following equation
82
Table 6.
Comparison of results for different weighted objective function formulation presented on equation (3) and (4).
Equation (3)
Equation (4)
Methods
Rosenbrock
Hooke
Nelder
Rosenbrock
Hooke
Nelder
TC [/t]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
WOF
9.4493
6 007.1616
387 359.7281
167.7588
25.1333
14.6920
10.3442
0.6936
14.0001
2 500.1934
4 199.7573
0.3727
9.6593
6 246.6753
387 256.9873
164.8020
26.8282
15.4868
9.8768
0.6981
14.0002
2 500.5703
4 303.9883
0.3726
9.6265
6 567.6147
387 551.7091
179.1329
25.7336
14.1162
9.7963
0.6820
14.0000
2 500.3242
4 015.6990
0.3729
9.9736
25 481.4492
1 031 460.0104
274.3200
45.7200
24.1922
17.6345
0.7499
17.9146
144 520.5625
31 271.7344
1.0076
10.0258
25 758.2363
1 039 247.5449
274.3197
45.7198
24.7625
18.0337
0.7500
17.9997
148 114.4219
32 373.4082
1.0000
10.1725
26 607.2363
1 035 821.3138
274.3200
45.7176
27.1254
17.9437
0.7500
17.9816
146 389.5625
32 131.8867
1.0033
Table 7.
CM TOPSIS
EM WOF
CM WOF
Method
MOPSO-CD
NSGA-II
MOPSO-CD
NSGA-II
MOPSO-CD
NSGA-II
MOPSO-CD
TC [t/$]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
WOF
wCC
wPL
wCA
9.8377
6 112.45
447 153
159.610
26.4071
14.5056
10.7565
0.7347
15.5489
28 029.4
7 901.19
0.8333
9.9611
6 984.32
507 901
166.286
27.6670
15.1160
11.2730
0.7470
16.9550
32 725.8
10 661.72
0.8592
8.8481
9 041.24
604 037
185.902
30.8858
16.9054
12.4067
0.7415
15.4947
45 100.6
9 783.74
0.6659
8.4889
10 188.97
647 486
194.960
32.1990
17.9880
13.0390
0.7480
14.9810
52 567.4
9 290.21
0.6718
9.6640
5 497.87
398 693
154.904
25.5156
13.8850
10.3329
0.7300
14.6518
25 061.1
5 722.75
0.8764
10.1714
6 485.81
476 984
161.465
26.9100
14.6430
10.9250
0.7480
16.1460
29 909.0
10 055.24
1.0620
9.3849
5 546.37
397 893
155.402
25.8058
13.9385
10.9704
0.7373
14.0698
25 883.1
5 005.39
0.8720
9.0467
6 760.47
468 811
169.777
27.072
14.751
11.024
0.748
14.386
32 087.1
6 165.37
0.9577
0.0112
0.7265
0.2623
0.0448
0.7278
0.2274
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.0112
0.7265
0.2623
0.0448
0.7278
0.2274
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
0.3333
inverted, every value of f3 (x) obtained by a combination of design variables will produce a value smaller
than 1 039 267 because this is the maximum, if this
value is smaller this fraction result will be less than
1 and that is why the WOF assumes values smaller
than 1. For an ideal design variables combination the
WOF value, as formulated in equation (2), is 1 but
tends to 1 by lower values and because the optimizers tries to get the minimum, it will always search for
smaller values of f3 (x).
On the other hand, if the weight of TC and LW tends
to 0 the weight of AC tends to 1 because the weight
sum has to be 1. In this case the two different formulations, the used in literature with all fraction with the
value of one objective optimization in the denominator
and the proposed one where the maximization fraction
should be inverted, will lead to equations (3) and (4),
respectively.
NSGA-II
83
Table 8.
TC [t/$]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
Table 9.
Light weight
Annual cargo
SQP
HN
SQP
HN
SQP
HN
7.972
13 718
749 689
221.83
36.97
19.82
14.57
0.72
14.00
74 504
7 968
7.9723
13 720.4668
749 720.3653
221.8665
36.9777
19.8207
14.5744
0.7199
14.0000
74 509.9531
7 966.0117
9.474
5 240.3
386 500
150.73
25.12
13.84
10.39
0.75
14.00
25 000
5 018
9.4745
5 240.4160
386 504.4386
150.7273
25.1212
13.8415
10.3890
0.7500
14.0001
25 000.2363
5 017.7534
10.026
25 759
1 039 267
274.32
45.72
24.76
18.03
0.75
18.00
148 123
32 377
10.0259
25 758.8848
1 039 264.5763
274.3199
45.7200
24.7636
18.0345
0.7500
17.9999
148 122.3594
32 375.9375
Methods
SQP
NH
SQP
NH
SQP
NH
MIGA
NH
TC [t/$]
LW [t]
AC [t]
L [m]
B [m]
D [m]
T [m]
Cb
V [kn]
DWT [t]
Ps [kW]
WOF
9.474
5 240.3
386 500
150.73
25.12
13.84
10.39
0.75
14.00
25 000
5 018
0.8526
9.4746
5 240.6807
386 512.7028
150.7316
25.1219
13.8411
10.3887
0.7500
14.0002
25 000.8046
5 017.9097
0.8526
9.3416
5 385.5
386 947
154.39
25.73
13.84
10.39
0.718
14.00
25 000
4 590
0.8231
9.3466
5 379.4438
386 949.6856
154.2359
25.7058
13.8416
10.3890
0.7196
14.0002
25 001.7871
4 607.5327
0.8232
9.1836
5 657.5
387 590
160.88
26.81
13.84
10.39
0.684
14.00
25 000
4 146
0.9816
9.2224
5 572.7285
387 433.3337
158.8981
26.4830
13.8415
10.3890
0.6823
14.0000
25 001.7344
4 144.4189
0.9814
9.4727
5 247.9
386 760
150.88
25.12
13.84
10.39
0.75
14.00
25 022
5 018
0.6612
9.4747
5 240.5000
386 501.1597
150.7302
25.1206
13.8416
10.3890
0.7500
14.0002
25 000.0117
5 017.8301
0.6608
84
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Holland, J., 1975, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial
Systems, The University of Michigan Press.
Hooke R., Jeeves, T., 1961, Direct Search Solution of
Numerical and Statistical Problems, Journal of the
ACM, Vol. 8, N 2, pp. 212229, April.
Lee, D., 1999, Hybrid System Approach to Optimum
Design of a Ship, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering
Design, Vol. 13, pp. 111.
Murphy, R. D.; Sabat, D. J.; Taylor, R. J., 1965, Least Cost
Ship Characteristics by Computer Techniques, Marine
Technology, Vol. 2, pp. 174202.
Parsons, M. G.; Scott, L. R., 2004, Formulation of
Multicriteria Design Optimization Problems for Solution
with Scalar Numerical Optimization Methods, Journal
of Ship Research, Vol. 48, N 1, pp. 6176.
Nelder, J. A.; Mead, R., 1965, A Simplex Method for
Function Minimization, Computational Journal, N 7,
pp. 308313.
Parsons, M. G.; Scott, L. R., 2004, Formulation of
Multicriteria Design Optimization Problems for Solution
with Scalar Numerical Optimization Methods, Journal
of Ship Research, Vol. 48, N 1, pp. 6176.
Raquel, C.R.; Naval, P.C., 2005, An Effective Use of
Crowding Distance in Multiobjective Particle Swarm
Optimization, Proceedings of the 2005 conference on
Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, June 2529,
Washington DC, USA.
Ray, T.; Gokarn, R. P.; Sha, O. P., 1995, A Global Optimization Model for Ship Design, Computers in Industry,
Vol. 26, pp. 175192.
Rosenbrock, H. H., 1960, An Automatic Method for Finding
the Greatest Least Value of a Function, Computational
Journal, Vol. 3, pp. 175184.
Sen, P.;Yang. J.-B., 1998, Multiple Criteria Decision Support
in Engineering Design, Springer, London.
Wolf, R.; Dickmann, J.; Boas, R., 2004, Ship Design
Heuristic Optimization Methods, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Xuebin, Li, 2009, Multiobjective Optimization and
Multiattribute Decision Making Study of Ships Principal Parameters in Conceptual Design, Journal of Ship
Research, Vol. 53, No. 2.
CONCLUSIONS
85
C. Guedes Soares
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: The potential growth of short sea shipping motivated the study of a methodology to be used as
a decision support tool in determining the composition of the fleet that is required for a given market scenario.
The model allows both the parameters regarding the demand of markets and the characteristics of the fleet to be
varied so as to evaluate the sensitivity of the response. The tool also provides enough information to prepare the
fleet deployment, establishing its routes and scales in the ports of a particular scenario. The adopted methodology
may be divided in two parts, being the first one related to the generation of all feasible routes, with parameters
specific to each route for each vessel. The second part is the development of a linear programming model to
minimize the total cost of the shipping operation. The models were structured to present three main points: the
evaluation of the fleet for each vessel class; the optimal route for each vessel and the frequency in each port.
To provide a supporting base towards the mandatory validation, a fictitious case study is presented and several
sensitivity analyses are developed to test the models robustness and coherence.
1
INTRODUCTION
Consequently, the data related to the considered vessels will be inserted in the model by means of input
parameters which allow posterior sensitivity analysis. The number of the initially available vessels is
defined as a model input parameter; therefore it is
considered a limited resources problem.
The problems structure is divided in two
parts: firstly the evaluation of all feasible routes
and calculation of parameters related with each operation (route) and each type of vessel considered
(such as the involved costs, number of round trips,
etc.). Such results will provide valuable input to
the second part which considers the development
and implementation of a mathematical model on
an appropriate programming language, whose main
objective is to establish a schedule of routes for each
vessel to minimizing operational costs.
The frequency of scaling each of the ports is automatically defined with the choice of the best routes
for all vessels, since the number of possible trips has
been calculated in the first model and the best route is
defined in order to meet the required annual demand
service. The procedure or script to solve the problem
is shown in Figure 1.
In order to enable testing different scenarios, by
varying any of the parameters mentioned above, the
models need to have robust structures. As such,
the final calibration and validation will be achieved
through an example and later by the development
of a parameter sensitivity analysis of the operations
87
Table 1.
Ascend
Route definition.
Descend
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
1
1
1
1
Figure 1. Model Structure.
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
Total
X X X 1 1 X X X
X X 1
1 X X
X 1
1 X
1
1
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
X X 1 1 X X X
X 1
1 X X
1
1 X
1
X X 1 1 X X 1
X 1
1 X 1
1
1 1
1 X 1 1 X 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Combinations
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
256
64
16
4
1
64
16
4
1
16
4
1
4
1
1
453
equal to the power of two (2) and exponent, the number of binary variables on the line. The formulation of
equation 1, which calculates the number of alternatives
(R) for this problem, is shown in:
88
3.4 Restrictions
89
90
denoted with an index after C + 1 (for both directions), i.e., all ports posterior to C are part of this
equation.
f) Cargos originated in ports after voyage l and
destined to ports after the origin.
Figure 3e. Capacity restrain Component e.
* [T (r, lj ) or T (r, N lj )]
This component refers to cargoes originated in C
(on the ascending direction) and destined to ports
91
Table 2.
results.
Vessel K_1
Vessel K_2
Total cost
Average frequency
933.150,00
4 days
Capacity (TEU)
Route:
Occupation
Capacity (TEU)
Route:
Occupation
670
R_2
5%
900
R_23
70%
Table 3.
Table 4.
Route 2 characteristics.
Voyage
Origin
Destiny
Cargo
(TEUs/trip)
Occupation
L_1
L_6
Port 1
Port 2
Port 2
Port 1
11.82
58.82
2%
9%
92
Table 5.
Route 23 characteristics.
Voyage
Origin
Destiny
Cargo
(TEUs/trip)
Occupation
L_1
L_3
L_4
L_5
L_6
Port 1
Port 3
Port 4
Port 3
Port 2
Port 3
Port 4
Port 3
Port 2
Port 1
99%
74%
37%
41%
67%
1, 2, 3, 4
2, 4, 7
8, 9, 10
5, 6, 8, 9
3, 4, 5, 8
Table 6.
Voyage
Origin
Destiny
Occupation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Port 1
Port 1
Port 2
Port 2
Port 3
Port 3
Port 3
Port 4
Port 4
Port 4
Port 3
Port 4
Port 3
Port 4
Port 1
Port 2
Port 4
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
29%
13%
16%
40%
3%
5%
20%
8%
25%
4%
To better understand the above results, it is important to check the cargo composition in each voyage.
The last column of Table 5 lists the ports which contribute with cargo present in that particular voyage,
being this decomposition presented in table 6 below.
Table 6 shows an operating result of how the loading should be done for the vessel in each section. For
example, when docked at port 1, the shipment will consist of cargoes that go into the third port, filling 29%
of the capacity of the vessel and cargo that will go to
port 4, filling 13% of the capacity. A second example,
if the vessel is at port 4, it will be loaded with cargo to
port 1 (8%), port 2 (25%) and port 3(4%).
Thus, by considering the two previous tables with
outputs it can be assumed that the model helps in
building the vessels cargo layout in order to meet its
capacity and meet the necessary cargo demand level
minimization total operations cost.
a good and viable solution, which was seventy percent over current demand (1.7 * D). The results of this
analysis are available in Figures 5 and 6.
From these figures, it is possible to identify the
more attractive and convenient scenarios of operation
by analysing the relationships between the different
results. The total cost is increasing in line with the
increasing demand, however, it is noticed that for some
levels this value does not change, since for a given set
of assigned routes the required demand can be met by
fleets increasing occupation. Occupation was calculated as an average between the two vessels when both
are used, thus, these values are closely related to the
total capacity of vessels used. The scaling periodicity
is also very dependent on the number of ships used.
Figure 5 shows that for demand values between 20%
and 50%, the total cost remains almost the same, with
gradual increases in occupation of the fleet. For the
value of 60%, the cost remains similar, but fleet occupation has fallen slightly, equaling the level of 40%.
This phenomenon occurs due to change in the chosen
route. This means that, the selected route for the first
case considers a handling capacity equivalent to a maximum value of 50% of the initial demand. For greater
values, this same route no longer meets the constraint
regarding demand and therefore the model chooses
another route with similar costs, which changes the
sequence of visits to ports and thus the value of the
occupation as well.
93
600_600
600_700
600_800
600_900
600_1000
700_700
700_800
700_900
700_1000
800_1000
900_900
400_500
94
Table 8.
R_12 0
Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 Port 3 Port 2 0
R_23 Port 1 0
Port 3 Port 4 Port 3 Port 2 Port 1
Figure 10. Itineraries for the 400 and 500 TEUs vessels.
CONCLUSIONS
95
REFERENCES
Bausch, D.O., Brown, G.G. & Ronen, D. 1991. Elastic set
partitioning A powerful tool for scheduling transportation of oil and gas, Advances in Operations Research in
the Oil and Gas Industry e.technip: 151162, 1991.
96
Design development of an oil and garbage collector and boom layer vessel
J.A. Valente
EUROSHIDE, Lisboa, Portugal
S. Ribeiro e Silva
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: Based on shipowner requirements conceptual and preliminary designs of an Oil and Garbage
Collector and Boom Layer Vessel (OGC&BLV) were initially carried out by a ship design office aiming to
prepare a construction proposal to be presented by a Portuguese shipyard to a Russian company subcontracted
by a local port authority. Unfortunately due to changes and different orientations in the Russian company the
project was stopped and the two OGC&BLV were never built. However, at a later stage a more detailed design of
the main machinery and some of the auxiliary systems has been conducted at university, using base information
supplied by the ship design office and technical data available from prospective suppliers of major equipments
to be installed onboard, including the main engines, generator set, oil skimming booms, recovery brush pack,
hydraulic actuators, and oil containment booms. This paper presents the final configuration of the OGC&BLV
and describes the most interesting features and technical design challenges faced during design development of
this specific and multifaceted type of vessels.
1
INTRODUCTION
the tender. Unfortunately due to changes and different orientations in the Russian company, the project
was stopped and the vessels were never built. More
recently, development of the detailed designs of the
main machinery and auxiliary systems has been conducted at Technical University of Lisbon for academic
purposes as part of Machinery and Marine Systems
course of the MSc in Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering.
The base information collected before by the
ship design office and technical data available
from prospective suppliers of major equipments to
be installed onboard OGC&BLV was extensively
utilized.
97
Table 1.
Table 2.
Parameter
Value
Unit
Parameter
Length overall
Beam
Draught (design)
Depth
Autonomy
Endurance
Storage of collected oil products
Cargo hold capacity
20
56
1.01.5
2.50
not less than 350
not less than 23
not less than 30
not less than 15
m
m
m
m
nm
day
m3
m3
Length overall
Length between perpendiculars
Beam
Depth
Draught (design)
Draught (scantling)
Storage of collected oil
products
Cargo hold capacity
Deadweight (at design draught)
Endurance
MCR (Propellers)
MCR (Pump jet)
Speed (at design draught,
propellers)
Speed (at design draught,
pump jet)
continuity of the structure. Main dimensions and operational characteristics were initially established by the
shipowner as follows.
2.1
Main characteristics
Value
Unit
21.5
20.1
6.0
2.6
1.5
1.8
30
15
50
3
2 260 kW at 1800
2 310 kW at 2200
9.010.0
m
m
m
m
m
m
m3
m3
ton
day
rpm
rpm
kn
8.09.0 kn
2.2
Speed
Type
Value
Unit
0.6
0.5
0.9
9.0
2.5
1.5
ton
ton
ton
ton
ton
m3
Seakeeping
2.5 Accommodation
98
3.3
99
100
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Loading Condition
Disp.
Draft
Trim
Ballast
Observations
83.55
83.55
85.65
120.6
120.6
123.6
74.59
76.49
74.89
111.9
112.6
111.9
113.6
1.13
1.24
1.27
1.43
1,53
1.57
1.05
1.06
1.15
1.41
1.41
1.54
1.57
0.02
0.45
0.00
0.12
0.62
0.00
0.42
0.00
0.12
0.12
0.00
0.35
0.00
no
no
53% FP
no
no
92% FP
no
52% AP
no
no
24% AP
no
51% AP
Departure no cargo
with & without
Ballast
Departure with cargo
with & without
Ballast
Arrival no cargo
with & without
Ballast
Arrival with cargo
with & without
Ballast
GMt Area
Area
RA
Angle
(m) 0 /30 30 /40 at 30 Max RA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1.45
0.91
0.36
1.05
0.68
0.6
1.36
1.21
0.73
1.00
0.94
0.63
0.63
83.55
83.55
85.65
120.55
120.55
123.62
74.59
76.49
74.89
111.89
112.63
111.89
113.58
0.176
0.103
0.101
0.149
0.033
0.039
0.158
0.152
0.075
0.141
0.137
0.072
0.073
0.099
0.070
0.071
0.099
0.069
0.072
0.031
0.031
0.050
0.090
0.039
0.059
0.061
0.555
0.365
0.364
0.531
0.350
0.360
0.476
0.463
0.266
0.493
0.454
0.297
0.302
33.1
50.0
50.0
43.4
46.3
47.2
31.9
33.2
50.0
42.4
42.4
46.4
46.5
Seakeeping
quantified. In the present work the seakeeping quality has been assessed by an operability analysis that
accounts for:
The ship mission, through the use of seakeeping criteria, which represent acceptable limits of
operation.
The hydrodynamic and inertia characteristics of the
ship, through the use of a seakeeping program to
calculate the motions transfer functions.
The wave climate where the ship operates, through
the use of the probability distribution of short
term seastates together with spectral techniques to
calculate the ship responses in those seastates.
101
Response
Location (x,y,z)
Criterion
Roll (rms)
Pitch (rms)
Vert. accel. at Bridge
Lat. accel. at Bridge
Vert. accel. at Work. Deck
NA
NA
(16.5,0.0,4.65)
(16.5,0.0,4.65)
(0.0,3.0,3.25)
6
3
0.2 g (rms)
0.1 g (rms)
0.2 g (rms)
Table 7. Seakeeping performance of the OGC&BLV at the design point, sailing zero advance speed with (top) and without
(bottom) bilge keels.
Sea direction
Angle
Criterion
Nautical Term
Roll
Pitch
VA 1
LA 1
VA 2
LA 2
0.00
4.30
8.49
10.31
8.43
4.08
0.00
5.09
2.96
2.67
1.74
0.08
1.58
2.44
2.71
2.03
0.17
0.19
0.23
0.17
0.18
0.14
0.12
0.17
0.00
0.26
0.55
0.65
0.45
0.20
0.00
0.30
0.17
0.20
0.29
0.34
0.29
0.14
0.14
0.22
0.00
0.12
0.27
0.35
0.31
0.13
0.00
0.17
120
Fore quartering Seas
90
Beam Seas
60
Aft quartering Seas
Stern quartering Seas
30
0
Following Seas
Average
0.00
3.03
5.67
6.76
5.64
2.96
0.00
3.44
2.96
2.67
1.74
0.08
1.58
2.44
2.71
2.03
0.17
0.19
0.23
0.17
0.18
0.14
0.12
0.17
0.00
0.16
0.33
0.34
0.18
0.08
0.00
0.16
0.17
0.17
0.18
0.12
0.13
0.11
0.14
0.14
0.00
0.06
0.13
0.19
0.20
0.09
0.00
0.10
102
at the Bridge and Working deck failed for the unappended hull while for the hull appended with bilge
keels the criteria are practically satisfied in all the wave
encountering conditions. Another question arises if the
criteria selected for roll motion and lateral acceleration
are adequate for OGC&BLV, or if larger or smaller values should be adopted. A more in deep investigation
of the ship activity under well determined practical
conditions (e.g. evaluation of personnel performance
at the Working Deck when anti-slip deck covering is
applied) is necessary to derive appropriate seakeeping criteria. As a general conclusion, the seakeeping
performance of the OGC&BLV design is seen as
reasonable, however, it can be improved by reducing the roll motion amplitudes, and, as shown in here,
the simplest possibility that deserves to be considered
is the use of a pair of bilge keels to reduce roll motion.
3.8
Seakeeping performance of the OGC&BLV sailing 8 knots advance speed with (top) and without (bottom) bilge
Sea direction
Angle
Criterion
Nautical Term
Roll
Pitch
VA 1
LA 1
VA 2
LA 2
30
Stern quartering Seas
0
Following Seas
Average
0.00
2.82
4.28
4.28
3.31
1.79
0.00
2.35
3.37
3.02
1.93
0.11
1.57
2.23
2.41
2.09
1.13
1.09
0.76
0.16
0.03
0.01
0.12
0.47
0.00
0.27
0.36
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.11
0.82
0.91
0.53
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.35
0.00
0.21
0.26
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.00
0.08
0.00
2.44
3.88
4.02
3.20
1.75
0.00
2.18
3.37
3.02
1.93
0.11
1.57
2.23
2.41
2.09
1.13
1.09
0.76
0.16
0.03
0.01
0.12
0.47
0.00
0.26
0.35
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.11
0.82
0.91
0.53
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.35
0.00
0.21
0.26
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.00
0.08
103
The Oil and Garbage Recovery System (OGRS) recovers oil and garbage at speeds up to 4 knots. Because of
the high recovery speed the system is able to recover
the largest possible area of an expanding oil slick at
sea. Since it is built into the side of the vessel readyto-go all the time, the system can start skimming oil
within minutes of deployment at the spill site and can
be operated by a small crew. The simple and intuitive
operation of the OGRS requires very little specialized
training. When the system is not in use, it is stored
within the vessel hull and is otherwise independent of
the other functions of the vessel.
The OGRS channel mounted system collects oil of
all types and is unhindered by floating debris or seaweed. Adverse weather conditions and choppy seas
are common when combating oil spills, but the brush
pack can operate in these conditions without losing
performance. Another major advantage of the system
is that the recovered oil contains very little water, less
than 10%, making maximum use of valuable storage
volume.
Description of operation:As shown in Figure 8, with
the OGRS deployed, the entire vessel becomes an oil
slick processing system. The system uses the vessels
forward motion to deflect surface water and oil from
the collection area formed by the jib arm and deflection
boom into the recovery channel for processing.
An effective flow through the oil recovery channels is achieved by the forward speed of the ship,
which induces a pressure difference between the intake
and exit doors. The doors are located so that pressure fluctuations caused by boat motions and waves
are minimized. The flow of water carries oil into the
recovery channel where the oil is efficiently separated
by the brush pack and removed from the flow. The
brush system lifts oil, seaweed and debris from the
water which passes through the channel and returns
to the collection area for further processing. As illustrated in Figure 9, recovered oil and debris ride up the
conveyor, are combed from the bristles and flow by
gravity into holding tanks or into a collection hopper.
From this hopper the recovered material is pumped to
the tanks by a powerful transfer pump.
104
Figure 11. The brush packs. Clean (left) and utilized (right)
brush pack.
105
4.3
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
106
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a new method for the generation of an adaptive topologically correct triangular mesh on parametric surfaces. The level of approximation is controlled through a given tolerance resulting
into a density of triangles that increases with the local curvature of the surface. The surface is subdivided in
the parametric domain by a recursive algorithm which simultaneously stores the sequence of operations into a
Binary Space Partitioning tree data structure. To each interior edge defined by two or more vertices correspond
always only two faces. After the subdivision, the resulting polygonal faces are triangulated using all the points
generated. Finally the mesh obtained in the parametric domain is mapped back into the Cartesian 3D space. The
generated mesh is topologically correct and provides a basis for a wide range of engineering applications.
INTRODUCTION
generates a topologically incorrect grid in the parametric domain, namely with vertices over the edges of
adjacent faces (the normally called T connections).
As a consequence, the triangular mesh generated
from the grid is also topologically incorrect and may
have undesired gaps between triangles. In order to
avoid this incorrectness, the proposed method identifies and stores adjacent faces and common vertices in
a Binary Space Partitioning (BSP) tree data structure
during the process of subdivision. With this additional
data, the triangulation of the grid in the parametric
domain is executed without Ts or holes and final result
is an adaptive and topologically correct triangular on
a parametric surface.
This work is organized as follows: first it is discussed the state of the art in mesh generation from
parametric surfaces; next, it is presented the adaptive
method proposed. Finally, some results of the application of the method to a sample free surface with
different curvature distribution regions are presented
and discussed.
2
MESH GENERATION
There is some research work done in the mesh generation of surface models without topological data.
Zimmermann (2003) and Bronsart et al. (2004) use
surface reconstruction processes from point clouds to
generate a non-structured mesh. An initial structured
mesh is created for each surface patch, based on an
admissible edge length. Next, each quadrilateral element is subdivided into two triangles by a diagonal.
The resulting triangular mesh is then locally refined,
subdividing triangles in areas where the distance from
the mean points from each side to the surface is
less than a given tolerance. The obtained vertices are
107
PROPOSED METHOD
SUBDIVISION ALGORITHM
108
The face is a four sided entity in the parametric normalized coordinate space. A face is always composed
by four nodes at the corners. Additionally it may also
have nodes along its edges as shown in Figure 2 for
face F10 . During the process of subdivision, each face
is divided into two subspaces (down-top or left-right)
and must be able to identify which node belongs to
each subspace. This can be done by comparing relative
positions of the edge and corner nodes. Connections to
nodes are stored in a list in which the order is irrelevant.
4.2
Initial condition
Subdivision process
Face subdivision
109
4.4.2
Flist 1 [0] = F0
Flist 1 [1] = F1
Flist 1 [2] = Flist 1b [3]
Flist 1 [3] = Flist 1a [2]
Vertical subdivision
Flist 0 [0] = F0
Flist 0 [1] = Flist 0b [2]
Flist 0 [2] = Flist 0a [1]
Flist 0 [3] = F1
to F 0
to F 1
to Flist 1b [3]
to Flist 1a [2]
Vertical subdivision
Add q0 to F 0
Add q0 to Flist 0b [2]
Add q0 to Flist 0a [1]
Add q0 to F 1
to Flist 1a [3]
to F 0
to F 1
to Flist 1b [0]
Add q1
Add q1
Add q1
Add q1
5 VALIDATION TEST
For the validation of the presented algorithm, a
NURBS surface patch from the fore body of a ships
hull was used and the two algorithms, the original
110
CONCLUSIONS
111
ABSTRACT: In this paper, Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) has been used to improve the ship maneuvering
in the fixed shaft speed. The Proportional-Derivative (PD) control method has been applied in order to obtain
high efficiency by changing the pitch angle. These controller results have been evaluated and trained by Fast
Backpropagation Algorithm (FBA). The neural network results show that the training of the pitch behavior
has been verified, and the FBA performance of the CPP controller has a better performance than the PD
controller.
INTRODUCTION
115
where F is the actuator force, P1 P2 is load pressure difference, the piston ram area represents A, Mt
represents the total mass of the piston including the
control propeller inertia, Be is the equivalent viscous damping coefficient, K is load spring constant
and Fd represents the external hydrodynamic disturbance force including the frictional force. The angular
position of the propeller is determined by the piston position = xp /R where R represents the effective
torque arm of the linkages. The servo valve flow with
a matched and symmetric orifice can be expressed as
follows.
116
where
Figure 3. Block diagram with PD controller.
The state space description of a valve cylinder electrohydraulic servo force control system will be derived
dynamic equation of the system. The mathematical
model of hydraulic rudder servo system is obtained by
combining the equation which describes the actuator,
valve and pressure dynamics.
The controller design objective is to control the propeller pitch displacement. Design task is to provide
the stability of a propeller pitch control that has been
shown by the block diagram of the system with a conventional PD controller in Figure 3. Here, d is the
desired pitch value, e (t) = d is error and uPD is
the control signal. The Proportional-Derivative (PD)
controller takes the form as follows:
Derivative (PD) controller takes the form as
follows:
Proportional-derivative (PD)
controller design
117
PD
CBA
1.0466
3.3261
5.4323
2.7132
3.797
6.6144
0.6968
3.3176
0.81519
3.7611
1.3702
0.5151
0.691
3.38
0.81
1.573
1.053
0.74
4
Table 1.
Description
Param.
Value
Unit
Length
Displacement
Inertia
Weight
Propeller Diameter
Pitch angle control
Im
M
D
kt
147.2
12 840
0.25 106
13 282
6 123
0.15
m
m3
Kgm2
tons
m
m
CONCLUSIONS
SIMULATION RESULTS
REFERENCES
In order to demonstrate effectiveness of the proposed controllers a series of simulations have been
performed on the ferry propeller propulsion system.
Table 1 summarizes the main data of the ferry as
reported by Izadi-Zamanabadi and Blanke (1999).
The Neural Network structure for the input and
output functions for the CPP are given in Figure 5.
A conventional PD controller technique in a propulsion system is compared with intelligent controller
technique based in Fast Back-propagation neural
Networks.
Figure 5 shows that the CPP produces better pitch
angle by means of Fast Back-propagation Algorithm
than the PD controller. The actuator torque controller
is just a feed-through of the desired stable pitch angle.
The stability of the controller depends on the properties
of the PD controller. Some values of the training set
used for the algorithm is given in Table 2.
Aarseth, L. (2002), Analysis and control of propulsion systems subject to thrust losses and power limitations in
extreme seas. Thesis (pre-project). Norwegian University
of Science and Technology.
Alkan, A.D., Gulez, K. andYilmaz, H., (2004), A knowledge
based computational design tool for determining preliminary stability particulars of naval ships, NEJ Naval
Engineers Journal, 116, No. 4, pp. 3751.
Bonivento, C., Paoli, A. and Marconi, L., (2002), Faulttolerant control of the ship propulsion system benchmark
Control Engineering Practice Vol. 11, pp. 227239.
Ferreiro, R., Haro, M., and Velasco, F.J., (2005), Trends on
modeling techniques applied on ships propulsion system
monitoring, Journal of Maritime Research, Vol. II. No. 1,
pp. 87104.
Fossen, T. I., (1994), Guidance and control of ocean vehicles, pp. 246257. New York: Wiley.
Fukuba, H., Morita, S. and Maeda, T., (1996), Simulation
of nox reduction by consolidated control main engine and
118
Krger, S. and Haack, T., (2004), Design of propulsion control system based on the simulation of nautical
maneuvers. 9th Symp. On Practical of Ships and Other
Floating Structures, Germany.
Lewis, E.W., (1981), Principles of naval architecture
Society of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineers.
New York.
Raya T., R. Gokarna P., and Shaa, O.P., (1996), Neural
network applications in naval architecture and marine
engineering, Artificial Intelligence in Engineering,
Vol. 10(3), pp. 213226.
Ruth, E., (2004), Control of thruster with variable pitch,
Project Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology.
Sorensen, A.J., Adnanes, A.K., Fossen, T.I., and Strand, J-P.,
(1997), A new method of thruster control positioning of
ships based on power control, 4th IFAC Conference on
Maneuvering and Control of Marine Craft.
119
ABSTRACT: Due to potential fuel efficiency and exhaust gas emissions advantages, interest in dual fuel
operation of internal combustion engines is increasing. This paper describes the conversion of two marine
4.5 MW diesel engines, modified to use a combination of natural gas and heavy fuel oil. The development of
the engine monitoring and management system is described, including the use of knock measurement to control
the amount of natural gas used. Experimental results are presented, showing the performance of the engines
under different modes of operation.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing fuel costs and tightening environmental legislation drive an interest among users of existing diesel
engines to look at options to improve fuel efficiency
and reduce exhaust gas emissions formation. In most
places of the world, natural gas is continuously available at a reasonable price, and its properties make it an
interesting alternative fuel for use in internal combustion engines. The option of converting existing diesel
engines to dual fuel capability allows flexibility in the
fuel supply, but also potential reductions in operational
costs and exhaust gas emissions. However, the conversion of existing diesel engines to dual fuel operation
implies possible combustion problems that need to be
addressed.
Natural gas as a fuel exhibits a number of interesting advantages such as a reasonable net calorific value
(approximately 38,500 kJ/Nm3 ), low emissions of
CO2 , NOx and particulate matter, and generally a good
knock resistance (which is necessary to allow use in
diesel engines without engine modification). From the
point of view of availability, where available, its supply
is continuous and its price is commercially appealing. When converting a standard diesel engine to dual
fuel operation, engine operational characteristics can
remain largely unchanged, with the liquid fuel acting as
a pilot fuel to ignite the cylinder charge. Therefore the
quantity of pilot fuel must be set to release the minimum ignition energy required to ignite the gaseous
fuel, which constitutes the main energy source of the
working cycle. Due to the pre-mixed charge, problems
of pre-ignition and detonating combustion (knock)
may, however, occur, and the use of an appropriate
engine control system is therefore essential.
Numerous researchers have studied the use of natural gas as a second fuel in diesel engines [see reference
list]. Generally, fuel efficiencies comparable to those
under pure diesel engine operation are achieved at high
engine loads; at low loads dual fuel operation gives
poorer fuel efficiency. Papagiannakis and Hountalas,
(2003 and 2004) attribute this to the poor combustion of the gaseous fuel at part load operation. With a
reduction in the use of liquid diesel fuel, the particulate matter (PM) emissions are significantly reduced;
reductions of above 50% are frequently reported.
Also nitrogen oxides (NOx ) can be reduced in dual
fuel mode, however increases are usually seen in the
emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned
hydrocarbons (HC).
2
121
Detonation
ENGINE CONVERSION
122
Engine data.
Engine model
Number of cylinders
Cylinder bore
Stroke length
Speed
Mean effective pressure
Mean position speed
Rated power
Boost pressure
Compressure ratio
Wrtsil 9L32
9
320 mm
350 mm
750 rpm (12.5 s1 )
21.3 bar (2130 kPa)
8.75 m/s
4,450 kW
2.4 bar (240 kPa)
12
In December 2008, TecnoVeritas finished the commissioning of two nine-cylinder Wrtsil type 9L32
diesel engines, each with approximately 96,000 hours
of operation on heavy fuel oil (HFO). The objective
was to convert these two HFO engines to use as much
natural gas as possible, without creating mechanical
stress higher than that created under normal HFO
operation. Simultaneously, the development of operation software with an appropriate human interface
was required. Figure 1 shows a photograph of the
two engines, and main engine design data are listed
in Table 1.
adjusted via the injection angle and gas pressure, therefore allowing a fine adjustment of the gas energy
per stroke. The system allowed the control of the gas
quantity individually therefore offering a high flexibility in what concerns the engine operation. The
gas fuel injection system was continually monitored
via the KDS (knock Detection System developed
by TecnoVeritas). The KDS system includes one
accelerometer per cylinder identifying in each cycle
the knocking frequencies, or the absence of combustion (misfiring). In anyone of these conditions alarms
and commands are originated to reduce the load to a
particular cylinder or to all of them or even transferring
the engine operation from Dual-fuel to diesel.
3.1
Performance monitoring and engine control equipment has been developed by TecnoVeritas, including
dedicated hardware and software such as the VTec
multi-point port injection system for the conversion
of existing diesel engines into true dual fuel engines,
the KDS Knocking Detection System, and the EDS
Engine Diagnosis System.
Prior to conversion, the engines were surveyed and
operating variables such as pressures, temperatures,
and specific fuel consumptions were logged to be
used as a reference. Based on the operational values,
the engineering team proceeded with the customised
design of the system.
123
124
4.3
CONCLUSIONS
125
126
V. Vairinhos
CINAV, CENTEC (IST) and ISLA Santarm, Portugal
ABSTRACT: Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) finds today ideal conditions for its implementation:
current development of sensor networks, low-cost wireless data transmission and sensors with local processing
capacity; all this coupled with the need for more efficient and effective maintenance policies. The method we
propose is based on statistical processing of signals and consists in applying control charts to monitor system
condition in the context of CBM, aiming the reduction of failure rate, increasing both reliability and availability
of maritime equipment. Control charts, being a primary tool for control and monitoring of processes, can be used
to control variables such as oil pressure and temperature. This will allow us to distinguish between common and
special causes of data variation. With this methodology we intend, initially, to estimate the statistical parameters
of signals, by applying the Standard Deviation Chart. In a second stage, for monitoring and modeling the behavior
of equipment, we applied modified CUSUM (Cumulative Sum) and EWMA (Exponentially Weighted Moving
Average) charts.
MAINTENANCE METHODS
Hazards Models). These methodologies allow modelling situations in function of variables that represent
the performance of machines, Dias (2002).
Given the nature of the data collected by Nautos
(Naval Automation System), we believe that SPC
Statistical Process Control can be an appropriate
methodology to evaluate the condition of the machinery in study.
SPC is a methodology to estimate the parameters of
a process and monitor its behaviour through statistical
control charts. With SPC, the decision maker knows
127
128
4
where 0 < 1.
By applying this technique we consider only the
negative deviations for the minimum allowable pressure (TL ). If there is no alarm limit set by the manufacturer; this value can be estimated through TL
(Dias et al., 2009).
The chart is built with the ordered pairs (t, E ),
considering that there is a situation of out of control,
reflected in a change in the average process, when E
does not belong to the range defined by the limits of
control. The limits of control are defined by:
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
129
Figure 3. Methodology.
5
5.1
130
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
Dias, J. A. M. (2002). Fiabilidade em Redes de Distribuio
de Energia Elctrica. Tese de Doutoramento, FCT-UNL,
Lisboa.
Dias, J.M., Requeijo, J.G. and Pereira, Z.L (2009). Monitorizao do Estado de Condio dos Sistemas Reparveis,
em Riscos Industriais e Emergentes, Volume 1, C. Guedes
Soares, A. P. Teixeira e P. Anto (Eds), Edies
Salamandra, Lisboa, 2009 (ISBN: 978-972-689-233-5),
pp. 501511
Eyvazian, M., Naini, S. and Vaghefi, A. (2008). Monitoring
process variability using exponentially weighted moving
sample variance control charts. International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology.
Gan, F.F. (1991). An Optimal Design of CUSUM Quality
Control Charts, Journal of Quality Technology, vol. 23,
pp. 279286.
Marinha, E. (2010). PEETNA2091: MANUTENO. Alfeite.
Montgomery, D.C., (2005). Introduction to Statistical Quality
Control, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Parreira, R., Lobo, V. and Vairinhos, V., (2006). Anlise de
parmetros de operao de mquinas martimas, Escola
Naval.
Pereira, Z.L. and Requeijo, J.G., (2008). Qualidade: Planeamento e Controlo Estatstico de Processos, Caparica,
FCT-UNL, Prefcio.
Requeijo, J.G., (2010). Monitorizao e Melhoria dos Processos Usando Metodologias Estatsticas de Excelncia,
Seminrio Data Mining, ISLA.
Sibanda, T., (2007). The CUSUM chart method as a
tool for continuous monitoring of clinical outcomes
using routinely collected data, Bmc Medical Research
Methodology.
Zou, C.L., (2010). Likelihood Ratio-Based Distribution-Free
EWMA Control Charts, Journal of Quality Technology.
Zou, C. and Tsung, F. (2011). A Multivariate Sign EWMA
Control Chart. Technometrics, 8497.
Wu, Z., Jiao, J., Yang, M., Liu, Y. and Wang, Z. (2009).
An enhanced adaptive CUSUM control chart. Iie Transactions, 642653.
131
ABSTRACT: This paper proposes a nonlinear control approach for a vessel steering system. A nonlinear vessel steering system is derived considering the second order linear Nomoto model. The sliding mode approach
is proposed as the nonlinear controller. The sliding mode controller is able to deal with parameter uncertainties
and unmodeled dynamics, it quantifies the model response and the performance tradeoffs, and it rejects external
disturbances in vessel steering. The stability conditions of the sliding mode controller are analyzed considering
a Lyapunov candidate function. Finally, the proposed control algorithm is simulated and successful results are
reported for a nonlinear vessel steering system in this study.
INTRODUCTION
The developments of computational technology, satellite communication, and electronic devices (i.e. sensors and actuators) have facilitated the introduction
of autopilot features into modern ship navigation systems. However, most of the autopilot systems in ship
navigation are mainly formulated to follow a desired
course under constant speed conditions. Therefore, to
facilitate present ship navigation requirements various
linear and nonlinear controllers have been proposed
in recent literature. However, most of the linear controllers are based on the assumptions of linear state and
parameter conditions that may not always be realistic
under various maneuvering conditions.
Furthermore, under the assumptions of nonlinear
state and parameter conditions, several nonlinear control approaches are also proposed in recent literature.
However, the nonlinear controllers that are based on
accurate mathematical models of ocean going vessels
have not been successful because those models are still
inadequate.
Therefore, the model based nonlinear controllers
always had performance deficiencies in experimental
implementations. Furthermore, the nonlinear controllers that are based on the assumptions of deterministic state and parameter conditions in vessel steering
may not always be realistic because the state and
parameter conditions are changing under various sea
conditions and the controllers would not be able to
preserve their robustness.
Therefore, a nonlinear controller that does not
require an accurate mathematical model of an ocean
going vessel and is robust against disturbances; is
proposed in this study. Furthermore, the proposed
system model considers the nonlinear maneuvering
conditions of an ocean going vessel.
The sliding mode control approach, one of the nonlinear control approaches, to control nonlinear vessel
steering is adopted in this study. The selection of the
sliding mode controller is based on several reasons
(Slotine and Li 1991): The first is that the sliding mode
control law can include system parameter uncertainties and un-modeled dynamics; the second is that it can
quantify the response of modeling and performance
trade-offs; the third, it can reject bounded external
disturbances.
1.1
133
1.2
Control system
The proposed control system is presented in Figure 1. The system consists of three modules: vessel
steering system, sliding mode controller and rudder
control system. A nonlinear mathematical formulation
is presented in the vessel steering system. A control
algorithm is presented in the sliding mode controller.
The rudder control system consists of a mathematical
model for rudder actuation that acts upon the rudder angle and the rudder rate. Further details on these
systems are presented in following sections.
The organization of this paper is as follows. Section
2 contains a vessel steering system that is considered
for this study. Section 3 contains a formulation of the
sliding mode controller and its stability conditions.
Section 4 contains a detailed description of the computational results. Finally the conclusion is presented
in section 5.
where Yv , Yr , Y , Yv , Yr are the hydrodynamic coefficients of sway motion and Nv , Nr , N , Nv , Nr are the
hydrodynamic coefficients of yaw motion.
The state space model describing the vessel linear steering system, introduced in equation (1) can be
re-written as:
Sway-yaw sub-systems
134
= x2 ,
where the system states are defined as: = x1 ,
= x3 and the system functions can be written:
and
where ux : the control input to the rudder control system. The control input is defined as the input voltage/
current to the rudder control system and 1 = 0 and
2 = 0 are parameters of the rudder control system.
3.2 Sliding mode controller
In the sliding mode control approach, a feedback control law that constrains the motions of vessel steering
to a sliding manifold (i.e. surface) is defined. The
sliding manifold is a hyper surface that is inserted
in the state space of vessel steering. One should note
that the sliding manifold is independent of the vessel
steering system structure, therefore sliding mode control inherently robust to parameter uncertainties and
un-modeled dynamics. Therefore, the nonlinearities
associated with vessel steering near the zero rudder
angle can be reduced. This phenomenon can also be
seen as a model reduction in vessel steering due to the
sliding manifold.
The vessel steering system behavior under sliding
mode control can be divided into two phases: reaching phase and sliding phase. In the reaching phase, the
vessel steering trajectory starting at the initial conditions moves toward the sliding manifold. In the sliding
phase, the trajectory moves toward the origin of the
equilibrium point.
In the sliding phase, after the system trajectory
reached the sliding manifold, the dynamics of the
135
where the constants a1 > 0 and a2 > 0 and the respective errors e1 , e2 and e3 can be written as:
where 0 is a constant. One should note that the equation (24) achieves the negative semidefinite condition
under the feedback control law in (26). Therefore,
the proposed feedback controller law in (26) guarantees the robustness of the controller even under the
uncertainties in the functions of f (x) and g(x).
There are some practical challenges with the sliding
mode controller; the control inputs can be affected by
chattering, which can lead to high temperature generation, high wear of actuator moving parts, or can
excite unmodeled high frequency dynamics, eventually degrades the controller performance. However,
adjustments of the inclination of the sliding surface
and the function, (x), can overcome some of those
challenges.
3.3 Rudder control system
It is not possible to control rudder angle and rudder rate simultaneously; therefore the input voltage/
current of the rudder control system is considered to
control vessel steering in this study. However, one
should note that the accurate control of the rudder
angle and the rudder rates are not required by this
approach.
COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
The proposed sliding model controller is implemented on the MATLAB software platform. The
vessel parameters in the steering model are assumed
as 1 = 0.3710 (1/rad2 ), 2 = 0.4340 (1/s2 ),
3 = 3.4000 (1/s), 1 = 0.3500 (1/s3 ), and 2 =
0.1225 (1/s2 ). Some of these parameter values are
extracted from the study of Amerongen and Cate
(1975), and others are generated by trial and error calculations considering the vessel response under stable
response conditions. The sliding surface parameters
are considered as: a1 = 0.8 and a2 = 3. The parameter
of the feedback control law constant is considered as:
0 = 0.75.
The computational simulations of the sliding mode
controller in vessel steering are presented in Figures 3, 4 and 5. Figure 3 consists of the vessel reference heading and the actual heading with the sliding
mode controller. As presented in the figure the vessel
actual heading is converged to the reference heading
136
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
137
the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia) under
contract no. PTDC/TRA/74332/2006.
REFERENCES
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adaptive autopilots for ship. Automatica 11, 441449.
Astrom, K. J., 1980. Why use adaptive technique for steering large tankers, International Journal Control 32 (4),
689708.
Astrom, K. J., Kalstrom, C. G., 1976. Identification of ship
steering dynamics. Automatica 12, 912.
Davidson, K. S. M., Schiff, L. I., 1946. Turning and course
keeping qualities. Transactions of Society of Naval
Architectures Marine Engineers 55.
Khalil, H. K., 2002. Nonlinear Systems. Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, USA.
Kizmaz, H., Aksoy, S., Muhurcu, A., 2010. Sliding mode
control of suspended pendulum. In: Modern Electric
Systems. Wroxlaw, Poland, pp. 1419.
Lauvdal, T., Fossen, T. I., 1996. Nonlinear non-minimum
phase rudder-roll damping systems for ships using
sliding mode control. In: Proceedings of the IFAC
World Congress, San Francisco, USA.
Nomoto, K., Taguchi, T., Honda, K. and Hirano, S., 1957. On
the Steering Qualities of Ships, International Shipbuilding
Progress 4, 354370.
Perera, L.P., Oliveira, P., and Guedes Soares, C., 2011.
Dynamic Parameter Estimation of a Nonlinear Vessel
Steering Model of Ocean Navigation., In Proc. 30th
Int. Conf. on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, ASME paper OMAE201150249.
Qiang, W., Juan, C. and Zhiyong, T., 2008. Study of sliding
mode control for stewart platform based on simplified dynamics. In: Proceedings of IEEE International
Conference on Industrial Informatics. Daejeon, Korea,
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138
Onboard systems
ABSTRACT: The design of a naval communication system can be done using the Mobile Ad hoc Network
working concept (MANET), enhanced with the capability to communicate with the command and control centres
ashore.Actually the Portuguese Navy has the capability to communicate between the land based command centres
and the ships, and between ships. However, the communication technology used in ship-to-ship link set bounds
to the services which are required for the command and control procedures. The use of a naval MANET enhanced
with the capacity to link the ships at sea with the command and control centres ashore will extend the network
services to a greater number of ships. This document presents a case study about the usability of a MANET
by a naval force. In this study was considered different classes of routing protocols and several models for the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). In this scope, it is done a performance comparison between the routing
protocols with the TCP models under study. The results were achieved through simulation using different naval
scenarios.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
SATCOM satellite communications
141
142
143
CONCLUSIONS
144
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Macker, J. and Corsen, S. IETF Mobile adhoc networks
MANET working group charter. http://www.ietf.org/
html.charters/manet-charter.html, 2009.
Meng, L. and Wu, W. Dynamic source routing protocol
based on link stability arithmetic. In Information Science
and Engieering, 2008. ISISE 08. International Symposium on, volume 2, pages 730733, Dec. 2008. doi:
10.1109/ISISE.2008.168.
Perkins, C.E., Royer, E. and Das, S.R. Ad hoc On-Demand
Distance Vector (AODV) Routing RFC3561. IETF
NetworkWorking Group, July 2003.
Postel, J. RFC 768: User Datagram Protocol, Aug. 1980.
Pullin, A.J., Presland, S. and Pattinson, C. Using ship
movement in the Irish Sea for MANET evaluation. In
Computer Modeling and Simulation, 2008. EMS 08.
Second UKSIM European Symposium on, pages 394
399, Sept. 2008. doi: 10.1109/EMS.2008.50.
Rappaport, T.S. Wireless Communications Principles and
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Saha, A.K. and Johnson, D.B. Modeling mobility for
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145
ABSTRACT: A vessels stability, operation performance and safety depend on her load condition. During the
design phase only a few load conditions are verified and therefore much responsibility relays on who is operating
the vessel and therefore is prone to human error. This paper intends to present a software tool that aims to increase
safety during operation by monitoring load condition, checking stability and strength criteria, and estimating
the vessels performance in regular intervals to provide a clarified scenario. Additionally, if flooding occurs, the
software includes a decision support tool that advises on how to manage fluids in order to increase the vessels
stability depending on the load condition previous to damage.
INTRODUCTION
Handling a ship in transit, while manoeuvring in shallow waters or channels, during operations or in case
of damage, requires a solid knowledge of the platform, her capabilities, professional experience and
specific training. Today, amongst shipping companies
and navies all around the world, crew numbers are
becoming smaller, they are less experienced, and crew
replacements occur more often.
On the other hand, todays technology allows information to be assessed more easily, so such problems
can be minimized if these tools are smartly used. Following this reasoning, this paper presents a Decision
Support Tool (DST) that is currently being developed
for the Bridge Officer as the responsible for the vessel operation, safety of navigation and monitoring the
vessels stability, i.e. how the vessel relates with the
surrounding medium.
The proposed tool is based on the fact that the
weight distribution influences the vessels stability,
structural integrity, performance, and overall safety.
Therefore, by monitoring the vessels load condition, it
makes possible to check her stability criteria and determine up-to-date operational characteristics in frequent
intervals, turning the vessels operation simpler and
less prone to human error.
In case of damage, it becomes even more significant
to have up to date knowledge of the ships load condition since every action done to increase her stability
must have it into account, or her ability to survive can
be drastically reduced.
In the next sections, a small review of the influences taken into consideration to develop this work
are presented, followed by the DST concept analysis
and finally the presentation of its implementation.
147
148
Damage input
Figure 2. Navigation plan of turning in restricted waterways (adapted from reference House, 2007).
149
SK
Qi
4.2
Decision variables
6. When one of two compartments with a crossflooding pipe connecting each other is flooded, so
is the other
where j and j are two compartments connected by
a cross-flooding pipe
7. No watertight compartments that were not flooded
due to damage are going to be flooded
where j identifies the equipment and WCk corresponds to a set of flooded compartments that dont
include WCi .
Constraints
4.5
Cost function
150
Figure 5. Simulation interface window (watertight subdivision and tank identification was erased).
151
CONCLUSIONS
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Schleipen, M. 2008. OPC UA supporting the automated
engineering of production monitoring and control systems. 13th IEEE International Conference on Emerging
Technologies and Factory Automation.
Viviani, M., C. P. Bonvino, et al. 2007. Identification Of
Hydrodynamic Coefficients From Standard Manoeuvres
For A Series Of Twin-Screw Ships. 2nd International
Conference on Marine Research and Transportation
Naples.
152
ABSTRACT: The paper describes an onboard decision support system that is being developed to support the
operation of fishing vessels in waves, in particular for the decisions about ship handling in waves that have
to do with vessel safety. The system includes a component of hardware that monitors several motion related
parameters, and a component of data processing that uses those measurements and provides the ship master
with the consequences of the different ship handling decisions. The paper describes the decision criteria and
the approaches adopted for the calculation of the parameters that govern the masters decisions. It describes the
software that was developed to perform those calculations and to display in a user interface the advice to the
master as well as the data acquisition and processing hardware that has been considered and tested to be installed
on board.
INTRODUCTION
The fishing industry is one of the professional activities most prone to labor accidents. Petursdottir et al.
(2001) state that an average of 24000 fishermen loose
their lives every year. As Anto and Guedes Soares
(2004) show in their study regarding the Portuguese
fishing fleet, 89% of the accidents studied are related
to operational safety issues. In Mantari et al. (2009),
a study has been made regarding the stability of fishing vessels in waves when gear loads are introduced.
Here it has been concluded that fishing gear heeling moments are more important than the heeling
moments produced by the IMO weather criterion, and
that a combination of these two leads to capsizing
even in regular load conditions.
Complementary to this, Tello Ruiz et al. (2009)
made a seakeeping analysis of a set of fishing vessels
performance under different operational conditions.
The results have shown that large lateral accelerations
have a strong impact on the crew and on the machinery
systems performance, even when the ships survivability is not at risk. Both these works utterly propose the
solution of a decision support system to overcome the
simplification of the IMO stability standards, particularly regarding the operability conditions, adding to
the stability monitoring.
Up until Koyama et al. (1982), the development of
onboard systems to aid the navigation in rough weather
had been mainly concerned with structural integrity
and equipment safety, and only proposed for application on large ships. Lindemann and Nordenstrom
(1975) developed one such system by measuring the
accelerations in six degrees of freedom and the stresses
153
Table 1.
RMS criterion.
Description of work
x 3,P
m/s2
x 2,P
m/s2
x4,P
deg
0.20 g
0.15 g
0.10 g
0.05 g
0.02 g
0.10 g
0.07 g
0.05 g
0.04 g
0.03 g
6.0
4.0
3.0
2.5
2.0
MSI =
with:
154
In the expressions above, m0 and m4 are the variances of motion and acceleration respectively. These
are calculated as follows:
155
Table 2.
Criterion
Fields
Intact stability
general
calculations
Displacement (ton)
LCGmin (m)
LCGmax (m)
KG (m)
FS correction (m)
Corrected GMt (m)
Area until 30 (m.rad)
Area until 40 (m.rad)
Area 30 40 (m.rad)
Area A (m.rad)
Area B (m.rad)
Maximum righting
arm angle (rad)
Area A (m.rad)
IMO intact
stability
criteria
IMO weather
criterion
USCG
suspended
weight
GZ at 30 (m)
Initial GMt (m)
GZmax (m)
A/B
and allows for the addition or subtraction of individual weight items by specifying its load and location. It
is possible to reset the list of items to the pre-defined
project values.
The Tanks and suspended load group shows
the current tank filling status and allows for the
modification of the individual fillings in terms of percentage. If the vessel is under hauling operation or
pulling the fishing bag, the strength and spatial position in action may be introduced. The Sensors group
shows the instantaneous values of the instruments.
These represent measurements of longitudinal inclination, transverse inclination, portside and starboard free
board, and suspended load. At the present stage these
are still dummy measurement values. Figure 2 shows
a screenshot of the user interface of this module.
3.2
156
157
The proposed system has been implemented on a digital data acquisition platform in a prototype scale as
presented in Figure 14. The digital data acquisition
system is divided into two sub-systems: Motion monitoring sub-system and Force monitoring subsystem.
The main objective of the Motion monitoring subsystem is to evaluate the vessel motions under regular
and irregular sea conditions. The Motion monitoring system consists of several sensors: accelerometer,
angular rate sensor, inclinometer and a wave height
measurement sensor. The accelerometer measures the
surge, sway, and heave accelerations, the angular rate
sensor measures the yaw angular velocity and the
inclinometer measures the roll and pitch angles of the
motion of vessel. The wave height measurement sensor is capable of measuring the absolute wave height of
the bow waves and has an internal accelerometer for
compensation of vessel motions during its data collection process. However, the wave height sensor will
be replaced by an estimation process that will evaluate wave height from the vessel motions in future
developments. Therefore the cost of this system will
be minimized.
The main objective of the force monitoring subsystem is to evaluate the fishing-gear load in real-time.
This data is used to assess the suspended weight criteria
described in Varela et al. (2010), and may also be used
for further specific studies on this subject. However,
due to the unavailability of fishing-gear facilities up
to the present date, the force monitoring sub-system
has only been simulated. The proposed digital data
acquisition system will now be further illustrated in the
following sections: Hardware Structure and Software
Architecture.
158
4.1
Hardware structure
As shown in Figure 14, the hardware structure consists mainly of the following units: laptop computer, Ethernet switch, desktop computer, GPS unit,
Compact-RIO, power supplies, external hard-drive,
and other sensors (accelerometer, angular rate sensor,
inclinometer and wave height measurement sensor).
All units communicate through the Ethernet switch
that is presented in Figure 14. The experimental
platform of the hardware structure is presented in
Figure 15.
The laptop computer that is connected to the
Compact-RIO unit through the Ethernet switch is
the main input/output user interface in this system.
Furthermore, the laptop computer is also connected
to the external hard drive for data storage and to the
GPS unit for vessel positions, course and speed evaluation. The GPS unit consists of an external antenna and
it is capable of accurately estimating the vessel position
(Longitude and Latitude), and the speed and course on
the earths referential. The Compact-RIO main unit is
connected to the sensors previously depicted, for collecting the measurement data as shown in (Figure 14).
Furthermore, a power supply unit is used in this system
to power several main units: GPS unit, Ethernet switch
and Compact-RIO.
The Laptop computer acts as the main control unit
of the prototype system. There are two software components that run on the laptop: Main Program (with
its user interface) and the Ship Operability Assessment Program. The first, coded with LABVIEW, is
related to the digital data acquisition. The second is
responsible for assessing the operational criteria as
presented in section 2. Both these components are
further discussed in section 4.2.
The desktop computer runs the LABVIEW realtime operating system, which enables high-speed
Software architecture
159
4.3
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been developed in the scope of the
project Decision Support System for the Safety
of the Fishing Vessels Subjected to Waves (SADEP)
funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science
and Technology under contract n.o PTDC/EME-MFE/
75233/2006
The initial version of this system, which was a precursor to the present system, has been developed by S.
Varela and T. Santos, as indicated in the text.
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Decision Support for Avoiding Resonance and Wave
Impact for Ship Operation in Heavy Seas, Safety
and Reliability for Managing Risk, Guedes Soares, C.,
Zio, E. (Eds.), Francis & Taylor, pp: 27432750.
Datta, R., Rodrigues, J. M. and Guedes Soares, C. (2011),
Study of the motions of fishing vessels by a time domain
panel method, Ocean Engineering 38 (2011), 782792.
Faltinsen, O. M. (1990), Sea Loads on Ships and Offshore
Structures, Cambridge University Press.
Francescutto A. (2007), The intact ship stability code:
Present status and future developments, Proceedings of
the 2nd International Conference on Marine Research and
Transportation, Naples, Italy, Session A, 199208.
Gefaell G. (2005), Some consideration about the stability
and safety of fishing vessels less than 24 m of length,
Naval Engineering, April, 4658.
160
Graham, R., Baitis,A. E., Meyers W. G. (1992), On the development of seakeeping criteria, Naval Engineers Journal,
Vol. 104, Issue 3, pp: 259275.
Hasselmann, K., Barnett, T. P., Bouws E., Carlson H.,
Cartwright D.E., Enke K., Ewing J.A., Gienapp H., Hasselmann D.E., Kruseman P., Meerburg A., Mller P.,
Olbers D.J., Richter K., Sell W. & Walden H. 1973. Measurements of wind-wave growth and swell decay during
the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP). Dtsch.
Hydrogr. Z. Suppl. A 8(12): 95.
Hoffman, D. (1976), The impact of seakeeping on ship
operations. Marine Technology, 13: 241292.
Hoffman, D. (1977), Wave measurements and implementation on board ship, Technical report, National Maritime
Research Center, NMRC-KP-141.
Hoffman, D. (1980), The integration of shipboard and shore
based systems for operation in heavy weather, Ship
Operation Automation, pp: 159168.
IMO-MSC (2007), MSC Circ. 1228 Revised Guidance to
the Master for Avoiding Dangerous Situations in Adverse
Weather and Sea Conditions.
Kose, E. (1994), Dynamic monitoring of ship stability,
Ph.D. thesis, University of British Columbia.
Kose E., Gosine R.G., Dunwoody A.B., Calisal S.M. (1995),
An expert system for monitoring dynamic stability
of small craft, Ocean Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 1,
pp: 1322.
Koyama, T., Susumu H. and Okumoto, K. (1982), On a
micro-computer based capsize alarm system, Second
International Conference on Stability of Ship and Ocean
Vehicles, pp: 329339.
Lindemann, K. and Nordenstrm, N. (1975), A system for
ship handling in rough weather. Fourth Ship Control
System Symposium.
Lindemann, K., Odland, J. and Strenghangen, J. (1977),
On the application of the hull surveillance system
for increased safety and improved utilization in rough
weather, SNAME, Vol. 85.
Longuet-Higgins M. S. (1963), The effect of nonlinearities
on statistical distribution in the theory of waves, J. Fluid
Mech., 17, 459480.
Mantari J.L., Ribeiro e Silva S., Guedes Soares C. (2009),
Intact stability of fishing vessels under operational
loading conditions, Proceedings of the 13th Congress
of International Maritime Association of the Mediterranean (IMAM 2009), 1215 October, Istanbul, Turkey,
pp: 185193.
Mantari J.L., Ribeiro e Silva S., Guedes Soares C. (2009),
Variations on Transverse Stability of Fishing Vessels
due to Fishing Gear Pull and Waves, Proceedings
of the XXI Naval Architecture Pan-American Conference (COPINAVAL 2009), 1822 October, Montevideo,
Uruguay.
Mitsuyasu, H., Tasai, F., Suhara, T., Mizuno S., Ohkusu, M.,
Honda, T. and Rikiishi, K. (1975).
NORDFORSK. 1987. Seakeeping performance of ships,
Assessment of a ship performance in a seaway. Nordic
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OHanlon, J. F. and M. E. McCauley (1974), Motion
Sickness Incidence as a Function of Vertical Sinusoidal
Motion, Aerospace Medicine, AM-45(4), 366369.
Pascoal, R., Guedes Soares C. and Srensen, A.J. (2005),
Ocean Wave Spectral Estimation Using Vessel Wave Frequency Motions, Proceedings of the 24th International
Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering (OMAE 2005), 1217 June, 2005, Halkidiki, Greece,
Paper: OMAE2005-67584.
Pascoal, R., Guedes Soares, C., Srensen,A.J. (2007), Ocean
Wave Spectral Estimation Using Vessel Wave Frequency
Motions, JOMAE, 129(2), pp. 9096.
Pascoal, R. and Guedes Soares, C. (2008), Non-parametric
wave spectral estimation using vessel motions, Appl.
Ocean Res, 30(1), pp. 4653.
Pascoal, R. and Guedes Soares, C. (2009), Kalman Filtering
of Vessel Motions for Ocean Wave Directional Spectrum
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Ribeiro e Silva, S. Tello Ruiz, M. And Guedes Soares,
C. (2009), Seakeeping Performance of Fishing Vessels
under Operational Conditions, Proceedings of the 13th
Congress of International Maritime Association of the
Mediterranean (IMAM 2009), 1215 October, Istanbul,
Turkey, pp: 401412.
Santos T., Villavicencio R. and Guedes Soares C. (2010),
Safety and stability of fishing vessels on waves, The
Portuguese Maritime Sector (in Portuguese), C. Guedes
Soares & V. Gonalves de Brito (Eds.), Edies
Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon.
Schofield, M. (1977), Unique heavy lift monitoring
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Soares, C. (2009), Fishing Vessels Responses in
Waves under Operational Conditions, Proceedings of
the XXI Naval Architecture Pan-American Conference
(COPINAVAL09), 1822 October, Montevideo, Uruguay.
Varela, S.M., Santos, T. and Guedes Soares, C. (2010),
Monitoring system for the safety of fishing vessels subject to wave loads, The Portuguese Maritime Sector (in
Portuguese), C. Guedes Soares & V. Gonalves de Brito
(Eds.), Edies Salamandra, Lda., Lisbon.
161
ABSTRACT: A linear time domain 3D panel method is used to determine a variety of motion results for
three different fishing vessels. In the present investigation, some modifications are also prescribed in order to
increase the robustness and efficiency of the existing linear time domain panel code. Initially a rigorous study is
performed to check the efficiency and accuracy of the time domain code after incorporating such modifications,
then computed results are compared with other established theories and commercially accepted codes to analyze
the motion responses, while in a previous paper, most of the results are obtained only for the head waves,
in the present study, results are computed for head seas, quarterly head waves and following waves with various
speeds, to capture the effect of the speed and also the effect due to the changing of heading angles of waves.
It is observed that the present time domain panel code shows a consistent and good agreement between other
computed motion results.
1
INTRODUCTION
165
the waterline at z = 0, VN represents the two dimensional normal velocity in the z = 0 plane of a point
on .
Differentiating with respect to the normal and
applying body boundary condition gives the following:
166
where
Figure 1. Mesh of Fishing Vessel 2 (FV2). Left: Mesh of
original geometry, Right: Mesh modified at the water line.
Table 1.
where AWP , Mwp and correspond to the waterplane area, the moment about the waterplane area and
the displaced volume at the mean draft respectively.
GMT and GML are the transverse and longitudinal
metacentric heights.
The FK force is obtained analytically from the
incident wave potential and Fdynamic is calculated by
integrating the hydrodynamic pressure.
Once the total force is obtained in the present time
step t, one needs to use some explicit or implicit
scheme to predict the velocity and motion for the
advanced time step t + t. In order to do that, an
explicit rule can also be used for the integration which
results in the value of the displacement. Detailed
description of the scheme is presented in Datta et al
(2011), which is a reformulation of the method proposed by Datta and Sen (2007). The reformulation has
been done to avoid the numerical instability occuring when fishing vessels are considered. The detailed
discussion is given in Datta et al. (2011) and hence
not repeated here.
Designation
[m]
LBP
[m]
B (moulded)
[m]
D (moulded)
[mT]
FV1
FV2
FV3
15
22
20
5.4
5.8
7.4
2.4
1.6
3.4
104.9
94.7
302.9
In the present study, three fishing vessel are considered, the principal characteristic of three vessels are
given in Table 1. FV2 is the only ship which presents
nearly horizontal panels at the free-surface vicinity.
Its original geometry, as well as the modified mesh,
can be seen in Figures 1a and 1b. Figures 2 and 3,
show the meshes corresponding to FV1 and FV3
respectively.
From Figure 4, it may be noted that due to the
modification of meshes near the free surface of FV2,
numerical results improves significantly. In Figure 4
one may notice the numerical instability occurs in
the motion history computed for an incident wave
with /Lbp = 6.28 for zero speed case with respect
to the mesh given in Figure 1a. On the other hand,
Figure 5 shows the same computation, but with the
167
168
169
170
Figure 17. Heave response function for FV3, 7.5 knot Speed
Top: heading 180 , bottom: heading 135 .
Figure 18. Pitch response function for FV3, 7.5 knot Speed
Top: heading 180 , bottom: heading 135 .
CONCLUSIONS
171
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been performed within the project
SADEP-Decision support system for the safety of
fishing vessels subjected to waves, which has been
financed by the Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia),
from the Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology, under contract PTDC/EME-MFE/75233/2006.
The first and second authors have been funded by the
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
under the contracts SFRH/BPD/66845/2009 and
SFRH/BD/64242/2009.
REFERENCES
Clement, A.H., 1998, An ordinary differential equation for
green function of time-domain free-surface hydrodynamics, Journal of Engineering mathematics, vol. 33,
pp. 201217.
Datta, R. and Sen, D., 2007, The simulation of ship motion
using a B-spline based panel method in time domain,
Journal of Ship Research, vol. 51(3), pp. 267284
Datta R, Rodrigues J. M, Guedes Soares C. 2011, Study of
the Motions of Fishing Vessels by a Time Domain Panel
Method, Ocean Engineering, vol. 38, pp. 782792
Liapis, S. J. and Beck, R. F., 1985, Seakeeping computations using time domain analysis, Proceedings, 4th
International Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C,
pp. 3454.
Lin, W. M. and Yue, D., 1990, Numerical solution for large
amplitude ship motions in the time domain. Proceedings of 18th ONR Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics,
National Academy Press, Washington D.C, pp. 4166.
Nakos, D. E., and Sclavounos, P. D., 1990, Ship motion by a
three dimensional Rankine panel method, Proceedings of
8th ONR Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, National
Academy Press, Washington D.C, pp. 2140.
Nakos, D. E., Kring, D. E. and Sclavounos, P. D., 1993,
Rankine panel method for time-domain free surface
flows., Proceedings, 6th International Conference on
Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics., Iowa City, Iowa.,
University of Iowa.
Salvesen, N., Tuck, E. O. and Faltinsen, O., 1970, Ship
motions and sea loads. Trans. SNAME, vol. 78, 250287.
Sen, D., 2002, Time domain computations of large amplitude
3D ship motions with forward speed, Ocean Engineering,
vol. 29, pp. 9731002.
Wu, G.-X and Eatock Taylor, R. 1987, A Greens function form for ship motion at forward speed. International
Shipbuilding Progress, vol. 34 (398), pp. 189196.
172
ABSTRACT: A navigation and control algorithm for the path following task using heading and speed controls
is described. The navigation algorithm is based on the waypoint scheme using the line-of-sight projection method
and is applied to simulating the manoeuvring motion of an autonomous ship model. A set of simulation tests was
realized in order to evaluate the influence of the sea current on the path tracking process varying the model speed,
and the current speed and direction. It is demonstrated how the sea current may interfere with the performance
of the vehicle.
INTRODUCTION
173
Table 1.
Length overall
Length between perpendiculars
Breadth
Depth
Draught (during the tests)
Block coefficient
Displacement
3.430 m
3.250 m
0.530 m
0.283 m
0.063 m
0.831
0.0902 m3
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Equations of motion
The speed
over the ground (SOG) is then defined as
where A = Iz Nr , B = mxG Yr , C = m Yv , D =
mxG Nv and E = AC BD are the inertial aggregates, Iz is the ship moment of inertia, m is the ship
mass, xG is position of the centre of mass with respect
to the midship plane, X , Y and N with the subscripts
The control strategy does not take into account presence of wind and/or current and is based on the
waypoint guidance algorithm by LOS presented by
Fossen et al. (2003) and modified by Moreira et al.
(2005, 2007). Figure 2 illustrates the LOS guidance
principle and defines the LOS vector as traced from
the vessel coordinate origin (x, y) to the intersecting
point on the path (xlos , ylos ) at the distance of n ship
lengths Lpp ahead of the vehicle.
In many applications the LOS vector is taken as
a vector from the body-fixed origin (x, y) to the next
way-point (xk , yk ). This suggests that the set point for
the heading controller should be chosen as:
174
The term rmin represents the radius of the optimal circle around the ship introduced for improving
the convergence of the algorithm. It is calculated
dynamically as a function of the ship and waypoints
coordinates.
The pair (xlos , ylos ) can be obtained from (8). When
the vehicle is moving along the path, a switching mechanism for selecting the next way-point is needed. The
waypoint (xk+1 , yk+1 ) can be selected depending on
whether the ship lies within a circle of acceptance with
radius R0 around waypoint (xk , yk ), as illustrated in
Figure 2. Moreover, if the vehicle positions (x(t), y(t))
at the time t satisfies the condition
2.3
Heading controller
where
175
Table 2.
0.1705 s1
7.1167 s
41.7422
0.0587 s1
77.6189 s
where CT is the total ship drag coefficient; S is the wetted surface area of the ship, c is the weighted average
flow speed over the rudder given by
is the PID regulator per se. The first and second time
derivatives of the desired heading are estimated as
Speed controller
The surge equation from the set (2) using (1) can be
re-written as
The first set of simulation runs presumed three different desired speeds Ud with zero speed of the current. The model always starts its manoeuvre with the
initial speed of 0.5 kn and is ordered to reach at the
176
Table 3.
Simulation
n
Model
speed
[m/s]
Model
speed
[kn]
Equivalent
ship speed
[kn]
Froude
number
1
2
3
0.26
0.31
0.36
0.5
0.6
0.7
5
6
7
0.046
0.055
0.065
177
Sea
current
Simulation speed
No.
[m/s]
Sea
current
speed
[kn]
Sea
current
Model Relative
direction speed current
[ ]
[kn]
speed
7
8
9
10
0.47
0.68
0.87
1.07
0
0
0
0
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.78
1.13
1.45
1.78
Simulation
No.
Model
speed
[m/s]
Model
speed
[kn]
Equivalent
ship speed
[kn]
Froude
number
4
5
6
0.57
0.67
0.77
1.1
1.3
1.5
11
13
15
0.100
0.118
0.137
178
Table 6.
Sea
current
Simulation speed
No.
[m/s]
Sea
current
speed
[kn]
Sea
current
Model Relative
direction speed current
[ ]
[kn]
speed
11
12
13
14
1.07
1.07
1.07
1.07
0
90
180
270
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.78
1.78
1.78
1.78
Figure 13.
speed.
course parallel to the x-axis. With such heavy overshoots the heading error can reach very high values,
sometimes up to 90 (Figure 13).
179
Table 7.
Sea
current
Simulation speed
No.
[m/s]
Sea
current
speed
[kn]
Sea
current
Model Relative
direction speed current
[ ]
[kn]
speed
15
16
17
18
0.47
0.68
0.87
1.07
0
0
0
0
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.55
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
0.36
0.52
0.67
0.82
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been conducted within the project
Methodology for ships manoeuvrability tests with
self-propelled models, which is being funded by the
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
(Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia) under contract PTDC/TRA/74332/2006. The work of the second
author has been supported by research fellowships of
the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia) under
contract SFRH/BPD/48088/2008.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
It was demonstrated that the sea current may influence considerably performance of the navigation and
control system in path-tracking regimes resulting in
parasitic wobbling with respect to the planned path
and large overshoots. Lower path-tracking capability
180
ABSTRACT: The interaction of oblique incident waves with a moored finite floating membrane is analyzed for
finite water depth with changes in bottom topography. The solution for the physical problem is obtained based on
linearized water wave theory using the eigenfunction expansion method and orthogonal mode-coupling relation.
The numerical computations are performed for the reflection coefficient, transmission coefficients and vertical
deflections to understand the effect of mooring and changes in bottom topography on the wave interaction with
the floating membrane. Energy relation for oblique gravity wave scattering by floating membrane where there
are changes in bottom topography is used to check the accuracy of the computation. It is observed that due to
the presence of the moored floating membrane the amplitude of the transmitted wave diminishes significantly.
The changes in the reflection and transmission coefficient are also observed due to the variation in the bottom
topography and also to the changing of the tension parameter of the floating membrane. The present study shows
the effect of spring mooring on the wave propagation due to the presence of floating membrane with changes in
bottom topography.
INTRODUCTION
181
where Re denotes the real part and l is the component of the wave number along z-direction. The spatial
velocity potential j (x, y) for j = 1, 2, 3, satisfies the
Helmholtzs equation given by
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
2
where xy
= (x2 + y2 ).
In the open water region (, a) (0, ), the
free surface boundary condition is given by
and
182
where
Method of solution
where Rn , n = 0, 1, 2 . . ., An , Bn , n = 0, I , II , 1, 2 . . .
and Tn , n = 0, 1, 2 . . . are the unknown constants to be
determined. The eigenfunctions fjn (y)s for j = 1, 2, 3
are given by
for m = 0, I , II , 1, 2, . . ..
Further, using the orthogonal property of the eigenfunction f2m (y) as in Eq. (12) and the expressions of
the velocity potentials as in Eq. (9) yields
for m = 0, I , II , 1, 2, . . .
Again, applying the mode-coupling relation (13a)
on 1x (0, y) and f1m (y) and utilizing the continuity of
horizontal velocity across the vertical interface x = 0,
0 < y < h2 as in Eq. (5) leads to
for m = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
183
Further using the orthogonal property of the eigenfunction f1m (y) as in Eq. (12) and the expressions of
the velocity potentials as in Eq. (9) yields
1 for m = 0,
k = ijm for
0 for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . , jm
j = 1, 2, 3, m = 1, 2 . . . and kjn = ijn for j = 1, 2, 3,
n = 1, 2 . . . Once again, applying the mode-coupling
relation (13b) on 2 (a, y) and f2m (y) and utilizing
the continuity of horizontal velocity across the vertical interface x = a, 0 < y < h2 as in Eq. (5) along
with the edge condition as in Eq. (6) leads to
where m =
for m = 0, I , II , 1, 2, . . ..
Using the orthogonal property of the eigenfunction
f2m (y) as in Eq. (12) and the expressions of the velocity
potentials as in Eq. (9) yields
where kjm = ijm for j = 1, 2, 3, m = 1, 2 . . .. The infinite sums present in Eqs. (15), (17), (19) and (21) are
truncated up to finite N (say) terms to facilitate the
numerical calculation which leads to a linear system
of (4N + 8) algebraic equations for the determination
of (4N + 8) unknown constants.
Once, the unknown constants R0 and T0 are determined, the reflection and transmission
coefficients
tanh 30 h3
are obtained as Kr = |R0 | and Kt = 30
T0 .
10 tanh 10 h1
It is also observed that R0 and T0 satisfy the energy
relation Kr2 + Kt2 = 1.
184
approaches to zero at = 75 for all values of membrane length. This may be due to the presence of spring
moorings at both the ends of the floating membrane.
In Fig. 5, the reflection and transmission coefficient Kr and Kt are plotted versus angle of incidence for various values of h2 /h1 with h3 /h1 = 1.0,
a/h1 = 1.0, = 5.0 s, T /gh22 = 0.1, ks1 = 0 N m1 ,
ks2 = 103 N m1 and ms = 250 kg/m2 . In this case, it
is observed that the reflection coefficient is higher for
h2 /h1 = 0.5 and Kr approaches to one as approaches
to 90 . The absence of spring mooring in the incident region increases the reflection coefficient with
the increase in water depth until h2 /h1 = 0.5 and then
again keeps on decreasing.
In Fig. 6, the reflection and transmission coefficient Kr and Kt are plotted versus angle of incidence
for various values of mooring stiffness ks1 and ks2
with h3 /h1 = 1.0, h2 /h1 = 0.5, a/h1 = 1.0, = 5.0 s,
185
186
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was performed within the scope of the
project FLOATERSWave Interaction with Floating Structures in Shallow Water financed by the
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
(Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia) under contract
PTDC/ECM/111242/2009.
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187
ABSTRACT: The interest on slamming is often being raised from the view point of ship structural safety,
as slamming affects the strength of both local and global structures. While earlier studies of slam induced
responses have dealt with the global whipping response more recent studies have dealt with local response and
various experimental studies have been conducted. Model tests are still adopted to verify and validate results of
analytical and numerical solutions. The state of art of model test techniques and results of local slamming on
ships is reviewed here. Three main problems are considered, water entry of rigid bodies into calm water, model
tests in waves, and hydroelasticity of local slamming. The challenges for future work are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
189
190
191
CONCLUSIONS
192
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been performed in the scope of the
project EXTREME SEAS Design for Ship Safety
in Extreme Seas, (www.mar.ist.utl.pt/extremeseas),
which has been partially financed by the EU under
contract SCP8-GA-2009-234175.
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194
ABSTRACT: The paper presents an analytical method for the analysis and preliminary design of multiple line
mooring systems. The method is based on the classical solution of the catenary of a single cable, namely the
curve that a uniform, flexible and inextensible cable assumes when hanging under the influence of gravity. Firstly
the formulation is presented for the case of inextensible lines and afterwards the method is extended to properly
account the material elasticity, which significantly affects the tensions along the line when the line is taut. The
resulting equations are solved by a computer code which implements algorithms able to derive the static response
in terms of end force and tension distribution in an elastic catenary by knowing the equilibrium geometry of
the system, the elasticity and the unstretched length of each line. The solution is generalized for axis-symmetric
multiple lines which resemble the typical mooring arrangement of floating offshore structures. The advantage
of this approach results from the capability to provide the existence and uniqueness of solution, which, together
with the very small computational effort, makes this method a perfect tool for a preliminary design. Finally, the
applicability of the method is demonstrated with the preliminary design of the mooring system for a generic
floating wave energy converter operating at the West coast of Portugal.
INTRODUCTION
195
196
H dy
s
;
=
w dx
a
Horizontal force for a given tension at the upper
end of the line
Vertical force at the upper end
Integrating eq. 6 and imposing the boundary conditions y (0) = 0 and y(0) = 0, implying that the line
length is measured from the point of tangential touchdown at a horizontal seabed we derive the expression
of the catenary geometry for an inextensible cable:
197
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
198
3.2
Implementation choices
199
If the studied system has n lines, then the program will generate, for every information (tension,
horizontal force, grounded line length, angle between
the line and the displacement direction,) a matrix
with n rows, each one representing one line, and
a number of columns depending on the maximum
admissible excursion. Each column will have the information related to a one-metre excursion, apart from
the last one, which represents the values referred to
the exact maximum deflection. A clearer description
of the outputs will be given in the following section
when presenting some case study results.
4
CASE STUDY
200
Table 1.
Current force
Wind force
Mean drift force
Slow drift motion (max.)
Wave frequency motion
(sig. value)
Velocity = 60 cm/s
Velocity = 25 m/s
Design storm
Hs = 9.5 m,
Tz = 11.0 s
Incidence = 0
Table 2.
systems.
Load
68 [KN]
60 [KN]
353 [KN]
23.8 [m]
3.3 [m]
Case
N
cables
L
[m]
D
[mm]
w
[N/m]
wsubmerged
[N/m]
Case 1.a
Case 1.b
Case 2.a
Case 2.b
Case 3
4
4
6
6
4
283
294
272
283
400
147
142
147
142
105
4640.13
4336.02
4640.13
4336.02
2364.21
4036.91
3772.33
4036.91
3772.33
2056.86
where:
Xstatic : is the static deflection, determined by the
design wind and current force and by the steady
drift force,
Xpeak,sdrift : is the peak of the slow drift motion
Xwf : is the significant value of the horizontal
motion (X1/3 ) in the wave frequency.
Summarizing, to determine the maximum load on
the system, namely the design load, one needs to:
1 Define the static horizontal force, define the peak
of the slow drift horizontal force and sum them
together
2 Run the program and, from the static characteristic
of the system (load vs. displacement), calculate the
horizontal deflection relative to the first step load
3 Sum to this deflection the significant value of
the horizontal motion in the wave frequency and
extrapolate from the model output the top tension
of the maximum tensioned cable of the system.
This will be the design load.
Max top
tension
[MN]
Safety
factor
Design
Load
[MN]
MBL
(Grade R3)
[MN]
3.338
3.358
3.092
3.120
3.352
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
9.04
9.14
8.37
8.49
9.05
15.54
14.68
15.54
14.68
10.75
201
Case 1.a
Case 1.b
Case 2.a
Case 2.b
Case 3
T0
[kN]
Total deflection
[m]
535.44
519.79
771.94
750.52
385.60
302.77
282.93
302.77
282.93
154.26
28.88
29.29
23.81
24.15
32.62
The paper presents an analytical method for the analysis of axis-symmetrical multiple line mooring systems.
The lines are assumed uniform, the material elasticity is taken into account and the dynamic effects
are neglecte. The applicability of the procedure is
demonstrated with the preliminary design of a mooring
system for a wave energy converter.
Although a dynamic analysis is in principle more
accurate, in a predesign step the presented model come
to be a useful tool, both because of its simplicity and
because of its speed in giving the output. Moreover,
202
203
Estimation of hull bending moment and shear force from ship motions
using neural networks
L. Moreira & C. Guedes Soares
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: A technique is presented for estimating time-domain wave-induced ship hull bending moments
and shear forces from ship motion measurements based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs). The objective
of the use of this methodology is to obtain an expedite hull monitoring tool to be used on board the ships. The
ANNs are used to model the time-domain relationship between the ship motions and the wave-induced vertical
bending moments and shear forces. A mathematical model based on a strip theory formulation provides the ship
motions data in the time domain allowing the validation of the method through numerical simulations.
1
INTRODUCTION
In its most basic form, a Hull Response Monitoring System (HRMS) is a system that measures
and displays key ship motions and hull structural
responses. By monitoring real-time motions and
stresses, mariners can determine the onset and severity
of hull structural response to the sea. Hull response can
be measured either directly by strain gauges or indirectly by monitoring pressures and motions. Mariners
can then initiate ship handling changes (course and
speed) to mitigate dangerous stress levels and other
hazards (Slaughter et al., 1997).
The permanent monitoring of the main ship structures can be considered a very important issue,
because, besides representing an important tool for
checking the state of the structure during the entire
ships life, it also allows to increase the safety levels of the hull while navigating: real-time information
regarding the current status of the main parameters
of the hull response at sea are, in fact, provided to
the crew and this is a valuable help to the navigation,
particularly in severe sea states, when higher stresses
occur within the structures and the risks of a structural
failure grow up.
HRMS capabilities can be extended by measuring,
recording, and analyzing hull stresses in conjunction
with other ship motion, navigational, and performance
data. Extended benefits include fatigue assessment,
decision rules and guidance to assist the mariner in
mitigating current dangers, and quantifying design
constraints for future ships. In its most general form,
an HRMS can be integrated with remote assets such
as weather prediction to optimize routing on the basis
of hull response, ship motion, fuel consumption, and
other parameters (Slaughter et al., 1997).
Significant research has been conducted in an
attempt to estimate different parameters from ship
motion readings. It is difficult to obtain accurate predictions of wave induces loads in a ship during its
operation (Xu & Haddara, 2001). However some techniques are available to determine wave characteristics
from ship motions, as for instance the ones presented
by Pascoal & Guedes Soares (2008, 2009).
A decision support system that has been developed
to provide support to decisions about course and speed
changes in heavy weather (Perera et al., 2011) includes
both approaches for redundancy.
The wave spectra that the ship is experiencing is
estimated using the method of Pascoal & Guedes
Soares (2009) and with the estimated spectra the
response spectra of the various responses, including
wave induced loads, are calculated based on standard
response amplitude operators. The other approach is
to use directly the measured motions to assess the
corresponding wave induced loads using the method
described in this paper.
A model of an ANN is developed relating the time
domain motions that are being monitored at certain
positions of the ship, to the vertical bending moments
and shear forces that are being experienced in the
midship area of the ship. This ANN model is trained
with the results of a time domain code that predicts
ships motions and loads for various sea states, headings and speeds.
The mathematical model used here is the one proposed by Fonseca & Guedes Soares (1998), which is
a time domain code based on the strip theory formulation of Salvesen et al. (1970), which predicts the
vertical motions and sectional induced loads of ships
in large amplitude waves.
The learning approach adopted for the ANN does
not require the form of the function to be specified a
priori. In this work, the multilayer perceptron (MLP)
is used, which is one of the most widely implemented
neural network topologies. For the network training
205
206
to computation. When implemented in digital hardware, the PE is a simple sum of products followed by
nonlinearity (McCulloch-Pitts neuron). The connection strengths, also called the network weights, can be
adapted such that the output of the network matches
a desired response.
In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that
changes its structure based on external or internal
information that flows through the network during the
learning phase. Adaptation is the ability to change the
system parameters according to some rule (normally,
minimization of an error function). Adaptation enables
the system to search for optimal performance.AnANN
is a non-linear statistical data modeling tool. It can be
used to model complex relationships between inputs
and outputs or to find patterns in data. Distributed
computation has the advantages of reliability, fault
tolerance, high throughput (division of computation
tasks) and cooperative computing.
207
The error provided to the supervised learning procedure is simply the squared Euclidean distance between
the network outputs and the desired response:
The stop criterion in this work is based in a maximum number of training epochs. Once the network
is trained, its weights are saved to a file. This allows
a convenient interface with which to extract trained
network weights to be used by another application,
or to save the weights of several trials and keep the
best results. The network saves the best weights (the
weights with the lowest cross validation error).
In this work a single-hidden-layer MLP network
is implemented in NeuroSolutions 5 which is a
graphical neural network development software that
enables to easily create a neural network model for the
required data. In the training process six input variables and two output variables are used as referred
above. The number of hidden neurons chosen for this
first study was 10.
4
SIMULATED RESULTS
208
128.00
119.70
117.60
20.20
10.90
8.28
0.653
0.106
0.977
0.850
4040.000
9167.000
12811.475
Peak
Frequency
(Hz)
Significant Wave
Height (m)
Shear
Force r
Bending
Moment r
0.038
0.042
0.038
0.111
0.3
2
2.5
3
0.847
0.831
0.839
0.791
0.763
0.814
0.797
0.808
Errors of the best results of the neural network training for the bending moment estimation.
Peak
Frequency (Hz)
Significant
Wave
Height (m)
Bending
Moment Absolut
Error Mean
Bending Moment
Absolut Error
Standard
Deviation
Bending Moment
Relative
Error Mean
Bending Moment
Relative Error
Standard
Deviation
Bias
0.038
0.042
0.038
0.111
0.3
2
2.5
3
0.075
0.068
0.071
0.097
0.056
0.051
0.053
0.087
0.162
0.141
0.151
0.227
0.167
0.131
0.155
0.259
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.010
Table 4. Mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values of r: training results for simulation runs in head waves
performed with JONSWAP spectra.
Hs (m)
Mean SF r
Mean BM r
= SF r
= BM r
Min. SF r
Min. BM r
Max. SF r
Max. BM r
0.3
2
2.5
3
0.522
0.529
0.506
0.582
0.531
0.558
0.589
0.632
0.172
0.178
0.155
0.146
0.128
0.156
0.143
0.111
0.301
0.302
0.326
0.339
0.386
0.294
0.429
0.482
0.847
0.831
0.839
0.791
0.763
0.814
0.797
0.808
209
CONCLUSIONS
210
211
ABSTRACT: The paper presents an analysis of the wave frequency induced motions of a tanker moored in
several restrained conditions that resemble the conditions inside the port. One of the objectives is to investigate
the influence of several parameters on the horizontal and vertical motions, including: the water depth, presence
and distance of a vertical wall, influence of dolphins and the effects of the mooring lines. The second objective is
to assess the ability of the existing numerical method to predict the ship dynamics in close proximity to several
boundaries and including the mooring line effects. The calculations are carried out in the frequency domain
with a three dimensional Grenns function panel method. The mooring line forces are firstly calculated exactly
as function of the ship displacements and then linearized around the equilibrium point to obtain the stiffness
matrix. The later is added to the hydrostatic stiffness matrix. Finally, numerical predictions are compared with
experimental data obtained with a scaled model on a wave tank in regular and irregular wave.
1
INTRODUCTION
2 THEORY
This section briefly presents the theory behind the
method to calculate the moored ship motions.
2.1 Transfer function calculation in regular waves
The transfer functions are calculated by solving the
6 degree of freedom motion problem. Applying the
Newtons second law to the system the motion equations might be found as:
213
where g is the acceleration of gravity, and zb , zg represent respectively the vertical position of the center of
buoyancy and center of gravity of the ship.
2.2 Calculations in irregular seas
The seastate is assumed as a zero mean Gaussian process, meaning that the irregular wave elevation at any
214
CASE STUDY
215
Table 1.
D (t)
Loa (m)
Lbp (m)
B (m)
D (m)
T (m)
VCG (m)
LCG (m)
GMt (m)
ix (m)
iy (m)
122 714
245.00
236.00
43.00
20.00
14.10
12.46
128.36
5.83
15.10
61.40
3.3
Experimental data
This section presents the analysis of different parameters on the wave induced motion responses, namely,
the influence of the water depth on the free and isolated
floating ship, the influence of a vertical side wall and
the effects of the mooring system. The former results
are followed by comparisons with experimental data.
All results are presented in terms of transfer function amplitudes as function of the incident wave
period. The motion amplitudes are normalized by the
incident wave amplitude.
216
217
218
This section presents the comparison between experimental data and numerical predictions. The first set of
results consists on the responses to regular waves of
the free model, therefore without the presence of the
dolphins and of the mooring system. Some results are
presented in the graphs of figures 23 to 26, for bow
waves (135 ) and beam waves (90 ), as function of the
incident regular wave period. The agreement between
experiments and numerical results is reasonably good.
219
220
CONCLUSIONS
221
ABSTRACT: A time domain code based on the linear model for diffraction and radiation forces combined with
a nonlinear model for Froude-Krylov and hydrostatic forces is used to predict the responses of a containership in
a predefined sea state with embedded abnormal waves. The responses include both vertical motions and bending
moments. These results are compared with experiments conducted in a wave tank with the aforementioned
containership for different Froude numbers in the predefined wave sequence known as the Three Sisters.
The main purpose behind the experiment is to check the behaviour of the ship in extreme sea states. These
experiments revealed little but the key influence of green water shipping on the ship responses especially on the
sagging moment and is used as a guideline to modify the time domain code in a heuristic manner to incorporate
the green water effect. The updated numerical model is again tested and compared with the experiment for
further validation.
1
INTRODUCTION
223
Table 1.
Table 2.
117.6
20.2
8.1
12499
0.65
58.8
8.12
1.1
1:70
be used both as flap type and piston type, was used for
the experiment.
Waves in the tank were created by superposing
higher order components taking into account their non
linear interaction (Clauss et al., 2010). Using this technique it was possible to create pre-defined single freak
waves, like the well known New Year Wave (Clauss
et al., 2005), so as to study the effect of these abnormal
waves on the ships.
For investigating the influence of the wave height
on the vertical bending moment with special emphasis on effects resulting from the forecastle geometry,
three ship models are investigated, a Ro/Ro vessel, a
bulk carrier and a container vessel. This paper is concerned with the analysis of response/structural loads
acting on the containership. Table 1 shows the main
dimensions and load condition of the container ship.
The container ship model consists of two segments
connected at Lpp/2 with three force transducers, two
installed close to the deck level and other underneath the bottom of the model. The force transducers register the longitudinal forces during the model
tests. Based on the measured forces and the given
geometrical arrangement of the three force transducers, the resulting vertical wave bending moment and
the longitudinal forces are obtained. On this basis,
the superimposed vertical wave bending moment
including the counteracting vertical bending moment
caused by the longitudinal forces with respect to
selected vertical levels is determined.
Undisturbed wave elevation was measured with the
wave gauge mounted on the towing arrangement moving with speeds of interest but without the ship model.
Here the waves were measured in a moving frame of
reference with the measurement carried out either at
midship or forward perpendicular location. Heave and
pitch motions were kept unrestrained by a suspension
system connected with the ship model by a thin elastic cross bar, which is mounted on the deck of the aft
segment. These motions were measured by an optical
tracking system installed on a carriage moving on roof
mounted rails with the same velocity of ship. Clauss
et al. (2009) present further details of the experimental
setup.
Table 2 gives a brief description of the list of experiments. The 3 Sisters wave group, which was said to
be occurred in Lake Superior, was recreated in the
tank embedding in a dedicated irregular seastate. This
giant wave had a maximum wave height of 18.67 m
No
Type of wave
Target
Fn
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
3 Sisters
Midship
F.P
Midship
F.P
Midship
F.P
Midship
F.P
0.00
0.00
0.06
0.06
0.12
0.12
0.18
0.18
Numerical method
RESULTS
Comparison of numerical simulation with
experimental data
224
Figure 1. Comparison between numerical results and experimental data of the input wave profile and vertical ship response
motions for 0 and 0.18 Froude number.
225
Figure 2. Comparison of vertical bending moment at midship from linear and nonlinear numerical results (input wave at FP
on left hand side and input wave at midhsip on right hand side) with the experimental data for Froude numbers 0.
Figure 3. Comparison of vertical bending moment at midship from linear and nonlinear numerical results (input wave at FP
on left hand side and input wave at midhsip on right hand side) with the experimental data for Froude numbers 0.06.
nonlinear method highly overestimated the experimental sagging peak. On close observation it was seen that
these experimental sagging peaks were cut off making
it lesser in value than the numerically calculated ones.
Further study on the relative motion revealed that
such effects coincide with the occurrence of the green
water shipping on the deck. A detailed study was conducted to check the green water effect on the bending
moment applying a heuristic method in modifying the
relative motion at the bow.
Green water effect can be calculated using the
formula developed by Buchner et al. (1995), which calculates the force due to the green water effect using the
226
Figure 4. Comparison of vertical bending moment at midship from linear and nonlinear numerical results (input wave at FP
on left hand side and input wave at midhsip on right hand side) with the experimental data for Froude numbers 0.12 and 0.18.
Figure 5. Comparison of vertical bending moment at midship from linear and nonlinear numerical results with the experimental data for a range of Froude numbers. Numerical on x axis stands for the Froude number and Alphabets for the target
position of the input wave (F stands for FP and M stands for Midship).
227
Figure 6. Comparison of the vertical bending moment at Midship (wave at Midship on the left and wave at FP on the right)
between the nonlinear numerical results (with and without amplification) and the experimental data for 0.06 Froude number.
228
Figure 7. Comparison of the vertical bending moment at Midship (wave at FP and Midship) between the nonlinear numerical
results (with and without amplification) and the experimental data for 0.12 and 0.18 Froude number.
Figure 8. Comparison of vertical bending moment at midship between numerical results with 25% and 50% relative motion
amplifications with the experimental data for a range of Froude numbers. Numerical on x axis stands for the Froude number
and Alphabets for the target position of the input wave (F stands for FP and M stands for Midship).
229
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Beck, R.F., 1994. Time-domain Computation of Floating
Bodies, Applied Ocean Research 16, 267282.
Buchner, B., 1995. The Impact of Green Water on FPSO
Design, Offshore Technology Conference 4547.
Clauss, G.F. & Schmittner, C.E., 2005. Experimental Optimization of Extreme Wave Sequences for the Deterministic Analysis of Wave/Structure Interaction. In OMAE
2005-24th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. Paper: OMAE 2005-67049.
Clauss, G.F., Kauffeldt, A. & Klein, M., 2009. Systematic
Investigation of Loads and Motions of a Bulk Carrier
in Extreme Seas. In: Proceeding of the ASME 2009 28th
International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic
Engineering. Paper: OMAE 2009-79389
Clauss, G.F., Klein, M. & Dudek, M., 2010. Influence of
the Bow Shape on Loads in High and Steep Waves. In:
Proceeding of the ASME 2010 29th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. Paper:
OMAE2010-20142
Fonseca, N. & Guedes Soares, C., 1998. Time Domain Analysis of Large Amplitude Vertical Motions and Wave Loads,
Journal of Ship Research, Vol 42, No. 2, pp. 100113
Fonseca, N., Guedes Soares, C. & Pascoal, R., 2001. Prediction of Wave Induced Loads in Ships in Heavy Weather,
Proceedings of the International Conference on Design
and Operation for Abnormal Conditions II, 67 November
2001.
Fonseca, N. & Guedes Soares, C., 2004, Green Water Effects
on the Bow of a Containership Advancing in Regular and
Irregular Waves, The 9th Int. Symposium on Practical
Design of Ships and Mobile Units (PRADS04), LuebeckTravemuende, September 2004, pp. 412419.
Fonseca, N. & Guedes Soares, C., 2005, Experimental
Investigation of the Shipping of Water on the Bow of
a Containership, Journal of Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 4, 2005, pp. 322330.
Guedes Soares, C., Fonseca, N., Pascoal, R., Clauss, G.F.,
Schmittner, C.E. & Hennig, J., 2006. Analysis of Design
Wave Loads on a FPSO Accounting for Abnormal Waves.
Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering.
128(3):241247.
Guedes Soares, C., Fonseca, N. & Pascoal, R., 2008. Abnormal Wave Induced Load Effects in Ship Structures.
Journal of Ship Research. 52(1):3044.
Lloyd, R.J.M., Salsich, J.O. & Zseleczky, J.J., 1985. The Effect
of Bow Shape on Deck Wetness in Head Seas, Trans.
RINA, London.
ODea, J.F. & Walden, D.A., 1984. Effect of bow shape
and Nonlinearities on the Prediction of Large Amplitude
Motions and Deck Wetness, Proc. 15th ONR Symp on
Naval Hydrodyamics, Hamburg.
Salvensen, N.,Tuck, E.O. & Faltinsen, O., 1970. Ship Motions
and Sea Loads. Trans.SNAME, 78, 250287.
Subramani, A., Beck, R.F. & Scorpio, S., 1998. Fully Nonlinear Free Surface Computations for Arbitrary and Complex
Forms. In: Proceeding of the 22nd ONR Symposium on
Naval Hydrodynamics, Washington, DC, pp. 4758.
230
ABSTRACT: A study of the short term seakeeping performance of a set of fishing vessels is carried out.
Assuming a fully developed sea state, linear transfer functions of hullforms are assessed using a standard strip
theory method. Also from short term spectral responses, conditions at which they must operate to avoid hazards
and seasickness can be readily identified. Each fishing vessel is studied over sea state 5 to 6 and has been
evaluated at different Froude numbers and headings. The seakeeping performance is therefore determined by the
limit of the couple: speed and heading angle, at which the vessel standard operational conditions for the most
relevant performance criteria, related with the absolute motions, relative motions, accelerations, slamming, and
green water on deck, are guaranteed.
1
INTRODUCTION
To analyze the seakeeping performance of fishing vessels, transfer functions (TF) of the rigid body are
obtained first. To estimate the TF, a seakeeping code
based on the strip theory formulation from Salvesen
et al (1970) has been used. The code assumes potential flow to calculate the hydrodynamic coefficients
and harmonic wave exciting forces. To apply strip
considerations as the ship is slender, small exciting
wave amplitudes and oscillatory motions and low
Froude numbers are required. Therefore the analysis of the ship will approach to the real case but it
231
2.1
The seakeeping criteria are defined in terms of absolute motions, relative motions and accelerations, thus
these quantities are calculated for relevant points on
the ship. For small motion amplitudes, the displacement vector at any point with coordinates r can be
232
Figure 1. The coordinate system and six modes of motion, and definition of the ship heading angle.
2.3
233
Figure 2. Body plans of fishing vessels FV2, FV3, FV6 and FV8.
Table 1.
FV
Lpp
(m)
B
(m)
D
(m)
T
(m)
Cb
(tonnes)
LCG
(m)
Kx/B
Ky/Lpp
Kz/Lpp
GMt (m)
Cond.
FV1
FV2
FV3
FV4
FV5
FV6
FV7
FV8
FV9
FV10
FV11
FV12
FV13
13.4
15.0
15.9
17.8
20.0
20.1
21.4
22.0
22.1
24.5
29.0
37.4
45.7
4.7
5.4
5.6
6.0
7.4
6.1
6.7
5.8
6.9
8.0
8.0
7.3
10.1
2.2
2.6
2.7
3.0
5.5
3.3
3.4
2.4
3.4
3.5
3.7
3.5
5.3
1.4
2.1
1.8
2.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
1.6
2.5
3.1
3.3
3.0
5.0
0.55
0.62
0.35
0.57
0.64
0.43
0.45
0.48
0.46
0.63
0.62
0.67
0.55
49.00
104.88
55.49
122.90
285.71
129.50
162.60
94.70
170.30
382.70
470.90
552.80
1258.00
0.91
1.92
0.85
1.90
1.84
1.35
0.50
1.40
0.16
0.00
1.28
4.46
0.05
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.67
1.10
2.01
0.88
0.79
1.14
0.50
0.79
0.50
0.60
0.35
1.13
1.28
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Full
Light
Light
Light
Full
Full
234
Table 2.
Locations of relative points adopted for the assessment of derivate responses of each fishing vessel.
FV
WD
GW
Slam.
PE
FV1
FV2
FV3
FV4
FV5
FV6
FV7
FV8
FV9
FV10
FV11
FV12
FV13
(3.10, 0, 2.31)
(3.18, 0, 2.40)
(7.34, 0, 4.19)
(0.05, 0, 3.10)
(6.00, 0, 3.30)
(5.30, 0, 2.50)
(5.10, 0, 2.60)
(3.15, 0, 2.63)
(6.60, 0, 3.15)
(6.13, 0, 1.60)
(7.50, 0, 2.30)
(9.82, 0, 1.45)
(####, 0, 1.37)
(4.20, 0, 1.40)
(6.36, 0, 1.60)
(0.00, 0, 2.36)
(6.92, 0, 1.48)
(2.50, 0, 2.50)
(4.26, 0, 1.94)
(4.66, 0, 2.00)
(6.60, 0, 3.75)
(2.70, 0, 2.45)
(4.90, 0, 0.50)
(5.50, 0, 1.30)
(7.85, 0, 0.49)
(9.20, 0, 0.41)
(6.60, 0, 3.12)
(7.15, 0, 2.40)
(8.31, 0, 3.41)
(8.90, 0, 3.30)
(10.00, 0, 3.50)
(10.64, 0, 3.12)
(10.50, 0, 3.10)
(12.28, 0, 4.25)
(11.00, 0, 3.70)
(12.25, 0, 2.80)
(13.80, 0, 3.50)
(19.64, 0, 3.04)
(22.90, 0, 3.43)
(6.00, 0, 2.20)
(6.60, 0, 2.50)
(7.34, 0, 1.57)
(7.90, 0, 2.37)
(8.50, 0, 3.00)
(9.36, 0, 2.25)
(8.70, 0, 3.10)
(11.15, 0, 1.50)
(9.10, 0, 3.15)
(11.14, 0, 2.93)
(12.50, 0, 3.50)
(15.54, 0, 2.64)
(20.12, 0, 4.78)
(6.80, 0, 1.30)
(7.15, 0, 1.35)
(6.81, 0, 0.63)
(8.40, 0, 1.50)
(8.50, 0, 1.55)
(8.64, 0, 1.41)
(8.70, 0, 1.50)
(8.85, 0, 0.43)
(8.80, 0, 1.80)
(9.36, 0, 1.85)
(10.50, 0, 2.50)
(16.25, 0, 1.67)
(18.55, 0, 2.74)
Prescribed value
(GW)
(Slam.)
(PE)
(VAB)
(LAB)
(VAWD)
(LAWD)
()
()
5%
3%
15%
0.2 g
0.1 g
0.2 g
0.1 g
6
3
(prob)
(prob)
(prob)
(rms)
(rms)
(rms)
(rms)
(rms)
(rms)
The analysis of the fishing vessels were made considering the Portuguese costal zone, corresponding to area
16 of Global Wave Statistics data base. These wave climate statistics used are based on visual observations
(see Hogben, da Cunha and Olliver, 1986), and the vessel is expected to operate on this specific area during
one year. From the scatter diagram, a mean significant
wave height and zero crossing wave period of Hs =
3.24 [m] and Tz = 8.42 [s] were obtained.
The results of the estimated operability indexes
per year of FV2, FV3, FV6 and FV8 are presented
in Table 4. These values mean that the ship is fully
operational (satisfies all seakeeping criteria) during a
certain percentage of the time during the year. Moreover, values have been organized for the set of chosen
criteria, and grouped in two main columns related to
the vessels Froude numbers adopted, Fn = 0.0 and
Fn = 0.3.
It can be seen is Table 4 that the operability indexes
of FV3 and FV8 are much lower than FV2 and FV6.
This is mainly due to operational restrictions imposed
by propeller emergence criterion (PE), which determines the lowest operability indexes from the set of
criteria adopted for both fishing vessels.
If a preliminary comparison is made between the
hull geometries of FV2 and FV3 relatively to FV6 and
235
Table 4. Seakeeping criteria applied to FV2, FV3, FV6 and FV8 at Fn = 0.0 and 0.30. Coastal area 16 (from Global wave statistics).
236
At Froude 0.00
At Froude 0.30
Roll
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
FV2
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
1.00
0.67
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.72
1.00
0.94
0.95
0.88
1.00
0.61
0.94
1.00
0.99
0.52
0.94
0.99
1.00
0.61
0.99
0.87
1.00
0.89
1.00
0.81
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.6582
1.00
0.89
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.91
1.00
0.87
0.94
0.96
1.00
0.45
0.88
0.98
1.00
0.45
0.94
0.94
1.00
0.58
1.00
0.87
1.00
0.94
1.00
0.84
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.2728
1.00
0.70
1.00
1.00
0.87
0.75
1.00
0.60
0.44
0.94
0.99
0.15
0.28
1.00
0.99
0.14
0.44
0.97
0.99
0.15
0.87
0.80
1.00
0.60
1.00
0.73
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.4399
1.00
0.92
1.00
1.00
0.88
0.94
1.00
0.74
0.46
0.98
1.00
0.34
0.34
0.99
1.00
0.23
0.46
0.96
1.00
0.34
0.88
0.90
1.00
0.80
1.00
0.87
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.2513
FV3
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
FV6
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
FV8
Pitch
VAB
LAB
VAWD
LAWD
GW
PE
Slam.
Op
Roll
Pitch
VAB
LAB
0.95
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.98
0.97
0.97
1.00
0.96
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.94
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.88
0.94
0.99
0.99
0.96
0.76
0.72
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.67
0.72
0.61
0.52
0.61
0.76
0.72
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.95
0.69
0.53
0.60
0.94
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.99
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.67
0.23
0.14
0.23
0.61
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.97
0.95
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.70
0.60
0.15
0.14
0.15
0.60
0.73
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.78
0.34
0.21
0.23
0.69
1.00
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.98
0.26
0.26
0.27
0.26
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.87
0.91
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.87
0.87
0.26
0.26
0.27
0.21
0.21
0.27
0.27
1.00
0.44
0.83
1.00
1.00
0.49
0.87
1.00
1.00
0.75
0.94
0.95
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.89
1.00
0.98
1.00
0.97
1.00
0.94
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.91
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.7716
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.87
0.96
1.00
1.00
0.46
0.94
1.00
1.00
0.46
0.97
1.00
1.00
0.70
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.2729
1.00
0.58
0.60
1.00
0.99
0.60
0.61
0.88
0.86
0.87
0.80
0.46
0.84
1.00
0.99
0.45
0.94
0.98
1.00
0.70
1.00
0.88
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.84
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.6433
1.00
0.97
0.95
1.00
0.97
0.97
0.96
0.90
0.79
0.99
0.98
0.56
0.70
1.00
1.00
0.43
0.85
0.99
1.00
0.61
0.99
0.98
1.00
0.94
1.00
0.97
1.00
1.00
Operability per year = 0.2105
VAWD
LAWD
GW
PE
Slam.
Op
0.52
0.61
0.76
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
0.91
0.95
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.67
0.72
0.87
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.91
0.96
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.44
0.49
0.75
0.89
0.97
0.94
0.91
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.94
0.69
0.58
0.74
0.98
1.00
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.85
0.85
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.85
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.75
0.80
0.88
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.94
0.61
0.46
0.70
0.99
1.00
0.87
0.94
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.92
0.94
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.75
0.87
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.58
0.60
0.46
0.45
0.70
0.88
0.84
0.95
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.90
0.56
0.43
0.60
0.93
1.00
0.97
0.98
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.94
0.92
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.67
0.75
0.97
1.00
0.94
0.94
0.94
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.21
Figure 3. Significant wave height for 90 , 150 and 180 for r all criteria at Fn = 0.0 and Fn = 0.3, for FV3.
Figure 4. Significant wave height for 90 , 150 and 180 for r all criteria at Fn = 0.0 and Fn = 0.3, for FV8.
237
Figure 5. Polar speed plot for fishing vessels FV3 and FV8 operating in sea states 5 and 6.
238
CONCLUSIONS
Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Offshore mechanics and Arctic Engineering OMAE2002.
Oslo, Norway, paper 28542. 2002.
Guedes Soares, C., Fonseca, N., Centeno, R., 1995. Seakeeping performance of fishing vessels in the Portuguese economic zone. Proceedings of the International Conference
on Seakeeping and Weather, RINA. London, UK, paper Nr.
12, pp. 110.
Hogben, N., da Cunha, L.F. and Olliver, H.N., 1986. Global
Wave Statistics, Brown Union London.
Ikeda, Y., Himeno, Y. and Tanaka, N., 1978. A prediction method for ship roll damping. University of Osaka
Prefecture, Re-port No 405.
ITTC, The Seakeeping Committee, 2005. Final report and
recommendations to the 25th ITTC Proceeding of the
24th ITTC volume I.
Journe and Massie, 2001. Offshore Hydrodynamics. Delft
University Technology, first edition.
Longuet-Higgins, M.S., 1952. On the statistical distribution
of the heights of sea waves. Journal of Marine Research,
Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 245260, 1952.
Mantari, J.L., Ribeiro e Silva, S., Guedes Soares, C., 2011.
Loss of fishing vessels intact stability in longitudinal
waves International Journal of Small Craft Technology,
London Transactions RINA, Vol. 153, Part B1, pp. 2337.
Odabasi, A.Y., Fitzsimmons, P.A., Ankudinov, V.K. Wiley,
S.A., 1991. Seakeeping Considerations in Ship Design
and their Incorporation in HDDS, BMT. International,
Report no. HDDS.P2SPEC.
Ochi, M.K., 1964. Extreme behaviour of a ship in rough seasslamming and shipping of green water. Transactions of the
Society Naval Architects Marine Engineers (SNAME) 72,
143202.
Prez-Rojas, L., Arribas, F.P., Rodrguez, R.Z., Pacheco,
A.G., 2006. On the accidents of small fishing vessels. In: Proceedings STAB2006, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
pp. 669676.
Pierson, W.J., Moskowitz, L.A., 1964. A proposed spectral
form for fully developed wind seas based on the similarity theory of S.A. Kitaigorodskii. Journal of Geophysical
Research 69, 51815190.
Ribeiro e Silva, S., Fonseca, N., Guedes Soares, C., 2006.
Performance of a navy ship roll stabilisation system.
In: Proceedings STAB2006, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
pp. 669676.
Salvesen, N., Tuck, E.O., Faltinsen, O. 1970. Ship motion and
sea loads. Transactions of the Society Naval Architects
Marine Engineers (SNAME) 78, 250287.
Sarioz, K., Narli, E., 2005. Effect of criteria on seakeeping performance assessment. Ocean Engineering 32,
pp. 11611173.
St. Dennis, M., Pierson, W.J., 1953. On the motion ships
in confused seas. Transactions of the Society Naval
Architects Marine Engineers (SNAME) 61, 280354.
Tello, M., Ribeiro e Silva, S., Guedes Soares, C., 2011.
Seakeeping performance of fishing vessels in irregular
waves. Ocean Engineering, Vol. 38, pp. 763773.
Wang, J., Pillar, A., Kwon, Y.S., Wall, A.D., Loughran
Rodrguez, C.G, 2005. An analysis of fishing vessel accidents. Accident Analysis and Prevention 37, 10191024.
REFERENCES
Fonseca, N. and Guedes Soares, C., 2002. Sensitivity of
the expected availability to different seakeeping criteria.
239
ABSTRACT: Based on the potential theory, a code using the panel method has been devised to estimate the
hydrodynamic interaction forces acting on ships in motion in confined waters, near a bank, in a canal or over a
dredged channel. The approach presumes distributing a source layer on the ships wetted surface and also on a
sufficiently large patch moving over the water boundaries in concern. The source distribution is discretized using
constant-density flat quadrilateral panels. Appropriate arrangement and panelling of the moving patch constitute
important part of the algorithm. The algorithm was tested by comparing numerical results and analytical results
for added masses of isolated ellipsoids in unbounded water, and by comparing the numerical and analytical
results for pressure distribution, surge and sway forces and the yaw moment acting on 1/8 of a uniformly moving
sphere. Systematic computations of hydrodynamic interaction forces in the ship-to-boundary interaction have
been carried out for a ship navigating in restricted waters with complex boundaries. Analysis of the results
demonstrates applicability of the developed method to the study of the ship interaction with complex flow
boundaries.
INTRODUCTION
241
GENERAL THEORY
where is the total potential, Vcur is the component of the on-coming flows velocity, Vcur is the
component of the on-coming flows velocity, and
= (, , , t) is the perturbation potential.
Then the induced velocity is:
242
and on the ships wetted surface and chosen moving patch on the water flow boundaries, the following
non-penetration boundary condition is applied:
where
3.1
where
243
244
The ship form that has been used for the calculation and
analysis throughout this work has main dimensions
L B T of 189.6 m 31.6 m 10.3 m, block coefficient of 0.815. As discovered in Zhou et al (2010), the
distribution of sources over a sufficiently large patch
on the seabed is required for acceptable accuracy. In
245
Two types of the dredged approach channels are studied: with the rectangular cross-section (Figure 10) and
with the trapezoidal cross-section (Figure 11). The
water depth outside the sidewall as denoted d1 and the
depth of the channel itself as d2 , and b0 stands for the
lateral distance between the ships centre plane and the
right sidewall of the channel, negative as leftward.
Both of the dredged channels are 72 m wide (corresponds to the average width in the trapezoidal
case), d1 = 14 m, d2 = 26 m. Figure 12 and Figure
13 respectively present the sway force and the yaw
moment non-dimensionalized by
246
4.3
4.2
247
CONCLUSIONS
248
Proceedings International Conference on Marine Simulation and Ship Maneuverability (MARSIM03), 2528 Aug
2003, Kanazawa, Japan, Vol. 3, pp. RC-35-110.
Chng P. W. 1991. An investigation into the influence of
bank effect on ship manoeuvring and its mathematics modeling for a ship-handling simulator. ME. Thesis.
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
The University of New South Wales.
Chng P. W., Doctors, L. J., Renilson, M.R. 1993. A method of
calculating the ship-bank interaction forces and moments
in restricted water. International. Shipbuilding. Progress.
Vol. No. 421, pp. 723.
Hess J. L., Smith, A. M. O. 1964. Calculation of nonlifting
potential flow about arbitrary three-dimensional bodies.
Journal of Ship Research. pp. 2244.
Hess J. L., Smith, A. M. O. 1967. Calculation of potential flow
about arbitrary bodies. Progress in Aeronautical Sciences,
1967, Vol. 8, pp. 1137.
Kijima K. 1997. Prediction method for ship manoeuvring
motion in the proximity of a pier. Schiffstechnik/Ship
Technology Research. Vol. 44, pp. 2231.
Korotkin A. I. 2009. Added Masses of Ship structures.
Springer.
Laforce E., Vantorre M. 1996. Experimental determination
and modelling of restricted water effects on bulkcarriers.
Marine Simulation and Ship Manoeuvarability, Chislett
(ed.), Balkema, Rotterdam. pp. 451456.
Lataire E., Vantorre, M., Laforce, E., Eloot, K., Delefortrie,
G. 2007. Navigation in confined waters: influence of bank
characteristics on ship-bank interaction. Proceedings of
the 2nd International Conference on Marine Research and
Transportation, Ischia, Naples, Italy, 2830 June 2007.
pp. 19.
Li D-Q, Leer-Andersen, M., Ottoson, P., Trgrdh, P. 2001.
Experimental investigation of bank effects under extreme
conditions. PRADS 2001 Practical Design of Ships and
other Floating Structures, Shanghai.
Norrbin N. H. 1974. Bank effects on a ship moving through a
short dredged channel. Proceedings Tenth symposium on
Naval Hydrodynamics, Cambridge.
Rodrigues J.M., Sutulo S., Guedes Soares C. 2006. Estimation of Inercial Hydrodynamic Forces on Ships in
Presence of Obstacles by Means of a 3D Panel Method
(in Portuguese), In: Inovao e Desinvolvimento
nas Actividades Martimas, C. Guedes Soares and
249
Ship structures
ABSTRACT: The aim of this study is to investigate the influences on the residual stress field and deformations
of three different boundary constraints during butt-join welding in a high strength steel plate. The distortion of
a welded plate is a nonlinear problem in geometry and material, therefore the finite element analysis conducted
is based upon the thermo-elastic-plastic and large deflection theory. High strength shipbuilding steel AH36 with
temperature dependent material properties and nonlinear stress-strain material properties (bilinear isotropic
hardening option uses the von Mises yield criteria) are assumed for the numerical analysis. Three different
boundary conditions are considered in this study. In case 1, end edge parallel to welding line is fixed, in case 2,
edge along x-axis (top of the plate) is fixed and the edge parallel to x-axis (bottom of the plate) is fixed during
welding. The results of the thermal analysis are compared with the ones obtained by another researcher.
1
INTRODUCTION
predict residual stresses in a welded plate. Due to computational and cost limitations, FE simulation efforts
during the 70 s and 80 s were focused on simplified 2D
geometries by Karlson (1986) and Masubuchi (1980).
In reality, the thermal and stress-strain responses of all
weldments are three dimensional (3D).
With increasing computational power of present
day computers, numerical methods based on finite
element and finite difference schemes have been
extensively used. Kristina and George (1990), Argyris
et al. (1982), Rybicki et al. (1978), Papazoglou and
Masubuchi (1982), Murakawa et al. (1995) worked
out thermo-elasto-plastic problems using high speed
workstations but the resulting deformations showed
poor accuracy compared to the experimental results.
Then, 3D welding simulations were conducted
using commercial FEA software which were reported
by Tekriwal et al. (1988, 1991) and Dong et al.
(1997).
Biswas et al. (2007) modeled the angular distortion
using a plasticity-based distortion welding. Adak and
Mandal (2009, 2010) used the pseudolinear equivalent
constant stiffness system to predict the temperature
distribution and deformation shape after welding. It
is clear from the literature survey that most of them
have concentrated on 2D and 3D simulation process
for deformation shape and residual field due to welding without boundary constraints. Mulhim et al. (2002)
and Sunar et al. (2006) investigated thermal and stress
analysis with constant heat source at weld pool and
they investigated the residual stress field due to only
one side is fixed at welding region during welding in
case of 2D problem.
Not only the welding residual stress and distortion have been studied by welding researchers, but
253
2.1
Mathematical modeling
254
and
The structural behaviour causes stress due to thermal gradient and the fixed edge. A rate-independent
thermo-elasto-plastic material model with temperature dependent material properties is incorporated into
the finite element modeling.
In the case of mechanical analysis, three cases for
boundary constraints are considered.
Case 1:The nodes at the extreme end from the weld line
are constrained. Symmetry boundary condition is
applied at the weld line shown in Figure 1.
Case 2: The nodes at the edge along x-axis (bottom)
are constrained. Symmetry boundary condition is
applied at the weld line shown in Figure 1.
Case 3: The nodes at the edge parallel to x-axis
(top) are constrained. Symmetry boundary condition is applied at the weld line shown in Figure 1.
These three cases are solved for residual stresses in
mechanical response.
where,
255
(106 / C)
25
1450
3000
12
14
14
25
1450
3000
GPa
25
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
3000
206
203
201
200
165
100
60
40
30
20
10
10
0.296
0.311
0.330
0.349
0.367
0.385
0.405
0.423
0.442
0.461
0.480
0.480
25
750
800
1450
3000
Table 3.
25
700
740
860
1450
3000
W/m C
55
29
25.4
31
31
256
257
gradually decreased away from weld zone for a particular moment through out the plate. These changes
of transient temperature will significantly affect the
forming and developing of the residual stresses.
Figure 14. Deflection along x axis at middle of the plate.
Those differences result from the fact that plate having no constraints at x = 100 mm can deform freely
in this direction therefore it will have smaller stress.
Transverse stresses are decreased with free ends. It
is assumed that with increasing length this positive
effect on local stress development will be negligible.
For this simulation the length of the plate is 100 mm,
which means influence of boundary changing at the
plate end is large and may be reasonable for decreased
local transverse stresses.
Along the welding line, transverse stresses (within
yield stress) show almost no differences. Transverse
stresses (Fig. 13) however present different stress
levels at the beginning as well as at the end of the
weld.
Figure 14 shows the residual deformation along x
axis at middle of the plate for three different cases.
For case 1, the deformation is much smaller than in
258
CONCLUSIONS
259
Tekriwal P., and Mazumder J., (1991), Transient and residual thermal strain-stress analysis of GMAW, Journal of
Engineering Materials and Technology, 113, 336343.
Teng T. L., Chang P. H. and Tseng W. C., (2003), Effect of
welding sequences on residual stresses, Computers and
Structures, 81, 273286.
Watanabe, M. and Satoh, K., (1961), Effect of Welding Conditions on the Shrinkage Distortion in Welded Structures,
Welding journal, 40, 377s384s.
Zhu X. K. and Chao Y.J., (2002), Effects of temperature
dependent material properties on welding simulation,
Computers and Structures, 80, 967976.
260
ABSTRACT: The new IMO Performance Standard for Protective Coatings (PSPC), mandatory since July 2008
for new ships, is described. An evaluation is made of the PSPC troublesome impact in cost and time needed
for ballast tank and double-side skin spaces coating application in new ships, if the new standard is applied
strictly, using traditional coating technologies and application methods. But the menaces of a strict application
of the new PSPC can be avoided, thanks to the PSPC openness to innovation. This paper also reviews the IMO
PSPC regulation to highlight the parts clearly encouraging innovation and offering opportunities for innovative
products & methods to be used in order to save time and costs. A leaving proof of this possibility is presented,
describing a solvent-free humidity tolerant epoxy coating system able to be applied over water jetting as surface
preparation method in the block stage and over a zinc-free organic shop primer. Current PSPC Type Approvals
and testing performance data of this innovative coating system are presented, together with hard-facts from
application in real-life PSPC projects now running. A conclusion is made suggesting that IMO new standard can
indeed be the tool for more effective corrosion protection without forgetting the need for shipyards efficiency.
1
INTRODUCTION
261
Extracted from PSPC, page 8: Table 1/1.3. Coating pre-qualification test: Epoxy-based systems tested
prior to the date of entry into force of this Standard
in a laboratory by a method corresponding to the test
procedure in annex 1 or equivalent ().
Interpretation: test methods different from the
ones described in the PSPC Appendix 1&2 for coating system pre-qualification can be accepted for PSPC
Type Approval purposes if the Class recognizes the
equivalence. Equivalence determination can be done
by technically recognizing that the submitted testing
methods and results are a good indication of minimum
15 years target durability. ABS, LR and GL accepted
a MIL-PRF 23236 standard (Navsea, 2003), Class7compliant testing report for the ES301 system. The
Class7 compliance means 20-years service life expectation for US Navy, so the mentioned Classification
Tested item
(criteria for both wave
test and condensation
test)
Adhesive failure
Cohesive failure
Cathodic disbondment
from artificial holiday
(wave test only)
Undercutting
from
scribe (wave test only)
Acceptance
criteria for epoxy
systems applied
according to
PSPCs Table 1
Acceptance
criteria for
Alternative
systems
>3.5 MPa
>3.0 MPa
<8 mm
>5 MPa
>5 MPa
<5 mm
<8 mm
<5 mm
262
2.5
263
PSPC Table 1, section 3.1 (Steel Condition), requiring to remove sharp edges and weld spatters, will be
enough to create the needed anchorage profile. In the
ES301 system case, very high pull-off adhesion values
are being measured over water jetted welding seams
in running projects (see data presented further down).
Q: Is it difficult to get such a water jettingcompatible system passing the IMO PSPC testing
criteria?
A: Yes. The test has to be performed over bare
metal, and this is an important disadvantage to start
with. The sacrificial healing effect of zinc, present
at the scribe when using zinc based shop primers, provides benefit by reducing the undercutting from scribe
tests. This is one aspect where IMO PSPC is not perfect. Other performance-based standards, such as the
NACE SP-0108 for offshore coating systems (NACE,
2008), already took in to account this factor: rust
creepage resistance acceptance criteria is <3.5 mm for
non-zinc-primed coating systems and <1.5 mm for
zinc-primed coating systems. The zinc factor is discounted if not present, allowing for a higher tolerance
in terms of undercutting from the scribe.
A PSPC Type Approved coating system, passing
the testing criteria together with a zinc based shop
primer, can eventually be applied at a project using a
non-approved shop primer (or not submitted to a compatibility test yet). In this case, the approved coating
system will be authorized to be applied over the bare
metal surfaces, as at least 70% of the shop primer will
have to be removed. The same will occur over damaged areas that will be blasted to bare metal anyhow.
The problem is that passing the testing criteria over a
zinc shop primer does not automatically means that the
same coating system would be able to pass the same
criteria over bare metal ... Conclusion: a coating system passing water-jetting compliance testing over bare
metal will surely provide a better indication of performance under the real-life conditions, when compared
with other coating systems approved over zinc shop
primers only.
2.7 Next steps: the edge-retention issue
IMO PSPC requires the steel edges to be treated to a
rounded radius of minimum 2 mm or subjected to three
pass grinding, prior to secondary surface preparation
and painting. Also up to two stripe coats are required.
Both set of actions are mandatory because traditional
solvent-borne epoxy coatings do exhibit a poor edgeretention behaviour, leading to reduced DFT at edges
and over welding seams. Nevertheless, a specific concern with over thickness arising from such procedures
is stated in IMO PSPC Table 1, eventually allowing for
stripe coat scope reduction by the way of the welding
seams to avoid such danger.
The US Navy, in their Core Specification for
paint application on board ships (NAVSEA, 2005),
do reflect the same concern, stating that if using a
non-edge retentive coating: radius all edges, flanges,
cutouts, angles, pipe hangers and foot/hand holds to
264
Steel profile is not a critical factor, due to the dualbonding adhesion mechanism.
High edge retention (>70%, ES301S as 2nd coat).
3.2 Value proposition
Product features
265
3.3
3.4
Current use
266
CONCLUSIONS
267
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wish to thanks Mr. Edward Jansen from
ABS and Dr. Raouf Kattan from Safinah for reviewing
the original article presented at the Royal Institute of
Naval Architects in London (RINA, 2010] and sharing with the author a common interest in making the
IMO PSPC a practical tool to serve the marine industry
competitiveness.
REFERENCES
Azevedo, J. 2006. A New Approach For Ballast & Cargo
Tank Coating: A Solvent-Free And Humidity Tolerant
Epoxy System With Edge-Retentive Properties. The
Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA) Conference
on Advanced Materials and Coatings, London.
Azevedo, J., 2008. The PSPC challenges: why an innovative coating technology is needed, Marine Coatings
Conference at SMM, Hamburg.
Azevedo, J., 2010a. Innovation Achieving IMO PSPC Compliance: A Game-Changer Example. The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA) Conference on Marine
Coatings, London, February 2010.
Azevedo, J., 2010b. Innovation Achieving IMO PSPC Compliance: A Game-Changer Reality. Marine Coatings
Conference at SMM, Hamburg.
IACS, 2008. UI SC223 For Application of SOLAS Regulation II-1/3-2Performance Standard for Protective Coatings
(PSPC) for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All Types
of Ships and Double-side Skin Spaces of Bulk Carriers,
adopted by Resolution MSC.215(82), Revision 1, July
2010
International Maritime Organization, 2006. Resolution
MSC.215(82), Performance Standard For Protective Coatings For Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks In All Types
Of Ships And Double-Side Skin Spaces Of Bulk Carriers
(PSPC), adopted on 8 December 2006.
Intertanko, 2002. Tanker Structure Cooperative Forums
Guidelines for Ballast Tank Coatings Systems and
Surface Preparation, Witherbys Publishing.
Lodhi, A., 2005. Double Hull Tankers Ballast Tank Maintenance Experience Feed-Back, The 22nd DNV Technical
Committee Meeting, Dubai, 7th December 2005.
NACE, 2008. SP-0108 Corrosion Control of Offshore
Structures by Protective Coatings
NAVSEA US Navys Naval Sea Systems Command, 2003.
US Military standard MIL-PRF 23236C Performance
Specification Coating Systems for Ship Structures,
issued 12 August 2003.
NAVSEA US Navys Naval Sea Systems Command, 2005.
Preservation Process Instruction (PPI) CORE Specification, 63101-000 (REV 18), October 07, 2005
SSPC, 2003. Vis 4 NACE N.7, Guide and visual reference
photographs for steel cleaned by water jetting.
268
ABSTRACT: In this paper a fluid-structure interaction problem is solved by utilizing a computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) code to solve three-dimensional (3D) Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations (RANSE) in
conjunction with a finite element program to perform a strength analysis of a composite motor yacht, performing a
fluid-structure interaction study. Hydrodynamic and hydrostatic loads are obtained in the first step. These loads
are then used to perform a strength analysis of the hull structure. A composite boat was examined for the
velocities of 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 knots to obtain the pressure loads under different working conditions. Hydrodynamic
and hydrostatic load magnitudes were found to be close in magnitude for the velocities of 0, 4 and 8 knots, but
the values for the velocities of 12 and 16 knots are different from the above counterparts. The static strength
analysis of the structure is also performed by the finite element software for the abovementioned velocities and
the results are compared.
INTRODUCTION
269
Dimension/details
Length (Loa)
Breath (B)
Depth (D)
Draft (T)
22.00 m
5.48 m
4.00 m
1.26 m
Table 2.
Material properties.
Properties
997 kg/m3
1.184 kg/m3
8.9 104 Pa s
9.0 105 Pa s
0
0
4
4
8
8
12
12
16
16
A 22 meters composite motor yacht is used in the analysis. The principal parameters of the boat, properties
of water and air used in the analysis and velocities of
water and air are given inTables 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
CFD ANALYSIS
270
Table 4.
Section locations.
Station name
Location (m)
S1
1
S2
3.4
S3
6.3
S4
9.8
S5
13.5
S6
15.4
S7
17.1
and turbulence model equations. The governing equation for mass and momentum equations are given as
follows:
where, v is the velocity vector in the Cartesian coordinate system, p is the static pressure, is the stress
tensor, is the molecular viscosity, and I is the unit
tensor.
271
first phase the drag force is stable and they are given
in Figures 5 and 6.
The reference time is important to obtain the maximum pressure distribution on the hull. The pressure
distribution is used for the finite element analysis
according to reference time. In the first simulation,
the vessel has no velocity; therefore the lift force is
stable. The reference time can be chosen for any time
to see the pressure distribution on the hull after the
first second.
For the second simulation, the vessel has a velocity of 12 knots and the lift force is sinusoidal. The
maximum pressure distribution is obtained at the 17th
second.
For the third simulation, the vessel has a velocity
of 16 knots and the lift force is also sinusoidal. The
maximum pressure distribution is obtained at the 9th
second. Lift forces reach the maximum at these time
steps. Simulations are run until the times reached the
above mentioned and the pressure distributions are
obtained at the control sections. Finally, polynomial
functions are obtained to give pressure distributions
and they are shown in Figures 7.
Polynomial functions are given in Table 6 on each
control section for the speed of 16 knots.
272
Table 4.
Bottom
Side
Deck
Bulkheads
Table 5.
Table 6.
Layer Angels
Thickness (m)
Location
(0/90/0/90)s
(0/90/45)s
(0/90/0/90/0)
(0/90/0/90)
0.020 m
0.012 m
0.0075 m
0.006 m
At 1st mt
EX (GPa)
EY (GPa)
EZ (GPa)
GXY (GPa)
GYZ (GPa)
GXZ (GPa)
XY
YZ
XZ
4.28 1010
1.222 1010
1.222 1010
4.77 109
4.87 109
4.77 109
0.23
0.25
0.23
4.1
Mesh generation
The geometry of the model, shown in Figures 3, is created by defining key points, based on the Star CCM+
model. Lines are then defined by key points and areas
are created by lines. Attributes (element type, real constants, and layer angels) are assigned to the areas based
on the information above. Following these steps, the
mesh is generated using the free meshing facility of
the pre-processor module of ANSYS 12.1.
4.2
Boundary conditions
Properties
inserted onto the boat surface. The pressure distributions are constructed according to five different speeds
to obtain five different hydrodynamic pressures.
The boundary conditions are applied as symmetry conditions to lines located at the centre line. The
vessel is fixed in the x (length), y (width), and z
(height) direction on the aft bulkhead and on the y
and the z direction on the fore bulkhead with, symmetry conditions applied on the centre line. The rotational
condition is free for each direction. The system is then
solved to obtain the deflections and stresses due to the
weight distribution of vessel. Weight and force distribution of the vessel is shown respectively on figures 8
and 9.
4.3 Structural analysis and discussion
A linear static analysis is performed and results are
obtained by using a general postprocessor.
Due to its relative simplicity, the maximum stress
criterion is selected to check the safety, although TaiHill or Tsai-Wu failure criteria may be used for composite materials. The maximum stress failure criterion
assumes that failure occurs whenever any component
of stress attains its limiting value, independent of the
values of all other components of stress. (Herakovich,
1998).
273
Table 10.
Stresses
ANSYS results
(MPa)
Sx
Sy
Sz
Sxy
Syz
Sxz
1021
54
54
60.8
60.8
60.8
6.2
7.82
5.57
2.01
3.62
2.81
SX
SY = SZ
SXY = SXZ
SYZ
Table 8.
(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
2042
108.2
121.6
121.6
Stresses
ANSYS results
(MPa)
Sx
Sy
Sz
Sxy
Syz
Sxz
1021
54
54
60.8
60.8
60.8
5.63
8.1
5.64
1.64
3.68
1.5
Table 9.
Stresses
ANSYS results
(MPa)
Sx
Sy
Sz
Sxy
Syz
Sxz
1021
54
54
60.8
60.8
60.8
7.51
8.97
5.97
2.14
3.67
2.05
CONCLUSIONS
274
275
ABSTRACT: The aim of this study is to contribute for a structural solution by using finite element software
to design a steel work repair on floating dock mooring structure. An historical of damage on certain structural
elements of the dock mooring structure leads to the need of evaluation of the structure in more detail. The original
structure is modelled using finite element method software and different simulations are preformed in order to
identify structural strength weaknesses which are compared against structural damage reports. After analyzing
Von-Mises stress results and Principal Stress of original model, two different models are developed and simulated
in fem software. The first model developed is based on existing structure arrangement after several local repairs.
The second model is developed according to original structural arrangement. Both models are simulated for
the same load cases. The development of the second model is done by optimization of structural geometry of
certain elements and new structural elements are added. Afterwards both model stress results are compared and
conclusions are presented.
1
INTRODUCTION
277
278
Table 1.
Wind force
Friction force
Transversal
Longitudinal
Vertical
485 t
200 t
140 t
Table 2.
(N)
Table 3.
F2
0
F3
Vertical
F4
45
2376500
1960000
1372000
2178227
Case tests.
F1
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
F2
F3
F4
X
X
X
2.1
279
The original structure was modelled in a Finite Element Method software according to structural original
drawings. The entire mooring structure was modelled
including top support structure, guide pipe and lower
support, in order to better understand the structure
behaviour when it is submitted to the case studies
presented before.
280
3.2
4.1.1 Case 1
In this case the bottom, top plate and side girders
have low level of stress because of the new three big
brackets at centre that contribute to dissipate stress
levels. On the other hand the face plate of brackets has
high levels of stress.
The edge of face plate has local high level of stress
and also at brackets face plate connection with guide
pipe.
281
4.1.2 Case 2
The stress analysis shows high levels of stress at
bracket face plate.
A small area at the bracket face plate shows some
high levels of stress.
4.1.3 Case 3
High levels of stress are experienced for this case
simulation at the bracket face plate.
282
5.1.3 Case 3
The structural elements present a medium level of
stress in global area of the lower support structure.
The analysis shows a small area at bracket face plate
with high levels of stress but for the rest of the structure
the stress levels are medium.
6
RESULTS COMPARISON
Critical structural elements of models are now compared in terms of deflection and stress.
6.1 Guide pipe deflection
Figure 24. Von-Mises stress analysis.
5.1.2 Case 2
For this case the side brackets and side girders are the
most acting structural elements which is confirmed by
the higher average of stress levels.
The simulation shows low levels of stress with in a
large portion of the lower support structure.
The three models are compared in terms of deflection of guide pipe. The simulation shows that original
structure is the most flexible comparing with model
2 and model 1. On the other hand model 1 it is the
most rigid because it has the most strengthen structural
geometry at the lower support.
6.2 Stress comparison
Model 2 it is compared with the original model structure in order to check if structural modifications
283
Table 4.
(mm)
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Original
Model 1
Model 2
27.8
19.2
23.2
23.5
18.5
18.9
25.9
19.3
21.3
CONCLUSIONS
284
ABSTRACT: Numerical investigations are carried out to study the effect of weld parameters on the temperaturetime history in a butt-joint weld steel plate. A mathematical model of transient thermal process in welding is
established to simulate the transient thermal analysis with moving heat source model (Gaussian function) by using
finite element method. Results are compared to numerical and experimental results obtained from a previous
study. Parametric studies based on numerical results are carried out for different weld parameters including
welding speed, plate thickness, heat input, heat source type and finite element mesh.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to welding
285
286
3
3.1
Material properties
The material properties of metal, for instance, the specific heat, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity
287
Table 1.
Temperature ( C)
Thermal conductivity
(W m1 C1 )
Specific heat capacity
(J kg1 C1 )
Poissons ratio ()
Thermal expansion coefficient
(106 C1 )
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
Film coefficient (W m2 C1 )
100
51.9
450
0.28
10
200
1.0
51.1
499
0.31
11
200
6.5
300
450
46.1
566
631
0.33
12
0.34
13
200
7.5
and yield stress, vary with the change of temperature. The average values can be used in calculations
if the temperature does not vary too much. While
in the welding process, the temperature of weldment
varies shapely. In this case, to neglect the material
properties differences by temperature will result in big
deviations. Consequently, the temperature-dependent
material properties are supposed to be taken into
consideration in welding process simulation.
In this analysis, eight-node three-dimensional brick
thermal element, Solid 70, is used. The Solid 70
element has a three-dimensional thermal conduction
capability. It has eight nodes with a single degree of
freedom, temperature, at each node and is applicable to
a three-dimensional, steady-state or transient thermal
analysis. The element also can compensate for mass
transport heat flow from a constant velocity field. If
the model containing the conducting solid element is
also to be analyzed structurally, the element should be
replaced by an equivalent structural element (such as
Solid 45 or Solid 185).
The C-Mn steel whose temperature-dependent
material properties are listed in Table 1 was used.
3.3
41.1
150
7.3
550
37.5
706
0.36
14
110
7.2
600
35.6
773
720
30.6
1080
800
26.0
931
1450
29.5
438
0.37
14
0.37
14
0.42
14
0.47
15
88
7.2
20
7.1
20
7.1
2
7.0
FE modeling
In this work, the butt welding process has been simulated in Ansys. The dimensions of the work piece
are 300*260*6 mm3 , as shown in Figure 4 in which the
arc center is moving along the x+ direction in line KI.
Furthermore, for the sake of saving computational
time and reducing computer configurations requirement, a half model has been taken in the simulation,
with symmetric boundary condition setting in the
symmetry plane, since the model is symmetric along
the X-Z plane.
Figure 5 displays the element mesh of the geometric
model to be solved. 2 mm element size is used in the
welding zone, while 8 mm element size is used in the
area far away from the heat affected zone (FAZ). Free
mesh is performed in the middle zone.
Meanwhile, a finer mesh was carried on, to study
the effect of the mesh style on the result. In this case,
four different element sizes, 1.25 mm, 2.5 mm, 5 mm,
and 10 mm are modeled. And all the elements are
hexahedrons (see Figure 6).
FE results demonstrates that the temperature distribution of the node located in the center of the welding
line are almost identical since the maximum deviation
in all time steps are only 0.21%, which means the relatively coarser model is satisfied to be utilized in the
simple butt welding process.
288
3.4 Verification
As presented by several researchers, finite element
method (FEM) has been successfully used to evaluate thermal response of the complex welding process.
In the present work, the finite element (FE) package
ANSYShas been used to simulate the arc welding
process.
Quite a few researchers have addressed this topic,
Tsai & Eagar (1983), Guedes Soares et al. (1998) and
Biswas et al. (2007), to name a few.
In Figure 7, a finite element simulation of a line
heating process was verified using the work of Biswas
et al. (2007). To do this, the same geometry and
material properties as Biswass model were using,
the heating process with total heat input 5350 Watts
and heating speed 6 mm/sec was simulated using
ANSYScodes.
From Figure 4, it shows that the temperature history
result of present work is in a good agreement with the
experimental result obtained by Biswas et al. (2007).
3.5
289
Firstly 7 nodes in the welding line with uniform distance are chosen (see Figure 17), and the temperatures
of these 7 points are plotted in Figure 18, which indicates that, after reaching a stable state, the curve of the
temperature of each node is of the same tendency, and
for a certain node, the temperature shapely increases
when it is subject to heat input, and then fall down
with a relatively lower speed after achieving the peak
temperature. The first node and the last one are with
lower/higher temperature than the other nodes, which
is due to the less/more heat affected time.
Another 7 points are selected in Figure 19, whose
temperature distributions are similar to the previous
ones, expect the peak temperatures are much lower
since they are a little far from the heat source, and the
decrements of temperatures are slower (see Figure 20).
In the Z direction, 3 more nodes are taken as
Figure 21. Figure 22 shows their temperatures distributions. The temperature reduces with the increment
of distance from the heating surface but the effect is
not so significant.
In the Y direction, 7 nodes are marked in Figure 23,
with the distances away from the center line of 2, 4,
6, 8, 14 and 26 mm respectively. The more distances
away from the heating line, the lower temperatures
produced (see Figure 24). Figure 25 illustrates the
relationship between the peak temperatures and the
distances from the welding line.
290
3.6
that the lower the speed is, the higher temperature got
in the result.
The heat input in the previous calculation is 5350 W.
Keeping the fixed welding speed 6 mm/s, and changing the heat input to 3000 W, 6500 W and 7950 W,
then the corresponding temperature distributions are
plotted in Figure 27. There is no doubt that the higher
heat input results in higher temperature.
To study the effect of the plate thickness on the temperature field result, 5 cases are conducted in which
the welding speeds are fixed to 6 mm/s, the heat inputs
291
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been performed in a EU funded
project Network of Excellence in Marine Structures (MARSTRUCT) under contract TNE3-CT2003-506141.
REFERENCES
292
ABSTRACT: The objective of this work is to analyze the strength and deformability of steel specimens subjected to random non-uniform general corrosion and tensile load. The real shape of corrosion surface has
been generated by a probabilistic model of corrosion deterioration. Non-linear, large deformation and threedimensional finite element analyses have been employed to analyze the mechanical properties of deteriorated
specimens. The strength of corroded specimens is estimated as a function of the average corrosion depth and
the minimum cross sectional area. The deformability and energy absorption of the corroded plates are estimated
as a function of the surface roughness represented by the difference of averaged plate thickness and that at the
section of minimum cross sectional area.
1
INTRODUCTION
293
analysis, empirical formulae to predict strength reduction because of corrosion have been derived demonstrating a good accuracy.
The objective of the present work is to apply a
complete true stressstrain relationship to an elastoplastic material model of LS-DYNA (Livermore Software Technology, Livermore, CA, USA) to assess
the strength and deformability of steel specimen
subjected to random non-uniform general corrosion
and tensile load.
2
2.1
294
non-linear corroded plate in the Monte Carlo simulation resulting in randomly distributed plate thicknesses
for randomly defined reference nodes at a specific year
based on Eqn. (3) applying the corrosion degradation
levels as defined by Eqn. (1) and (2).
The vertical random coordinates (corrosion depth)
of the corroded and intact plate surfaces and corrosion depths are modelled by a log-normal distribution.
The intact plate surface coordinates and corresponding
corrosion depths are considered as not correlated.
The average thicknesses of plates subjected to these
levels of corrosion titled as case 1, case 2 and case 3,
are 7.380 mm, 6.554 mm and 5.852 mm, respectively.
295
Table 1.
Material properties.
Setting
Value
Unit
Material
Yield strength
Mass density
Youngs modulus
Tensile strength
SM490A
365.0
7853.6
206.9
509.4
MPa
kg/m3
GPa
MPa
4
4.1
STRESS-STARAIN ANALYSIS
Finite element model
Numerical analyses were carried out by using a nonlinear implicit finite element code, LS-DYNA, applying
a quasi-static type of load. The constitutive material
model is an elastoplastic material where an arbitrary
stress versus strain curve can be defined. This material model is based on the J2 flow theory with isotropic
hardening.
296
Intact
0.0
548.3
0.0
7.8
504.1
8.1
18.1
444.3
19.0
26.9
438.6
20.0
297
identical to one of the minimum section average thickness, but not the least value. It may be concluded that
the determination of the failures occurring locations is
complicated and depends on various factors including
the minimum section average thickness. From the FE
analysis it was observed that the failure criteria affect
the locations where the failures occur as well.
4.5
Stress-strain analysis
Table 3.
Case
n value
K value
Intact
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
0.251
0.249
0.250
0.251
1054 MPa
971 MPa
859 MPa
843 MPa
Table 4.
levels.
Case
Unit
Ur
Ut
Intact
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
0.459
0.380
0.344
0.367
95.9
74.8
62.3
56.5
298
corrosion deterioration. It is concluded that the capacity of the energy absorption decreases from 95.9 MPa
to 74.8 MPa as the intact specimen suffers to 7.8%
general corrosion. After that the energy absorption
still decreases with the increase of the corrosion rate,
but with a lower rate.
5
CONCLUSIONS
Ahmmad, M. M. and Sumi, Y., 2010, Strength and deformability of corroded steel plates under quasi-static tensile
load, J Mar Sci Technol, 15, pp. 115.
Daidola, J., Parente, J. and Orisamolu, I., 1997, Residual
strength assessment of pitted plate panels, Ship Structure
Committee.
Garbatov, Y. and Guedes Soares, C., 2008, Corrosion
Wastage Modeling of Deteriorated Ship Structures,
International Shipbuilding Progress, 55, pp. 109125.
Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C. and Wang, G., 2007,
Non-linear Time Dependent Corrosion Wastage of Deck
Plates of Ballast and Cargo Tanks of Tankers, Journal
of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, 129,
pp. 4855.
Guedes Soares, C. and Garbatov, Y., 1999, Reliability of
Maintained, Corrosion Protected Plates Subjected to
Non-Linear Corrosion and Compressive Loads, Marine
Structures, pp. 425445.
Jiang, X. and Guedes Soares, C., 2010, Ultimate Compressive
Capacity of Rectangular Plates with Partial Depth Pits,
Proceedings of the OMAE, Paper n. OMAE201021050.
Ludwik, P, 1909, Elemente der Technologischen Mechanik,
Applied Mechanics (Springer Verlag, Berlin).
Nakai, T., Matsushita, H. and Yamamoto, N., 2004a, Effect of
pitting corrosion on local strength of hold frames of bulk
carriers (2nd report) Lateral-distortional buckling and
local face buckling, Marine Structures, 17, pp. 612641.
Nakai, T., Matsushita, H. and Yamamoto, N., 2006, Effect of
pitting corrosion on the ultimate strength of steel plates
subjected to in-plane compression and bending, J Mar Sci
Technol, 11 (1), pp. 5264.
Nakai, T., Matsushita, H., Yamamoto, N. and Arai, H., 2004b,
Effect of pitting corrosion on local strength of hold
frames of bulk carriers (1st report), Marine Structures, 17,
pp. 403432.
Ok, D., Pu, Y. and Incecik, A., 2007, Computation of
ultimate strength of locally corroded unstiffened plates
under uniaxial compression, Marine Structures, 20 (12),
pp. 100114.
Paik, J., Lee , J., Hwang, J. and Park, Y., 2003, A TimeDependent Corrosion Wastage Model for the Structures
of Single and Double Hull Tankers and FSOs, Marine
Technology, 40, pp. 201217.
Ramberg, W and Osgood, W. R, 1943, Description of stressstrain curves by three parameters. Tec. Note 902, National
Advisory Comm. Aeronaut., Wangshington, D.C.
Silva, J. E., Garbatov, Y. and Guedes Soares, C., 2011,
Ultimate strength assessment of ageing steel plates
subjected to random non-uniform corrosion wastage.
In: Advances in Marine Structures. C. Guedes Soares and
W. Fricke, (Eds.), Taylor & Francis, pp. 213220.
299
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a fatigue damage analysis of very complex stiffener frame ship structures.
A three-dimensional finite element model is generated and linear elastic finite element analysis is performed.
Hot-spot stresses of a stiffener-frame structure are analyzed applying 20-node solid elements using a commercial
finite element code. Based on a FEM analysis, hot-spot stresses are determined and fatigue damage is quantified
employing the S-N approach. Comparative analysis of fatigue damage for all hot spots is presented and the
difference between numerical predictions is discussed.
INTRODUCTION
301
HOT-SPOT STRESS
STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION
The stiffener-frame structure analyzed here is composed of a ship side shell plate, a longitudinal stiffener,
three welded frames with stiffener and a lug as may be
seen in Figure 2. The frame structure is made of normal
shipbuilding steel, 235 MPa of yield stress.
The structural geometry is given in Figure 3,
where ship side shell plate is defined as 6400
800 16 mm; frames are of 1300 800 12 mm; the
lugs are of 180 149 12 mm. The longitudinal stiffener is made of HP 320 14, the frames are made of
HP 260 12. The material properties used for the FEA
are Young modulus of E = 206000 MPa and Poisson
302
No
1
2
3
4
5
Welded
Joint
Position of
weld toe
Size of
weld toe
mm
Longitudinal Stiffener
Center Frame and side
shell
Longitudinal stiffener and
center frame
Longitudinal Stiffener and
lug
Center frame and lug
Figure 4a
Figure 4a
16
16
Figure 4a
14
Figure 4a
14
Figure 4b
12
303
Figure 6b. Welded toe between center frame and side shell.
Figure 6c. Welded toe between middle frame and longitudinal stiffener.
Figure 7b. Local stress distribution between lug and longitudinal stiffener.
304
305
Table 2.
Fatigue damage.
No
HS
MPa
Fatigue
damage
Fatigue life
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
12.704
0.280
130.578
318.978
185.189
76.990
1.650
16.442
158.619
14.705
38.146
140.586
81.584
60.062
79.619
99.082
0.690
0.015
7.089
17.316
10.053
4.180
0.090
0.893
8.611
0.798
2.071
7.632
4.429
3.261
4.322
5.379
6.468E05
6.955E10
7.024E02
1.024
0.200
1.440E02
1.417E07
1.402E04
0.1259
1.003E04
1.751E03
8.766E02
1.713E02
6.836E03
1.592E02
3.069E02
3.8652E+05
3.5944E+10
355.9
24.4
124.7
1736.4
1.7647E+08
1.7826E+05
198.5
2.4921E+05
14276.1
285.1
1459.3
3657.2
1570.0
814.6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been performed within the project
Risk-Based Expert System for Through-Life Ship
Structural Inspection and Maintenance and New-Build
Ship Structural Design (RISPECT) and has been partially funded by the European Union through the
contract SCP7-GA-2008-218499.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
Fatigue damage assessment of stiffener-frame structure subjected to cyclic loading has been performed
based on the 3-D linear FE analysis and SN approach.
The comparison of fatigue damage assessment of
306
Garbatov, Y., Rudan, S., Guedes Soares, C., 2002b. Prediction of Fatigue Damage in Brackets of very Large
Scale Specimens of Ship Structure, Proceedings of the 8th
Potrtuguese Conference on Fracture, Vila Real, Portugal,
pp. 6169.
Garbatov, Y., Rudan, S., Guedes Soares, C., 2004. Assessment of geometry correction functions of tanker knuckle
details based on fatigue tests and finite-element analysis.
Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic EngineeringTransactions of the Asme 126, pp. 220226.
Garbatov, Y., Rudan, S., Guedes Soares, C., 2010. Fatigue
Assessment of Welded Trapezoidal Joints of Very
Fast Ferry Subjected to Combined Load. Engineering
Structures 32, pp. 800807.
Gaspar, B., Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 2011. Effect
of weld shape imperfections on the structural hot-spot
stress distribution. Ships and Offshore Structures 6,
pp. 145159.
Guedes Soares, C., Garbatov, Y., von Selle, H., 2003. Fatigue
Damage Assessment of Ship Structural Components
Based on the Long-term Distribution of Local Stresses.
International Shipbuilding Progress 50, pp. 3556.
Matoba, M., Kumano, A., Yamamoto, A., 1994. Based of
Design and Planing for Maintenance of Hull Planning of
Inspection and Life Design for Preventive. NK Technical
Bulletin, pp. 4763.
Niemi, E., Fricke, W., Maddox, S., 2004. Structural Stress
Approach to Fatigue Analysis of Welded Components
Designers Guide, IIW Doc. XIII-1819-00/XV-1090-01.
307
ABSTRACT: A simple method based on plastic theory is proposed to study the ultimate torsional strength of
ship hulls. The plastic theory and a finite element analysis are used to analyze the collapse of a test specimen
in torsion so as to compare with the experimental results. A computer program using one-dimensional finite
element method is used to analyze the elastic behavior of the test specimen, and a nonlinear finite element
method is used to analyze in detail its plastic behavior. The study is mainly concentrated on the section that is
the transition from open to closed section. Special attention is paid on the comparisons of different calculation
results.
1
INTRODUCTION
Table 1.
The analysis of ultimate torsional strength is an important part of structural analysis for a ship hull with
large deck openings such as container ships and large
bulk carriers. However, there are not many studies
available on the ultimate strength of ship hulls under
torsion. Nowadays, ship structural design is mainly
based on the first yield of hull structures, with buckling
checks for structural components and ultimate strength
under vertical bending moment. For ship hulls with
large deck openings, especially for container ships,
the ultimate torsional strength is important.
Paik (2001) studied the ultimate strength of ship
hulls under torsion using the idealized structural unit
method (ISUM) to calculate the distribution and magnitude of warping and shear stresses for a typical
container vessel hull cross section under unit torsion.
Hu and Chen (2001) used the lower bound theorem
to study the ultimate torsional strength of ship hull
based on a section of the ship under free torsion. The
effect of constrained torsion on the strength of the joint
between the cargo hold and the engine room (or fore
peak) and the free torsion of the midship, needs to be
studied in some detail.
The ultimate torsional strength of ship hulls is a
very complex issue, including yielding, buckling and
rupture. Sun and Guedes Soares (2003) carried out
an experimental study of ultimate torsional strength
of a ship-type hull girder with a large deck opening
and presented the nonlinear finite element analysis to
compare with the experimental results.
Numerical and experimental methods are frequently used in the study on ultimate strength of
ship hulls. There are three kinds of numerical methods which are used to calculate ultimate strength of
ships: the idealized structural unit method (ISUM),
the method based on the Smith approach and the
nonlinear finite element method. The calculation of
Description
Value (mm)
Overall length, L
Breadth, B
Depth, H
Deck opening length, L0
Deck opening width, B0
Spacing of transverse frames
Spacing of stiffeners
6000
1250
500
4500
1000
750
250
309
thin-walled prismatic element is established according to Vlasov theory, and the global stiffness matrix
is established through the general procedure of finite
element method.
The stiffness matrices of individual elements of
the thin-walled beam could be assembled into a
global stiffness matrix after making coordinate transformation and considering warping compatibility
between adjacent elements. Then the matrix equation of one-dimensional finite element method can be
expressed to:
in which:
N: normal force, Mx , My : bending moment with
respect to the x and y axis, B: bimoment, Tx , Ty : shear
force in the x and y direction, T : warping torsion
moment, and Ts : Saint Venant torsion moment, t: wall
thickness.
To obtain normal and shear stresses from Equation 2, the following parameters, which depend on
geometrical properties of cross section, must be calculated:
Area of cross section:
310
Table 2.
Table 3.
A = 8850 mm2
xc = 625 mm, yc = 142.54 mm
xp = 625 mm, yp = 223.34 mm
311
Table 5.
A = 12300 mm2
xc = 625 mm, yc = 250 mm
xp = 625 mm, yp = 250 mm
312
Figure 12. Torsional angle bimoment, torsional function and torsional moment.
313
The three equations can be used to calculate the sectorial zero point and torsional center of cross section. For
symmetrical section, the sectorial zero point and the
torsional center are located at symmetry axis. Thus,
Equations 2223 are always satisfied because of symmetry, and the torsional center can be calculated only
by Equation 24.
4.3
5.1 General
Nonlinear finite element method in ANSYS, is used
to analyze the ultimate strength of the specimen
considering geometric and material nonlinearity. The
arc-length method is used to analyze the finite element
models, and the solution includes large displacements,
314
Boundary conditions
All DOFs (degrees of freedom) are entirely constrained at the unloaded end of the numerical model,
and multi-point constraints are used to constrain all
DOFs of the loaded end, limiting the loaded end plane
nodes to follow the displacement of a reference node.
The nodes at the loaded end section are able to translate
freely in the sections plane, and the reference node is
the centre of the end section. The torsional moment is
applied on the reference node.
The finite element model of test specimen consists
of 8787 nodes, 7360 shell elements and 1542 beam
elements, and the boundary conditions of test specimen are shown in Figure 16. The finite element model
of the simple model consists of 5684 nodes, 4680 shell
elements and 1032 beam elements, and the boundary
conditions of simple model are shown in Figure 17.
5.3 Analytical results
Calculation results of the ultimate load for the simple
model are close to that for test specimen. The error
is 1.9%. The ultimate load is the total reaction forces
COMPARISON OF RESULTS
315
Table 6.
Yield load
Test result from paper (Sun):
One-dimensional FEM result:
FEM result:
Ultimate load
Test result from paper (Sun):
NFEM result from paper (Sun):
NFEM result of test specimen:
NFEM result of simple model:
Plastic result of simple model:
Error
44.32 kNm
47.74 kNm
41.56 kNm
7.7%
6.2%
48.75 kNm
54.58 kNm
54.89 kNm
55.92 kNm
55.81 kNm
12.0%
12.6%
14.7%
14.5%
CONCLUSIONS
316
ABSTRACT: A new trigonometric shear deformation theory for sandwich and composite plates is developed.
The proposed displacement field, which is m parameter dependent, is assessed by performing several computations of the plate governing equations. The theory accounts for adequate distribution of the transverse shear
strains through the plate thickness and tangential stress-free boundary conditions on the plate boundary surface,
thus a shear correction factor is not required. Plate governing equations and boundary conditions are derived by
employing the principle of virtual work. The exact solutions for bending analysis are presented for sinusoidally
and uniformly distributed loads. The accuracy of the present theory is ascertained by comparing it with various
available results in the literature.
INTRODUCTION
317
functions. They recommend a series of trigonometric functions of the thickness coordinate z. However,
according to the authors knowledge, regarding to
the equivalent single layer theories, there is only
one trigonometric shear deformation theory developed
by Touratier (1991), in which the sinus function was
introduced. Therefore, it is still important to exploit
the behavior of other functions in the implementation
of new shear deformation theories.
The unified formulation of Carrera applied to
advanced composite plates by using meshless methods was recently extended to include non-polynomial
shape strain functions in their formulation (Neves
et al. 2011), and the need of new non-polynomial
shape strain functions, which can be adapted to this
compact generalized formulation, is demanding. The
present new HSDT can be also adapted to the compact
CUF or GUF in similar manner as in Ferreira et al.
(2011).
In the present work, a new trigonometric higher
order displacement field in which the displacement
of the middle surface expanded as tangential trigonometric functions of the thickness coordinates and the
transverse displacement taken to be constant through
the thickness is proposed. Necessary equilibrium
equations and boundary conditions are derived by
employing the principle of virtual work. The theory
accounts for adequate distribution of the transverse
shear strains through the plate thickness and the tangential stress-free boundary conditions on the plate
boundary surface, therefore a shear correction factor is not required. Exact solutions for deflections
and stresses of simply supported sandwich plates are
presented. The accuracy of the present theory is ascertained by comparing it with Pagano (1970), Pagano
and Hatfield (1972), Srinivas (1973), other analytical
solutions, and also with various numerical calculations such as finite element (Pandya & Kant 1988;
Ferreira & Barbosa 2000) and meshless methods
(Ferreira 2003, 2005; Xiang 2009).
2
where u(x, y), v(x, y), w(x, y), 1 (x, y) and 2 (x, y) are
the five unknown functions of middle surface of the
plate as in Figure 1, while f (z) represents shape functions determining the distribution of the transverse
shear strains and stresses along the thickness.
In this paper, as mentioned above a new trigonometric shear deformation theory is introduced. Because
318
SOLUTION PROCEDURE
In Section 2, the governing equations are formulated with y, and therefore m dependency. From
Equation 3, it can be noticed than m is directly
proportional to . For convenience, will be used
to get the f (z) shape strain function. The unknown
parameter of the present higher order theory is
obtained by providing the maximum shear stresses
for all values of a/h ratios after several computations
of the plate governing equations.
Following the determination of the shear strain
shape function f (z) as given in Equations (11ab),
some example problems for laminated composites are
solved in order to show the validity and accuracy of
the present deformation theory.
319
4.2
a/h
4
10
20
50
100
xx
yz
Method
1.9222
1.9218
0.7131
0.7125
0.5049
0.4439
0.4351
0.4342
0.755
0.733
0.734
0.590
0.568
0.568
0.552
0.546
0.541
0.540
0.539
0.539
0.539
0.217
0.183
0.183
0.123
0.103
0.103
0.094
0.08
0.084
0.076
0.083
0.075
0.075
3D (Pagano)
Present
Touratier
Reddy et al.
3D (Pagano)
Present
Touratier
Reddy et al.
3D (Pagano)
Present
Touratier
Reddy et al.
3D (Pagano)
Present
3D (Pagano)
Present
Reddy et al.
10
20
50
100
xx
yz
2.820
2.6415
2.6657
2.6411
0.9190
0.8631
0.8698
0.8622
0.6100
0.5948
0.5958
0.5937
0.5200
0.5190
0.5080
0.5081
0.5070
1.100
1.034
1.067
1.036
0.725
0.692
0.698
0.692
0.650
0.641
0.642
0.641
0.628
0.626
0.624
0.624
0.624
0.033
0.035
0.036
0.035
0.015
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.012
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.011
0.013
0.011
0.013
0.013
a/h
a/h
4
10
20
100
xx
yz
1.954
1.894
1.893
0.743
0.715
0.715
0.517
0.507
0.506
0.439
0.435
0.434
0.720
0.664
0.665
0.559
0.545
0.546
0.543
0.539
0.539
0.539
0.539
0.538
0.291
0.239
0.239
0.196
0.153
0.153
0.156
0.123
0.123
0.141
0.112
0.112
320
CONCLUSIONS
321
322
ABSTRACT: A layerwise finite element formulation of a newly developed layerwise theory for the flexure of
thick multilayered panels is presented. The displacement model accounts for non-linear and constant variation of
in-plane and transverse displacement through the panel thickness. Reissner-Mindlin approach is used to model
the faces of the sandwich structure. The displacement field for the core is modeled as quadratic function of the
thickness coordinate. The three dimensional problem is reduced to the two-dimensional one by through-thickness
integration of the strain energy. The discrete element chosen is a four-nodded quadrilateral with nine-degrees-offreedom per node (when shear continuity is imposed). An example problem is provided for a well-know sandwich
composite plate. The accuracy of the present code is ascertained by comparing it with various available results
in the literature.
1
INTRODUCTION
Advanced composites materials have created a revolution in high performance structures. Their advantages
relative to conventional materials such as high strength
to weight and stiffness to weight ratios, superior resistance to environmental conditions, design flexibility,
make them attractive for a wide range of applications in marine, aerospace, automotive, and chemical,
industries (Swanson 1997; Jones 1999). Especially,
the recent development in the military ships shows
that composite structures can be used to increase the
operational performance to reduce maintenance and
fuel consumption costs (Mouritz et al. 2001). Recent
advances in laminated composite and sandwich materials make reliable to build naval ships with more than
100 m (Mouritz et al. 2001; Kontastinos 2001).
However, the analysis of composite structures
brings additional difficulties to the researchers such
as the transverse or inter-laminar shear stress due
to mismatch of material properties among layers,
bending-stretching coupling due to asymmetry of
lamination, and in-plane orthotropy. Therefore using
such advanced materials require an in-depth understanding of the response characteristics of these
structural components.
The finite element method (FEM) has become the
standard method of analysis of complex and realistic structures. Finite element numerical codes can be
implemented by using classical, first or higher order
shear deformation theories, and it can be done also
adopting equivalent single layer (ESL) or layerwise
description of the plate. Among ESL theories, there
are mainly three major theories. The classical lamination theory (CLT) is based on the assumptions
323
324
For the present formulation, a four-nodded quadrilateral C0 continuous isoparametric element with
nine-degrees-of-freedom per node is employed. The
generalized displacements included in the present
theory can be expressed as follows:
x
where = {uo vo wo w/x w/y cb
cb ctx ct }T ,
i is the displacement vector corresponding to node i,
Ni is the shape function associated with the node i and
n is the number of nodes per element, which is
four in the present study. Considering the Equation
5, the strain vector {} can be expressed in terms of
containing nodal degrees of freedom as:
hex and hc are the thicknesses of the outer layer and the
core in Equations (3ab), respectively.
In Equations (1ac), (2ac) and (3ac), uk and vk
are the inplane displacements at any point (xk , yk , zk )
in layer k {1,2, . . ., in, . . ., c, . . . ex, . . ., l-1, l}, uo
and vo denote the inplane displacement of the point (x,
y, 0) on the midplane of each layer, wo is the transverse
y
y
x
x
deflection, in ex and in
ex
are the rotations of the
normals to the midplane about the y and x axes, respecy
y
x
tively; while ctx , ct and cb
, cb are the top and bottom
core rotations about the x and y axes. In order to reduce
the degrees of freedom, the transverse shear stress continuity can be imposed in the interface between layers.
y
y
x
x
Therefore in
, in and ex
, ex are obtained as follows:
where
325
Figure 2. Laminate geometry with positive set of lamina/laminate reference axes, displacement components and fiber
orientation.
A simply supported square sandwich plate under uniform load is considered, as used by Srinivas (1973).
The ratio of side to thickness, a/h is taken as 10. The
sandwich laminate considers two outside layers (skins)
of thickness h1 = h3 = 0.1 h and one inner layer (core)
of thickness h2 = 0.8 h. The skin orthotropic properties are obtained by multiplying an integer, R, by the
core orthotropic properties, given by
326
Table 1.
Maximum deflection and stresses of a square sandwich plate under uniform load (R = 15).
Method
w
(a/2, a/2, 0)
1xx
(a/2, a/2, h/2)
1xz
(0, a/2, 0)
2xz
(0, a/2, 2h/5)
121.72
121.285
121.168
121.285
66.787
66.554
66.517
66.554
3.964
3.747
3.782
3.747
3.577
2.034
0.447
2.034
Table 2.
Maximum deflection and stresses of a square sandwich plate under uniform load (R = 5).
Table 3.
1xx
2xx
3xx
(a/2,
a/2, 0)
(a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (0, a/2, (0, a/2,
h/2)
2h/5)
2h/5)
h/2)
2h/5)
2h/5)
0)
2h/5)
258.970
257.560
256.336
254.191
258.740
236.100
258.740
259.120
258.720
257.120
257.523
255.920
252.084
60.353
60.154
60.066
59.946
62.380
61.870
59.210
60.338
60.262
59.985
59.968
59.650
58.863
46.623
46.429
46.346
46.174
46.910
49.500
45.610
46.570
46.511
46.305
46.291
46.037
45.423
9.340
9.286
9.269
9.235
9.382
9.899
9.122
9.314
9.302
9.261
9.258
9.207
9.885
1yy
38.491
38.448
38.416
38.372
38.930
36.650
37.880
38.547
38.501
38.330
38.321
38.141
37.690
2yy
30.097
30.073
30.031
29.949
30.330
29.320
29.590
30.148
30.112
29.981
29.974
29.830
29.477
3yy
6.161
6.015
6.006
5.990
6.065
5.864
5.918
6.030
6.022
5.996
5.995
5.966
5.895
1xz
2xz
4.364
3.898
3.807
3.695
3.089
3.313
3.593
4.539
4.461
4.289
4.046
3.977
3.831
3.268
1.742
1.682
1.618
2.600
2.444
3.593
3.384
3.331
3.217
2.390
2.538
2.532
1xz
2xz
Maximum deflection and stresses of a square sandwich plate under uniform load (R = 10).
1xx
2xx
3xx
(a/2,
a/2, 0)
(a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (0, a/2, (0, a/2,
h/2)
2h/5)
2h/5)
h/2)
2h/5)
2h/5)
0)
2h/5)
159.380
158.701
158.025
156.838
152.330
131.095
159.402
159.500
159.290
158.320
155.030
154.770
153.830
65.332
65.114
65.011
64.889
64.650
67.800
64.160
65.279
65.215
64.926
65.370
65.290
64.999
48.857
48.639
48.539
48.315
51.310
54.240
47.720
48.279
48.717
48.514
49.823
49.763
49.550
4.903
4.864
4.854
4.832
5.131
4.424
4.772
4.877
4.872
4.851
4.982
4.976
4.955
1yy
43.566
43.604
43.576
43.558
42.830
40.100
4.2970
43.682
43.641
43.451
43.273
43.220
43.030
2yy
33.413
33.466
33.420
33.317
33.970
32.080
42.900
33.523
33.493
33.353
33.601
33.564
33.421
3yy
3.500
3.347
3.342
3.332
3.397
3.208
3.290
3.352
3.349
3.335
3.361
3.356
3.342
4.096
3.809
3.722
3.613
3.147
3.152
3.518
4.290
4.217
4.056
4.284
4.213
4.049
3.515
1.942
1.866
1.788
2.600
2.676
3.518
3.672
3.617
3.491
3.675
3.632
3.509
2
for xz
stress. Similar comments as can be inferred for
the results in Table 4. But in this case the differences
are more pronounced, therefore, it can be inferred that
when R increases from 5 to 15, the present model gives
more accurate results when compared with Pandya &
Kant (1988) and Ferreira & Barbosa (2000) and they
327
Table 4.
Maximum deflection and stresses of a square sandwich plate under uniform load (R = 15).
1xx
2xx
3xx
(a/2,
a/2, 0)
(a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (a/2, a/2, (0, a/2, (0, a/2,
h/2)
2h/5)
2h/5)
h/2)
2h/5)
2h/5)
0)
2h/5)
121.720
121.285
120.814
119.987
110.43
90.85
121.82
121.880
121.680
121.880
115.460
115.270
114.570
66.787
66.554
66.441
66.314
66.62
70.04
65.65
66.730
66.659
66.730
66.870
66.799
66.510
48.299
48.065
47.959
47.706
51.97
56.03
47.09
48.204
48.148
48.204
50.041
49.987
49.783
3.238
3.204
3.197
3.180
3.47
3.75
3.14
3.214
3.210
3.214
3.336
3.333
3.319
1yy
46.424
46.504
46.480
46.483
44.92
41.39
45.85
46.586
46.535
46.586
45.724
45.669
45.471
2yy
34.955
35.047
35.002
34.886
35.41
33.11
34.42
35.109
35.069
35.109
35.150
35.107
34.961
3yy
2.494
2.336
2.334
2.326
2.36
2.21
2.29
2.341
2.338
2.341
2.343
2.341
2.331
1xz
3.964
3.747
3.663
3.556
3.04
3.09
3.47
4.167
4.105
4.167
4.177
4.111
3.953
2xz
3.577
2.034
1.948
1.862
2.70
2.76
3.47
3.742
3.705
3.742
3.771
3.728
3.602
Figure 3. Displacement and normalized stresses for a sandwich square plate (N = 21, a/h = 10, R = 15).
the present theory can be done by including the normal stress component z . The present model can be
extended to cover different multilayered structures
such as shells. Dynamic and buckling calculations can
be also performed.
CONCLUSIONS
328
The discrete element chosen is a four-nodded quadrilateral with nine-degrees-of-freedom per node (when
shear continuity is imposed). The accuracy of the
present theory is ascertained by comparing it with
various available results in the literature. The numerical results show that the present model performs
well as other existing higher order layerwise deformation theories for analyzing the global and interlaminar
mechanical behavior of multilayered sandwich and
composite plates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first and second authors have been financed by
the Portuguese Foundation of Science and Technology (Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia) under
contract numbers SFRH/BD/66847/2009 and SFRH/
BPD/47687/2008 respectively.
REFERENCES
Ashton, J.E. 1970. Anisotropic plate analysis-boundary conditions. J Compos Mater 4:18291.
Carrera, E. 2002. Theories and Finite Elements for Multilayered, Anisotropic, Composite Plates and Shells. Arch.
Comput. Meth. Engng. 9(2):87140.
Chou, P.C., Carleone, J. 1973. Transverse shear in laminated
plate theories. AIAA J 11:133336.
Demasi, L. 2007. Three-dimensional closed form solutions
and exact thin plate theories for isotropic plates. Composite Structures 80: 183195.
Demasi, L. 2009. 6 Mixed plate theories based on the Generalized Unified Formulation. Part II: Layerwise theories.
Composite structures 87: 1222.
Demasi L. 2010. Three-dimensional closed form solution
and 3 theories for orthotropic plates. Mechanics of
Advanced Materials and Structures 17: 2039.
Dong, S.B., Tso, F.K.W. 1972. On a laminated orthotropic
shell theory including transverse shear deformation. J
Appl Mech 39:109196.
Ferreira, A.J.M., Barbosa, J.T. 2000. Buckling behavior of
composite shells. Compos Struct 50:938.
Ferreira, A.J.M., Roque, C.M.C., Jorge, R.M.N. 2005. Analysis of composite plates by trigonometric shear deformation theory and multiquadrics. Composite Structures
83:222537.
Jones, R.M. 1999. Mechanics of composite materials. Taylor
& Francis, Inc., Second Edition.
329
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a finite element model and an analysis of large-scale specimen of box girders
subjected to four-point loading. Extensive nonlinear finite element analyses have been performed to find out
the best configuration of the model by varying the initial imperfection (shape and amplitude) and mesh size that
affect the ultimate strength and post-collapse behaviour. The results achieved by the use of the adopted finite
element models demonstrate a very good agreement with the three-linear trend of the bending moment-curvature
behaviour of an intact box girder. Furthermore, a comparison with different box girders having different material
properties and geometrical descriptions has been carried out.
INTRODUCTION
The longitudinal strength is the most important criterion for structural design of ship hulls, which is generally represented by the maximum bending moment
that the hull cross-section can withstand. The linear
elastic theory has been employed to predict the longitudinal strength of the ship hull for years. According
to this theory, the maximum bending moment that the
hull cross-section can withstand is equal to the bending moment corresponding to the first yield, that is, the
bending moment when the maximum stress on the hull
cross-section reaches the yield stress of the material.
In design practice, an allowable stress is used instead
of the yield stress, which corresponds to a safety factor
against yielding.
However, researches in the last decades have
revealed that the linear elastic theory is not adequate
in estimating the longitudinal strength of the ship
hull. It is necessary to take into account the following
factors: (1) various possible failure modes including
buckling, (2) progressive and interactive behaviour of
the failure of structural members, (3) redistribution
of the loads on the hull cross-section and (4) residual strength of structural members after buckling and
even after collapse. By considering these factors, the
maximum bending moment that the hull cross-section
can withstand is designated by the ultimate longitudinal strength, which represents the maximum loadcarrying capacity of the ship hull under longitudinal
bending.
Obviously, calculation of the ultimate longitudinal
strength is a non-linear problem in which both the
non-linearities related to material and geometry are
involved.
The test of simply supported box girders subjected to a pure bending moment may reproduce in
a simple manner the behaviour of the ship structure
under bending (Gordo and Guedes Soares, 2008, 2009,
Saad-Eldeen et al., 2010).
A series of finite element analysis (FEA) were conducted to simulate the behaviour of the tested box
girders. Hansen (1996) performed four finite element
models with different considerations for a crosssection selected from the model tested by Nishihara
(1984). The finite element model used in the analysis
was built up by 4-noded shell element with 5 layers
in the thickness. The model was loaded incrementally
with force vector at the end of the load section in order
to ensure the overall bending.
Qi et al. (2005) performed a series of non-linear
FEA for the ultimate strength of tested box girders
simulating a large surface ship, frigate and double hull
tanker. The calculation results showed a good agreement with the test results. Moreover, a comparison has
been done to calculate the ultimate hull girder strength
for a large double hull tanker using different methods.
Nikolov (2009) performed a collapse behaviour
analyses comparison between the experimental results
and different simplified methods of five different box
girders used for ultimate strength test. The stress-strain
and moment-curvature relationships were obtained,
and the comparison showed that there is significant difference between the numerical and some experimental
results.
The study presented here is part of long-term
project dealing with different levels of deteriorated box
girders representing the midship ship hull structures.
Through this project, three tests have been conducted
for box girders subjected to initial, moderate and
331
Item
Dimensions
units
Deck plating
Port Side plating
Starboard Side plating
Bottom plating
Stiffeners
Web frames
Brackets
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
25 4.5
50 50 6.5
80 100 4
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
332
Figure 2. Developed
relationship.
three-linear
moment-curvature
heavy plates, which are located outside of the analysed box-girder and on the supporting arms connection
to avoid the presence of the shear effect (Figure 3).
The displacement load is applied by small increments
to ensure that the analysis would closely follow the
structures load-response curve.
The boundary conditions are modeled in the way
that the both ends are simply supported; both the ends
are constrained from translation in the vertical and
transverse direction and the translation in the longitudinal direction is constrained at the one of the ends,
also no rotation is prevented (see Figure 3).
4
333
It can be observed that the slope of the momentcurvature relationship, representing the flexural rigidity, EI, coincide with the three-linear trend, and this
provides an evidence that the experimental results
may be well represented by the developed three-linear
trend relationship.
The gradient of the ultimate bending moment with
respect to the element size is calculated as:
bending moments for different imperfection amplitudes are summarized in Table 3. As may be seen
from Figure 6, when the initial imperfection amplitude is of 1 mm, the collapse behavior is too hard to
compare with the base solution. However, the small
initial imperfection leads to a bigger ultimate bending
moment capability as presented in Table 3.
From the gradient point of view, it is evident that,
as the larger the initial imperfection amplitude the
less the gradient of the ultimate bending moment
(see Figure 7). It has to be pointed out that there
where BMi is the ultimate bending moment at specified element size, ESi . By plotting the gradient vs.
the element size (see Figure 5) it can be observed that,
there is an inflection point at the level of the element
size of 5 [cm]. This point refers to the change of the
curve behavior, therefore, for the present finite element analysis the most appropriate element size seems
to be 5 [cm].
4.2
Table 2.
Imperfection,
mm
ES [cm]
2.5
10
15
FEM [kN m]
Exp [kN m]
Diff [kN m]
Gradient
582.53
601.55
3.16
1.60
586.53
601.55
2.49
2.23
597.66
601.55
0.65
1.36
604.48
601.55
0.49
334
335
Figure 10. Vertical displacement (middle bay), downward (left) and upward (right) imperfections.
Figure 11. Longitudinal stresses (middle bay), downward (left) and upward (right) imperfections.
Table 4. Effect of initial imperfection shape on the ultimate
bending moment.
Shape
Down
Up
Diff [kN m]
FEM [kN m]
Exp [kN m]
Diff [kN m]
584.53
601.55
2.83
589.25
601.55
2.04
4.72
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Many analyses of the ultimate strength of experimentally tested box-girders have been performed by many
researchers, as has been already described in Section 1, using many different numerical approaches.
Here the results of finite element analysis performed
for intact box-girder are compared with the ones published in literature.The box girders in consideration are
somehow similar, but have been built from different
steel class materials and geometrical configurations,
336
Table 5.
Item
Present
box
Units
a
b
tp
ts
hs
y
540
540
200
180
180
150
4.35
3.05
4
4.35
3.05
4
50
50
20
264
287
270
400
150
4.5
4.5
25
235
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
MPa
MPa
206
210
589
GPa
GPa
MNm2
MNm2
kN m
kN m
y% 112
122
114
E
E%
EI
EI%
Mu
Mu%
207
101
180
86
587
100
200
97
151
72
632
107
208
101
258
123
898
153
800
200
3
4
45
1833 mm
3104 mm
783 mm
1324 mm
210
102
130
62
316
54
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported here is a contribution to the activities of the MARSTRUCT VIRTUAL INSTITUTE,
(www.marstruct-vi.com) in particular its Technical
Subcommittee 2.3 on Ultimate Strength.
The first author has been funded by the Portuguese
Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundao
para a Cincia e Tecnologia FCT) under contract
SFRH/BD/46790/2008.
REFERENCES
Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., Wang, G., 2007. Nonlinear time dependent corrosion wastage of deck plates of
ballast and cargo tanks of tankers. Journal of Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering 129, pp. 4855.
Gordo, J.M., Guedes Soares, C., 2008. Experimental Evaluation of the Behavior of a Mild Steel Box Girder
under Bending Moment. Ships and Offshore Structures
3, pp. 347358.
Gordo, J.M., Guedes Soares, C., 2009. Tests on Ultimate
Strength of Hull Box Girders Made of High-Tensile Steel.
Marine Structures 22, pp. 770790.
Guedes Soares, C., Garbatov, Y., Zayed, A., 2011. Effect of
Environmental Factors on Steel Plate Corrosion under
Marine Immersion Conditions. Corrosion Engineering,
Science and Technology 46, pp. 524541.
Guedes Soares, C., Garbatov, Y., Zayed, A., Wang, G., 2008.
Corrosion Wastage Model for Ship Crude Oil Tanks.
Corrosion Science 50, pp. 30953106.
Guedes Soares, C., Garbatov, Y., Zayed, A., Wang, G., 2009.
Influence of Environmental Factors on Corrosion of Ship
Structures in Marine Atmosphere. Corrosion Science 51,
pp. 20142026.
337
338
R.F. Martins
Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, UNIDEMI, Departamento de Engenharia
Mecnica e Industrial, Campus de Caparica, Caparica, Portugal
ICEMS, Insituto Superior Tcnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
P.P. Silva
Misso de Acompanhamento e Fiscalizao Lanchas de Fiscalizao Costeira, Marinha Portuguesa,
Base Naval de Lisboa, Alfeite, Portugal
A.R. Mateus
Marinha Portuguesa, Direco de Navios, Base Naval de Lisboa, Alfeite, Portugal
ABSTRACT: The main purpose of this paper is to present both the global and local structural response of
a fast craft, when subjected to the effect of slamming and flooding of watertight adjacent compartments. The
studies were accomplished using the Finite Element Method (FEM) applied to the vessel model, giving special
attention to the bow and stern of the craft when submitted to slamming effects and jet thrust loads, respectively.
The modes and frequencies of vibration were determined to check for structural resonance problems due to
slamming induced loads, considering the sea conditions where the craft operates. The forced frequency response
of a specific region on the bow was also determined when subjected to slamming loads applied in a frequency
range from 25 to 80 Hz. The results revealed that the maximum stress induced in the structure was lower than
the yield strength of the materials used in the production of the craft, the aluminium alloys 5083-H111 e 6082T6. Hypothetical flooding of watertight compartments was also simulated in the ships section comprehended
between bulkheads no. 17 and 20 and in the engine and waterjets compartments, separately.
1
INTRODUCTION
LOADINGS
The craft, when in service, may be subjected to slamming pressures, due to the slam of the hull on the sea
surface upon re-entry into the water. This phenomenon
induces high forces on the hull and on its structural
elements (Hermundstad & Moan 2007), as well as the
possibility of excitation of the first vibration modes
of the structure.
The magnitude of the slamming load is dependent
on the hulls design, service conditions, operation area
339
3.5
1.5
4.5
4.5
5.5
9.5
6.5
13.5
7.5
14.5
8.5
14.5
MODELLING
340
341
342
Figure 16. Displacements [m] due to flooding of compartment comprehended between bulkheads no. 17 and 20.
HYPOTHETICAL FLOODING OF
WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENTS
on the bulkheads plate (Fig. 19), indicating the existence of high local stresses, due to the existence of
geometric stress concentration factors. However, as
the modelling of the brackets responsible for connection between the structural elements referred was not
343
Bow
Stern
2nd mode
3rd mode
68.49
44.36
78.17
45.69
48.16
The finite element analysis of the modes and frequencies of vibration of the bow and stern resulted
in Figures 22 and 23.
The frequencies of vibration corresponding to the
modes illustrated in Figures 22 and 23 are presented
in Table 4.
According to what was previously seen, the
encounter frequency (less than 0.50 Hz) imposed by
slamming, and the natural frequencies of vibration of
the craft (higher than 44 Hz) are far away, thus eliminating the possibility of resonance due to the demands
of slamming as the craft operates.
344
CONCLUSIONS
345
structural elements responsible for structural continuity and stress releasing, would give a more accurate
evaluation of the stress concentration factors and guide
the structural designer on possible measures to avoid
or minimize it.
Nevertheless, for flooding structural design it may
be assumed permanent deformation (material working
on the plastic zone) (Chalmers 1993).
The study of the free vibration of the bow, showed
that the 1st and 2nd modes are more relevant on the
deformation of bulkhead 17. That could be an issue
in the case of the craft structure being excited on
those modes, thus causing resonance.
At the stern, the 3rd mode is relevant on bulkhead
3, while the 1st and 2nd modes are relevant on the hull
behavior.
From the analysis of the frequencies of excitation
its possible to conclude that the craft operates on a
range far from the natural frequencies of the structural
models studied. It is expected that it will not suffer
from resonance issues related with slamming loads,
since the lowest natural frequency, both on the bow
and on the stern is 44,36 Hz and the encounter frequency expected in the crafts area of operation is at
most 0.50 Hz.
Considering the load due to the waterjet impulse,
it was observed deformations of about 2 mm and von
Mises stresses of 28 MPa (21.5% of the 5083-H111
alloy yield stress).
From the analysis of flooding simulation on the
engine room, it was verified that maximum displacement occurs on the hull near the keel (about
13 mm), maybe due to the highest span of the craft
compartments occurring in this compartment.
From the analysis of flooding simulation on the
waterjet room, it was verified that bulkhead 3 holds
the maximum displacement about 7 mm. The highest stress values occur in the connection elements
between the hull and bulkhead 3 reinforcements
(about 182 MPa, thus 60% of the 6082-T6 alloy yield
stress). This is similar to what is verified on the same
bulkhead when the flood occurs in the engine room.
Excluding the areas of stress concentration, the
highest stress values occur on the external fibres of
the bulkhead reinforcements and are of 60 MPa (20%
of the 6082-T6 alloy yield stress).
All in all, the stress values of the bow and stern sections of the high speed lifeboat show enough strength
for the expected service loads and incident flooding
occurrence, the craft is not expected to suffer from
resonance phenomena due to slamming loads.
Further work should be done:
346
REFERENCES
Chalmers, D.W.; 1993; Design of shipsstructures; HMSO,
London
Hermundstad, Ole A; Moan, Torgeir; 2007; Efficient calculations of slamming pressures on ships in irregular seas;
Journal of Marine Science and Technology; Springer;
Norway.
J.M.J. Journe and Jakob Pinkster; 2002; Introduction In
Ship Hydromechanics, Lecture MT519; Draft Edition;
Delft University of Technology, Nederland.
Hydro Aluminium Vekst; 2002; Aluminium in the Marine
Environment; 1st Edition, Norway.
Lloyds Register of Shipping; 1996; Rules and Regulations
for the Classification of Special Service Craft.
347
ABSTRACT: In order to avoid resonances and consequently excessive vibrations, special attention is dedicated
to modal analysis, with the aim of determination of natural frequencies and mode shapes of the structure. The
objective of this paper is to perform numerical modal analysis of a ferry deck panel as well as to compare the
obtained results with previously available experimental data. Finite element analysis of the stiffened plate is
performed using finite element analysis with shell elements for the plate and stiffeners. Final comparisons show
good agreement of numerical and experimental data.
INTRODUCTION
349
Table 1.
Plate, m
Longitudinal stiffeners, m
Length of transversal
stiffeners, m
Dimensions of T profile, m
Table 2.
2 2.49 0.006
2.1 0.1 0.006
2.54
Local Mode
Numerical Numerical
Experimental,
mode Number (Ansys), Hz (Nastran), Hz Hz
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
3
2
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
61.58
70.19
81.35
113.10
124.83
130.87
144.02
173.70
142.75
156.33
168.56
191.63
203.85
177.70
191.26
193.29
221.53
235.49
219.83
231.88
258.32
259.06
271.36
71
79
87
106
110
121
136
147
179
194
154
169
181
210
224
190
204
211
237
63
68
71
101
104
93
114
131
167
180
107
118
125
188
198
141
153
159
214
221
181
199
207
248
251
350
and stiffeners. Furthermore, comparison of the natural frequencies with the experimental data previously
obtained by Ferrari and Rizzuto is carried out and
satisfactory agreement between numerical results and
experimental results is observed.
Also, in comparison with the previously available
numerical results from Ferrari & Rizzuto (2033b), the
deviation of natural frequencies is reduced. Since the
validation of the model is satisfactory, future investigations on the verified model, such as transient dynamic
analysis can be performed.
Figure 4. Local mode 2, 1 (130.87 Hz).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
local mode (1, 1) were not observed. In Fig. 26 the
series of panel modes of the local mode (2,1), ordered
with increasing modal frequency are shown.
The difference between the modes of the same
local shape is observed in the magnitude of relative
amplitudes of subpanel modes and the way they are
positioned.
This work has been performed during the visit that the
first author made to the Centre for Marine Technology
and Engineering of Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, as part of her PhD
studies at the University of Rijeka.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
351
352
ABSTRACT: The objective of this work is to analyze the effect of different finite element models on the
ultimate strength assessment of plates and stiffened panels. The analysis is performed by the finite element
method using commercial software, where the effect of element size and type, boundary conditions, shape of
initial imperfection, thickness and net sectional configuration on the ultimate strength are evaluated. The ultimate
strength estimated for four different finite element models and different structural configurations are compared
to the solution defined by the new Common Structural Rules.
1
INTRODUCTION
353
2
2.1
354
Table 1.
Case
l, mm
b, mm
h, mm
No of half
waves
1
2
400
400
150
150
25
50
1
1
Table 2.
Case
l, mm
b, mm
No of half
waves
1
2
3
4
400
400
800
400
150
150
150
75
1
2
1
1
355
the plate have been varied. It has been found that the
mesh size is not affected by the plate failure mode
in contrary to what has been observed in the case of
stiffener tripping.
2.3
The effect of the shape of the cross-section of stiffened panel, accounting for the shape of the initial
imperfection and element size on the ultimate strength
is investigated here. For this purpose, Model 2 has
been selected to be analysed and different element
356
or decreasing the plate and stiffener thicknesses. However the plate thickness variation has a significant
influence on the ultimate strength (see Figure 13) has
to be pointed out that the web height, for this particular
case, has the most significant influence on the element
size.
3
3.1
357
Table 3.
Lines constrained to
L1-5: Uy, Uz, Rx
L1-5: Uy, Uz
L1-5: Uy, Uz, Ry
L1-5: C- Ux
L6-7: Uy, Uz
L6-7: Uy, Uz, Rx
L6-7: Uy, Uz, Ry
L6-7: C-Ux
L2-4: Ux, Uy, Uz
L2-4: Ux, Uy, Uz, Rx
L2-4: Ux, Uy, Uz, Ry
L3-8: Ux, Uy, Uz
L3-8: Ux, Uy, Uz, Rx
L3-8: Ux, Uy, Uz, Ry
L1-2: Uy, Rx
L1-2: Rx
L5-4: C-Uy
L5-4: Uy, Rx
L5-4: Rx
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
358
Table 4.
Line constrains
L3-5: Ry
L3-5: Ry, C-Ux
L4-12: Rz
L4-12: Rz, C-Ux
L2-6: Uz
L10-11:Uz, C-Uy
L1-7: Ux, Ry
L8-9: Ux, Rz
L1-3: Rx, Uy
L1-3: Rx
L5-7: Rx
L5-7: Rx, C-Uy
Point 10-Uy
BC1
BC2
BC3
BC4
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
359
Line Number
L1-3: Ry
L1-3: Ry, C-Ux
L2-11: Rz
L2-11: Rz, C-Ux
L4-10: Uz
L12-13: Uz, C-Uy
L14-15: Uz, C-Uy
L5-9: Uz
L8-6: Ux, Ry
L7-16: Ux, Rz
L1-8: Rx, Uy
L1-8: Rx
L3-6: Rx
L3-6: Rx ,C-Uy
Point 13, 15: Uy
BC1
BC2
BC3
BC4
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
3.3
Model 4
3.4 Model 3
Model 3 is made up of a single plate bordered by two
neighbouring transverse frames and longitudinal stiffeners as may be seen in Figure 1 and 29. The studied
boundary conditions are presented in Table 6.
The displacements of longitudinal and transverse
edges are all constrained in vertical direction. The
longitudinal edges are not subjected to symmetry
360
Line Number
BC1
L1-2: Uy, Uz
L1-2: Uy, Uz, Ry
L1-2: Uy, Uz, Rx
L2-3: Uy, Uz
L3-4: Ux, Uy, Uz
L3-4: Ux, Uy, Uz, Ry
L3-4: Ux, Uy, Uz, Rx
L4-1: Uy, Uz
BC2
BC3
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
*U-Displacement, R-Rotation
boundary condition. Since the plate has been considered bounded by the stiff transverse frames and
longitudinals, coupling was not employed.
Changing the boundary conditions of the transverse
edges does not change the behaviour of pre-collapse
region and results in a larger post-collapse loading
capacity. As the loaded transverse edge is constrained
against rotation, this leads to an earlier first yielding
occurrence (see Figure 30).
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
CONCLUSIONS
361
the edge boundary conditions. The restrained boundary conditions give a larger post-collapse loading
capacity. The boundary conditions may change the
failure mode too. As the plate slenderness is increased,
its sensitivity to boundary changes increases. The
structure cross-section configuration has a significant
influence on the ultimate strength. Model 2 and Model
4 are similarly affected by the boundary condition
changes with respect to the ultimate strength. Model 2
has larger post-collapse loading capacity than Model
4. Although Model 1 is stiffer, it has similar ultimate strength and larger post collapse load carrying
capacity than Model 3. As the thickness is decreasing,
Model 2 and Model 4 behave closely. Model 2 is the
most appropriate finite element model to calculate the
ultimate strength of stiffened panels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work reported here is a contribution to
the MARSTRUCT VIRTUAL INSTITUTE, (www.
marstruct-v.com) in particular its Technical Subcommittee 2.3 on Ultimate Collapse Strength.
REFERENCES
ANSYS, 2009. Online Manuals, Release 11.
Faulkner, D., 1975. A Review of Effective Plating for use
in the Analysis of Stiffened Plating in Bending and
Compression. Journal of Ship Research 19, pp. 117.
Garbatov, Y., Tekgoz, M., Guedes Soares, C., 2011. Uncertainty Assessment of the Ultimate Strength of a Stiffened
Panel, in: Guedes Soares, C., Fricke, W. (Eds.), Advances
in Marine Structures. Taylor & Francis Group, London,
UK, pp. 659668.
Guedes Soares, C., 1988. Uncertainty Modelling in Plate
Buckling. Structural Safety 5, pp. 1734.
Guedes Soares, C., Kmiecik, M., 1993. Simulation of the
Ultimate Compressive Strength of Unstiffened Rectangular Plates. Marine Structures 6, pp. 553569.
Guedes Soares, C., Kmiecik, M., 1995. Influence of the
Boundary Conditions on the Collapse Strength of Square
Plates with Initial Imperfections. Graczyk, T.; Jastrzebski,
T.; Brebbia C. A., and Burns, R. (Eds), Marine Technology and Transportation. Computational Mechanics
Publications, Southampton, pp. 227235.
IACS, 2010. Common Structure Rules for Double Hull Oil
Tankers, Consolidated version, July 2010.
Matthies, H., Brenner, C., Bucher, C., Guedes Soares, C.,
1997. Uncertainties in probabilistic numerical analysis of structures and solids-Stochastic finite elements.
Structural Safety 19, pp. 283336.
Paik, J., Branner, K., Choo, J., Czujko, J., Fujikubo, M.,
Gordo, J.M., Parmentier, G., Iaccarino, R., ONeil,
S., Pasqualino, I., Wang, D., Wang, X., Zhang, S.,
2009. Committee III.1 Ultimate Strength, in: Jang, C.,
Hong, S. (Eds.), 17th Int. Ship and Offshore Structures
Cong. (ISSC2009). University of Seoul, South Korea,
pp. 375475.
Saad-Eldeen, S., Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 2011a.
Corrosion Dependent Ultimate Strength Assessment of
Aged Box Girders Based on Experimental Results.
Journal of Ship Research 55, pp. 289300.
Saad-Eldeen, S., Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 2011b.
Experimental Assessment of the Ultimate Strength of
a Box Girder Subjected to Severe Corrosion. Marine
Structures 24, pp. 338357.
Saad-Eldeen, S., Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 2012.
Effect of Corrosion Degradation on the Ultimate Strength
of Steel Box Girders. Corrosion Engineering, Science and
Technology 47, pp. 272283.
Smith, C.S., Davidson, P.C., Chapman, J.C., Dowling, J.P.,
1988. Strength and Stiffness of Ships Plating under
In-plane Compression and Tension. Transactions RINA
130, pp. 277296.
Xu, M.C., Guedes Soares, C., 2011. Numerical study of the
effect of geometry and boundary conditions on the collapse behavior of short stiffened panels, Guedes Soares,
C., Fricke, W. (Eds.), Advances in Marine Structures.
Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK, pp. 229237.
362
ABSTRACT: This work deals with a fatigue damage assessment of a double hull oil tanker structural detail
based on a local structural finite element model. The wave-induced vertical and horizontal bending moments,
as well as local pressure loads have been considered in the fatigue damage calculations. Stress analyses are
performed based on hot spot and notch stress approaches. The stress distributions at the notch surface of weld
toe are studied. Two hot spots are analyzed at the weld toe located between the flat bar stiffener of a transverse
web frame and the flange of a longitudinal stiffener at the side shell of a tanker ship hull.
1
INTRODUCTION
363
Gaspar et al. (2011) proposed a simulation procedure using the structural hot spot stress approach
combined with the FE analysis and the Monte-Carlo
simulation method to examine the effect of the weld
shape uncertainties (the geometrical imperfections
induced by the welding process commonly used in
the shipbuilding and repair industries) on the structural hot spot stress distribution. A structural detail of
containerships deck structures was analyzed.
Moreover, Fricke et al. (2002) performed the fatigue
strength assessment based on different classification
societies for a hatch cover bearing pad in the ISSC
comparative study.
Garbatov and Guedes Soares (1998, 2002) presented a formulation for the assessment of the reliability of a local ship hull structure regarding to fatigue
failure. The potential cracks are considered to occur
in the side shell, in the connections between longitudinal stiffeners and transverse web frame. The analysis is
performed for T shaped stiffeners. The model accounts
for the crack growth process applying the linear elastic
fracture mechanics. The long-term stress range acting
on the elements is defined as a function of the local
transverse pressure of internal cargo and outside water,
combining with the stresses resulting from the longitudinal bending of the hull. The global hull loading
is a combination of horizontal and vertical bending
moments.
Normally, fatigue cracks may initiate at hot spot
stress points of the weld toe and grow though the thickness of plate such as the connection between the flat
bar stiffener attached to a transverse web frame (webstiffener) and the flange of a longitudinal stiffener at
the side shell (see Figure 3). During the inspection,
fatigue cracks may be detected by the surveyor at an
earlier stage in ship structures, or they may be detected
after penetrating the side shell. In the majority of cases,
there are two hot spot points, one is at the toe of the
web-stiffener (HSA), and the second is at the flange of
the flat bar close to the cut-out (HSB), as can be seen
from Figure 3 and 5.
To define the local stresses distribution at the intersection between the longitudinal stiffeners and the
transverse web frame, beside a procedure based on
the simplified analysis, a finite element analysis of
a stiffener panel at side shell connections is presented
332 m
320 m
58 m
31 m
20.8 m
14 m
0.815
16 kn
5.12 m
4207.925 m4
1479.421 m4
13.525 m
4404303 kNm
4739923 kNm
2642960 kNm
2172486 kNm
364
365
3
3.1
Loading cases.
Loading case
Full loaded
Ballast loaded
81.50
37.25
31.00
57.30
30.85
axial loading are separated for each of the ship loading cases as shown in Figure 13. The loading cases are
summarized in Table 2.
The lateral external and internal pressure is applied
on the side shell plate. The lateral displacement is
restrained on the top of the transverse web frame and
all the edge ends of models are clamped. A constant
axial force is applied at the one end of models while
keeping the other end constrained about axial displacement and the lateral displacement at the position of the
transverse web frame. The modulus of elasticity and
the Poisson ratio are 206 [GPa] and 0.3 respectively.
FE models are created based on the net scantlings.
366
367
of as well as around the weld toe and the stress gradient over the flange of the longitudinal stiffener are
analyzed. Figure 17 shows the effective notch surfaces
radius along the weld toe line along the axes TR and
TL (through the mid-points of cross sections).
4.1
It is also shown that the effective notch stress distribution decreases from the section (a-a) to (e-e) along the
weld toe line. It has to be pointed out that the stresses
are nearly equal at the section (e-e) in all cases. The
distributions of the effective notch stresses are close
together at HSA in full loading and HSB in ballast
loading.
Figure 20a and 20b show the stress distributions
in the front of the hot spot points at 10 and 30 [mm]
away from the weld toe over the half of flange width
Figure 17. Effective notch radius along the weld toe line TR
and TL.
Figure 20a. Stress gradient over the half of flange width for
external pressure in full loading condition.
368
for external pressure in full and ballast loading conditions, respectively. The stress gradients at the weld
toe and at the heel of web-stiffener are almost similar
in the two loading cases, but the stress level is higher
in the full load condition. Close to HSA and HSB at
10 [mm], can be observed that the stresses increase
significantly towards the web of the stiffener (from
z = 0 to z = 90 [mm]), whereas the stresses increase
slightly at the distance of 30 [mm] in the two loading
conditions.
Figure 21 shows the longitudinal stress distribution on the flange of longitudinal stiffener for external pressure in full and ballast loading conditions.
It is found that the distributions of longitudinal stresses
are almost the same in the two loading cases. The
structural hot spot stresses are also determined from
the FE shell model according to the recommendation
presented by DnV (2005) and Hobbacher (2007).
The result of effective notch, structural hot spot and
nominal stress at two hot spot points in the two loading conditions are summarized in Table 3. It can be
found from the hot spot stress analysis, the elements
size has an influence on the FE results as shown in
this table. The difference is about 3% and 8% between
coarse and fine meshes at HSA and HSB, respectively. It can be also observed that the stresses increase
significantly if the effective notch stress is applied.
4.2 Effective notch stresses resulting from internal
pressure load
Figure 20b. Stress gradient over the half of flange width for
external pressure in ballast loading condition.
The local model is only subjected to internal pressure acting on outer side in ballast loading condition.
Figure 22 (a, b) shows the effective notch stresses
distribution of different cross-sections along the weld
toe line in ballast loading condition at HSA and
HSB respectively. It can be also observed that the
Table 3.
Stresses at HSA, HSB subjected to external pressure in full and ballast loading conditions.
hs
[MPa]
FEA (Shell)
[MPa]
notch
Khs = hs /normal
Coarse
Fine
FEA
(Solid)
Coarse
Fine
Kn = notch /normal
Full loading
A
36.8
B
36.8
49.1
62.9
50.7
68.9
300.1
412.2
1.34
1.71
1.38
1.88
8.16
11.2
Ballast loading
A
30.3
B
30.3
34.5
44.3
35.6
48.5
211.0
289.7
1.14
1.46
1.18
1.60
6.96
9.56
HS
normal [MPa]
369
Figure 24. Stress gradient over the half of the flange width
for internal pressure in ballast loading condition.
370
Table 4.
[MPa]
hs
Loading
HS
normal [MPa]
Coarse
Fine
[MPa]
notch
FEA
(Solid)
Ballast
A
B
30.3
30.3
21.7
28.0
22.6
31.0
135.8
187.5
FEA (Shell)
Khs = hs /normal
Coarse
Fine
Kn = notch /normal
0.72
0.92
0.74
1.02
4.48
6.19
Figure 27. Effective notch stresses along the weld toe line
at HSA and HSB for axial load.
371
Full loading
A
36.8
B
36.8
165.3
179.8
4.50
4.89
Ballast loading
A
30.3
B
30.3
136.9
148.9
4.52
4.91
normal [MPa]
Table 6.
and B.
notch [MPa]
FEA (Solid)
HS
Table 7.
Total
Life
[years]
1.266
1.030
0.946
1.272
0.988
1.485
15.20
18.67
20.32
15.12
19.46
12.95
1.792
3.531
10.73
5.45
Hot spot
(1)
qn [MPa]
(2)
Load case
pn
hn
HSA
HSB
Full
Ballast
0.45
0.40
0.819
0.900
20.77
20.82
19.35
19.52
(3)
Full
Ballast
where Nload is the total number of the considered loading conditions, o is the long-term average response
zero-crossing frequency, Td is the ship service life,
is the Gamma function, pn is a part of the lifetime
spent in each of loading condition and hn , qn are the
Weibull stress range shape and scale factor for the nth
loading condition, respectively. The long-term stress
range distribution at the two hot spots, considered for
full and ballast loading condition is shown in Table 6.
The total fatigue damage, during the design service
life of 25 years, is found by summing the part damage
from each of the loading, and increased the damage by
a factor related to the corrosive environment.
Fatigue damage and fatigue life for the two hot spot
points A and B are given in Table 7. For the simplified notch stress approach, the differences of SCF due
to geometry effect are also listed in Table 7. It can
be seen from Figure 29 that the total fatigue damage obtained from the simplified approach is smaller
than the one obtained from the effective notch stress
approach which is based on the FE analysis. It is also
found from the effective notch stress approach that the
fatigue damage is bigger at point B.
It should be noted, as observed in Figure 29, that
for the simplified notch stress approach, the SCFs due
to geometry effect, which are analyzed by coarse and
fine mesh in FE analysis, comparing with the SCFs
in the standard list details (DnV, 2005) have an influence on the fatigue damage. At the hot spot point A,
the fatigue damage obtained from the coarse and fine
CONCLUSION
372
Fricke, W., Cui, W., Kierkegaard, H., Kihl, D., Koval, M.,
Mikkola, T., Parmentier, G., Toyosada, M., Yoon, J., 2002.
Comparative fatigue strength assessment of a structural
detail in a containership using various approaches of
classification societies. Marine Structures 15, pp. 113.
Fricke, W., Kahl, A., 2005. Comparison of different structural
stress approaches for fatigue assessment of welded ship
structures. Marine Structures 18, pp. 473488.
Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 1998. Fatigue Reliability of
Maintained Welded Joints in the Side Shell of Tankers.
Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
120, pp. 29.
Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 2002. Bayesian updating in the reliability assessment of maintained floating
structures. Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering 124, pp. 139145.
Gaspar, B., Garbatov, Y., Guedes Soares, C., 2011. Effect
of weld shape imperfections on the structural hot-spot
stress distribution. Ships and Offshore Structures 6,
pp. 145159.
Hobbacher, A., 2007. A recommendations for fatigue design
of welded joints and components, International Institute
of Welding.
IACS, 2010. Common Structure Rules for Double Hull Oil
Tankers, Consolidated version, July 2010.
Nolte, K., Hansford, J., 1976. Closed-form expressions for
determining the fatigue damage of structures due to ocean
waves, Proceedings Offshore Technology Conference,
pp. 861870.
Radaj, D., Sonsino, C.M., Fricke, W., 2009. Recent developments in local concepts of fatigue assessment of welded
joints. International Journal of Fatigue 31, pp. 211.
Saad-Eldeen, S., Nguyen, T., Garbatov,Y., Guedes Soares, C.,
2010. Fatigue Stress Assessment Accounting for Contact
Element, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Marine Science and Technology. Union of Scientists of
Varna, Varna, Bulgaria.
Storhaug, S., Berstad, A.J., 2001. Fatigue in the side shell
of ship shaped structures, Proceeding of the 20th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering, Rio de Jeneiro, Brazil.
373
J. Amdahl
Marine Technology Department, Norwegian University of Technology and Science,
Trondheim, Norway
C. Guedes Soares
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: The paper presents finite element simulations of a damaged tanker double bottom subjected to
bending moment. An important issue is the influence of size and shape of the obstruction on the sea floor during
minor grounding events. The initial damage is induced by rigid indenters at various locations and using different
sea bottom topologies. The study found an important reduction in the ultimate capacity of the double bottom
structure when the initial indentation deforms stiff structural elements such as side girders, whereas more local
damage produces similar shortening response independently of the location or shape of the indenter.
INTRODUCTION
375
376
GROUNDING SCENARIOS
377
Figure 5. Shape and design of the indenters. The number of damaged indenters is denoted by type 3, 7, 9, 19.
378
Figure 6. Double bottom deformation and Von Mises stress distribution due to indentation. (a): Group A, Location 2.
(b): Group B, Location 1. (c): Group C, Location 3. (d): Group D, Location 3.
Figure 7. Ultimate strength of double bottom at various grounding scenarios. (a): Group A. (b): Group B. (c) Group C.
(d): Group D. (1), (2) and (3) denotes locations 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
379
CONCLUSIONS
380
ABSTRACT: The finite element method is widely used to simulate marine structures subjected to lateral
impact. These simulations need to define the nonlinear material behaviour and include an appropriate failure
criterion to account fracture within the structure. However, the influence of the true stress-strain relationship
on the results is not presented in detail in some cases. Therefore, this paper reviews mathematical expressions
for the flow curve and the failure criteria, commonly used in collision simulations. Additionally, a procedure
is summarized to conduct numerical simulations of tension tests, as a practical method to evaluate the material
relation and the critical failure strain of the elements. Moreover, representative simulations of marine structures
under the action of impact loads are reviewed. In these references, the emphasis is put on the influence of the
material relation and the failure criterion on the numerical predictions.
INTRODUCTION
Finite element simulations of ship and offshore structures subjected to lateral impact are performed to
evaluate preliminary designs. These simulations need
to define the nonlinear behaviour of the material
including strain hardening and failure. Commonly,
the mechanical properties of the material are determined with tensile tests. Hence, the true stress-strain
relationships are obtained from the recorded engineering stress-strain state in the form of a power relation
or using instantaneous measurements of the crosssectional area. However, the material relationship
adopted, affects the necking and rupture behaviour
obtained by the finite element simulations. Moreover,
the failure due to material rupture is still not well
resolved numerically, because the fracture length is
much smaller than the side length of the elements in
a finite element model. Thus, it is difficult to establish a procedure suitable for prediction of failure in the
engineering practice.
Since experimental tests on full-scale prototypes are
extremely expensive and thus rarely performed, it is
necessary to verify experimental-numerical models of
the dynamic large deformation of small-scale structural elements, in order to predict the overall response
to lateral collision of complex marine structures. Material relations and failure criteria have been derived
to predict the plastic response and the critical failure
strain in finite element models of small-scale marine
structures subjected to lateral impact. Typically, this
is done through metal-forming tests and simulations.
As a result, the accuracy of the simulations depends
on the material relation itself. A true stress-strain
curve is affected by the manufacturing history, metallurgical treatments, and chemical composition of the
381
power relation shows that the flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be
expressed as:
382
Although both Eqs. (6) and (9) represent a power relation, they differ in the derivation of their constants.
For consistence, the present paper keeps the notation
used in (Dieter 1986, Zhang et al. 2004). This simplified relation is widely used by structural engineers
to perform analyses of marine structures subjected to
impact loads since it is derived only with the ultimate tensile strength obtained from standards. This
is accepted since the use of true material relations
obtained from tensile tests carried out with the same
material from which laboratory specimens are made is
a convenient assumption for numerical crashworthy
structural analysis. In practice, however, the properties
of the material vary from one structural component
to another, so using a particular material relationship
could bring underestimation of the impact response in
a real collision.
Villavicencio and Guedes Soares (2012) proposed
a combined material relation in which the true stressstain curve is divided in two parts with respect to the
onset of necking. Thus, the logarithmic true stressstrain up to the maximum load (Eqs. 1 and 2) define
the process before and the simplified power relation (Eq. 9) after the necking is localized. The use
of Eq. (12) is recommended to derive the maximal
uniform strain related to the ultimate tensile stress
in order to obtain a better continuity of the logarithmic true stress-strain. This relation defines accurately
the plastic response of metals until maximum load,
in particular for low carbon materials since accounts
for the yield plateau, although this relation should not
be entirely correct after localization occurs. All the
mentioned true stress-strain relationships for a typical low-carbon steel material are plotted in Fig. 1 for
comparison.
Paik (2007) proposed a brand new approach called
the knock-down factor f (e ), which is used to transform the engineering stress-strain curve to the true
stress-strain relationship. However, to the authors
knowledge this material relation has not been implemented for collision simulations of marine structures.
In addition to the mathematical expressions that
define the flow characteristics of metals, accurate true
stress-strain relationships can be obtained using highly
accurate measuring systems, recording actual measurements of the cross-sectional area of the tensile
specimens. For example, Ehlers and Varsta (2009)
determined a true material relation until failure, using
optical measurements of the displacements on the
surface of tensile specimens. In that reference, the
strain is calculated from the measured displacements
on the basis of a discrete amount of pixel recordings
which define a strain reference length (see Fig. 2).
To determine the stress, the actual cross-sectional
area is calculated on the basis of the out-of-plane
displacement measurements of the tensile specimen.
Therefore, the stress is determined on the basis of
the minimum cross-sectional area of the specimen,
measured as a function of the strain reference length.
Furthermore, the reference length is a function of the
discrete amount of pixel recordings from the optical
measurements. As a result, the true strain and stress
relation until failure is obtained in a manner that is
dependent on the choice of strain reference length.
This material is referred as strain reference length
based material relation (Ehlers 2010).
A similar procedure to obtain true material relationships is reported in Hogstrm et al. (2009). They examined the stress-strain behaviour of uniaxial tensile tests
and calculated true stress-strain relationships on different length scales across the necking region. The tensile
383
Figure 2. Stochastic pattern of the surface of the specimen with a facet of 15 15 pixels (Ehlers and Varsta 2009).
Symbolic element length-dependent true strain and stress
relation until fracture for numerical collision simulations
(Ehlers 2010).
test are recorded with a optical strain measuring system in order to validate existing failure models used
in finite element simulations, in terms of dependence
on length scale and strain state. Although these experimental methods are very accurate, they lack practical
application in the marine industry since they require
overly expensive instruments; however, further experimental measurements could derive more accurate
mathematical expressions for the flow curve.
The finite element method itself is a strong tool to
derive new flow characteristics of metals as demonstrated Joun et al. (2008). They describe a method to
define material relations at large strains, using tensile
test results coupled with a numerical analysis. A reference true stress-strain curve is modified iteratively
to minimize the difference in the tensile force. The
method is verified by comparing tensile test results
with finite element solutions using the modified true
stress-strain curve. In contrast with the detailed measurements performed in (Ehlers and Varsta 2009,
Hogstrm et al. 2009), this approach can predict the
flow stress at large strains, using only the measured
load-elongation curve of a material and a numerical
tensile test analysis, which yield exact results from an
engineering viewpoint.
Plasticity in these materials is by definition independent of the volumetric component and allows for
modelling of fracture. However, the critical failure
strain at which fracture occurs is affected by the material relation and the mesh size (a coarse mesh requires
a lower value of critical failure strain). As in the previous chapter, here the common failure criteria used in
collision simulations are summarized.
The most popular method of introducing fracture is
done by the effective strain criterion. This is the accumulated plastic strain, which easily can be found from
the normality criterion, which is one of the basic conditions for plasticity in metals. The maximum strains
that can be attained in sheet metal forming prior to
localize necking are called the forming limit strains,
which are represented in forming limit diagrams.
The region above the forming limit curve represents
the strains at which local necking failure occurs, on
the other hand below the forming limit curve the
material can be stretched without localized necking.
Peschmann (2001) obtained forming limit diagrams
experimentally to evaluate the equivalent plastic strain
at the moment of fracture and derived the following
expression:
where g is the uniform strain, = e (xe /t) is a factor depending on the necking strain e and the length
of the neck xe , t is the plate thickness and le is the
individual element length. For plate thicknesses up to
12.0 mm it is assumed that g = 0.1 and = 0.8. It
is commonly recommended that the ratio le /t is not
less than 5 for shell elements. More details of the
Peschmann criterion can be found in (Ehlers et al.
2008, Schttelndreyer et al. 2011).
Another common failure criterion is the thinning
strain criterion (or thru thickness strain criterion). This
criterion applies to shell elements only and is evaluated
on the basis of the incompressibility condition, which
is easily represented for the uniaxial tension. A general
problem with this criterion is that it tends to drop too
fast in the higher order triaxiality ranges. Furthermore,
it requires that the material is actually thinning. If the
stress state is in pure shear, the criterion will never
predict failure and is hence invalid. In finite element
simulations the thru thickness strain criterion erases
an element if the through thickness strain reaches its
critical limit. To evaluate the critical thru thickness
strain at the moment of fracture, an empirical criterion
is presented in Zhang et al. (2004):
384
385
386
necking (Yu and Jones 1987) and diagonally orientation of the mesh to avoid hourglassing (Villavicencio
et al. 2012). Although the simulation is conducted
on a solid tensile model, the same procedure can
be adopted for shell tensile models. For example,
Villavicencio and Guedes Soares (2012) conducted
tensile test simulations of a flat bar (20 4 mm) specimen using shell elements (mesh sizes 5.0 and 2.0 mm).
The elements are modelled in four-nodes with fiveintegration points throughout the thickness, defining
the Belytschko-Lin-Tsay shell element formulation.
The computational efficiency of this formulation is
due to the mathematical simplification resulting from
the use of one-point quadrature in the plane of the
element. However, this condition can result in excessive hourglassing deformation. Thus, in addition to
the hourglass control based on the viscosity stresses
(Hallquist 2010) included in this element formulation, the diagonal orientation of the mesh helps to
decrease the deformation modes of zero deformation
energy. The simplified power relation and the combined material relation are defined. The results are
shown in Fig. 9. Since the combined material uses the
exact flow characteristics of the metal up to maximum load, the best approximation is given with this
material relation.
As additional information of tensile test simulations, it is just mentioned that the strain reference
length based material relation was used to evaluate the
numerical response of tensile tests specimens (Ehlers
and Varsta 2009). In the tensile specimens the finite
element length is equal to the strain reference length in
order to achieve a consistent dependency between the
model and the experimental records.An example of the
resulting force-elongation curves is shown in Fig. 10.
The point of fracture is captured accurately by the simulations using the strain based relation. However, the
numerical curves do not comply with the experiments
when the simple power law relation is implemented.
Furthermore, the point of failure is not predicted correctly, as the failure strain and the stress determination
according to the power relation is not finite element
length dependent.
COLLISION SIMULATIONS
387
388
well predicted, and beyond necking is observed distortion of the engineering curves until the point of
fracture, see Fig. 14. The situation before necking
could have occurred for deviations of the log-log plot
of the logarithmic true stress-strain up to the maximum load, resulting in two straight lines with different
slopes. The phenomenon beyond necking could have
occurred for accumulated hourglassing deformation of
the shell elements since they are modelled as perfect
and regular squares.
Similar metal-forming experiments and simulations on thick circular plates are reported in Tabri
et al. (2007). The numerical analysis is focused on the
determination of the onset of fracture using the three
failure criteria summarized in Chapter 3. The parameters for the failure criteria are calibrated using tensile
test simulations of the plate material and compared
with the response of the plates forming process until
fracture. The analysis shows that the onset of fracture
is not always predicted precisely and the deviations are
attributed to the assumption of the simple power curve
relation to define the static flow characteristics of the
plate material.
The strain reference length based material relation
(Ehlers and Varsta 2009) is used to simulate plate
punching experiments in Ehlers (2010b). In the plate
specimens the finite element length is equal to the
strain reference length determined with tensile specimens in order to achieve dependency between the
tensile and plate specimen. The respective radius and
the thickness of the circular plate specimens are 170
and 4.0 mm. The simulations are carried out using
three finite element lengths: 4.4, 2.2 and 0.88 mm.
The restraints of the specimens are represented with
the general contact of LS-DYNA and a one way forming contact between the plate and the support. The
resulting force-displacement curves and shapes of the
deformation are shown Figs. 15 and 16. Prior to fracture the simulations are slightly higher in force level.
However, the fracture and plate thinning are captured
accurately by the simulation.
389
Moreover, it has been found that the engineering fracture strain is significantly dependent on the strain rate
sensitivity of the material since the material becomes
less ductile (more brittle) as the strain rate increases.
Therefore, the critical failure strain used for real collision simulations should take much smaller value than
that obtained from quasi-static forming analysis (Paik
2007).
The later phenomenon is seen in Liu et al. (2012).
They performed experiments and simulations of
fully clamped, laterally impacted rectangular plates
(125 75 1.4 mm). The indenters are hemispherically ended projectiles travelling with an initial kinetic
energy of 392 J. The experimental support is represented as shell rigid compressive plates, which are
based on the model proposed by Villavicencio and
Guedes Soares (2011a). The simulations use the combined material relation and the critical failure strain
is predicted by tension test simulations. The resulting force-displacement curves overestimate the point
of fracture since the dynamic failure strain is predicted by quasi-static tension tests although the plastic
responses have similar tendencies to the corresponding experimental results, see Fig. 17. Nevertheless, the
chosen critical failure strain is justified due to the close
range of observed triaxiality values at the point of failure between the tensile and the impact specimen. It
must be mentioned that in the impact specimen the
crack is extended along the necking circle provoked
by the indenter. In this circle the first failing element
is deformed severely and displaced from the initial
position, thus the most important effect of this failure
is the development of membrane forces.
In the previous references, the impact response is
examined in small-scale specimens, defining a very
fine mesh in order to capture the first failing element.
However, in larger and complex structures this design
concept is impracticable, and thus it is more difficult
to evaluate the influence of the material relation on the
accuracy of the simulations. In spite of that, collision
simulations on complex structures and using initial
velocity focused on the material relation have been
performed.
Choung et al. (2010) conducted numerical simulations of stiffened plates struck laterally by a mass
travelling with initial kinetic energy (1635 J). The size
of the specimens is 470 670 mm. They study two
different material constitutive equations, the classical
metal plasticity model based on the von Mises yield
function and the micromechanical porous plasticity
model based on the Gurson yield function. However,
the definition of the true stress-strain relationship
(Swift hardening law) is relatively simple since no
information of strain hardening was available. Choung
et al. putt emphasis on the evaluation of different strain
rates coefficients using the Cowper-Symond model
since the impact on the panels provokes strain rates
larger than 1600 s1 . Although the material relation
is relatively simple, the simulations demonstrates that
the porous plasticity model with the porosity fracture
criterion can quantitatively predict plastic deformation
process and final fracture under impact loading if the
material constants are properly chosen, see Fig. 18.
Ehlers et al. (2008) benchmarked different failure
criteria in collision simulations of ship side structures.
The size of the side panels is 7.9 4.5 m and the plate
thickness is 20 mm. The results are compared with
large-scale ship collision experiments performed in the
Dutch Institute for Applied Physical Research during
the period of 1997 to 1998. The simple power law relation is used and failure is accounted with the three
failure criteria summarized in Chapter 3. Moreover,
three mesh sizes are evaluated: 100, 50 and 25 mm.
The results indicate that for coarser meshes the deletion of elements has a greater influence on the force
than for the fine mesh. Thus, the mesh size sensitivity
might be more important than the failure criterion itself
as is seen in Fig. 19. Intermediate penetration stages
390
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author has been financed by the Portuguese
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), under
the grant SFRH/BD/46369/2008.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
The mathematical expressions and the experimental measurements of true material relations can be
used to perform finite element simulations of metal
structures subjected to dynamic loads involving large
deformations, such as collision simulations of marine
structures. The failure criteria used to simulate ship
collisions until fracture are based on the theory of
plasticity and are calibrated with uniaxial tension and
metal-forming tests. Thus, the applicability of these
criteria is limited to out of plane deformations of structures subjected to lateral impact, instead of the in plane
crushing mechanisms observed during ship collision
events.
The influence of the material relation and the critical failure strain dependent of the mesh is size has
been illustrated through examples of tensile test simulations. The information obtained from the tensile
simulations can be used to predict the plastic response
until fracture of structures subjected to lateral impact
where the membrane forces play the most important
391
Simonsen BC, Trnqvist R. 2004. Experimental and numerical modeling of ductile crack propagation in large-scale
shell structures. Marine Structures; 17: 127.
Tabri K, Alsos H, Broekhuijsen J, Ehlers S. 2007. A benchmark study on ductile failure criteria for shell elements in
multiaxial stress state. Advancements in Marine Structures, Guedes Soares & Das (Eds.). Taylor & Francis
Group: London. 401409.
Trnqvist R. 2003. Design of crashworthy ship structures.
PhD Thesis, Denmark Technical University.
Villavicencio R, Guedes Soares C. 2011a. Numerical
modelling of the boundary conditions on beams stuck
transversely by a mass. International Journal of Impact
Engineering; 38 (5): 384396.
Villavicencio R, Guedes Soares C. 2011b. Numerical prediction of impact loads in rectangular panels. In: Guedes
Soares, Fricke, editors. Advances in Marine Structures.
London: Taylor & Francis Group; pp. 399409.
Villavicencio R, Guedes Soares C. 2012. Numerical plastic response and failure of a pre-notched transversely
impacted beam. Ships and Offshore Structures; doi:
10.1080/17445302.2011.620370.
Villavicencio R, Sutherland LS, Guedes Soares C. 2012.
Numerical simulation of transversely impacted, clamped
circular aluminium plates. Ships and Offshore Structures;
7 (1): 3145.
Yu JL, Jones N. 1997. Numerical simulation of impact loaded
steel beams and the failure criteria. International Journal
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392
ABSTRACT: The paper presents drop weight impact tests and finite element simulations examining the
dynamic response of stiffeners with attached plate struck transversely by a mass. The influence of the impact
velocity and the stiffener type is analyzed using the force-displacement responses of the impacted specimens.
The numerical simulations represents the stiffener-plate weld joint using shell and solid elements. Good agreement is found between the finite elements simulations and the experimental results. The plastic response of
the small-scale impact tests is used to predict the energy absorption of a typical full-scale ship bottom panel
subjected to a minor grounding incident as a practical application of this work.
INTRODUCTION
The structural design of ships concerning grounding and collision requires an accurate prediction of
the damage of stiffened plates under impact loading.
Experimental studies on laterally loaded panels have
been conducted in order to derive analytical expressions. For example, Hagiwara et al. (1983) proposed
a method for predicting low-energy ship collision
damage based on combined experiments, which determined the initiation of plate fracture, the effects of
structural details and the deformation of a typical ship
panel. Manolakos and Mamalis (1985) used a rigid
plastic analysis for predicting the structural behaviour
of longitudinally framed shell plating of struck vessel
during a minor oblique collision. Cho and Lee (2009)
developed a simplified method for the prediction of
the extent of damage on stiffened plates due to lateral
collisions.
Finite element analysis is a useful tool to predict
the extent of ship collision and its structural components damage. However, the nonlinear dynamic
analysis should be compared with experimental tests
before being used for a structural design. Unfortunately, experimental tests on full scale ship collision
are rare and very expensive. One approach is to perform scaled collision test on typical ship structural
members to validate the numerical methods for impact
analysis. It is difficult to find results from the comparison between experimental impact tests and numerical
simulations on stiffened plates. The numerical analyses of stiffened plates have been simplified to simulate
quasi-static contact. However, the effect of dynamic
lateral impact must be analyzed considering high initial velocities in the striking mass, thus representing a
realistic collision.
Some experimental-numerical impact analyses
have been performed on stiffened plates which in
393
Property
FB 4 25
Units PL. 4.0 L 50 50 5
Yield stress
Ultimate tensile strength
Rupture stress
Rupture strain (in 100 mm)
MPa
MPa
MPa
286
426
322
0.21
367
488
384
0.18
394
Table 2.
Values at End
Specimen*
Force
(kN)
Defln
(mm)
Energy
(J)
Defln
(mm)
Energy
(J)
A2V2.0
A2V2.7
A2V3.3
A3V2.0
A3V2.7
A3V3.3
35.7
40.4
46.6
36.3
42.3
46.9
4.51
6.73
8.59
4.43
6.44
8.33
110.9
200.9
299.9
110.9
200.1
299.7
2.34
4.43
6.01
2.75
4.30
6.04
80.7
165.9
258.5
86.1
168.1
260.3
395
Figure 8. Force-displacement response, Panel A2. Experimental results: dashed lines. Numerical results: continuous
lines (Solid Weld model).
Figure 10. Longitudinal view, Panel A2. Shape of deformation and von mises stress distribution.
396
PRACTICAL APLICATION
397
CONCLUSIONS
Detailed information of the impact response of stiffeners with attached plate has been obtained through drop
weight impact tests and nonlinear explicit dynamic
simulations. The discrepancies between numerical and
experimental results were due to overestimation of the
permanent deformation, whereas the maximum force
and maximum deflection were generally very well
predicted.
REFERENCES
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials). 1989.
Section 3, Metal tests methods and analytical procedures.
Caridis PA, Samuelides E, Frieze PA. 1994. On the dynamic
response of ship plating under lateral impact. International
Journal of Impact Engineering. 15 (2): 149164.
Cho S-R, Lee H-S. 2009. Experimental and analytical investigations on the response of stiffened plates subjected
lo lateral collisions. Marine Structures. 22: 8495.
Ehlers S, Broekhuijsen J, Alsos HS, Biehl F, Tabri K. 2008.
Simulating the collision response of ship side structures: A failure criteria benchmark study. International
Shipbuilding Progress. 55: 127144.
Hagiwara K, Takanabe H, Kawano H. 1983. A proposed
method of predicting ship collision damage. International
Journal of Impact Engineering. 1 (3): 257279.
Hallquist JO. 2005. LS-DYNA Theory Manual. Livermore
Software Technology Corporation.
Manolakos DE, Mamalis AG. 1985. On ship collisions: The
plastic collapse of longitudinally framed shell plating
subjected to oblique loading. International Journal of
Impact Engineering. 3 (1): 4155.
Villavicencio R, Guedes Soares C. 2011. Numerical prediction of impact loads in rectangular panels. Advances in
Marine Structures; C. Guedes Soares & W. Fricke (Eds).
Taylor & Francis Group: London. pp: 399409.
Wu F, Spong R, Wang G. 2004. Using Numerical Simulation
to Analyze Ship Collision. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Collision and Grounding of Ships,
Izu, Japan; pp. 2733.
Zhu L, Faulkner D. 1994. Dynamic inelastic behaviour of
plates in minor ship collisions. International Journal of
Impact Engineering. 15 (2): 165178.
398
ABSTRACT: The two-dimensional water entry of rigid wedges is studied in this work by using an explicit
finite element method based on a multi-material arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian formulation and penalty coupling
method. The predicted vertical force and pressure distribution on the surface of a wedge with a deadrise angle of
30 are compared with available experimental results to validate the current FEM model. The effect of deadrise
angle on the slamming load is studied by comparing the predicted results of wedge with varying deadrise angles
in terms of maximum pressure coefficient, pressure distribution and maximum slamming force. Comparisons
with analytical calculations are included as well.
INTRODUCTION
399
2
2.1
METHODOLOGY
Impact force
Chuang (1976), based on a large amount of experiments proposes an empirical formulation for pressure
coefficient k as:
400
2.4
LS-DYNA approach
The explicit finite element method LS-DYNA (Version 971 2007) is used in this work to predict the
impact force and pressure distribution on the surface
of a wedge with different deadrise angles during water
entry.
The FEM is based on a multi-material Arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) formulation and penalty
coupling method. The fluid, water and air, are modelled with Solid 164 element which is an 8-nodes
brick element, and they are defined as void materials (*MAT_NULL) which allows equations of state to
be considered without computing deviatory stresses.
The wedge is modelled with Shell 163 element which
is a 4-nodes element and can only be used in explicit
dynamic analysis, and rigid body material.
Two-dimensionality is applied by fixing all nodes
in the z-direction and assuring that the model has an
only one element in the z-direction. The boundaries of
fluids are defined as non-reflecting in order to decrease
the effect of the reflection of acoustic wave.
In order to obtain precise results from the modelling calculations, mesh density is a prominent factor.
Stenius et al. (2006) indicated that a careful selection of mesh density in relation to contact parameters
was required. Furthermore, a convergence study for
the modelling of wedge subjected to water entry was
carried by Luo et al. (2011).
The aim of this paper is not focused on the modelling technique by LS-DYNA, which is discussed in
detail in Luo et al. (2011), but on the effect of deadrise
angle of wedge exert on the slamming load.
3 VERIFICATION OF THE EXPLICIT FINITE
ELEMENT METHOD
In this section, the predicted total slamming force and
pressure distribution on a wedge with a deadrise angle
of 30 are compared with the experimental results published by Zhao & Faltinsen (1996). Corresponding to
the test conditions, the breadth of section is 0.5 m,
the total mass of wedge is 241 kg/m, and the initial
impact velocity of the section is 6.15 m/s in vertical
y-direction. Only half of the section is modelled, and
the mesh size of the fluid and wedge are both 2.5 mm.
The instant when the vertex of 2D wedge touches the
element on the water surface is set as 0.0 s. The gravity
is neglected.
As seen in Figure 2, the predicted slamming forces
have very good agreement with the experimental ones
in the initial stage, while the predictions are about 5%
larger than the measured values in the middle stage
during the water entry, which might be due to three
dimensional effects. For the results of Wagner (1932)
and Mei et al. (1999), the flow separation was not taken
into account, so the slamming forces in the later stage
are not included in the figure. In the initial stage, the
predicted slamming forces have great similarities with
the ones of Mei et al. (1999), while Wagners solution
significantly overestimates the impact force.
The predicted non-dimensional pressure distributions on the wetted surface of the wedge are presented
in Figure 3, the theory values obtained from equation
(9) and the pressure values on P1P5 of Zhaos test are
also included. Y
is the vertical coordinate on the wedge
surface, Yd = V (t)dt is the draft of the wedge, and
V (t) is drop velocity of the wedge. However, if equation (9) is used to predict the pressure distribution, V
is assumed constant.
The predicted pressure distribution agrees well
with the experimental results. Generally speaking, the
measured values are smaller than the predictions, especially in the middle stage of the impact, while the
Wagners solution significantly overestimates them.
However, the pressure variations trend on the body
surface is exactly the same, and the locations that the
pressure coefficient comes up to maximum value are
almost the same.
401
4.2
4.2.1
The following curves are plotted in terms of the nondimensional pressure coefficient CP and the relative
location on the wetted part of the wedge surface.
The analytical predictions of pressure distributions
on the surface of wedge are calculated according
to the equation (9). The variation of the pressure
coefficient is the same at any time when the deadrise angle is defined. However, for the predictions of
LS-DYNA, the pressure distribution is varying from
one time instance to another. Corresponding to the
analytical results, the pressure distributions at the
time when the pressures come up to peak values
are presented in the figures.
For small deadrise angles, there is good agreement
between the FEM and the analytical formulation in
the initial stage of the water entry; however, the agreement is not good in the region near which the pressure
is maximum value. Figure 3 and Figure 5(e) show that
the predicted pressure is in much better agreement
with the analytical results when the impact velocity
is constant. For larger deadrise angles, the agreement is less satisfactory. Furthermore, in the case of
Wagners solution, the pressure drops fast to zero after
the pressure comes up to peak value. However, for
the predictions of pressure from LS-DYNA, the pressures drop to zero gradually along the surface of the
wedge.
Generally speaking, when the deadrise is small, the
maximum pressure is located near the spray root of the
jet before separation occurs, and the pressure distribution is approximately uniform along the surface of the
wedge when the deadrise angle is close to 45 .
When the deadrise angle is larger than 60 , the
maximum pressure is located at the keel of the
wedge, at the time instance when the wedge touches
with water.
4.2.2 Pressure distributions and free surface
elevation during water entry
Different from the analytical solution, the FEM can be
used to predict the variation of pressure distributions
on the surface of wedges at different time instances.
In this section, the wedges with deadrise angle 30
and 60 are calculated to study the differences on variation of pressure distributions. The vertical velocities
of wedges are constant.
The pressure distributions for different time instants
are presented in Figure 6, where x is the horizontal
coordinate on the wedge surface and B is the width of
the wedge. Only half of the section is modelled.
Figure 6(a) shows the pressure distributions on the
wedge with deadrise 30 at different time instances,
which indicate that the maximum pressures are located
near the spray root of the jet before flow separation occurs. After the flow separation, the maximum
pressures move to the keel of the wedge. As shown
in Figure 6(b) and (c), the maximum pressures are
located in the keel of the wedge during the entire
impact when the deadrise angle is 60 , where Figure
6(b) presents the pressure distributions before flow
separation and Figure 6(c) presents those after flow
402
403
404
Figure 9. Maximum values of slamming force for symmetric wedges with different deadrise angles.
CONCLUSIONS
Numerical simulation of slamming loads on symmetric wedges with various deadrise angles are carried
out by the explicit finite element code LS-DYNA to
analyse the relationship between deadrise angle and
slamming loads.
In order to validate the finite element method, the
predicted vertical slamming force and pressure distribution on the wetted surface of a wedge with deadrise
angle 30 are compared with experimental results and
analytical values.
For the time history of slamming forces, predictions
of LS-DYNA are in good agreement with experimental
results by Zhao (1996), and they have great similarities with the ones of Mei (1999) in the initial stage
of water entry, while Wagners solution significantly
underestimates the impact forces.
For the pressure distribution at one time instant,
the measured values are smaller than the predictions of LS-DYNA, especially in the middle stage of
the impact, while the Wagners solution significantly
overestimates them.
When the impact velocity is assumed constant, the
maximum slamming pressure coefficients are computed for the wedge with deadrise angle varying from
10 to 45 by using the solutions of Wagner, Chuang
and LS-DYNA. The results show that the smaller is
the deadrise angle, the larger is the pressure coefficient. Pressure distributions for wedges with the
deadrise angle varying from 10 to 80 are presented as
well, from which can be concluded that the maximum
pressure occurs near the spray root for the small
deadrise angle, while it moves to the keel of the wedge
for larger deadrise angles.
Taking the deadrise angle 30 and 60 for example, the pressure distributions on the wetted surface of
wedges at different time instances are presented, and
the free surface elevations are included. The predictions of LS-DYNA can correctly describe the variation
of pressure along the surfaces of wedges from the
initial stage, flow separation, to the end. For a small
deadrise angle, the maximum pressures are located
near the spray root of the jet before flow separation occurs, after the flow separation, the maximum
pressures move to the keel of the wedge, while the maximum pressures are located on the keel of the wedge
during the entire impact when the deadrise angle is
large.
Finally, the maximum slamming forces for symmetric wedges with different deadrise angles show that
the larger is the deadrise angle, the smaller is the peak
value of slamming force.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
405
REFERENCES
Alexandru, I., Brizzolara, S., Viviani, M., Couty, N., Donner,
R., Hermundstad, O., Kukkanen, T., Malenica, S. &
Termarel, P. 2007. Comparison of experimental and
numerical impact loads on ship-like sections. Advancements in Marine Structures, Guedes Soares, C, and Das,
P.K., (Eds), Taylor & Francis, UK, 339349.
Aquelet, N., Souli, M. & Olovsson, L. 2006. EulerLagrange
coupling with damping effects: Application to slamming
problems. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering. 195, 110132.
Bereznitski, A. 2001. Slamming: the Role of Hydroelasticity.
International Shipbuilding Progress. 48, 333351.
Dobrovolskaya ZN. 1969. On some problems of similarity
flow of fluids with a free surface. Journal of Fluid Mech.
36, 805829.
E1-M. Yettou, A. Desrochers & Y. Champoux. 2007. A new
analytical model for pressure estimation of symmetrical water impact of a rigid wedge at variable velocities.
Journal of Fluid and Structures, 23, 501522.
Guedes Soares, C., 1990. Effect of the heavy weather maneuvering on the wave induced vertical bending moments in
ship responses, Journal of Ship Research, 34, 1, 6068.
LS-DYNA, Keyword Users Manual, Livermore Software
Technology Corporation, Version 971, May 2007.
Luo, H., Wang, S. & Guedes Soares, C. 2011. Numerical
prediction of slamming loads on a rigid wedge subjected
to water entry using an explicit finite element method.
Advances in Marine Structures, Guedes Soares, C, and
Fricke, W., (Eds), Taylor & Francis, UK, pp. 4147.
Mei, X., Liu, Y. & Yue, D.K.P., 1999. On the water impact
of general two-dimensional sections. Applied Ocean
Research, 21, 115.
Ochi, M.K. & Motter, L.E., 1973, Prediction of slamming characteristics and hull response for ship design,
Transactions SNAME, 81, 144190.
Ramos, J. & Guedes Soares, C. 1998. Vibratory response of
ship hulls to wave impact loads. International Shipbuilding Progress. 45(441), 7187.
Stavovy, A.B & Chuang, S.L. 1976, Analytical determination
of slamming pressures for high speed vessels in waves,
Journal of Ship Research, 20, 190198
Stenius, I., Rosn, A. & Kuttenkeuler, J. 2006. Explicit
FE-modeling of fluid-structure interaction in hull-water
impacts. International Shipbuilding Progress. 53, 1031
121.
Von Krmn, T. 1929. The impact on seaplane floats during landing. National Advisory Committee for Aeronatics.
Technical note No. 321, 309313.
Wagner, H. 1932. Uber Stoss- und Gleitvergange an der
Oberflache von Flussigkeiten. Zeitschrift fuerAngewandte
Mathematik und Mechanik, 12, 193215.
Zhao, R. & Faltinsen, O.M. 1993. Water Entry of TwoDimensional Bodies. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 246,
593612.
Zhao, R., Faltinsen, O.M. & Aarsnes, J.V. 1996. Water
entry of arbitray two-dimensional sections with and without flow separation. Proc. 21st Symposium on Naval
Hydro-dynamics. 408423.
406
ABSTRACT: The ultimate strength of several stocky stiffened panels under axial compressive load is calculated
by finite element (FE) analyses, and then are compared with experimental results. Three type stiffeners with
different steels are considered, including flat, L and U stiffeners. They are made of mild or high tensile steel
for bar stiffeners and mild steel for L and U stiffeners. To analyze the behavior of the middle bays, avoiding
the effect of the boundary conditions, three bays stiffened panel were used in the tests and in the FE analyses.
The influences of the stiffeners geometry on the ultimate strength are investigated.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 and Table 1 show the geometry and material of the different panels adopted in the experiment
and in the present study. The A and B mean different
number of stiffeners. Four series of experiments and
FE analysis were carried out using two different types
of steel as follows:
Fully S690 structure: S690, on plating and bar
stiffeners.
Hybrid bar structure: S690, on plating and mild
steel on bars.
407
Table 1.
Plate
FS2-A3
FS2-B3
BS2-A3
BS2-B3
LS2-A3
LS2-B3
US2-A3
US2-B3
300 600 4
600 600 4
300 600 4
600 600 4
300 600 4
600 600 4
300 600 4
600 600 4
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
Stiffener
FS2-A3
FS2-B3
BS2-A3
BS2-B3
LS2-A3
LS2-B3
US2-A3
US2-B3
I 20 4
I 20 4
I 30 8
I 30 8
L38 19 4
L38 19 4
U (40 150 40) 2
U (40 150 40) 2
690
690
343
343
296
296
200
200
408
409
When the test starts and the edge starts being displaced,
large displacements occur under a small level of load.
This very long initial shortening at low stresses shown
in the tests is due to the rearrangement of the test setup
until every part of the panel, support and hydraulic
machine is in full contact. This was partially removed
from the other graphics due to lack of interest. So the
initial shortening at low stresses should be removed
from the test data. The Su and Syp are averages stress
of stiffened panels and yield stress of plate. The Ea and
Eyp are averages strain of stiffened panels and yield
strain of plate.
5.1
FS series results
BS series results
410
411
412
Test
FS2A3
249
FS2B3
341
BS2A3
440
BS2B3
366
LS2A3
500
LS2B3
542
US2A3
323
US2B3
462
Mean value
FEM
479
501
472
489
468
489
417
444
1.47
1.07
0.94
0.90
0.96
1.07
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
413
REFERENCES
ABS, 2006. Rules for building and classing, steel vessels.
Faulkner, D., 1977. Compression tests on welded eccentrically stiffened plate panels. In: Dowling PJ, et al., editors.
Steel Plated Structures. London: Crosby Lockwood
Staples; pp. 1309.
Ghavami, K., Khedmati M.R., Numerical and experimental investigations on the compression behaviour of
stiffened plates, Journal of Constructional Steel Research
62 (2006), 10871100.
Gordo, J.M., Guedes Soares, C., 2007. Experimental evaluation of the behavior of a mild steel box girder under
bending moment. In: Guedes Soares C, Das, P.K., (Eds).
Advancements in Marine Structures. Taylor and Francis;
pp. 37783.
Gordo, J.M., Guedes Soares, C., 2008. Compressive tests on
short continuous panels, Marine Structures 21, 113137.
Guedes Soares, C., Soreide, T.H., 1983. Behaviour and
Design of Stiffened Plates under Predominantly Compressive Loads, International Ship building Progress,
Vol.300-January 1983 No. 341.
Horne, M.R., Narayanan R., 1976. Ultimate capacity of stiffened plates used in girders. Proc Inst Civil Eng 1976;
61:25380.
IACS, 2006. Common structural rules for double hull
oil tankers, International Association of Classification
Societies, London.
Paik, J., Branner, K., Choo, J., Czujko, J., Fujikubo, M.,
Gordo, J.M., Parmentier, G., Iaccarino, R., ONeil, S.,
Pasqualino, I., Wang, D., Wang, X. and Zhang, S.,
Committee III.1 Ultimate Strength, 2009, In: 17th
International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress
(ISSC2009), Vol. 1. C. Jang and S. Hong, editors. Seul,
South Korea: University of Seoul, pp. 375475.
Paik, J.K., 2009. Nonlinear finite element method models for ultimate strength analysis of steel stiffened-plate
structures under combined biaxial compression and lateral
pressure actionsPart II: Stiffened panels, Thin-Walled
Structures 47(2009), 9981007.
Kmiecik, M., 1971. Behaviour of axially loaded simply supported long rectangular plates having initial deformations,
Report No. R84, Ship Research Institute, Trondheim,
1971.
Kmiecik, M., Jastrzebski, T., Kuzniar, J., Statistics of Ship
Plating Distortions, Marine Structures 8(1995), 119132.
Mathewson, J., Vinner, A., The strength and stiffener of
plating stiffened by flat bars. Part 1: axial compressive
loading tests. Report 392. UK: BSRA; 1962.
Smith, C., Compressive strength of welded steel ship grillages. Trans RINA 1979;117:32559.
Tanaka, Y., Endo, H., Ultimate strength of stiffened plates
with their stiffeners locally buckled in compression. J Soc
Naval Architects Japan, 1988; 164:45667.
414
ABSTRACT: A finite element (FE) analysis is conducted of 120 configurations of stiffened panels with
different boundary conditions to analyze the influences of the stiffeners geometry and boundary conditions
on the ultimate strength of long stiffened panels under compression. The long stiffened panels with four type
stiffeners are made of mild or high tensile steel and have bar, L and U stiffeners. From the results of the FE
analyses, it is concluded that two of the four models studied can produce adequate boundary conditions at the
loaded edges longitudinally. The stiffened panels with different combinations of mechanical material properties
and geometric configurations are considered. The initial geometric imperfections affect the collapse behavior of
stiffened panel and are analyzed in FE analyses.
INTRODUCTION
The finite element (FE) codes have been used to analyze the stress distributions and deformations of very
complicated structures with the accuracy demanded
in engineering applications under all kind of loading
conditions. They are also suitable tools for assessing
the ultimate strength of ship structures. The advanced
buckling analysis method bases on nonlinear analysis
techniques or equivalent, which predict the complex behaviour of stiffened and unstiffened panels
(IACS-CSR 2006). The extent of the model used in the
buckling assessment is to be sufficient to account for
the structure that is surrounding the panel of interest,
and to reduce the effect introduced through the boundary conditions. In general, the model is to include more
than one stiffener span in the stiffener direction and the
portion between two support members in the direction
normal to the stiffeners. However, it is not explained
what extension of the model is suitable.
Zhang & Khan (2009) and Fujikubo et al. (2005)
analyzed the ultimate strength of plates using nonlinear FE software by one full bay plus two half
bays (1/2+1+1/2 bays) model. Tanaka and Endo
(1988) carried out a series of experimental and
numerical investigations on the ultimate compressive strength characteristics of longitudinally stiffened
panels having three flat bar stiffeners with three bays,
which were intended to fail by local buckling or
tripping of longitudinal stiffeners.
A series of nonlinear finite element method computations were carried out in Paik et al. (2009) in two full
bays (1 + 1 bays) model with various parameters of
influence to investigate the ultimate strength characteristics of stiffened panels representative of ship hulls.
Moreover, the boundary of stiffened panels is supported by members such as longitudinal girders and
transverse frames. The degree of rotational restraints
at the panel boundary is equivalent to neither free nor
fixed.To circumvent these problems, the tests of Gordo
and Guedes Soares (2008) used specimens with three
bays panels longitudinally. The use of three-bay panels
instead of one single-bay panels allows to have more
realistic results by avoiding boundary conditions problems for the central plates related to eccentricity of load
and to include the interference between adjacent panels, which was found to be significant by Lus et al.
(2008a, b).
Xu and Guedes Soares (2011) conducted a series
of calculations to compare with the tests results of
Gordo and Guedes Soares (2008) and discrepancies were evident, suggesting that there might have
been difficulties in the experiments in imposing the
boundary conditions on the panels.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of the type of boundary condition and model
geometry of stiffened panel on their ultimate strength,
in order to determine whether other configurations
of stiffened panels could be less sensitive to the
details of the boundary conditions used in experiments. The ultimate strength of stiffened panels under
axial compression are calculated for 120 specimens
with different boundary conditions and geometry configurations. These stiffened panels include one bay,
two full bays (1 + 1 bays), two half bays plus one full
bay (1/2 + 1 + 1/2 bays) in the longitudinal direction
and three bays. The plate is always made of very high
strength steel (S690), but the stiffeners are made of
mild or high tensile steel for bar stiffeners and mild
steel for L and U stiffeners. The base geometry is
415
Table 1.
Sample
Dim (mm)
FS4-I3
FS4-I21
FS4-I22
FS4-I1
BS4-I3
BS4-I21
BS4-I22
BS4-I1
LS4-I3
LS4-I21
LS4-I22
LS4-I1
US4-I3
US4-I21
US4-I22
US4-I1
(300 i)(400 3) 4
(300 i) (200+400+200) 4
(300 i) (400+400) 4
(300 i) 400 4
(300 i) (400 3) 4
(300 i) (200+400+200) 4
(300 i) (400+400) 4
(300 i) 400 4
(300 i) (400 3) 4
(300 i) (200+400+200) 4
(300 i) (400+400) 4
(300 i) 400 4
(300 i) (400 3) 4
(300 i) (200+400+200) 4
(300 i) (400+400) 4
(300 i) 400 4
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
690
Stiffener
Dim (mm)
FS4-I3
FS4-I21
FS4-I22
FS4-I1
BS4-I3
BS4-I21
BS4-I22
BS4-I1
LS4-I3
LS4-I21
LS4-I22
LS4-I1
US4-I3
US4-I21
US4-I22
US4-I1
I 20 4
I 20 4
I 20 4
I 20 4
I 30 8
I 30 8
I 30 8
I 30 8
L38 19 4
L38 19 4
L38 19 4
L38 19 4
U (40 150 40)
U (40 150 40)
U (40 150 40)
U (40 150 40)
690
690
690
690
343
343
343
343
296
296
296
296
200
200
200
200
2
2
2
2
416
Boundary
condition
A-A1 :UX , UY , UZ , RX , RY and RZ
A-A1: UX , UY , UZ ,
B-B1 : UY , UZ , RX , RY , RZ and equal Ux
B-B1 : UY , UZ , equal Ux
C, C1 , D, and D1 on frame: UZ
C, C1 on frame: UZ
The intersection between frame and plate: UZ
AB, A1 B1 edge: UY, RZ and RX
3 bays
C1
C2
C3
2 bays
(1 + 1)
2 bays
C4
C5
C6
C7
1 bay
C8
C9
Note: Different models and boundary conditions correspond to different location of stiffener.
The other material properties are: Youngs modulus, E = 206 GPa; Tangent modulus, ET = 10 GPa;
Poisons ratio, v = 0.3. The FE code used for simulation is ANSYS. The shell 181 element is adopted
which is suitable for analyzing thin to moderatelythick shell structures. It is a 4-node element with six
degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the x,
y, and z directions, and rotations about the x, y, and
z-axes. The shell element mesh should be fine enough
to properly describe the model shape (also after
deformation). Therefore, a balance between required
accuracy and efforts is needed. It is considered that
the element size to thickness ratio (usually at least
5) (ISSC 2009). Hence, there are 40 elements in the
longitudinal direction, 16 elements in the transverse
direction, 5 elements in the web and 3 elements in the
flange. Figure 4 only shows the FE model for three
bays stiffened panels.
3.2 The boundary conditions and loading
417
418
Figure 8. Von Mises stress at the ultimate limit state for C1.
Figure 10. C2 divided by C1 for three bays.
419
C1
C2
C3
C4
FS4-A
FS4-B
FS4-C
FS4-D
FS4-E
BS4-A
BS4-B
BS4-C
BS4-D
BS4-E
LS4-A
LS4-B
LS4-C
LS4-D
LS4-E
US4-A
US4-B
US4-C
US4-D
US4-E
217
214
206
187
148
318
313
294
263
314
426
451
464
423
358
318
358
291
283
195
219
221
223
223
222
321
324
326
327
328
429
446
453
455
453
330
331
334
363
373
230
232
232
231
189
363
359
354
361
360
449
453
453
455
454
358
356
373
376
370
224
224
224
224
224
337
337
356
356
357
422
424
425
425
425
368
375
369
370
372
420
and Figure 15. It shows that the symmetric boundary condition at the lateral edges of the panels affects
not only the ultimate strengths but also the collapse
mode indicated in Figure 15 and Figure 16, because
the constraint at the lateral edges changes the stress
distribution of the edge plate. The collapse modes in
the middle bays of three and 1/2+1+1/2 bays are also
different due to the different length of the side bay,
namely different stiffness for middle bay, shown in
Figure 1619.
The asymmetric collapse modes occur for 1+1 bays
with clamped and simply supported boundary condition in Figures 20 and 21, because the clamped or
simply supported boundary condition would cause the
asymmetric stress distribution for the both bays which
increases the uncertainty of the results. If the 1+1 bays
model is used, the periodic or symmetric boundary
condition should be adopted to avoid the uncertainty.
The 3 and 1/2+1+1/2 bays stiffened panels are more
robust than 1+1 bays in this circumstance. The collapse mode of 1 bay model is different from the other
models, and the 1 bay model can not consider the
interaction between adjacent panels and is not recommended in ultimate strength simulation of stiffened
panels.
421
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
422
ABSTRACT: In the present study a risk assessment is performed for the approach manoeuvres of an LNG
(Liquefied Natural Gas) vessel to berth and moor at a FLNG (Floating Liquefied Natural Gas) platform. In
order to fulfil that objective, an identification of the procedures of berthing and mooring in good and bad
weather is performed. Based on this analysis several hazards are identified. These hazards are mainly a result
of human errors or equipment failures and are then quantified based on expert opinion in terms of frequency of
occurrence and potential consequences. These procedures correspond to the first two steps of the IMO Formal
Safety Assessment (FSA). Based on the obtained results it is possible to identify situations of higher risk based
on a predefined risk acceptance criterion.
INTRODUCTION
425
Accident category
Collision
Grounding
Contact
Fire and explosion
Equipment and machinery
failure
Heavy weather
Events while loading/
unloading cargo
Failure of cargo
containment system
Total
Accidents
(#)
Frequency
(per shipyear)
19
8
8
10
55
6.7 103
2.8 103
2.8 103
3.5 103
1.9 102
9
22
3.2 103
7.8 103
27
9.5 103
158
5.6 102
FLNG requirements
Mooring positions on the starboard side; 18 mooring leads and QR (quick release) hooks; Stern
thrusters; Automatic heading control; Availability of a berthing master; Pneumatic gun lines; a
mooring crew of at least 3 persons forward and
three persons aft to handle mooring lines, with
an additional Supervisor; Visible berthing markers;
Leading lights.
426
Weather variables
Weather requirements
Situation variables
Identification of weather conditions (berthing procedures should start when weather requirements
mentioned above are met);
Identification of the FLNG heading;
Agreement of the location for initiate berthing
(depending on weather conditions window);
LNG arrival at the designated location approximately 2 miles astern from the FLNG location
and 10 of the FLNG centreline (location may vary
from situation to situation depending on the first
two points);
Transfer of the berthing master (pilot) from the
FLNG to the LNG after arrival of latest to the agreed
location;
LNG provides lee to permit the pilot to board safely;
Bow and stern tugs are connected as the LNG
commences the approach, prior to the distance to
FLNG of 1 mile;
FLNG adopts natural heading relative to the prevailing wind, current and wave forces;
Berthing Master may request a change of heading
of the FLNG to optimize the relative environmental
forces to assist with berthing the LNG;
Relative wind should be within 30 degrees on the
bow of the LNG;
FLNG heading is maintained by the automatic
heading control system linked to the thrusters.
Approach
427
Berthing
Mooring
Berthing
Identification of weather conditions (berthing procedures should start when weather requirements
mentioned above are met);
Identification of the FLNG heading;
Agreement of the location for initiate berthing
(depending on weather conditions window);
LNG arrival at the designated location approximately 2 miles astern from the FLNG location and
10 of the FLNG centerline (location may vary from
situation to situation depending on the first two
points);
Transfer of the berthing master (pilot) from the
FLNG to the LNG after arrival of latest to the agreed
location;
LNG provides lee to permit the pilot to board safely;
Bow and stern tugs are connected as the LNG
commences the approach, prior to the distance to
FLNG of 1 mile;
FLNG adopts natural heading relative to the prevailing wind, current and wave forces;
Berthing Master may request a change of heading
of the FLNG to optimise the relative environmental
forces to assist with berthing the LNG;
Relative wind should be within 30 degrees on the
bow of the LNG;
FLNG heading is maintained by the automatic
heading control system linked to the thrusters
Tugs maintained away from the LNG hull on long
line;
Tugs are secured through centre leads bow and stern
for optimum operation.
Approach
Pilot must guaranty that the approach is made outside of a line extended from the starboard side of
the FLNG stern;
If line crossed than pilot must suspend the approach;
Thrusters, in auto heading control, maintain the
FLNG heading;
LNG maintains engine ahead, with rudder to cause
a lateral movement towards the FLNG;
The stern tug works as a hold back tug;
Bow tug tows towards FLNG;
Tugs control approach rate;
Tugs maintain sufficient reserve power if necessary;
Final approach is at a speed with which the LNG
heading can be controlled by a combination of tug
assist and main engines and rudder.
Mooring
There are a set of procedures to be met independently of the good/bad weather conditions which is the
case of unmooring procedures since they are similar
in both situations.
3.3
428
Table 2.
PI
Probability
Definition
8
7
6
5
Very frequent
Frequent
Probable
Reasonably probable
100
10
1
0.1
Little probable
Remote
2
1
Very remote
Extremely remote
Table 3.
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
Human
safety
Cargo/
Monetary
losses
CI
Consequence
Minor
Single or
minor
injuries
Negligible release
negligible pollution
no acute environmental
or public health impact
30.000
US$
Significant
Multiple or
severe
injuries
300.000
US$
Severe
Catastrophic
Single
fatality or
multiple
severe
injuries
Multiple
fatalities
30 mil.
US$
Disastrous
Severe pollution
medium-term effect
on recipients mediumterm disruption
of the ecosystem
Uncontrolled pollution
long-term effect on
recipients long-term
disruption of the
ecosystem
Large
number of
fatalities
Environment related
3 mil.
US$
300 mil.
US$
3rd party
assets
Equivalent
fatalities
Local equipment
damage (repair on
board possible,
downtime
negligible)
Non-severe ship
damage (port
stay required,
downtime
1 day)
Minor
damage
0.01
Significant
damage
0.1
Severe damage
(yard repair
required,
downtime
<1 week)
Total loss (of,
e.g., a medium
size merchant
ship)
Severe
damage
vicinity of
ship
Extensive
damage
10
Major public
interest
100
Effect on ship
429
Phase
Mitigating Controls
Frequency HS E
CML ES
3rd P
Procedural controls, weather limits on tug push mode, long line towing in
seas >1 m, tug fendering, strengthened tug push points on LNG hull
Tug design and power, tug crew training, Pilot training, adjust FLNG heading,
abort berthing, delay berthing until weather moderates
Tug design and power, tug crew training, Pilot training, abort berthing, delay
berthing until weather moderates
Procedural controls, berthing aids, LNG Master and FLNG PIC intervention,
abort berthing, assess weather conditions before making 2nd attempt, comply
with weather limitations
Multiple thrusters for redundancy, dual control systems, procedural controls
for berthing without thrusters Sapring Philosophy
Pilot training, berthing aids (speed of approach) LNG Master intervention,
procedural controls, stop engines, abort berthing, tug assistance
Pilot training, LNG crew training, procedural controls, weather limits for
berthing, excess capacity of tug power, abort/emergency procedures, FLNG
thrusters ability to move stern away from LNG, fenders on FLNG
Procedural controls, weather limits on tug push mode, long line towing in
seas >1 m, tug fendering, strengthened tug push points on LNG hull
Pilot training, LNG crew training, procedural controls, weather limits for
berthing, weather forecasting and observation, excess capacity of tug power,
abort/emergency procedures, FLNG thrusters ability to move stern away
from LNG, fenders on FLNG
Tug design and power, tug crew training, Pilot training, abort berthing,
assess weather conditions before making 2nd attempt, comply with weather
limitations. Abort Berthing
430
Consequence
Berthing
Mooring
Phase
Mitigating Controls
Frequency HS E
CML ES
3rd P
Tug design and power, tug crew training, Pilot training, abort berthing, change
to long line towing, delay berthing until weather moderates
Change heading with tug(s) and determine if thrusters can maintain. Delay
berthing until weather moderates
Approach
431
Consequence
Berthing
Mooring
Figure 4. Results of the QRA of the berthing of the LNG to the FLNG.
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented was performed within the project
SAFEOFFLOAD, funded partially by the European
Commission under the contract number TST4-CT2005-012560.
The first author acknowledges the financial support of the Portuguese Foundation for Science and
Technology under the contract BD/31272/2006. The
authors would like to thank to Mr. Phil Jameson, from
Shell Shipping Technology, for his support on the tasks
descriptions related to vessels approach and berthing.
REFERENCES
IMO, 2002, Guidelines for Formal Safety Assessment
(FSA) for Use in the IMO Rule-making Process.
IMO, 2007. Formal Safety Assessment Liquefied Natural
Gas (LNG) Carriers, Details of the Formal Safety Assessment. MSC 83/INF.
Vanem, E., Anto, P., Castillo de Comas, F. and Skjong,
R., (2007), Formal Safety Assessment of LNG tankers,
10th International Symposium on Practical Design of
Ships and Other Floating Structures, Basu, R, Belenky, V.,
Wang, G. & Yu, Q. (Eds.), American Bureau of Shipping,
USA, pp. 8290.
Vanem, E., Anto P., stvik, I., and Comas, F., (2008),
Analyzing the risk of LNG carrier operations, Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Vol. 93, Issue 9,
pp. 13281344.
stvik, I., Francisco Del Castillo de Comas and Vanem,
E. (2005), HAZID for LNG Tankers, Task 4.3.1.
SAFEDOR Design, Operation and Regulation for
Safety.
432
M.R. Martins
Department of Naval and Ocean Engineering, Universidade de So Paulo, Brazil
ABSTRACT: The growing Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) maritime transport requires the corresponding construction of new terminals where some basic operations are performed, such as: loading, unloading, storage,
liquefaction and regasification of LNG. The construction of the terminals shall follow strict regulations according to the country of construction which, in most cases, require a licensing procedure that is mainly focused
on safety analysis aspects. This is more relevant when terminals are located near dense populated areas. The
purpose of the present study is to develop the risk model associated with LNG spills during the whole shipping
process, identifying their causes as well as the corresponding operations when spills are detected. Some of
these operations take place in the LNG terminals. The spillage frequencies of occurrence are also quantified.
These activities are inherent part of the safety analysis procedure, employing the fault tree technique. Both, the
cause identification and the frequency quantification are based on data collected earlier (IMO, 2007).
INTRODUCTION
433
Table 1.
List of the Intermediate and Basic Events of the Risk Model for Gas Spills.
IE Intermediate Events
BE Basic Events
IE1
BE2
BE3
BE4
BE5
BE6
BE7
BE8
BE9
IE10
BE11
BE12
BE13
BE14
BE15
BE16
BE17
IE18
BE19
BE20
BE21
BE22
BE23
BE24
BE25
BE26
IE27
BE28
BE29
BE30
BE31
BE32
BE33
Description
High movements in LNG transfer system
Personnel failing in adjusting the moorings during loading/unloading
External forces from wind, wave and tide
Faults in ballast system or fault operation of ballast system
Lack of crew competence and training
Being struck by passing vessel
Rollover
Fault in sail away procedure
Collision with other ships or facilities
Collision
Steering and propulsion failure
Rudder failure
Severe weather causing vessel to ground/collide
Faults in navigation equipment
Lack of crew competence and training
Lack of pilot competence
Lack of interaction between vessel and pilot
Collision
Steering and propulsion failure
Rudder failure
Severe weather causing vessel to ground/collide
Faults in navigation equipment
Lack of crew competence and training
Loss of power in steam turbine/boiler system
Severe sea/weather
Collision with other ships or facilities
High movements in LNG transfer system
Personnel failing in mooring the vessel during loading/unloading
External forces from wind, wave and tide
Faults in ballast system or fault operation of ballast system
Lack of crew competence
Being struck by passing vessel
Rollover
434
2.1
435
Table 2.
Injuries or
Fatalities
1
2
3
4
None
None
None
None
None
None
50 injured
1 dead
None
10
None
11
12
None
None
13
Causes
Year
Ship Name
Activity
Spill Size
C1: Overfilling
C2: Valve leakage
C3: Cargo leakage (no details)
C4: Violent sloshing of LNG caused
electric cabe tray to break loose,
perforating the primary barrier
C5: Faulty connection between tank
dome and membrane wall
C6: Rollover. Boil off from LNG held
on ship for month before discharge
produced warmer denser gas
C7: Short circuit ignited LNG vapour
1965
1965
1966
1969
Cinderella
Methane Princess
Methane Progress
Polar Alaska
Loading
Unloading
Unkown (1)
Transit
Small
Small
Small
Medium
1971
Descartes
Unkown (1)
Small
1971
Esso Brega
Unloading
Medium
1976
Unloading
Large
1977
Loading
Medium
1977
LNG Aquarius
Loading
Small
1979
Mostefa Ben
Boulaid
Pollenger
LNG Taurus
Unloading
Small
Unloading
Transit (2)
Small
Small
None
Unkown
(Guayaquil
Equador)
LNG Delta
14
None
15
None
16
None
17
18
None
None
19
20
None
27 died
21
None
22
None
1979
1981
? Prior to
1982
? Prior to
1982
1982
El Paso
Consolidated
Larbi Ben MHidi
Unkown (1)
Small
Unloading
Small
LNG Aquarius
Transit (2)
Small
1984
Ramdane Abane
Transit (2)
Small
1984
1985
LNG Gemini
Isabella
Transit
Unloading
Small
Medium
1985
1989
Anabella
Tellier
Transit (2)
Loading
Small
Small
2001
Khannur
Unloading
Small
2002
Mostefa Ben
Boulaid
Unloading
Medium
Remarks:
(1) The ship operation has been considered as unknown for incidents where there was no available information of the ship
during the spillage.
(2) Even though not clearly mentioned, the ship has been considered in transit for incidents where it can be denoted that they
happened under this condition.
436
Figure 3. Risk model for LNG spills in tankers considering historical spillage data.
437
CONCLUSIONS
438
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author has been financed by the EM
ECW Erasmus Mundus External Cooperation
Window, EU-Brazil Startup. The second author
acknowledges the financial support of the Portuguese
Foundation for Science and Technology under the
contract BD/31272/2006.
REFERENCES
American Gas Foundation, 2008. Ability of the United
States to Compete in the Global LNG Marketplace An
Assessment of Challenges and Opportunities, Benjamin
Schlesinger and Associates, Inc. USA.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 1994, Guidelines for
Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions,
Flash Fires and BLEVEs.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute
of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 1995a, Understanding
Atmospheric Dispersion of Accidental Releases.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute
of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 1995b, Understanding
Explosions.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 1996, Guidelines for
Use of Vapor Cloud Dispersion Models.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 1999, Guidelines
for Consequence Analysis of Chemical Releases.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 2000, Guidelines
for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Assessment,
second ed.
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 2008,
Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures.
Det Norske Veritas (DNV), 2009, PHAST RISK Software,
version 6.53.1.
IMO, 2002, Guidelines for Formal Safety Assessment
(FSA) for Use in the IMO Rule-making Process.
IMO, 2007. Formal Safety Assessment Liquefied
Natural Gas (LNG) Carriers, Details of the Formal Safety
Assessment. MSC 83/INF.
Kumamoto, Hiromitsu & Henley, Ernest J., 2000, Probabilistic Risk Assessment for Engineers and Scientists.
Wiley-IEEE Press, 2nd Edition.
Natacci, F. B. , Ikeda, N. H., Martins, M. R. (2010). Consequence analysis of a liquefied natural gas leakage.
Proceedings of the 29th International Conference
on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Paper
OMAE2010-20689.
Van Horn, Andrew J. and Wilson, Richard, 1977, The Potential Risks of Liquefied Natural Gas, Energy, Vol. 2,
pp. 375389.
Vanem, E., Anto P., stvik, I. & Comas, F., (2008),
Analyzing the risk of LNG carrier operations,
Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Vol. 93,
Issue 9, pp. 13281344
Woodward, John L. & Pitblado, Robin M., 2010, LNG Risk
Based Safety Modeling and Consequence Analysis.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
439
ABSTRACT: Generalized stochastic Petri nets (GSPNs) coupled with Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) are
presented in this paper as a flexible method for assessing the system production regularity quantified by its
throughput capacity distribution (PDC). The PDC describes the probability distribution of the various levels of
production of the system, which can be obtained by simulation or by analytical methods based on Markov modelling. Although more computational effort is required by the simulation methods, this approach is less restricted
in modelling complex systems and, consequently, in the assessment of the performance and regularity of real
production systems, as will be demonstrated in the present paper. The basic concepts of analytical and simulations approaches to assess system production regularity in terms of PDC are presented. One case study with
two different straightforward maintenance considerations is used to show the applicability of both approaches.
A short comparison of the results obtained is drawn and the merits of using the simulation approach are
enhanced.
INTRODUCTION
Kawauchi & Rausand (2002) have used the probability distribution of throughput capacity (PDC) to
measure the production regularity quantitatively. This
measure describes the probability distribution of the
various levels of production (e.g. numbers of barrels
of oil per unit time) of the system or the percentage
of time the system production is in each level. Despite
recognizing the merits of the simulation methods in
accurately predicting a systems performance, they
consider that its analysis are time and cost consuming. Whilst analytical methods may provide rougher
predictions than the simulation ones they require less
effort and as such Kawauchi & Rausand (2002) have
suggested an approach to assess the production regularity using an analytical method based on Markov
modelling to be used in LCC analysis in the oil and
chemical process industries.
A major challenge in the analysis of production
systems is to model correctly the complexity that
real systems usually have, namely, the dependencies
and dynamic interactions between the several components of a system (Siu 1994). In such cases, the
method proposed by Kawauchi & Rausand (2002)
to estimate the PDC can become quite laborious
analytically, since Markovian modelling can lead to
state-explosion. Therefore, their method is limited to
small scale systems.
Since Petri nets were first introduced by Carl
Adam Petri in 1962, several variants have been proposed for specific applications of production systems
and for the fields of computer science, communications, and automation, among others. Recently, several
techniques based GSPNs (e.g. Malhotra & Trivedi
1995, Dutuit et al. 1997) coupled with MCS were
441
PETRI NETS
2.2 Transitions: enabling and firing
Basic elements
442
Meaning
P = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pm }
T = {t1 , t2 , . . . , tn }
P T = and P T ],
=
A: (P T) (T P)
Set of m places
Set of n transitions
Sets P and T are disjoint
and nonempty
Set of input and output arcs,
respectively
Weights of the arcs
W: A Z or A
{2, 1, 0, 1, 2, }
M0 : P N0 or P
{0, 1, 2, }
CASE STUDY
3.1 Description
The case study considered is the one proposed by
Kawauchi & Rausand (2002). The production facility of Figure 4 comprises eight units. Basically, the
gas is separated from the well fluid and is treated
through high pressure separators (HPS) and dehydrators (DEH), from which follows to the compressors
(CMP-A and B). The purpose of the make-up compressor (MUP) is to enable CMP-A and CMP-B to
discharge gas with full flow rate even if some of the
gas treatment units (HPS or DEH) are failed. It is
assumed that the MUP has its own gas treatment units.
The maximum throughput capacity (TC) for each unit
is shown in Figure 4. These capacity values mean
that a unit is capable of dealing with the throughput
volume.
Each of the three basic subsystems (BS), 1, 2,
and 3 has their components in active redundancy. For
simplification purposes, all units are stochastically
independent with constant failure and repair rates.
Further, the following assumptions are considered:
units are independently repaired; each BS has identical
components with the same failure and repair rates, and
TCs. Table 2 contains the systems data.
443
3.2
444
Table 2.
Unit
Unit ID
Basic Subsys.
Capacity (%)
Repair rate
(per hour)
Failure rate
(per hour)
Subsystem
Prior PDC
HPS-A
HPS-B
HPS-C
DEH-A
DEH-B
CMP-A
CMP-B
MUP
CMP1
CMP2
CMP3
CMP4
CMP5
CMP6
CMP7
N/A
BS2
BS2
BS2
BS3
BS3
BS4
BS4
BS1
55
55
55
65
65
52
52
N/A
8.91 105
8.91 105
8.91 105
3.11 105
3.11 105
3.50 105
3.50 105
N/A
2.54 103
2.54 103
2.54 103
3.95 103
3.95 103
5.14 103
5.14 103
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
f(100) = 99.9%; f(0) = 0.1%
445
Table 3.
Analytical approach
Basic subsys.
BS4
Throughput capacity
level (%)
Formula
Value
Variable
Value
0
52
104
2 / ( + )2
2 /( + )2
2 /( + )2
4.57 105
1.34 102
9.87 101
Prod_BS4_0
Prod_BS4_52
Prod_BS4_104
4.35 105
1.34 102
9.87 101
represented by two deterministic transitions modelled with Dirac functions of parameters 1000 and 1,
respectively.
As the states of the model evolve over n missions of
duration T , the MCS of the system generates random
time values for all the transitions with valid conditions to be fired, according to their probabilistic laws.
This way, as soon as a transition becomes enabled a
time delay is computed and stored by the software.
All the stored time delays of these transitions are then
sorted and the one with the lowest delay is fired first.
After a transition has been fired it becomes inhibited
and its time delay is removed from storage. This process repeats itself until the simulation comes to an
end. The GSPNs with predicates as a support for
MCS allows drawing several statistics from places,
transitions, variables/formulae, etc.
Each place in the model of Figure 7 is identified
by a sequential number, and has either one token or
none, meaning that its value is one ( jets = 1) or zero
( jets = 0), respectively. The distributions of BS4s TC
levels rely on the combinations of states of places
CMP6_Funct and CMP7_Funct, i.e. its set of states
is given by jets = {0,0; 0,1; 1,0; 1,1}. Hence, BS4
has three different TC levels resulting from the sum
of the components capacity levels for each state:
0% (1 state), 52% (2nd and 3rd states) and 104%
(4th state).
To use the jets values of a place as a parameter of a
variable in GRIF software, one applies the semantics,
#, followed by the number of the place of interest.
Accordingly, the TC of BS4 in a simulation, is given
by Prod_BS4 = #16 52 + #19 52.
To know the PDC of BS4, or in other words, the
probability or percentage of time BS4 as a production
of 0%, 52% or 104% one has to define three variables
with an if then else (ite) function:
Prod_BS4_0=ite(Prod_BS4 == 0,true,false);
Prod_BS4_52=ite(Prod_BS4 == 52,true,false);
Prod_BS4_104=ite(Prod_BS4 == 104,true,false).
By the end of the simulation one has the mean
cumulated time for which these variables were true, i.e.
the total time as true divided by n. Dividing each one of
these times by T one gets the PDC of BS4. In fact, the
Prod_BS4_# variables have the same meaning as (2).
446
Probability (%)
TC level
(%)
Analytical
approach
0
52
55
65
100
104
4.58 103
1.34 100
3.28 104
1.52 103
9.85 103
9.86 101
4.36 103
1.34 100
3.30 104
1.51 103
9.36 103
9.86 101
447
repair team is not initially on site, i.e. it is demobilized. Thus, the team needs to be called or mobilized
from land to the offshore installation whenever there
are CM tasks to perform on the system. The repair
team takes 48 and 120 hours from the time it is mobilized to the moment of arrival on site, for the 2nd
and 3rd maintenance strategies, respectively. The team
only leaves the installation when all the maintenance
tasks are completed.
Both strategies are modelled in the same way by
the small Petri net and the auxiliary place of Figure 9.
These are associated to the Petri nets of the units as
it is shown by the example of Figure 10. Both figures
show how just the introduction of a positive mobilization time in the CM can change the GSPN model in
comparison to the 1st maintenance strategy, i.e. other
places and transitions are added to complement the
Repair_Team_OnSite place.
Initially, all units are functioning with no failures
(No_Units_Failed with jets = 0) and the repair team
is on land prepared to be summoned at short notice
(Repair_Team_Demobilized with jets = 1).
Place number 28, works as a counter of the units
that are failed. A token is created in this place each
time a unit fails, so there are as many tokens as failed
units. On the other hand, a token is removed whenever
448
Table 5.
PDC (%)
System
TC level
(%)
Probability (%)
0h
48 h
120 h
480 h
1200 h
0
52
55
65
100
104
1.07 100
1.19 101
3.90 100
2.95 100
1.29 100
7.89 101
1.20 100
1.49 101
4.18 100
3.09 100
1.36 100
7.52 101
1.55 100
1.83 101
4.69 100
3.41 100
1.52 100
7.05 101
11.93
25.74
7.27
4.87
5.81
4.67
44.15
54.06
20.30
15.63
18.32
10.62
team when more than one unit fails, which turns the
Markov model of Figure 6 more complex and cumbersome to solve analytically. Besides, introducing more
complexity in the system will lead to state-explosion
in a Markov analysis.
CONCLUSIONS
By using a case study with two maintenance conditions, this paper shows that the simulation method
(MCS) based on GSPNs with predicates is more flexible to calculate the PDC of a system than the analytical
method proposed by Kawauchi & Rausand (2002),
especially when dealing with dependability problems.
The simulation approach can be as accurate as the analytical one, depending on the number of simulations
executed.
Generally, the downturn of simulations methods is
that the computation time increases with the number
of simulations. However, a great number of simulations may not be needed to achieve a good accuracy
with GSPNs as was shown in the convergence analysis (n = 10) for the first maintenance consideration.
In this case the computation time was only 34 seconds.
When there are dependencies between failures and
repairs of components, as in the second maintenance
case, the Markov models become more complex and
can lead to state explosion. In this situation the simulation method proves to be more efficient than the
analytical method.
GSPNs with predicates and MCS are more flexible than analytical methods (Markov analysis, RBD
and FTA) since their structure (elements) and the use
of predicates can reduce the model size. Furthermore,
as the system complexity increases (e.g. number of
components) the Markov modelling leads to stateexplosion, thus being applicable only for small and
simple systems.
The GSPNs with predicates as a support for MCS
are a powerful tool for modelling and simulating
complex production systems, their dynamic behaviour,
performance, dependability (reliability, availability
and maintainability) and LCCs. Adopting simulation
449
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author acknowledges the financial support of the Portuguese Foundation for Science and
Technology.
REFERENCES
Boiteau, M., Dutuit, Y., Rauzy, A. & Signoret, J.-P. 2006.
The AltaRica data-flow language in use: modelling of
production availability of a multi-state system. Reliability
Engineering and System Safety 91: 747755
450
ABSTRACT: The objective of this work is to evaluate the reliability of a nonlinear time variant randomly
non-uniform corroded rectangular plate subjected to compressive load. Based on the derived relationship of the
ultimate strength assessment of a rectangular plate with surface geometries deteriorated by different degree of
random corrosion, location and ages, FORM/SORM techniques are applied to assess the structural reliability
accounting for the global ship hull deterioration. The structural system, composed by two different correlated
events, is evaluated as a series system.
INTRODUCTION
451
and an unsafe region where g(x) < 0. The failure probability of a structural component with respect to a
single failure mode can formally be written as:
RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
452
strength, x SW is the uncertainty in the model of predicting the still water bending moment, x w is the error
in the wave bending moment due to linear sea keeping analysis and x s takes into account nonlinearities in
sagging.
The full statistical description of parameters
involved in the limit state function presented by
Eqn (7) are given as (Mansour, Lin et al. 1993):
where
453
If the wave induced loads can be represented as a stationary Gaussian process (short-term analysis), then
various methods may be used to define the probability
density function of the maximum load. The extreme
value distribution is based on up crossing analysis.
The wave induced bending moment given by
Classification societys rules is modeled as an extreme
value following the distribution function (Mansour
1990):
Figure 3. Reliability index and correspondent probability
of failure of E2 (t) for 25 = 0.05.
Eqn (12) and (13) are derived for a deck plate with
a thickness of 10 mm, which is a part of a ship with
a length of 128 m between perpendiculars, 19.2 m
beam, 10.4 m depth, moulded draught of 8.5 m and
a block coefficient of 0.704. For the ship used in the
present study the required design bending moments
and section modulus are (DnV 2001):
where w , is the mean value of the distribution and
w is the standard deviation. N is the number of wave
bending moment peaks and 0 is the mean square of
the wave bending moment process. The value given by
Class societys rules is assumed to be the mean value
and choosing N to be 1000, which is equivalent to a
3 hours storm, gives a coefficient of variation of 9%.
454
where i and j are the reliability indices corresponding to the ith and jth failure modes, respectively,
ij is the correlation coefficient between the ith and
jth failure modes and 2 () and () are the probability density function and cumulative distribution
functions, respectively, of the 2D standard normal
distribution.
Eqn (22) represents the narrow bounds for the
system probability of failure, and they still regard the
joint failure modes. (Ditlevsen 1979) also proposed
a method for bounding joint probability of failure,
P(Eij ) as
where
455
where
The probability of failure of the series system, composed by the two events may be defined as:
456
CONCLUSIONS
Ang, A. and H. Tang (1984). Probability Concepts in Engineering Planning an Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Cornell, C. A. (1969). A Probability Based Structural Code.
American Concrete Institute Journal 66: 974985.
Ditlevsen, O. (1979). Generalised Second Moment Reliability Index. Journal of Structural Mechanics 7: 435451.
Ditlevsen, O. (1979). Narrow Reliability Bounds for
Structural Systems. Journal of Structural Mechanics 7:
453472.
DnV (2001). Hull Structural Design, Ships with Length 100
Meters and Above. Norway, Det norske Veritas. Part 3,
Chapter 1.
Guedes Soares, C. and Y. Garbatov (1996). Fatigue Reliability of the Ship Hull Girder. Marine Structures 9:
495516.
Guedes Soares, C. and Y. Garbatov (1996). Fatigue Reliability of the Ship Hull Girder Accounting for Inspection
and Repair. Reliability Engineering & System Safety 51:
341351.
Guedes Soares, C. and Y. Garbatov (1998). Reliability
of Maintained Ship Hull Subjected to Corrosion and
Fatigue. Structural Safety 20: 201219.
Guedes Soares, C. and Y. Garbatov (1999). Reliability
of Maintained, Corrosion Protected Plates Subjected to
NonLinear Corrosion and Compressive Loads. Marine
Structures: 425445.
Guedes Soares, C. and T. Moan (1982). Statistical Analysis of Still Water Bending Moments and Shear Forces
on Tankers and Bulk Carriers. Norwegian Maritime
Research. 10: 3347.
Guedes Soares, C. and T. Moan (1988). Statistical Analysis
of Still-Water Load. Effects in Ship Structures. SNAME
Transactions 96: 129156.
Hasofer, A. M. and N. C. Lind (1974). An Exact and
Invariant First-Order Reliability Format. Journal of
Engineering Mechanics Division 100: 111121.
Hohenbichler, M. and R. Rackwitz (1986). Asymptotic
Outcrossing Rate of Gaussian Vector Process into Intersection of Failure Domains. Probabilistic Engineering
Mechanics 1(3): 177179.
Mansour, A. (1990). An Introduction to Structural Reliability
Theory.
Mansour, A., M. Lin, et al. (1993). Probability-based Ship
Design Preocedures: a Demostration.
Melchers, R. (1998). Probabilistic Modelling of Immersion Marine Corrosion. Structural Safety and Reliability. N. Shiraishi, M. Shinozuka and Y. Wen, Balkema:
11431149.
457
458
Sheng Dong
College of Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, China
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
C. Guedes Soares
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the direct integration method is applied to calculate the failure probability of the
vertical breakwaters. The calculation precision is high by giving a full consideration of the correlation of the
wave pressure and the uplifting pressure. The integral domain is processed by transforming an infinite integral to
a limited regional integral. The joint density function of the wave pressure and the uplifting pressure is selected
after comparison. The failure probability is calculated using a numerical integration method. The reliability index
can be estimated by checking point method proposed by Lind. Each non-normal random variable is individually
approximated by a normal distribution at the checking point. This method is recommended by Joint Committee
on Structural Safety (JCSS), which is also called JC method. In this paper the calculation results are compared
with the results calculated by both the variable-correlated JC method and the variable-uncorrelated JC method.
Calculation results of practical case show that the direct integration method and the variable-correlated JC method
have similar results, whereas the variable-uncorrelated JC methods calculation results are obviously lower.
1
INTRODUCTION
459
pressure. Horizontal wave pressure and uplifting pressure can both be described by the Gumbel distribution
character as proposed by Xie and Liu (1992).
where i , i (i = 1, 2) are the scale and location parameters of the variables. In the frequency analysis of
coastal and ocean engineering, these two unknown
parameters can be estimated by moment method, maximum likelihood method, least square method for a
given statistical series. The joint density function of x
and y can be defined by differentiating Eq. 3 on x and y.
where
460
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
The infinite integral domain is transformed into definite integral domain due to the accuracy of integral.
where (xiD , yjD ) represents this point (i, j) is in failure domain D. That means this point can satisfy the
equation Z(xiD , yjD ) < 0.
Failure probability Pf can be calculated accounting
for the fact that the integral value of g(x, y) in the real
space is 1.
RELIABILITY OF QINGHUANGDAO
BREAKWATER
the design high water level and the extreme high water
level which are 1.75 m and 2.54 m, respectively. The
above two water levels are adopted in the calculation
of failure probability. By use of the measured wave
data for 23 successive years from Qinhuangdao ocean
hydrology station, the annual frequency analysis for
H1% and for the relevant average wave period T are
performed for the main wave direction of SE. The
50-year return period wave height H1% = 4.2 m, and
the relevant period T = 8.7 s. According to the wave
force formulae stipulated in the Code of Hydrology
for Sea Harbors (Ministry of Communications, China,
1998), the annual extreme values of H1% and the relevant period T are inputted for the computation of
annual extreme value series of wave pressure acting
461
Table 1.
Water level /m
2.54
1.75
G (KN/m)
MG (KN m/m)
P (KN/m)
945.46
5923.59
360.87
81.74
146.13
34.52
2011.37
457.39
1085.12
256.30
1017.75
6326.61
337.30
74.99
132.29
29.43
1752.81
395.22
982.43
218.56
PU (KN/m)
MP (KN m/m)
MPU (KN m/m)
Table 2.
P
P
PU
PU
MP
MP
MPU
MPU
Calculation results.
Water level /m
Sliding
failure
Overturning
failure
2.54
1.75
CONCLUSIONS
Variableuncorrelated
JC method
Variablecorrelated
JC method
Direct
integration
method
Pf
1.37
0.0848
2.06
0.0198
Pf
1.18
0.1181
1.79
0.0369
Pf
1.18
0.1183
1.78
0.0372
Variableuncorrelated
JC method
Variablecorrelated
JC method
Direct
integration
method
Pf
3.50
0.00023
4.39
0.0000056
Pf
2.72
0.00329
3.45
0.00028
Pf
2.71
0.00340
3.42
0.00030
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was financially supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (50879085)
and the Program for New Century Excellent Talents
in University (NCET-07-0778).
REFERENCES
where, G is weight of the breakwater. Pij is uplifting pressure. P is horizontal wave pressure. f is the
coefficient of friction between the break water and the
rubble foundation whose value is 0.6
The limit state equation of the caisson breakwater
against sliding is expressed as follows:
API RP 2A-LRFD. 1995. Planning, Designing and Constructing for Fixed Offshore Platforms Load and Resistance Factor Design. ISO13819-2, (E).
Athanassoulis, G.A., Sarsoulis, E.K. & Belibassakis, K.A.
1994. Bivariate distributions with given marginals with
an application to wave climate description. Applied Ocean
Research, 16: 117.
Bitner-Gregersen, E.M. 2005. Joint probabilistic description for combined seas. Proc. OMAE2005 Conference,
Halkidiki, Greece.
Bitner-Gregersen, E.M. & Haver, S. 1991. Joint environmental model for reliability calculations. Proc. ISOPE91
Conference, Edinburg, UK, 1: 246253.
Burcharth, H.F. & Sorensen, J.D. 1998. Design of vertical
wall caisson breakwaters using partial safety factors. Proceedings of the 25th International Coastal Engineering,
ASCE, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2: 21382151.
Castillo, C., Minguez, R., Castillo, E. & Losada, M.A.
2005. An optimal engineering design method with failure rate constraints and sensitivity analysis. Application to
composite breakwaters. Coastal Engineering, 53: 125.
Christiani, E., Burcharth, H.F. & Sorensen, J.D. 1996. Reliability based optimal design of vertical breakwaters modelled as a series system of failure. Proceedings of the 25th
International Coastal Engineering Conference (ICCE),
ASCE, Orlando, Florida (USA), 2: 15891602.
462
463
L. Rusu
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: An accurate simulation of the wave regimes of the Black Sea is of most importance in different
areas. The most efficient methodology to obtain wind and wave information for large areas is through the use of
physical models. In global models however. the spatial resolution of the forecasting fields is low and the wind
is underestimated, this problem is specially important in enclosed or semi enclosed seas as the Baltic, Adriatic
or the Black Sea. Also, the use of buoy data only allows a local assessment of the quality of the simulations.
The availability of satellite data in the region were the simulations were performed makes possible a broader
validation as several satellites regularly observe the Black Sea. The main purpose of the present work is the
evaluation of the high resolution wind and wave simulation using satellite information. The SWAN (Simulating
WAves Nearshore) model was implemented for the Black Sea region, forced by the 10 meter wind field simulated
by the WRF. The ERA-INTERIM reanalysis were used to drive the WRF.
INTRODUCTION
MODEL IMPLEMENTATION
467
prediction system designed to serve both operational forecasting and atmospheric research needs
(Michalakes et al. 2004). It features multiple dynamical cores, a 3-dimensional variational (3DVAR)
data assimilation system, and a software architecture
allowing for computational parallelism and system
extensibility. WRF is suitable for a broad spectrum
of applications across scales ranging from meters
to thousands of kilometers. The effort to develop
WRF has been a collaborative partnership, principally among the National Center for Atmospheric
Research (NCAR), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the Forecast Systems Laboratory (FSL), the Air Force Weather Agency
(AFWA), the Naval Research Laboratory, the University of Oklahoma, and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). WRF allows researchers the ability
to conduct simulations reflecting either real data or
idealized configurations. WRF provides operational
forecasting a model that is flexible and efficient computationally, while offering the advances in physics,
numerical, and data assimilation contributed by the
research community.
Used as a regional model WRF requires both initial and boundary conditions. This information is
usually obtained from global scale model running
operationally or from reanalysis data sets.
Over the past decade, reanalysis data has found
widespread application in many areas of research.
It is advantageous to use reanalysis data in certain
research areas where observational data are sparse,
when knowledge of the state of the atmosphere on a
uniform grid is required or as it the present case as
forcing for regional models.
The WRF system was implemented in the Black
Sea region using a grid resolution of 27 km but with a
terrestrial input data of 10 min resolution. The simulation used a total of 51 by 30 grid points. The physical
parameterization used in the simulation was the default
one and it is described in Table 1.
The ERA-Interim (Simmons et al. 2006), is the
latest reanalysis data produced by ECMWF, it uses
4D-variational analysis on a spectral grid with triangular truncation of 255 waves (corresponds to approximately 80 km) and a hybrid vertical coordinate system
with 60 levels. The ECMWF global model is used for
Microphysics
WRF Single-Moment
3-class scheme
RRTM scheme
Dudhia scheme
MM5 similarity
Noah Land Surface Model
no urban physics
Yonsei University scheme
Kain-Fritsch scheme
468
3 VALIDATION OF RESULTS
The wind magnitude was compared with local observations at the Gloria platform (44.3 N, 29.33 E) for
both the large scale simulation from the ECMWF and
from the WRF simulation, linearly interpolated to the
platform location. As the wind is locally measured
at 36 m the correction proposed by Hsu et al. (1994)
was used to reduce it to the 10 m.
The quality of the results is evaluated by performing
statistical analyses considering the following parameters: the average values for measurements (Mmed ) and
simulations (Smed ), the bias, root mean square error
(RMSE), scatter index (SI) and Pearsons Correlation
Coefficient (r). If Si represent the measured values, Mi
the simulated values and n the number of observations,
the fore mentioned statistics can be defined with the
relationships (1):
Table 2. Statistics of the comparison between wind magnitude observed at Gloria and simulated for the same location
by the ECMWF and by the WRF.
ECMWF
WRF
Bias
RMSE
1.64
0.06
3.350
1.754
0.517
0.808
459
459
469
Bias
RMSE
SI
Total data
ERS-2
TOPEX
Jason-1
GFO
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.08
1.94
1.93
1.96
1.99
1.97
0.31
0.31
0.34
0.31
0.34
0.74
0.78
0.74
0.71
0.75
19683
4752
6049
4291
4591
The use of regional atmospheric and wave models provides a better representation of the wind and wave
regimes in the Black Sea.The accuracy values obtained
for the wind and wave simulation are in the same
range as the ones obtained by other authors for other
enclosed and semi-enclose seas. The under estimation
of observation that is typical of the use of large scale
models is in general corrected but it still persist in high
wind and waves.
Further work needs to be done, introducing higher
resolution grids in the meteorological model and
performing comparisons for longer periods of time.
Figure 4. Wind speed scatter plot for all data. The blue line
denotes the perfect fit to model and observed values and the
green line is a linear regression to data set.
Table 4. Statistics of the comparison between simulated
significant wave height values and corresponding altimeter
data in the Black Sea area.
Obs. data
Bias
RMSE
SI
Total data
ERS-2
TOPEX
Jason-1
GFO
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.41
0.43
0.38
0.41
0.40
0.39
0.43
0.40
0.39
0.33
0.75
0.75
0.76
0.70
0.75
19683
4752
6049
4291
4591
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
470
471
Comparison of two wind and wave data sets from the North Atlantic
R.M. Campos & C. Guedes Soares
Centre for Marine Technology and Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: This paper compares two wave data sets: HIPOCAS and NOAA/NCEP. HIPOCAS is a hindcast developed under a European project and it is a result of the wave model WAM-cicle4 forced by REMO
surface wind fields. The wave data set of NOAA/NCEP is a forecast that has been continually performed by
WAVEWATCH III since 1997, forced by GFS surface wind fields. In order to compare the described data sets,
coincident time period and area were determined, which corresponds to 1997 to 2001, latitudes between 20 and
68 North and longitudes between 50 West and 04 East. The differences for the mean values and for the 99%
exceedance level were calculated. Small divergences between the two data sets are identified in standard weather
conditions in the North Atlantic. However, the longitudinal evolution of the differences is extremely marked in
both wave and wind fields. There is an important increase of differences for extreme situations, which is mainly
due to the differences of the meridional surface wind component, occurred during the winter.
INTRODUCTION
The knowledge of wave conditions, either as climatology or short-term forecast, is critical for all human
activities at sea, including shipping, fishing, oil extraction, naval operation and designs. Efforts have been
made in the past to produce consistent sets of wave data
that could be used to establish reliable wave conditions
for different locations and to obtain assessments of the
expected extreme and a long term trends. At the same
time, the operational wave forecasts have improved
substantially over the last two decades, as well as
data assimilation and computational wave modelling
capacity. Two different and broadly used wind-wave
data sets are compared in this paper.
Concerning this matter, the project Hindcast of
Dynamic Processes of the Ocean and Coastal Areas
of Europe (Guedes Soares, 2008) has performed a
44-year wave hindcast over the North Atlantic and
Coast of Portugal. The main intention was to improve
the wave data over the North EasternAtlantic and especially in the coastal waters of Europe, where the wind
fields are disturbed by the orography of the neighbouring terrain and the wave fields are modified by
complicated coastal bathymetry.
The wind input fields were generated by the regional
atmospheric model REMO (Jacob and Podzun, 1997;
Von Storch et al., 2000), which was forced with the
44-year atmospheric reanalysis, from 1958 to 2001,
carried out by National Centers for Environmental Prediction National Center for Atmospheric Research.
Additional description regarding wind modelling is
provided by Weisse et al. (2005). Afterwards WAM
473
Several evaluations and some comparisons regarding wave models and reanalysis have been performed
recently. Most of them considering the errors of the
wave fields as a consequence of the wind input, numerical wave model and resolution. Pilar et al. (2008)
describes HIPOCAS wave hindcast introduced above.
The final wind input has been modelled by REMO with
resolution of 0.5 and time step of 1 hour, instead of
rough resolution of NCEP/NCAR and ECMWF wind
hindcasts. The article has argued that this improvement
is important for an accurate description of the conditions in coastal areas and rapidly changing storms.
After WAM model simulation, the outcomes were
compared with buoys data which has shown an excellent agreement for locations in Portugal and Spain,
with bias less than 0.5 meters. For locations at the
entrance of English Channel and Irish Sea the calculations tend to overpredict the measurements. Gaslikova
and Weisse (2006) have also used HIPOCAS data to
apply downscaling techniques for extreme events. The
authors have found an overestimation of the significant
wave heights of HIPOCAS during severe storms and
they have identified waves with higher wave heights
occurring more often.
Ardhuin et al. (2007) performed a hindcast of wind
and wave conditions in the Mediterranean Sea for
two months. Four meteorological models (ECMWF,
ALADIN, COAMPS and ARPEGE) and three wave
models (WAM-cycle 4, VAG and WAVEWATCH III)
were used. The results were compared with satellite and buoys. They have also performed a threshold
analysis to understand the behaviour of simulations
on different storm intensities. Among the results, they
have found that the quality of wind and wave fields
degrades substantially close to coastal areas. For lower
resolutions the quality rapidly deteriorates, both off
and at the coast. They concluded that the accuracy of
wind modelling depends on how well the meteorological situation is defined. In well-extended storm areas
the models are more consistent to each other. According the article, winds are still the main source of error
in wave modelling. For low wave heights, WAM and
WAVEWATCH perform similar. However for growing significant wave heights there is a progressively
increasing underestimation by WAVEWATCH with
respect to WAM. Finally comparing WAVEWATCH
with buoys it seems to underestimate substantially the
largest wave heights in the Mediterranean Sea.
Feng et al. (2006) have studied the WAVEWATCH
III sensitivity to wind-forcing products. Four wind
fields have used to drive the model: NCEP/NCAR,
ECMWF, QuickSCAT and an enhanced ECMWF
wind field obtained by assimilating Special Sensor
Microwave/Imager (SSM/I)-retrieved wind speeds.
Comparing the tests, the WAVEWATCH simulation with NCEP/NCAR wind input accords best
with significant wave height measured from altimeter at both regional and global scales, although the
NCEP/NCAR reanalysis are consistently biased negatively with respect to altimeter or scatterometer
observed winds. The WAVEWATCH modelled with
the other three winds are all biased positively with the
highest bias of WAVEWATCH simulation with
QuickSCAT winds. They explain it is most likely
because WAVEWATCH model was formed using
winds similar to the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis winds.
Mackey et al. (2010) have not concerned exactly
wave modelling assessment but they have focused on
calibration techniques instead. An important conclusion is the seasonal and inter-annual effect on the hindcast evaluation, concluding that the wave simulation
results in distinct accuracies through the seasons.
3
474
Table 1.
Difference
(m/s)
Scatter
index
Table 2.
Correlation
Coefficient
Int.
Int.
Int.
0.60
0.19
1.47
0.43
0.42
0.80
0.55
0.90
0.05
Difference (m/s)
Scatter index
Correlation Coefficient
0.08
0.18
0.81
This section shows the results for each month, analyzing the annual evolution. Graphics with values representing spatial integration of differences are adopted
instead of plotting twelve figures so as to save space.
June and December are shown in Figure 4 in order to
illustrate the spatial distribution of the differences in
the summer and winter.
4.2.1 Wind analysis
Figure 3 illustrates again the great agreement between
models for intensity and zonal component over the
year. This difference of intensity is a little higher
between April and June. The difference of meridional
component is constantly negative around 1.5 m/s.
Figure 4 shows that during the winter the differences of wind intensity increases close to United
Kingdom and North-eastern Atlantic. During the
summer the main divergences is in the South-eastern
part of the figure, close to Portugal and Africa.
4.2.2 Wave analysis
Figure 5 illustrates the differences between data
sets over the months. HIPOCAS and NOAA/NCEP
are almost equal between October and February.
NOAA/NCEP becomes higher than HIPOCAS in
March, which extends until September, i.e., mainly
during the spring and summer.
475
Difference
(m/s)
Int.
Scatter
index
V
Int.
Correlation
Coefficient
V
Int.
476
Table 4.
Difference (m/s)
Scatter index
Correlation Coefficient
1.24
0.19
0.26
any area with much more divergences in June. However it is possible to see higher values between United
Kingdom and Iceland. In December, during the winter, the North-eastern Atlantic becomes preferable to
have greater differences that can reach 13 m/s.
5.2.2 Wave analysis
The evident seasonality of extreme winds analyzed
in the last section resulted in the annual cycle
of Figure 11. The mean differences of significant
wave heights between data sets are greater between
November and February, and very small (less than
1 meter) between June and August.
The first point to highlight in Figure 12 is the different range present in the figures of June and December.
During the June months, the differences of data sets
are distributed between 0.5 and 2.5 meters, which is
relatively small. One more time, even in the summer,
the area with higher disagreement is the North-eastern
Atlantic. There are a few points in the summer where
the waves of NOAA/NCEP are higher than HIPOCAS,
occurring in the Western Atlantic. During the winter
the wave differences have increased significantly. It
is possible to see some points with differences above
4 meters of significant wave height, which is a very
important difference to consider. The area where the
differences are above 2 meters is confined to the
North and North-eastern parts of the figure, with latitudes above 37 . The area where NOAA/NCEP is
higher than HIPOCAS is the South-western part of the
figure, below 40 .
477
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported here has been performed within
the EXTREME SEAS project www.mar.ist.utl.pt/
extremeseas, Design for Ship Safety in Extreme
Seas, which has been partially financed by the
European Union thought its 7th Framework program
under contract SCP8-GA-2009-24175.
REFERENCES
Abdalla, S. & Cavaleri, L., 2002. Effect of wind variability
and variable air density on wave modeling. Journal os
Geophysical Research, v. 107, no. C7, 3080.
Ardhuin, F., Bertotti, L., Bidlot, J., Cavaleri, L., Filipetto, V.,
Lefevre, J., Wittmann, P., 2007. Comparison of wind
and wave measurements and models in the Western
Mediterranean Sea. Ocean Eng., 34, 526541.
478
Pilar, P., Guedes Soares, C., Carretero, J. C., 2008. A 44year high resolution wave hindcast in the North Atlantic.
Coastal Eng. Vol. 55(11), pp. 861871.
Tolman, H. L., 2002, User manual and system documentation of WAVEWATCH III version 2.22. SAIC-GSO/EMC/
MMAB/NCEP/NOAA, MMAB Contribution No. 222.
Von Storch, H., Langenberg, H., Feser, F., 2000. A spectral
nudging technique for dynamical downscaling purposes.
Mon. Weather Rev. 128 (10), 36643673.
WAMDI Group, 1988, The WAM Model A third generation
ocean wave prediction model. J. Phys. Oceanogr., v. 18,
n. 12, pp. 17751810.
Weisse, R., Sortch, H. V., Feser, F., 2005. Northeast Atlantic
and North Sea storminess as simulated by a regional
climate model 19582001 and comparison with observations. J Climate 18, 465479.
479
ABSTRACT: The objective of the study presented herewith is to evaluate two state of the art models based
on the spectrum concept, SWAN and STWAVE. This study is especially focused on the performance of the
two models in shallow and very shallow water. The target area considered is Porto Ferro, which is located on
the northwest coast of Sardinia. Comparisons were made as regards the spatial distribution of the main wave
parameters, based on the results obtained by both models. In the time domain comparisons are made for the period
614 February 2005. A wave-rider type buoy was used as offshore forcing source and the same nested scheme
was considered for both models to study the wave transformation towards the shore. As a general conclusion,
besides its simplicity, a major advantage brought by the STWAVE model is that almost no BC effect is introduced
as in SWAN. This is due to the scheme adopted for the wave propagation along a wave ray. Nevertheless this
feature represents an advantage mainly for one computational domain rather than in the case of nested schemes.
INTRODUCTION
In this context, in addition to a comparative analysis between theoretical formulations and STWAVE
and SWAN, the objective of this work is to make
comparisons, in both space and time domains.
The target area selected for this study is the coastal
area of Porto Ferro, which is characterized by high
bathymetric gradients. This is located on the northwest
coast of Sardinia near the city of Alghero. A waverider type buoy is considered as offshore forcing source
for the SWAN and STWAVE model simulations. Two
Nortek gauges provided the nearshore wave measurements at about 1 meter water depth. Previous studies on
the wave conditions in the target area by performing
simulations only with the SWAN model were made
in Conley & Rusu (2005). Subsequently Rusu et al.
(2008) and Rusu & Guedes Soares (2010) made also
simulations with circulation modelling systems that
included also that area.
2 THEORETICAL FORMULATIONS
Both SWAN and STWAVE are third generation models focused on the wave transformation and based on
solving the spectral energy balance equation, although
they use different forms for the governing equations
and some formulations for the source terms are also
different.
The SWAN model is a third-generation stand-alone
(phase-averaged) wave model for the simulation of
waves in waters of deep, intermediate and finite depth.
This model simulates wave propagation in time and
481
CASE STUDY
482
Cartesian
Cartesian
nf n nx*ny
50 50 m 30 36 133 230
25 25 m 30 36 124 166
483
Figure 8. Significant wave height fields and wave vectors for the Swan and Stave simulations (Case study 2
Hs = 1.23 m, Tp = 8.06 s and Dir = 284 ).
484
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Booij, N., Ris, R. C. and Holthuijsen, L. H., (1999). A third
generation wave model for coastal regions. Part 1: Model
description and validation, J. Geophys. Res. 104, C4,
pp. 76497666.
Bretherton, F.P., Garrett, C.J.R., (1968). Wavetrains in
inhomogeneous moving media. Proceedings of the Royal
Society, England, Series A, Vol. 302, No. 1471, January,
529554.
Conley, D.C. and Rusu, E., 2005, Tests of wave shoaling
and surf models in a partially enclosed basin, Maritime
Transportation and Exploitation of Ocean and Coastal
Resources, C. Guedes Soares, Y. Garbatov & N. Fonseca
(Eds.), Francis & Taylor, London, pp. 10151021.
Gonalves, M., Pilar, P., Rusu, E. and Guedes Soares, C.,
2008, STWAVE model simulations on the Portuguese
nearshore, (in Portuguese), As Actividades Martimas e
a Engenharia, C. Guedes Soares & V. Gonalves de Brito
(Eds.), Edies Salamandra, Lisboa, pp. 427439.
Gonalves, M., Rusu, E. and Guedes Soares, C., 2009.
Comparison between the SWAN and STWAVE models
in the bidos nearshore, (in Portuguese), Actas das 6as
Jornadas Portuguesas de Engenharia Costeira e Porturia,
Funchal, (cd-rom).
Gonalves, M., Rusu, E. and Guedes Soares, C., 2010,
Comparison between the SWAN and STWAVE models
in the Leixes Port nearshore, (in Portuguese), Actas das
1as Jornadas de Engenharia Hidrogrfica, Lisboa.
Guedes Soares, C., Rusu, L. and Pilar, P., (2004). Wave
hindcasting on the Portuguese continental nearshore, (in
Portuguese), As Actividades Martimas e a Engenharia,
C. Guedes Soares & V. Gonalves de Brito (Eds), Edies
Salamandra, pp. 7382.
Holthuijsen, H., (2007). Waves in Oceanic and Coastal
Waters, Cambridge University Press, pp. 387.
Mendona, A., Teixeira, A.T., Oliveira, I.M., Silva, A.P.,
(2005), Characterization of the tranquillity conditions in
the area of the Leixes port entrance in view of short
period waves (10 to 18s), (in Portuguese), Actas 4as
Jornadas Portuguesas de Engenharia Costeira e Porturia,
Angra do Herosmo, (CD-ROM).
Rusu, L., Pilar, P., and Guedes Soares, C., (2005). Hindcasts of the Wave Conditions in Approaches to Ports of
the North of Portugal, Proceedings Fifth International
Symposium on Ocean Wave Measurement and Analysis
(WAVES 2005), Madrid, Spain, (cd-rom).
Rusu, L., Pilar, P., Guedes Soares, C., (2008). Hindcast of
the wave conditions along the west Iberian coast, Coastal
Engineering, vol. 55, pp. 906919.
Rusu, E., Conley, D.C. and Coelho, E.F., 2008. A Hybrid
Framework for Predicting Waves and Longshore Currents,
Journal of Marine Systems, Vol. 69, pp. 5973.
Rusu, E. and Guedes Soares, C., 2010. Validation of Two
Wave and Nearshore Current Models, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 136,
pp. 2745.
Smith, J., Sherlock, A., Resio, D., (2001), STWAVE:
Steady-State Spectral Wave Model. Users Manual for
STWAVE, Version 3.0; ERDC/CHL, US Army Corps of
Engineers; Washington, DC
Tolman, H. L., (1999). User manual and system documentation of WAVEWATCH III, Tech. Note 166,
NOAA/NWS/NCEP/OMB, 99 pp.
WAMDI group, (1988). The WAM model a third generation ocean wave prediction model, Journal Physical
Oceanography, Vol. 18, pp. 17751810.
485
ABSTRACT: An approach based on L-moments is applied to the daily maximum significant wave heights of
a region in the North Atlantic Ocean for the winter season in order to identify the discordant sites, formation
of homogeneous regions, selection of appropriate regional frequency distributions and estimation of regional
extreme quantiles. A previous study in the offshore region off Portugal demonstrated the usefulness of regional
frequency analysis (RFA). This study examines the performance of RFA for estimation of regional extreme
quantile as a true representative of at-site extreme quantiles. This study is applied to a larger ocean area, (40
60 N, 33 13W), using data from a period from 1958 to 1978 (21 years) in the winter season (December to
February) extracted from the HIPOCAS data base.
1
INTRODUCTION
487
The cumulative distribution of the frequency distribution is F(z), the quantile function or the inverse
function of cumulative distribution function is z(F)
which expresses the magnitude of an event in terms of
its non-exceedance probability F.
The extreme wave height in the upper tail of the
frequency distribution QT , is the quantile of the return
period T , is represented by equation:
L-MOMENTS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
A series of observations on the daily maximum significant wave height the probability that the kth observation is the first value that exceeds zL is given by the
geometric law:
488
SAMPLE L-MOMENTS
489
Site
L-cv
L-skew
L-kurt
D(I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Reg. Avg.
1.130
1.194
1.272
1.300
1.314
1.297
1.363
1.359
1.358
1.345
1.431
1.459
1.473
1.462
1.381
1.355
1.378
1.365
1.317
1.296
1.195
1.184
1.175
1.176
1.116
1.308
0.212
0.201
0.194
0.199
0.175
0.185
0.191
0.185
0.174
0.187
0.234
0.216
0.227
0.222
0.221
0.234
0.223
0.242
0.239
0.228
0.264
0.240
0.241
0.242
0.219
0.216
0.172
0.165
0.164
0.157
0.134
0.119
0.136
0.147
0.137
0.142
0.168
0.157
0.145
0.154
0.160
0.163
0.161
0.168
0.162
0.161
0.160
0.155
0.148
0.150
0.166
0.154
1.93
1.24
1.08
0.40
1.21
2.75
0.71
0.62
1.08
0.55
1.12
0.83
1.41
0.85
0.31
0.35
0.33
0.76
0.34
0.13
1.85
0.91
1.48
1.34
1.43
490
L-cv
L-skew
L-kurt
D(I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Reg. Avg.
1.404
1.454
1.466
1.433
1.390
1.461
1.498
1.447
1.427
1.379
1.400
1.474
1.435
1.416
1.351
1.371
1.412
1.346
1.285
1.231
1.240
1.224
1.128
1.079
1.059
1.352
0.194
0.201
0.195
0.184
0.153
0.225
0.212
0.201
0.193
0.178
0.197
0.209
0.200
0.212
0.186
0.185
0.187
0.193
0.201
0.189
0.176
0.176
0.164
0.163
0.172
0.190
0.141
0.156
0.154
0.153
0.137
0.154
0.161
0.167
0.145
0.128
0.157
0.138
0.160
0.172
0.154
0.146
0.132
0.138
0.141
0.147
0.140
0.142
0.131
0.151
0.154
0.148
0.28
0.34
0.43
0.77
3.65*
1.82
0.78
1.15
0.20
1.26
0.25
1.39
0.47
1.59
0.22
0.12
1.00
0.54
1.40
0.56
0.36
0.39
1.51
2.11
2.41
Site
L-cv
L-skew
L-kurt
D(I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Reg. Avg.
1.445
1.564
1.610
1.502
1.438
1.289
1.315
1.376
1.368
1.324
1.364
1.364
1.346
1.299
1.260
1.457
1.383
1.306
1.234
1.193
1.318
1.276
1.220
1.117
1.056
1.337
0.212
0.209
0.217
0.209
0.202
0.180
0.202
0.221
0.214
0.185
0.247
0.257
0.247
0.242
0.231
0.262
0.252
0.233
0.256
0.255
0.247
0.227
0.238
0.239
0.237
0.229
0.141
0.120
0.140
0.147
0.135
0.136
0.148
0.176
0.156
0.141
0.190
0.183
0.149
0.173
0.183
0.172
0.178
0.154
0.170
0.173
0.139
0.143
0.166
0.167
0.153
0.157
0.40
2.06
1.66
0.70
0.64
1.98
0.59
1.15
0.26
1.47
1.45
0.93
0.84
0.26
1.12
1.42
0.71
0.11
0.60
0.70
1.80
0.56
0.31
1.05
2.21
*Flagged value.
491
Generalized normal
Sub-region 1
Pearson type III
Sites
Location
Scale
Shape
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
0.57
0.57
0.56
0.54
0.59
0.57
0.54
0.55
0.58
0.55
0.41
0.44
0.41
0.42
0.46
0.44
0.46
0.42
0.44
0.48
0.45
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.57
1.85
1.97
2.11
2.15
2.21
2.16
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.24
2.30
2.38
2.38
2.37
2.24
2.18
2.24
2.18
2.11
2.09
1.87
1.89
1.88
1.88
1.82
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.41
0.36
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.38
0.49
0.45
0.47
0.46
0.46
0.48
0.46
0.50
0.50
0.47
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.45
Location
Scale
Shape
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
0.52
0.48
0.49
0.53
0.42
0.44
0.48
0.51
0.56
0.51
0.45
0.49
0.47
0.55
0.55
0.53
0.54
0.54
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.67
0.69
0.67
2.33
2.40
2.43
2.39
2.37
2.45
2.39
2.37
2.31
2.32
2.42
2.37
2.32
2.25
2.29
2.35
2.23
2.12
2.05
2.08
2.05
1.91
1.82
1.78
0.40
0.41
0.40
0.38
0.47
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.37
0.41
0.43
0.41
0.44
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.42
0.39
0.36
0.36
0.34
0.34
0.35
Sub-region 2
Gen. Normal
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.69
2.91
3.01
2.80
2.67
2.37
2.44
2.58
2.55
2.44
1.28
1.26
1.31
1.26
1.22
1.09
1.12
1.34
1.29
1.12
0.41
0.38
0.41
0.45
0.49
0.33
0.39
0.46
0.44
0.47
0.43
0.49
0.49
0.53
0.56
2.17
2.15
2.14
2.07
2.03
2.28
2.19
2.10
1.94
1.88
2.09
2.06
1.95
1.79
1.69
0.51
0.53
0.51
0.50
0.48
0.55
0.52
0.48
0.53
0.53
0.51
0.47
0.49
0.50
0.49
10
20
50
100
19.51
21.54
24.28
26.42
10
20
50
100
18.36
20.12
22.48
24.30
cumulative distribution function of the three parameter lognormal distribution is a generalized normal
distribution:
492
T (years)
Sub-region 1
height (m)
Sub-region 2
height (m)
10
20
50
100
17.31
18.64
20.35
21.63
21.34
23.77
27.09
29.72
10
20
50
100
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
+2.75
+2.55
+1.97
+1.32
+2.69
+2.23
+1.04
+1.49
+2.17
+1.55
3.31
2.17
3.31
2.70
1.47
2.07
1.54
2.98
1.95
0.78
2.04
0.02
+0.15
+0.04
+2.53
+3.07
+2.91
+2.30
+1.57
+3.20
+2.64
+1.30
+1.83
+2.63
+1.88
3.81
2.41
3.75
3.04
1.67
2.42
1.75
3.50
2.33
0.94
2.61
0.13
+0.01
0.12
+2.79
+3.50
+3.40
+2.77
+1.91
+3.91
+3.22
+1.68
+2.31
+3.28
+2.35
4.52
2.74
4.37
3.51
1.94
2.92
2.05
4.24
2.87
1.18
3.45
0.37
0.21
0.36
+3.14
+3.84
+3.80
+3.15
+2.09
+4.50
+4.42
+1.98
+2.71
+3.82
+2.74
5.09
2.99
4.87
7.89
2.16
3.33
2.30
4.86
3.32
1.39
4.17
0.59
0.41
0.59
+3.41
Sites
10
20
50
100
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
0.86
2.03
1.75
0.55
4.06
3.49
1.98
1.09
+0.51
1.05
2.92
1.74
2.35
+0.34
+0.20
0.48
0.03
+0.17
+1.70
+2.34
+2.57
+4.34
+4.94
+4.74
0.96
2.30
1.95
0.57
4.71
3.99
2.24
1.21
+0.63
1.19
3.33
1.97
2.72
+0.40
+0.25
0.50
0.05
+0.13
+1.88
+2.64
+2.90
+4.88
+5.55
+5.29
1.10
2.67
2.22
0.58
5.62
4.67
2.60
1.37
+0.81
1.38
3.90
2.29
3.48
+0.49
+0.34
0.53
0.06
+0.07
+2.14
+3.07
+3.36
+5.64
+6.39
+6.06
1.22
2.96
2.44
0.59
6.36
5.22
2.90
1.50
+0.94
1.54
4.37
2.55
3.66
+0.56
+0.40
0.55
0.08
+0.01
+2.96
+3.40
+3.72
+6.24
+7.05
+6.65
The extreme quantiles of the designated return periods 10, 20, 50 and 100 for the regions are given in
Tables 7, 8 and 9. At site extreme quantile analysis
is also executed along with the regional frequency
analysis (RFA), to emphasize reliability on regional
extreme quantiles and to identify the sites with extreme
quantiles far away from regional values.
Tables 1012 give the difference of at-site extreme
quantiles of a region from its regional value. In
December and January, even though the 25 sites
together form a region and there are no any discordant sites, certain at-site extreme quantiles are
apart from its regional values. These findings indicate that the region is to be further divided into
sub-regions.
In February the at-site extreme quantile disparity
for the sites 3, 6, 12, 16, 17, 24 and 25 from their
regional quantiles are comparatively high. Coarser
grids (0.5 0.5 ) and greatly spaced (5.0 ) grids
attribute to this discrepancy. Taking into account the
results of this case study and the deep water rough winter weather conditions, it is necessary to consider finer
and more closely spaced grids for regional frequency
analysis.
493
10
20
50
100
0.53
1.79
2.69
1.08
0.03
+2.44
+1.35
0.10
+0.30
+1.87
0.59
1.94
2.94
1.18
0.03
+2.68
+1.47
0.14
+0.30
+2.05
0.66
2.14
3.25
1.30
0.03
+2.98
+1.61
0.19
+0.31
+2.29
0.71
2.28
3.48
1.39
0.02
+3.22
+1.73
0.22
+0.33
+2.47
1.56
2.47
1.27
0.05
+1.41
4.52
2.30
+0.53
0.19
+0.59
0.84
+1.46
+1.44
+2.97
+4.10
+1.23
2.87
1.44
0.04
+1.67
5.21
2.64
+0.67
0.29
+0.59
0.96
+1.75
+1.66
+3.36
+4.63
2.06
3.43
1.68
0.02
+2.04
6.19
3.11
+0.88
0.46
+0.57
1.13
+2.16
+1.95
+3.90
+5.37
2.29
3.90
1.87
+0.01
+2.35
7.00
3.49
+1.05
0.60
+0.55
1.26
+2.51
+2.20
+4.33
+5.96
494
CONCLUSIONS
495
H. Gotovac
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Split, Croatia
ABSTRACT: This paper presents maximum entropy (ME) as a plausible method for prediction of extreme
values with high return periods. Using peak over threshold approach, estimates of return values of significant
wave heights were obtained with generalized Pareto distribution (GPD) model and ME model. The results
showed similarity when comparing return values obtained from distributions derived from the maximization of
Shannons entropy and GPD model. A case study of the Portuguese coast data set is presented and the results
are compared with those obtained with the Annual Maxima method.
1
INTRODUCTION
of taking into account the whole data set which produce less reliable estimates in tail region. In that sense
Extreme Value Theory (EVT) proves to be useful since
it implies that by using enough upper range values from
sample one can produce distribution which could be,
according to this theory, only one of three possible
distributions, namely Gumbel, Frechet and Weibull.
Justification for this could be found in Leadbetter et al.
(1983). There is a long list of papers that applied EVT
to environmental data such as for example river levels,
sea heights, precipitation quantities, wind speed as can
be seen in Bermudez (2010) and references therein.
The simplest application of EVT is the Annual
Maxima (AM) method, which consist of fitting only
maximum values taken from succeeding intervals of
time to Generalized Extreme Value distribution as
described in Coles (2001). This method has been used
by, among others, Guedes Soares and Scotto (2001).
More appealing approach is Peak Over Threshold
(POT) method, which take into account excesses or
peaks over high enough threshold and fit them to
Generalized Pareto distribution. Statistical properties
of this methodology have been discussed in detail by
Davison and Smith (1990) synthesizing their early
work in Davison (1984) and Smith (1986).
Since extremes are by default rare it is reasonable
to take into account as much as possible data and
therefore POT approach could be advised as more
appropriate than AM, within the EVT framework as
discussed in Ferreira and Guedes Soares (1998) and
Guedes Soares and Scotto (2004).
With ultimate goal of determining return values
of significant wave heights with low probability, at
the moment widely accepted and used model is EVT.
It is considered to be the most appealing model since
497
This section provides an overview of the distribution functions used according to EVT methodology. The EVT focuses on the statistical behaviour
of Mn = max(X1 , . . . , Xn ), where (X1 , . . . , Xn ) is a
sequence of independent random variables having a
common distribution F. In this application, X represents significant wave height measured on a regular
time-scale, meaning Mn stands for maximum value
over n time units of observation.
If there is a sequence of constants {an > 0} and {bn }
such that:
The model has three parameters: a location parameter ; a scale parameter ; and a shape parameter
. According to the convergence of (Mn bn )/an the
parent distribution F is said to belong to the domain
of attraction of one of the three classes of distribution, widely known as Gumbel (with = 0 interpreted
as the limit of Equation 2 when ), the Frechet
( > 0) or the Weibull ( < 0).
The AM method consists of fitting the GEV distribution in Equation 2 as an approximation to the
distribution of maxima over the sample of the k maximum values obtained by blocking data into sequences
of observations of length n for some large value of n,
i.e. generating series of block maxima.
Blocks usually correspond to the reference period
such as annual maxima or monthly maxima. This
method can still be used when the process remains
stationary and has a weak dependence structure.
Estimates of return values (extreme quantiles) associated with the return period 1/p are then obtained by
inverting Equation 2
498
According to the EVT, the GPD model is an appropriate model for the distribution of significant wave
heights excesses over a suitable chosen high threshold value. The parameters of GPD are estimated using
maximum likelihood method as in the case of GEV
model.
2.2
The Maximum Entropy principle (ME) is an efficient statistical tool which serves for characterization
of distributions in the case where there is a known
set of statistical moments that describes the data set.
Shannons information entropy can be defined as
following
499
Table 1.
Parameter estimates
Return values
25
50
100
8.254
(0.205)
1.205
(0.148)
0.219
(0.118)
11.02
(10.49,
12.35)
11.41
(10.81,
13.29)
11.75
11.05,
14.26)
Figure 2. Mean residual life plot for the data from Portuguese coast.
500
6.5
7.5
8.5
u
1
u
np
nc
0.149
6.70
256
1716
0.170
5.87
179
1050
0.167
6.00
107
642
0.190
5.27
75
395
0.233
4.29
58
249
0.220
4.55
33
150
25
50
100
1.155
(0.112)
0.011
(0.074)
6.5
1.086
(0.136)
0.012
(0.100)
1.434
(0.204)
0.189
(0.106)
7.5
1.463
(0.236)
0.256
(0.116)
1.117
(0.238)
0.143
(0.168)
8.5
1.516
(0.350)
0.419
(0.169)
11.59
(10.62,
13.62)
11.66
(10.61,
14.25)
11.10
(10.53,
12.59)
11.03
(10.55,
12.25)
11.07
(10.50,
12.99)
11.06
(10.72,
11.97)
12.35
(11.08,
15.16)
12.45
(11.06,
16.26)
11.52
(10.84,
13.61)
11.38
(10.85,
13.09)
11.52
(10.82,
14.59)
11.32
(10.94,
12.66)
13.10
(11.49,
15.11)
13.26
(11.45,
15.74)
11.90
(11.09,
14.68)
11.68
(11.08,
13.95)
11.93
(11.07,
14.38)
11.52
(11.30,
13.38)
501
502
25
50
100
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
11.13
11.07
11.08
11.13
11.05
11.10
11.43
11.41
11.42
11.46
11.36
11.44
11.68
11.72
11.72
11.74
11.63
11.71
4
Therefore on Figure 11 are presented cdf(s)
obtained with ME method for the same range of
threshold values used in previous analysis with EVT
models.
As can be noticed high quantiles derived from
all examined samples fell almost on the same line,
leading to conclusion that regarding the selected
threshold value quantiles that correspond with 100
year return levels falls within very narrow band,
between 11.63 and 11.74.
That indicate that ME model is very robust in terms
of selection of threshold value for POT data sets.
More detailed and better perspective provides
Figure 12 where return levels are showed for range
of threshold values. Since there is significant similarity identified among presented return level plots it
can be concluded that ME model is very stabile and is
DISCUSSION
503
CONCLUSION
504
L. Fernandes
IST, Lisbon, Portugal
M. Walkley
School of computing, Leeds University, Leeds, UK
ABSTRACT: Sea waves can pose significant problems to port infrastructures and activities. Hence it is important to correctly predict and characterize the wave field inside ports, more precisely on navigation routes and
berthing locations. This paper describes the numerical model BOUSS3W, a finite element model for nonlinear
wave propagation near shore and wave penetration in harbors. This model is also able to perform resonance
studies in harbors. It is based upon an extended version of Boussinesq equations. Terms were added to generate
regular or irregular waves inside the numerical domain, absorb outgoing waves, partially reflect waves at physical
boundaries, control numerical instabilities and reproduce energy dissipation due to bottom friction and wave
breaking. Implementation of partial reflection, bottom friction and wave breaking are described and applications
to real and experimental test cases are presented, namely, Vila do Porto Harbor. Results are compared with
physical model tests and other numerical models.
INTRODUCTION
Moreover the finite element method allows minimizing the number of points in the grid using local
refinement techniques. Several authors have used this
method with success (Antunes do Carmo and Seabra
Santos 1996; Li et al. 1999; Walkley and Berzins
2002).
Developments on Walkeys model (Walkley and
Berzins 2002) led to BOUSS3W model, Pinheiro
et al. 2010, which includes internal wave generation (using the source function method with
which regular and irregular waves can be generated), artificial numerical viscosity (to control numerical instabilities), numerical sponge layers (placed
on radiation boundaries to absorb outgoing waves),
numerical porosity layers (placed whether on physical boundaries or inside the domain to simulate
the reflection, transmission and energy dissipation
effects of porous structures on the waves) and
energy dissipation due to bottom friction and wave
breaking.
In the following section, the governing equations
are summarized. The wave generation, boundary conditions and energy dissipation methods are discussed.
Three numerical applications are presented and results
are compared to physical model measurements and
other numerical models.
505
2
2.1
506
Energy dissipation
with wcr = 0.027Wds0.6757 , where Wds is the nondimensional sedimentation velocity and can be
evaluated according to the empirical formulation of
Dietrich (1982):
where:
507
The terms ini, fin and tcst are parameters that define
the initiation, termination and duration of the breaking
events.
3 APPLICATIONS
3.1
Boundary A is always full absorption and nonphysical boundaries B and M are set to the radiation
condition. See table 2 for coefficients. The calculation
of the coefficients was made using empirical formulae
proposed by Seeling and Ahrens (1995). In Table 1 the
508
Table 1.
Structure parameters.
Table 3.
Parameter
Description
ds
N
Ho
m
cot()
Dn50
Tp
P
Zones
Case A
Case B
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone D
Zone E
Total
0.013
0.098
0.043
0.128
0.033
0.001
0.017
0.113
0.076
0.033
0.025
0.090
Table 4.
Case C
0.059
0.047
0.009
0.030
0.051
0.016
Table 2.
Reflection coefficients.
Zones
Case A
Case B
Case C
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone D
Zone E
Total
0.180
0.018
0.209
0.116
0.133
0.102
0.140
0.059
0.147
0.089
0.034
0.025
0.103
0.079
0.102
0.039
0.030
0.054
Reflection coefficients
Section
Type
Case A
Case B
Case C
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
sea
sea
rocks
sandy beach
vertical quay
vertical quay
ruble-mound
vertical quay
ruble-mound
vertical quay
antifer cubes
tetrapodes
sea
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0.39
0.34
0.9
0.9
0.68
0.9
0.68
0.9
0.6
0.6
1
Table 5.
Zones
Case A
Case B
Case C
Total
63.60%
81.79%
90.21%
the indexes become 0.2 to 0.5. However, due to reflections between the two vertical quays, there are places
inside the port with the higher indexes.
To compare numerical results with measurements
three statistical parameters were calculated, bias, rmse
and ia index of agreement given by:
509
3.2
510
Statistics of results.
BOUSS3W
FUNWAVE
A bared beach case has been done to check the behavior of the model when several wave breakings occur.
This corresponds to an experimental study performed
by Sancho et al. (2001).
The bathymetry is 119.6 long, Figure 8.
The initial amplitude was 0.056 m and a small viscosity of 2.0 103 was put in order to avoid all
numerical instabilities. The period was 2.5s and the
source function of was at x = 26.0 m.
bias
rmse
ia
0.00419
0.000164
0.0344
0.0452
0.953
0.922
The domain was discretized by linear finite elements with two nodes and the spacing between two
nodes was x = 0.05 m. The corresponding domain
has 2393 nodes. The simulation lasted 70 s. Along the
slope, 43 gauges were considered.
Figure 9 presents the comparison between the wave
height experimental data and numerical results along
the bathymetry obtained with BOUSS3W model and
the FUNWAVE model. FUNWAVE (Kirby et al. 1998)
is a phase-resolving, time-stepping Boussinesq model
for ocean surface wave propagation in the near shore
and the comparison of both results on the bared beach
case is interesting. Both of models give results at the
same gauges as the ones of experimental work.
BOUSS3W model reproduced very well the behavior of waves up to the wave breaking location, which
has occurred slightly before the experimental one.
Little differences can be noticed around 90.0 m, but
the last wave breaking is very well re-produced.
Although the BOUSS3W model seemed to be more
accurate then FUNWAVE, computation of the bias,
the root mean square error (rmse) and the index of
agreement (ia) has been done in order to strictly
compare the two numerical models.
A negative bias for BOUSS3W means that the
model tends to underestimate the wave height, while
the FUNWAVEs bias signifies that it overestimates
it. Both of the values are very small. The root mean
square error and the index of agreement show very
good results from both models.
CONCLUSIONS
511
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support from the Fundao para a
Cincia e Tecnologia (FCT) of the Ministry of
Science and High Education of Portugal, through
projects PTDC/ECM/73145/2006 and PTDC/ECM/
67411/2006 are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Antunes Do Carmo J.S. & Seabra Santos F.J. On breaking waves and wave-current interaction in shallow
water: a 2DH finite element model International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, vol. 22,
429444.
512
ABSTRACT: The North Atlantic routes and the wave climate to which the ships are subjected are studied using
global wave data samples for each route obtained from global wave climate data bases. A comparison of the
results obtained for three wave data bases is made for a grid covering the North Atlantic Ocean. Two transatlantic
routes are considered. The significant wave height is compared for HIPOCAS, ERA-40 and COADS data sets,
by evaluating the average values obtained for several periods and performing error calculations between the
different data sets. Similar patterns were found for HIPOCAS and ERA-40, being the first the one that shows
higher maxima. COADS have smaller seasonal amplitude between maxima. The same procedure is applied to the
average period, only for HIPOCAS and ERA-40 data. Higher maxima were found for the second and different
contour patterns. Data sets (HIPOCAS e ERA-40) of significant wave height and peak period associated with
the two transatlantic routes are obtained. A study on the suitability of the Lonowe model for the description of
the sea state by determining the joint probability distribution function for both routes is performed. A long-term
formulation of wave induced vertical bending moments is applied to the several sea state descriptions obtained
from different data, in order to achieve the value of wave induced vertical bending moment response, considering
an exceeding long term probability of 108 . For this probability level HIPOCAS data shows higher values than
ERA-40.
INTRODUCTION
513
After extensive derivation using the wave profile variance approach, which can be found for example in
Young (1999), or using the Wiener-Khintchine theorem approach, which can be found in Ochi (1990), the
last equation becomes:
meaning that the variance of the wave elevation process equals the spectral density function (S()) integrated along the frequency domain () and the sum of
the squares of the individual wave amplitudes (ai ).
514
where fHS (HS ) is the Lonowe probability density function and fHS Tp (HS |Tp ) is the conditional probability
density function for Tp given HS . The last can be
modelled by the lognormal distribution as:
where h and t match the classes width in the scatter diagram. The long term probability value must
be set to find the unknown vertical bending moment
response amplitude inside the short term probability
of exceeding.
When designing floating structures which must support extreme load conditions, usually a high enough
probability level is used. This level represents the
probability of extreme wave conditions to be verified
once in a structure lifetime. For ships, a probability
level of 108 is used.
Ship design and construction quality is assured
by classification societies through minimum imposed
requirements. One of those is the establishment of
the vertical bending moment maximum value along
the ship length. The regulations used here are related
to longitudinal strength, with requirements to bending moment and shear forces, which have been made
uniform among all classification societies. Vertical
bending moment values are given as design values
obtained for an exceeding probability level of 108 .
3 WAVE DATA BASES
Wave data bases contain climatologic data for a
spatial grid covering a specific area. A sea state
515
516
517
518
GB-USA route (not shown) is similar. The following result analysis is based on the global results
obtained.
Annually, the route connecting Norway to USA
shows higher HS maxima in the HIPOCAS data,
although near the American shore higher values are
found in COADS. Analysing all the data bases, a
critical area limited by [32;22] Longitude. January is the severest month, with maxima exceeding
5.3 meters (HIPOCAS), 4.3 meters (ERA-40), and
4.6 meters (COADS). In the summer, the highest
maxima are found in COADS, being the data set
with smallest seasonal amplitude. These results are
in agreement with the overall conclusions obtained in
section 4.
519
Table 1.
520
Because density and cumulative functions are dependent, a large amount of computational time is required
to find a solution. Therefore the system was reduced
to a single parameter using
Figure 14. TP
(Norway-USA).
empirical
cumulative
distributions
For each route and for each data base (HIPOCAS and
ERA-40), the joint probability distribution function
was determined.
521
Figure 17. Vertical bending moment ship response comparison for both routes and data bases.
CONCLUSIONS
522
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been performed in the scope of the
project EXTREME SEAS Design for Ship Safety
in Extreme Seas, (www.mar.ist.utl.pt/extremeseas),
which has been partially financed by the EU under
contract SCP8-GA-2009-234175.
REFERENCES
Caires, S. and A. Sterl, (2005), 100-year return value estimates for ocean wind speed and significant wave height
from the ERA-40 data. J. Climate, 18, 10321048.
Guedes Soares C. (1986a) Assessment of the uncertainty in
visual observations of wave height Ocean Engineering,
Vol. 13, pp. 3756.
Guedes Soares, C. (1986b) Calibration of Visual Observations of Wave Period, Ocean Engineering. 13, No. 6,
pp. 539547
Guedes Soares, C. (1990), Effect of spectral shape uncertainty in the short term wave induced ship responses,
Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 5469.
Guedes Soares, C. (1995), Effect of wave directionality on
long-term wave-induced load effects in ships, Journal of
Ship Research, Vol. 39, No. 2, June 1995, pp. 150159.
Guedes Soares, C. (1996), On the definition of rule requirements for wave induced vertical bending moments,
Marine Structures, 9, pp. 409425.
Guedes Soares, C. (2008), Hindcast of Dynamic Processes
of the Ocean and Coastal Areas of Europe. Coastal
Engineering; 55, pp. 825826.
Guedes Soares, C. and Moan, T. (1991), Model uncertainty
in the long-term distribution of wave-induced bending
moments for fatigue design of ship structures, Marine
Structures 4 (1991), pp. 295315.
Guedes Soares, C. and Trovo M.F.S. (1990), Sensitivity of
ship motions predictions to wave climate descriptions, Int.
Shipbuild. Progr., 39, no. 418, (1992), pp. 135155.
Guedes Soares, C. and Trovo M.F.S. (1991), Influence
of wave modeling climate on the long-term prediction of
wave induced responses of ship structures, Dynamics of
Marine Vehicles and Structures in Waves, Elsevier Science
Publishers B.V.
523
ABSTRACT: An evaluation of the two state of the art high resolution coastal wave models FUNWAVE and
REFDIF1, is carried out in the present work. The target area is a coastal sector located in the central part of
the Portuguese continental nearshore, south of the city Figueira da Foz. The wave input for the two models
is provided by an ADCP and transferred via a coarse REFDIF driver to three high resolution computational
domains. Simulations with the models FUNWAVE and REFDIF1 were performed in parallel in these three areas
for various wave and tide conditions. The results show in general a good agreement between the two models
and the field data outside the surf zone. Inside the surf zone a calibration process is carried out for FUNWAVE
and afterwards the results provided by the two models become significantly closer. The present study gives
information concerning the performance of the two wave models evaluated in different forcing conditions and
also about some specific features concerning the process of wave breaking in the Portuguese nearshore.
1
INTRODUCTION
525
where is the shape coefficient for the source function and xs is the central location of the source in the
x direction for a source oriented parallel to the y-axis.
The model also provides for the presence of sources
along the lateral boundaries parallel to the x-axis. D is
the magnitude of the source function, = k sin() the
wave number in the y direction and k is the linear
wave number. Due to nonlinear interactions in the
model are generated higher order harmonics as the
wave propagates in the field. To eliminate the growth
of harmonics of very short wavelength, which can
cause non-convergence of the model (blow-up), a filter
is applied to pre defined time intervals.
Two kinds of boundary conditions are used in the
model, i.e. total reflected wall and sponge layer. A
sponge layer boundary condition is used here since
it is able to damp wave energy for a wide range of
frequencies and directions.
A high order finite difference scheme was implemented in FUNWAVE. Thus, a composite 4th-order
Adams-Bashforth-Moulton scheme (utilizing a 3rdorder Adams-Bashforth predictor step and 4th-order
Adams-Moulton corrector step) is used to step the
model forward in time. All errors involved in solving the underlying nonlinear shallow water equations
are thus reduced to 4th order in grid spacing and time
step size. Spatial and temporal differencing of the
higher-order dispersion terms is done to second-order
accuracy, which again reduces the truncation errors
to a size smaller than those terms themselves. No
further back-substitution of apparent truncation error
terms is performed.
On the other hand, REFDIF1 (Kirby and Dalrymple,
1994) uses an approach based on the so called mild
526
Table 1.
Model
Parameter
x (m)
y (m)
nx
ny
t (s)
nt
ibc
iftr/wc
break
ck_bt/FCW
FUNWAVE
REFDIF1 +
SHORECIRC
2
2
301
301
0.1
9001
2
100
cbkv = 0.35
cbrk = 1.2
0.001
2
2
301
301
0.045
12001
2; 6; 5; 5
1000
k = 0.5
= 0.3
0.012
the in-flight navigation system, giving maximum differences of 10 m in N-S direction and 2 m in E-W
direction. Envelopes of markers groups were drawn,
and vector positioning of individual markers was
used for determining the group mass centre position
(Gomes et al., 2004). Approximate speed estimates
were obtained from the shortest distance between
consecutive centre positions.
For the observed wave conditions corresponding
to typical values at that site, the significant longshore
current was greater than 20 cm/s up to 1 m/s, for the
markers caught within the surf zone, with 30 cm/s
average and 21 cm/s standard deviation.
Simulations with the numerical models REFDIF1
as wave driver and SHORECIRC (Svendsen et al.,
2002) for assessing the coastal circulation were performed every 15 minutes for a time interval of 2 hours
and 45 minutes (between 9am and 11.45 am) corresponding to the conditions that occurred on 7 October
2003. At each time step, the input conditions and the
tide level were varied. In general, a good agreement
concerning the waves and nearshore currents between
the model results and the field data was obtained
(Rusu and Guedes Soares, 2010). Nevertheless, it has
to be also mentioned that in order to fit the field data
the breaking parameters corresponding to the modeling system had to be modified from their standard
values to the values indicated in Table 1. A more
detailed discussion concerning these modifications
will be made in the next sections.
4 COMPUTATIONAL STRATEGIES
AND SETTINGS
Since the results provided by the combined modeling
system REFDIF1-SHORECIRC were already validated in the target area, the objective of the present
work is to make a comparison between the results provided by the FUNWAVE model with those coming
from REFDIF1 for the same time frames considered
above (in 7 October 2003).
The computational strategy adopted is suggested
in Figure 1. The wave parameters provided by the
527
528
Figure 3. FUNWAVE results, wave records at the reference points a) P1, b) P2, c) P3. CS1 2003/10/07/h09.03. The
distances of the reference points from the offshore boundary
and the resulting Hrms are also indicated.
529
allowing the variation of the parameter for the breaking scheme. 0.35 is the recommended value for this
parameter and this is related with the ratio between the
surface elevation and the wave celerity when breaking
initially occurs (Chen et al., 2000). Keeping the same
proportion as in REFDIF1, the parameter cbkv was
set to the value of 0.22. After several tests the value
of 1.8 was found more appropriate for the parameter
cbrk.
The results are illustrated also in Figure 5 where
they are denoted as FUNWAVE 2. Only the situations when relevant changes in relationship with the
previous FUNWAVE results occur are represented in
the figure. As reflected by the results illustrated in
Figure 5 the results in the breaking zone in terms of
Hrms are much closer than those provided by REFDIF1
and validated through the field experiment.
The maximum wave heights provided by the
FUNWAVE model in each case study were also
evaluated and the global maximum (with the value of
2.93 m) occurred in the third computational domain
(A3) in the second case study (CS2). On the other
hand, REFDIF1 provided the maximum Hrms for CS1
and A2.
7
CONCLUSIONS
530
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented has been made in the scope
of the project NEARPORT (Development of a
real-time nearshore wave prediction system for
the Portuguese ports) supported by the Portuguese
Foundation for Science and Technology under contract
PTDC/ECM/64373/2006.
REFERENCES
Berkhoff, J.C.W., 1972. Computation of combined
refractiondiffraction. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE,
pp. 471490.
Booij, N., 1981. Gravity waves on water with non uniform
depth and currents, PhD thesis, Technical University of
Delft, The Netherlands, 131 pp.
Chen, Q., Kirby, J.T., Dalrymple, R.A., Kennedy, B.A.,
Chawla, A., 2000. Boussinesq modelling of wave
transformation, breaking, and runup. II: 2D. Journal of
Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE
126 (1), 5762.
Dalrymple, R.A., Kirby, J.T. and Hwang, P.A., 1984. Wave
diffraction due to areas of energy dissipation, Journal of
Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE,
110, 6779.
Gomes, F., Pacheco, L.B., Silva, J., Silva, R., Rusu, E.,
2004. Using GIS in the Evaluation of the Wave Induced
Circulation in the Portuguese Nearshore, EGS General
Assembly, Nice, France.
531
ABSTRACT: The objective of the present work is to evaluate the wave conditions in the Azores Archipelago
using numerical models. Taking into account the geographical position of the nine islands that form the
Archipelago of Azores, the wave conditions are usually affected by various wave systems propagating across
the North Atlantic Ocean. As a general feature, the archipelago is subjected to both the direct approach of the
swell coming from distant storms as well as sea waves generated by local winds that create a local wave system
and modify the incoming swell fields. A wave prediction system based on the two state of-the-art spectral phase
averaging wave models, WAM applied at ocean scale and SWAN applied at regional and local scales was implemented in the Archipelago of Azores. Hindcast simulations were carried out for high energetic situations in the
North Atlantic Ocean. The validation of the results was made with altimeter data that provide good coverage for
the wave conditions.
INTRODUCTION
533
Table 1.
Limits
Grids
Lat
Long
South
North
West
East
Coarse 1
Coarse 2
Medium
2
1
0.5
2
1
0.5
14
20
24
70
68
60
64
50
33
20
4
0
Table 2.
Grids
X axis ( )
Y axis ( )
x y ( )
Large area
Central area
Oriental area
8.5
2.5
2.0
5.0
1.5
2.0
0.05 0.05
0.01 0.01
0.01 0.01
534
group, but also the islands from the western part of the
central group.
In the study of Ponce de Len & Guedes Soares
(2005) it was pointed out that the Azores islands
may contribute to the dissipation of the spectral wave
energy under certain weather conditions. Thus, for
the energetic situation presented in Figure 2 when the
wave direction is from North-Northwest, a strong
sheltering effect to the South-Southeast of the islands
was observed associated with the passage of the storm.
In general, in the shadowed area occur wave systems
with various directions that might be very dangerous for the small vessels navigating in the area. Such
examples are illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 that
present the significant wave height fields resulted from
the simulations carried out in the Central and Oriental
areas. The representation of the wave direction vectors shows also quite clearly the refraction effects in
the vicinity of the islands.
4
4.1
Figure 5. ERS-2, TOPEX, Poseidon and GEOSAT FollowOn (GFO) satellite tracks over the Azores Archipelago area
in January 2001.
535
Month
Bias
RMSE
SI
2001/01
2001/02
0.07
0.08
0.71
0.75
0.17
0.23
0.90
0.96
0.99
1.06
4433
3856
Bias
RMSE
SI
ERS-2
TOPEX
Poseidon
GFO
0.04
0.07
0.04
0.11
0.69
0.80
0.68
0.69
0.23
0.21
0.21
0.17
0.81
0.96
0.93
0.95
0.99
1.04
1.04
1.00
2012
2806
473
2998
Statistical analysis
536
Bias
RMSE
SI
0.12
0.08
0.67
0.65
0.17
0.16
0.90
0.91
0.99
0.99
411
411
0.26
0.28
0.67
0.67
0.19
0.19
0.84
0.84
1.09
1.09
468
468
Bias
RMSE
SI
2001/01
2001/02
0.04
0.94
1.74
2.67
0.17
0.25
0.89
0.81
1.01
0.93
4433
3856
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 8. Wind speed scatter plots for January 2001 (a) and
February 2001 (b).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
537
Rusu, E. & Guedes Soares C., 2009. Numerical modeling to estimate the spatial distribution of the wave energy
in the Portuguese nearshore, Renewable Energy 34(6):
15011516.
Rusu, E., Guedes Soares C. & Pilar, P. 2008a. Evaluation
of the Wave Conditions in Madeira Archipelago with
Spectral Models, Ocean Engineering 35(13): 13571371.
Rusu, E., Pilar, P. & Guedes Soares, C. 2008b. Development of a Wave Prediction System for the Madeira
Archipelago, Maritime Industry, Ocean Engineering and
Coastal Resources, P.Kolev, C. Guedes Soares (Eds.),
Francis & Taylor, London, pp. 787799.
Rusu, L., Pilar, P. & Guedes Soares, C. 2008c. Hindcast of
the wave conditions along the west Iberian coast. Coastal
Engineering 55(11): 906919.
WAMDI Group: Hasselmann, S., Hasselmann, K., Bauer, E.,
Janssen, P.A.E.M., Komen, G. J., Bertotti, L., Lionello,
P., Guillaume, A., Cardone, V.C., Greenwood, J. A.,
Reistad, M., Zambresky, L. & Ewing, J. A. 1988. The
WAM Model AThird Generation Ocean Wave Prediction
Model, J. Phys. Ocean. 18: 17751810.
538
Anna Rutgersson
Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Andreas Sterl
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, Netherlands
Kay Suelj
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena-California, USA
ABSTRACT: A global climatology of the wave age parameter, based on the ERA-40 wave reanalysis, is
presented in the present study. The annual and seasonal climatological patterns of the wave age are shown,
confirming, in line with previous studies, the global predominance of swell waves in the World Ocean. The
interannual variability of the wave age fields are studied by means of an EOF (empirical orthogonal function)
analysis. The leading modes of variability of the wave age demonstrate that the areas of higher explained
variability (the centers of action) occur mostly along the equator, coinciding with the so called swell pools,
where long waves coincide with light winds.
1
INTRODUCTION
539
540
Pacific
Atlantic
Indian
DJF
JJA
13.8
16.3
18.2
11.5
18.8
15.9
Basin
N.Hemisphere N. Atlantic
N. Pacific
N. Indian
Total
S.Hemisphere S. Atlantic
S. Pacific
S. Indian
Total
Global
2.99
3.30
5.42
3.08
3.12
3.37
3.57
3.26
3.27
3.02
3.51
3.18
3.30
2.69
2.84
2.94
2.79
3.04
3.01
3.15
5.23
3.12
2.73
3.21
3.26
2.98
3.13
2.98
3.30
4.59
3.09
3.01
3.27
3.41
3.16
3.18
541
decrease in the wave age values after the wave front has
passed. In DJF, in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans the
spatial patterns of the leading modes of 10 coincide
with the swell pools. The swell propagation patterns
in the Pacific Ocean are complicated, particularly in
DJF, since they are affected by waves generated in both
hemispheres. The area of high explained variability
in the centre of action is most certainly the result of
the arrival of wave fronts generated in the extratropical latitudes in both hemispheres (Young 1999). The
situation in the Atlantic Ocean although similar is different. The wind speeds along the extratropical storm
area in the South Atlantic, in DJF, are rather low. in
fact the lowest of all the extratropical areas (Semedo
et al. 2011), and the northward penetration of swell
waves generated in the South Atlantic is marginal compared to the predominant south bound swell generated
by the North Atlantic DJF extratropical storms. Therefore the maximum of explained variance (the centre of
action) located in the central equatorial Atlantic Ocean
between the Gulf of Guinea and Brazil is mostly due
to intermittent swell fronts generated in the North
Atlantic storm tracks. A similar situation occurs in JJA,
but now due to swell waves generated along Southern
Atlantic storm tracks and propagating northward.
The situation in the Indian Ocean in DJF (summer
in the Southern Hemisphere) shows a well defined
dipole along the equator, and a secondary dipole along
the extratropical latitudes. In JJA, also in the Indian
Ocean, is now similar to DJF in the Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans, with a well defined pattern maximum of explained variance west of Sumatra. In JJA, in
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, well defined dipoles
arte now present. In the Pacific ocean the area of
maximum of explained variance Northeast of New
Guinea.
4
CONCLUSIONS
542
543
Renewable energy
ABSTRACT: The influence of the environmental conditions on wind turbine design loads for a monopile
foundation is studied by analyzing the bending moment at the tower base and blade root for various values of
water depth, tower height, pile diameter and wind turbulence model. The main design requirements are related
to the limitation of maximum deflection at the tower base which influences the vibration modes of the complete
structure. The analysis is done using FAST code for wind turbine, which operates in the time domain. The detailed
effects of pile diameter, height of tower and water depth are presented. The study is carried out by using a 5 MW
wind turbine with a monopile foundation.
INTRODUCTION
547
The monopile has historically been the most commonly selected foundation type due to its lower cost,
simplicity, and appropriateness for shallow water (less
than 20 m).
The design is a long hollow steel pole that extends
from below the seabed to the base of the turbine. The
monopile generally does not require any preparation
of the seabed and is installed by drilling or driving the
structure into the ocean floor to depths of up to 40
meters. The monopile is relatively simple to manufacture, keeping its cost down despite reaching weights
of over 500 tons and diameters of up to 5.1 m, which
can be heavier than some more complex foundation
designs.
While the monopile is an appropriate foundation
choice for many projects, it can be unsuitable in some
applications. These foundations are not well suited
for soil strata with large boulders. Additionally the
required size of an acceptable monopile increases
disproportionately as turbine size increases and site
conditions become more challenging. Therefore, sites
with deeper water, harsh waves and currents, and larger
turbines may require the implementation of more complex and sturdier designs, such as the jacket, the tripod
and the tripile.
3
The wind load applied on the turbine tower comprises of the effects of the direct wind pressure on the
tower and the wind turbine. Therefore in designing the
tower, calculations are made to reflect each characteristic load and suitable safety factor. Loads that occur
548
SIMULATION MODEL
In the present study, a 5 MW wind turbine model developed at NREL is used in the simulation studies. The
turbine design variables are hub height of 90 m above
the mean sea level, and a rotor diameter of 126 m.
The turbine is a variable-speed and collective pitchcontrolled machine, with a maximum rotor speed of
12.1 rpm. The rated wind speed is 11.5 m/s. According
to the NREL design variables the turbine is assumed
to be placed in 20 m of water depth with a monopile
support structure. The FAST code is used to study
the bending moment at the tower base and tower root
for various values of water depth, tower height, pile
diameter and turbulence model.
Bending moment at blade root and bending moment
at tower base are examined for significant wave heights
of 0.5 m, 4.2 m and 9.4 m. The mean wind speed, diameter of pile and turbulence model are fixed respectively
at 12.1 m/s, 6 m and smooth, for three different water
depth conditions and for same control units significant
wave heights of 0.5 m, 4.2 m and 9.4 m is examined
with mean wind speed, diameter of pile and turbulence model are fixed respectively at 12.1 m/s, 6 meters
and smooth, for three different water depth conditions
(10 m, 20 m, 30 m).
4.1 Water depth
Water depth does not affect the blade root as this
depends only on the wind load on the blade. Calculations with the code show indeed that the maximum,
mean and standard deviations in 10 minute simulations, are constant for each water depth and wave
height, which is a verification of the adequacy of the
code.
In Fig. 2, it is observed that the bending moment at
the tower base is maximum when water depth is 30 m
and minimum when water depth is 10 m while wave
height is increasing. The maximum value increases
differently during 10 minutes simulation for 30 m
549
Pile diameter
550
Pile height
551
CONCLUSION
The design loads for a monopile foundation is studied by analyzing the bending moment at the tower
base and tower root for various values of water depth,
tower height, pile diameter and turbulence model.
FAST code is used to study the bending moment at
the tower base and tower root for a 5 MW offshore
wind turbine. It is observed that the maximum blade
bending moment increases with wind speed, up to the
rated wind speed of 11.5 m/s, and then decreases, as
is expected due to blade-pitch control actions. For
each water depth the bending moment at the tower
base is maximum when water depth is 30 m and minimum when water depth is 10 m. The blade loads are
seen to be relatively insensitive to wave height. It is
an expected result that bending moment at the blade
root is similar. These observations are of significant
importance in the design of monopile offshore wind
turbine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was performed within the project
FLOATERS-Wave Interaction with Floating Structures in Shallow Water financed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
(Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia) under contract
PTDC/ECM/111242/2009. The second author has
been funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science
and Technology through a post-doctoral fellowship
under the contract no. SFRH/BPD/81010/2011.
REFERENCES
Agarwal, P. and Manuel, L. 2009. Simulation of offshore wind
turbine response for long-term extreme load prediction,
J. of Eng. Struct. 31, pp. 22362246.
Bagbanci, H., Karmakar, D. and Guedes Soares, C. 2012.
Review of offshore floating wind turbines concepts,
Maritime Technology and Engineering, C. Guedes Soares
et al. (Eds.), Taylor & Francis Group, London.
Bir, G. and Jonkman, J. 2008. Modal Dynamics of
Large Wind Turbines with Different Support Structures,
552
ABSTRACT: A literature survey of research and development on offshore floating wind turbines and its
applications is presented. The performance of various floating wind turbine models in different water depths are
outlined to understand the importance of the water depth for floater design. The working principle of various
floater concepts and the conceptual designs for floating platforms used for floating wind turbines are also
described. The detailed research work that has been undertaken in the study of floating wind turbine technology
by various researchers and research institutes are discussed. A brief description on the various components of
the wind turbines, the role of various techniques and loads for design, control systems and economics of wind
energy conversion system are also presented.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent decades, the demand for energy is increasing due to the increase in world population and also
due to industrialization. Most of the people are dependent on fossil fuel as energy source and as a result
there is a negative impact in the society due to the
depletion of fossil fuel. So, efforts are being made to
gradually adopt renewable energy resources that are
going to be exempt from any environmental consequences. The wind energy is observed as an essential
and powerful energy resource for the socio-economic
development and economic growth which helps in
reducing the dependency on fossil fuels and provides
clean energy. It has been estimated that about 10 million MW of energy are available in the earths wind and
it provides security at a time when decreasing global
reserves of fossil fuels threatens the long-term sustainability of global economy. Thus, wind energy emerged
as a promising technology for the utilization of offshore wind resources for the large scale generation of
electricity.
The generation of power from wind can be obtained
from the wind turbines that convert wind energy to
electrical energy. The wind turbines can produce large
amounts of electricity as compared to other energy
sources which are generally placed in (i) onshore and
(ii) offshore.
It has been observed that the relatively low surface
roughness of the ocean results in higher wind speeds
than in onshore. So the offshore turbines are appearing
as an attractive option for generating electricity.
In the year 1885, wind energy was first used for the
production of electrical energy in Askov, Denmark by
Poul la Cour. He converted an old wooden wind mill
into the first wind turbine, which covered the energy
demands of Askov high school. Thus, from 1885, the
553
The deep water offshore wind turbines are generally floating structures and are placed in more
than 60 m water depth. The floating wind turbines
in deep water fall into four main categories (i) Sparbuoy type, (ii) Tension Leg Platform (TLP) type, (iii)
Semi-submersible type and (iv) Pontoon type.
Recently, most of the offshore wind power projects
are proposed in deep water where the winds are of
sufficient velocities. Thus the wind turbines on the
floating support are the best solution to utilize the wind
resources in areas with deep water depths.
In order to improve the wind energy production and
to get large scale generation of electricity, wind turbine
technology needs offshore wind energy resources. So
far, most projects of offshore wind farms are located
in relatively shallow water using bottom-fixed type
wind turbines. To extend wind turbine systems to
deeper water, practical research of offshore floating
554
2.3.2 Nacelles
The nacelle houses the main components of the wind
turbine, such as the controller, gearbox, generator, and
shafts. This part protects the wind turbine equipment.
2.3.3 Controller
The controller monitors the condition of the turbine
and controls the turbine movement. The control system changes the blade pitch, nacelle yaw, and generator
loading of a wind turbine. The control system can also
change the pitch of the blades to alter the amount
of torque produced by the rotor. The purpose of the
control system is to maximize power output.
2.3.4 Gearbox
The gearbox present in the turbine helps in increasing
the rotational speed of the shaft. A low-speed shaft
feeds into the gearbox and a high-speed shaft feeds
from the gearbox into the generator. Some turbines use
direct drive generators that are capable of producing
electricity at a lower rotational speed.
2.3.5 Generators
Wind turbines typically have a single AC generator that converts the mechanical energy from the
wind turbines rotation into electrical energy. Clipper
Wind power uses a different design that features four
DC generators. Offshore wind turbines typically send
power through cables.
2.3.6 Rotor
The rotor includes both the blades and the hub. The
rotor consists of normally two or three blades attached
to a hub. The system performance of the wind turbine
is based on the selection of blade number, shape, and
length. The rotor can be either upwind or downwind
design. Most wind turbines are three bladed upwind
designs.
2.3.7 Towers
Towers are usually tubular steel towers 60 m to 80 m
high that consist of three sections of varying heights.
555
Currently, there are a number of offshore wind turbine floating foundation concepts in various stages of
development. The main concern is to study the floating
wind turbine in deep water depth where the generation
of power of each unit can be increased.
4.1 Wind turbine in deep water depth
In general terms, the spar-buoy type have better heave
performance than semisubmersibles due to their deep
draft and reduced vertical wave exciting forces, but
have more pitch and roll motions, since the water plane
area contribution to stability is reduced. TLPs have
very good heave and angular motions, but the complexity and cost of the mooring installation, the change
556
Table 1.
Power rating
Turbine weight
Turbine height
Rotor diameter
Draft hull
Displacement
Diameter of water line
Diameter of submerged body
Water depths
Mooring
2.3 MW
138 tons
65 m
82.4 m
100 m
5300 m3
6m
8.3 m
120700 m
3 lines
in tendon tension due to tidal variations, and the structural frequency coupling between the mast and the
mooring system, are three major hurdles for such systems. Semi-submersible concepts with a shallow draft
and good stability in operational and transit conditions
are significantly cheaper to tow out, install and commission than spar-buoy, due to their draft. The various
floating turbines will be discussed in some detail.
4.1.1 Spar-type floating wind turbine
The spar-type floating wind turbine comprises the
floating foundation which is referred as the floater,
the tower and the rotor-nacelle assembly (RNA). The
floater is towed in the horizontal position to the deployment site in calm waters. It is then upended, stabilised,
and the tower and the RNA mounted by a derrick crane
barge before finally being towed by escort tugs in the
vertical position to the deployment site for connection
to the mooring system.
The floating foundation consists of a steel and/or
concrete cylinder filled with a ballast of water and
gravel to keep the centre of gravity well below the centre of buoyancy which ensures the wind turbine floats
in the sea and stays upright since it creates a large righting moment arm and high inertial resistance to pitch
and roll motions. The floater is ballasted by permanent
solid iron ore ballast, concrete or gravel from a chute.
Alternatively, the ballast tanks may be injected with
grout. It should be remarked that the spar-buoy type
is difficult to capsize. The draft of the floating foundation is usually larger than or at least equal to the
hub height above the mean sea level for stability and
to minimise heave motion. Therefore, it is necessary
to have deep water for deployment of this spar-buoy
type floating wind turbine as adequate keel to seabed
vertical clearance is required for the mooring system
to be effective.
The spar-type floating wind turbine is usually kept
in position by a taut or a catenary spread mooring
system using anchor-chains, steel cables and/or synthetic fibre ropes. Alternatively, it may be moored by
a single vertical tendon held at the base by a swivel
connection that allows the wind turbine to revolve as
the wind changes direction (as proposed by the company SWAY). This free yawing effect is similar to the
swinging mechanism found in a Floating Production
Storage and Offloading vessel (FPSO) turret mooring
in the offshore oil and gas industry.
Although favourable because the wind turbine will
always face the direction of oncoming wind thus optimising power generation, the single vertical tendon
may not provide for a degree of redundancy in the
event of failure, resulting in unrestrained drifting of
the floater. The first full scale size spar floating turbine
has been deployed off the south-west coast of Karmoy
Island, Norway by Statoil in the Hywind demonstration project. The specification of a 2.3 MW spar-buoy
floating wind turbine is given in Table 1.
Tong (1998) analyzed the technical and economic
aspects of a wind farm. The conceptual design for
FLOAT, which is a spar-buoy type floating wind turbine was presented. Nielson et al. (2006) discussed the
integrated dynamic analysis of spar-buoy type floating wind turbines. They developed simulation models
for Hywind and compared their numerical results with
model scale test results.
Skaare et al. (2007) presented the importance
of control strategies on the fatigue life of floating
wind turbines. They considered various environmental conditions and wind turbine control schemes. They
showed the importance of the effect of pitch-angle
control of blades on the dynamic response of the floating wind turbine for wind speeds above the rated
wind speed. Suzuki and Sato (2007) investigated the
loads on turbine blades induced by the motion of the
floating platform and design requirement for the platform. They analyzed the effect of a stabilizing the
fin attached to the base of the floating foundation in
reducing the pitch motion of the floating spar wind
turbine.
Matsukuma and Utsunomiya (2008) performed a
motion analysis of a spar-buoy type floating wind turbine under steady wind considering rotor rotation. The
wind loads acting on the rotor blades are calculated
using the blade element momentum theory. As a result,
557
5 MW
108 m
11 m
21.5 m
4.5 m
698 ton
558
Table 3.
Power rating
Rotor diameter
Turbine hub height
Turbine nacelle weight
Tower weight
Hull weight
Total displacement
Hull draft
Operational water depth
Conventional mooring component
3.610 MW
120150 m
8090 m
225315 ton
180315 ton
10801630 ton
<5500 ton
<20 m
>50 m
46 lines
559
Table 4.
Power rating
Rotor orientation
Rotor diameter
Hub height
Cut-In, Rated, Cut-Out wind speed
Cut-In, Rated rotor speed
Rated Tip Speed
Rotor mass
Nacelle mass
Tower mass
5 MW
Upwind
126 m
90 m
3 m/s, 11.4 m/s, 25 m/s
6.9 rpm, 12.1 rpm
80 m/s
121.25 ton
264.55 ton
383 ton
in waves experienced by ocean-going ship shaped vessels and may only be sited in calm seas, like in a
harbour, sheltered cove or lagoon. The National Maritime Research Institute (NMRI) in Tokyo has made
some studies on such pontoon-type floating wind turbines. It should be remarked that there are clearly
hybrid types of floating wind turbines, for example
a combination of spar floater and tension leg mooring system. Also, there is an interesting concept of
a sailing-type floating wind turbine that was studied
at the National Institute for Environmental Studies,
Japan.
The floating wind power plant has no mooring system but navigates with sails and azimuth thrusters.
The self-sailing and self propelled mobility allows the
wind farm to move to a location that maximizes the
generation of wind power as well as to weather route
from storms. The slender lower and upper hulls are
lightweight composites to minimize construction costs
and enhance the propulsive performance.
Based on the buoyancy stabilized concept, NREL
and MIT collaborated in a pontoon-type (or bargetype) floating wind turbine. The pontoon-type is
adopted because of its simplicity in design, fabrication and installation. Jonkman and Buhl (2007)
presented fully coupled aero hydro servo elastic simulation tools for a preliminary loads analysis of a 5 MW
pontoon-type wind turbine. The analysis aims to characterize the dynamic response and to identify potential
loads and instabilities that would be detrimental to
such a pontoon-type design. They found that coupling
between the turbine response and the pontoon pitch
motion produces larger extreme loads in the floating
turbine tower and blades. The pontoon was found to
be susceptible to excessive pitching in extreme wave
conditions. The compliance of the floating pontoon
wind turbine did, however, reduce a tower side-to-side
instability that occurred in land-based turbines. They
suggested some design modifications to reduce the
pontoon motions and to eliminate the instabilities.
560
CONCLUSION
The floating wind turbine is one of the fastest growing technologies in the recent years and may become
a major generator of offshore renewable electricity
worldwide. Floating wind farms located far out in
the deep sea draw more wind power than land-based
wind farms. This paper has presented a brief literature
review on the work pursued on offshore floating wind
turbine. The following conclusions are drawn based on
the study carried out in this paper:
561
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(OER), Houston.
Nielsen, F.G., Hanson, T.D., and Skaare, B., 2006. Integrated
dynamic analysis of floating offshore wind turbines. Proc.
25th Intl. Conf. Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Eng.
Hamburg, Germany, OMAE2006-92291.
Nielsen, F.G., Argyriadis, K., Fonseca, N., Le Boulluec,
M., Liu, P., Suzuki, H., Sirkar, J., Tarp-Johansen, N.J.,
562
ABSTRACT: Two state-of-the-art spectral models, WAVEWATCH III (Tolman 2009) and SWAN (Booij et al.
1999), are used to create a wave prediction system with the aim to characterize wave energy conditions for the
Spanish North Coast. Direct comparisons are made and statistical results are obtained to assess the reliability of
the wave prediction system developed. The wave parameters considered for those comparisons are significant
wave heights, mean and peak periods. Theoretical values of wave power are estimated and the spatial distribution
of wave energy was evaluated considering a relevant scenario and some areas with greater energetic potential is
identified. Overall the wave prediction system gives reasonable results when compared with the buoy data and,
therefore, the results obtained for wave power can be accepted as being near to the real potential for the north
coast of Spain.
INTRODUCTION
World energy consumption has been rising considerably and since traditional methods of energy consumption are contributing seriously to environmental
problems there is an urgent need for non-polluting
power generation. Wave energy is considered as a clean
source of energy, with low environmental impacts,
in particular it is seen as a big source of energy not
involving large CO2 emissions. However, difficulties
facing wave power developments must be recognized,
such as irregularities in wave amplitude, phase and
direction, which makes difficult for a device to obtain
maximum efficiency, and structural loading in the
event of extreme weather conditions. Nevertheless,
the advantages of wave energy are clear; it combines
crucial economic, environmental, ethical and social
factors (Clment et al. 2002).
Wave energy results from wind energy transfer to
the water at the free surface of the ocean and, after
being created, waves can travel long distances with little energy loss. Energy fluxes occurring in deep water
sea waves can be very large and, though near the coastline the average energy intensity of a wave decreases,
reflection and refraction can still compensate that as
they lead to energy concentration spots (hot spots).
Situated at the end of the Atlantic fetch, the wave
climate at the western coast of Europe is known as
being highly energetic. The long-term annual wave
power level increases from about 25 kW/m off the
southernmost part of Europes Atlantic coastline up
to 75 kW/m off Ireland and Scotland. The total wave
energy resource for Europe results in 320 GW (Clment et al. 2002) (Fig. 1).
The potential of wave energy extraction can be
acquired from analysis of wave conditions. Buoy data
563
564
Buoy 1
Buoy 2
Buoy 3
Buoy 4
42.12 N
43.40 N
43.74 N
43.64 N
Longitude
Depth
600 m
386 m
450 m
600 m
9.43 W
9.21 W
6.17 W
3.05 W
Bathymetries
Latitude
Longitude
Resolution
565
566
567
Here Xi represent the measured values, Yi the simulated values and n the number of observations. The
results are shown in Table 3, 4 and 5.
In general, for Hs, the 3rd buoy has the best
results and the 4th buoy has the worst results. For
the first two buoys the statistical results for Hs are
good; it can be observed that the bias values are below
0.1 m, and all correlation coefficients are above 0.8.
For mean and peak periods the results were not as
good as for Hs, as expected. Nevertheless, buoy 4 has
the best results for both mean and peak periods. The
differences between measured periods and simulated
periods may be a result of the different processes used
in obtaining the values. For SWAN they result from
spectral analysis and for the buoys they result from a
direct analysis of the data.
568
Table 3.
Buoy 1 (n = 21)
Buoy 2 (n = 211)
Buoy 3 (n = 206)
Buoy 4 (n = 207)
Table 4.
Bm
Sm
Bias
RMSE
SI
2.513
2.738
1.944
1.909
2.564
2.660
1.778
1.257
0.050
0.079
0.166
0.652
0.626
0.647
0.430
0.948
0.249
0.236
0.221
0.496
0.899
0.875
0.902
0.813
Mean Period
Buoy 1 (n = 21)
Buoy 2 (n = 211)
Buoy 3 (n = 206)
Buoy 4 (n = 207)
Table 5.
Bm
Sm
Bias
RMSE
SI
7.002
6.830
6.910
6.487
3.850
3.907
3.328
4.930
3.152
2.923
3.582
1.558
3.323
3.076
3.792
1.975
0.475
0.450
0.549
0.304
0.714
0.772
0.840
0.809
Bm
Sm
Bias
RMSE
SI
11.431
10.945
11.120
10.929
8.929
8.727
8.805
10.071
2.502
2.218
2.315
0.858
3.555
3.126
3.672
2.598
0.311
0.286
0.330
0.238
0.514
0.668
0.548
0.630
Mean Period
Buoy 1 (n = 21)
Buoy 2 (n = 211)
Buoy 3 (n = 206)
Buoy 4 (n = 207)
Figure 22. Hs spatial distribution. In the background significant wave height scalar fields and in foreground wave
vectors.
569
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
570
ABSTRACT: The scattering of free surface gravity waves by a circular very large floating structure (VLFS)
in water of finite depth is studied. The circular platform is assumed to be a large elastic plate with constant
flexural rigidity and homogeneous stiffness. The edge of the plate is assumed free of shear forces, bending and
twisting moments. The geometry associated with the floating circular plate is assumed to be axi-symmetric.
Hence, the mathematical analysis describes the boundary value problem under the linearized water wave theory
in the two dimensional cylindrical polar coordinate systems. Using the continuity of velocity and pressure across
the vertical plate-water interface and then applying the higher order Fourier expansion formulae along with
the orthogonal properties of the eigenfunctions, the full solution is obtained. The reflection and transmission
characteristics of the incident wave and the behavior of flexural gravity wave propagation along the plate are
analyzed in detail.
INTRODUCTION
The hydroelastic analysis of a very large floating structure (VLFS) in water waves has gained a great deal
of attention due to the growing demand to use more
and more ocean space for various human activities.
These unconventional structures are often proposed as
a thin mat-like configuration extending in the horizontal direction up to several kilometers with a thickness
of less than 10 m. Such floating structures are very
flexible and the elastic deformations due to wave
action are more crucial than the rigid body motions. In
general, rectangular platforms are preferred as it is the
basic shape for construction. In reality, the geometry
of the platform is expected to be more complicated.
Various numerical methods have been developed over
the years to improve the hydroelastic predictions
of VLFS. On the other hand, analytical results are
always in need to provide the benchmarks. The extensive review of literature on the significant developments in the field of wave interaction with flexible
floating structures is provided by Kashiwagi (2000),
Watanabe et al. (2004) and Chen et al. (2006).
The study of VLFS attains more importance due
to its application in the analysis of wave interaction
with large floating ice sheets in the fields of Arctic
Engineering and the Cold Region Science and Technology. Squire et al. (1995) and Squire (2007) provided
extensive review of the work done in the field of wave
interaction with floating sea-ice, which is also modeled as a floating elastic plate. Squire (2008) discussed
the synergies between the two fields: wave interaction
with VLFS and the research on wave-ice interaction.
571
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
The mathematical formulation of the physical problem is based on the cylindrical polar coordinate system
(r, , y) as shown in Figure 1. The circular elastic plate
is assumed to be floating in an infinite fluid domain.
For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that the system
is symmetric in terms of rotation about the vertical axis y. Therefore, the axi-symmetric coordinate
system (r, y) is chosen that is independent of the rotational angle . The origin of the coordinate system is
where
572
METHOD OF SOLUTION
The method of solution is based on the eigenfunction expansion and the associated orthogonal relations
along with the matching technique. Using the generalized Fourier expansion formulae (see Manam et al.
2006), the velocity potentials 1 and 2 in the regions
1 (r < a) and 2 (r > a) respectively are expanded in
terms of appropriate eigenfunctions as follows:
with
573
One more equation is required to obtain a unique solution. The edge condition (7b) yields the final equation
as follows
Therefore, equations (13)(15) constitutes the linear system of algebraic equations to solve for the
unknown constants. The infinite series sums therefore present in the expansion formulae of the velocity
potentials are truncated up to a finite number of terms
N (say) in order to perform the numerical calculations.
Hence, equations (13)(15) yield (2N + 5) equations
for (2N + 5) unknowns. It may be noted that the number of terms N to be retained in each of the expansions
corresponding to the respective evanescent modes
depends on the convergence of the infinite series sums.
In the present study, it is observed that the number of evanescent modes required in the free surface
region is N = 15 whereas, N = 10 is sufficient for the
plate covered region. Therefore, for convenience in the
numerical calculation, in the present study the number
of evanescent modes in both the regions is taken as
N = 15. This further shows that the present method is
very efficient in terms of computer memory and time.
The surface displacements 1 and 2 in region 1 and
2 are given by
where
574
Once the unknown constants are determined, substituting the potential expansion in the above relation
will provide the behavior of the strain and shear force
along the plate length.
In the present section, numerical results for the reflection and transmission coefficients Kr and Kt respectively, the free surface and elastic plate elevations 1
and 2 , respectively, the surface strain and the shear
force Xs are presented and discussed in brief.
The numerical values of the physical parameters that are kept fixed throughout the computations
are = 1025 kgm3 , i = 925 kgm3 , E = 5 GPa,
= 0.3 and g = 9.81 ms2 . It may be noted that due to
the assumption of the axi-symmetric cylindrical polar
coordinate system, the three dimensional problem has
been reduced to the two dimensional problem, which is
independent of the rotational angle . Assuming = 0,
the radial axis r coincides with the x axis in the two
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (x, y), i.e.,
r = x, y = y. Therefore, all the parameters related to the
circular elastic plate are presented here for 0 < r < a,
i.e., for 0 < x < a.
As mentioned earlier, the numerical calculation
requires 10 to 15 numbers of evanescent modes in the
infinite series sums to converge and thus, the method
becomes efficient and robust in terms of computer
memory and time. The complex roots in the plate covered region play an important role in the behavior of
the flexural gravity wave propagation along the plate.
The numerical calculation shows that the reflection
coefficient is almost unity for all the incident wave
periods.
Figure 2 shows the variation of Kt with the period
T for different values of the plate radius a. It is
observed that the ratio of amplitudes of progressive
waves in the flexible plate and the amplitude of the
incident water wave increases with increase in the
period of the incident wave. Further, the ratio becomes
more than one after a certain incident wave period,
which implies that the amplitude of the transmitted
wave in the plate region is higher than the incident
wave amplitude. It may be further observed that the
change in the radius of the plate does not affect significantly in the behavior of the transmitted wave
amplitude as long as the dimension of the plate is comparable or much bigger than the incident wave length,
which is the case for VLFS structure.
Figures 3, 4 and 5 show the variation of free surface
and plate elevations, strain and shear force along the
plate for different values of the radius of the circular
plate a. It is observed that the amplitude of the flexural gravity wave that is propagating along the plate
is more than the free surface gravity waves. In the
free surface region, the maximum amplitude is attained
near the edge of the plate and it becomes steady away
from the plate. It may further be mentioned that the
flexural gravity wavelength is always greater than the
free surface gravity waves and for longer incident
wave periods, the flexural gravity wavelength becomes
575
576
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author has been funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT,
Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia, Ministrio
da Cincia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior) through
a Post Doctoral Fellowship under the contract no.
SFRH/BPD/47210/2008.
The work has been performed within the project
FLOATERS Wave Interaction with Floating
Structures in Shallow Water financed by the
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
(Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia) under contract
PTDC/ECM/111242/2009.
REFERENCES
Andrianov, A.I. & Hermans, A.J. 2005. Hydroelasticity of a
circular plate on water of finite or infinite depth. J. Fluids
and Structures. 20: 719733.
Karmakar, D., Bhattacharjee, J. & Sahoo, T. 2009. Wave interaction with multiple articulated floating elastic plates.
J. Fluids Struct. 25: 10651078.
Korobkin, A.A. & Ohkusu, M. 2004. Impact of two circular
platesone of which is floating on a thin layer of liquid.
J. Engng. Math. 50: 343358.
Manam, S. R., Bhattacharjee, J. & Sahoo, T. 2006. Expansion
formulae in wave structure interaction problems. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 462(2065): 263287.
Meylan, M. & Squire, V. 1996. Response of a circular ice floe
to ocean waves. J. Geophys. Res. 101(C4): 88698884.
Peter, M.A., Meylan, M. & Chung, H. 2003. Wave scattering
by a circular plate in water of finite depth: a closed form
solution. Proc. 13th Intl. Offshore & Polar Engng. Conf.
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. 180185.
Pham, D.C., Wang, C.M. & Utsunomiya, T. 2008. Hydroelastic analysis of pontoon-type circular VLFS with an
attached submerged plate. Appl. Ocean Res. 30: 287296.
Sturova, I.V. 2003. The action of an unsteady external load
on a circular elastic plate floating on shallow water. J.
Appl. Maths. Mechs. 67(3): 407416.
Squire, V. A. 2007. Of ocean waves and sea-ice revisited,
Cold Reg. Sc. Tech., 49(2): 110133.
Squire, V. A., Dugan, J. P., Wadhams, P., Rottier, P. J. &
Liu, A. K. 1995. Of ocean waves and sea ice, Annual Rev.
Fluid Mech., 27: 115168.
Squire, V. A. 2008. Synergies between VLFS hydroelasticity
and sea-ice research. Intl. J. of Offshore and Polar Engng.
18(3): 113.
Tsubogo, T. 1999. On the dispersion relation of hydroelastic
waves in a plate. J. Marine Sc. & Tech. 4(2): 7683.
577
578
ABSTRACT: In this paper the computational simulation of the behaviour of a buoy intended for automation
and power generation in aquaculture facilities has been studied. The main purpose for this buoy is to serve
as power supply for an aquaculture farm to support a system that could operate independently. The dynamic
behaviour of the buoy results to be of crucial importance in order to guarantee the correct operation of both the
power generation equipment and the farm control system. To investigate this dynamic behaviour a computational
simulation, through a 3DOF solver and a mooring simulator, have been combined. Since the fish farm will be
installed offshore, a key point to be considered during its design is that the installation must be capable to undergo
adverse weather conditions without damage. In this way all its elements susceptible to suffer damage or loss
are designed and installing such to be stowed automatically (i.e. windmill), and the cages (including both the
structure and the networks) have a suitable strength to withstand in the event of extreme weather conditions.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays coastal aquaculture presents many challenges that affect the production and require a
change in business model and in engineering solutions
(Halwart et al., 2007). Limitations associated with
the available space in coastal areas, the poor quality
of water in some of these areas and the fulfilment
of environmental standards and food safety regulations often prone to consider strategies for growth
that eventually moves production offshore. However,
in order to transfer aquaculture production offshore
one has to face several challenges, not only technological but also related to market positioning and scale of
business.
Although offshore aquaculture is one of the main
routes to meet growing global demand for fish products (PTEPA, 2009), facing a significant increasing in offshore production still requires substantial research efforts and multidisciplinary studies in
order to achieve this qualitative and quantitative leap
in production without taking unnecessary technical,
economical or personnel risks.
Therefore research efforts must be aimed not only
towards the design of structures able to withstand
the hard environmental conditions that may occur
in remote sea areas apart from the coast, but also
to resolve some issues related to the management
and maintenance of these structures while minimizing risk and associated costs derived from these
579
DESIGN CRITERIA
In this section, a reference fish farm and its operation have been modelled. The general distribution
and main characteristics of the farm are taken to be
representative of the ones used in the region.
The proposed aquaculture facilities under the scope
of this work are designed according to the monoculture of flat fish, as might be turbot. This kind of
fish is considered the priority objective of the aquaculture industry in Galicia, and can be presented as
the most representative specie to be cultivated in this
region, (Beaz-Paleo, 2008).
The fish farm considered for the present study consists of 12 floating cylindrical cages, flexible type, and
made of plastic. Although some cages are anchored
individually, the most common practice is to group
them, not just because it simplifies and minimizes the
costs of funding, but also for reasons of operation and
maintenance.
Circular offshore aquaculture cages are usually
attached to a cable network. This structure can have
multiple cells; any cage is placed in one of these cells
and secured with ropes to the network. Hawsers must
be sufficiently tight to keep the cage centred within the
cell, but allowing it to have some movement in such a
way that it can damp the blows of the sea.
In this study, the farm has 12 cages of 38 meters in
diameter and 5 meters height, with which, according
with our preliminary calculations, it can be achieved
an annual fish production of about 1800 tons.
It is clear that aquaculture farming in offshore areas
increases the difficult to perform the maintenance of
the farm and the control of its facilities. For that reason
1
2
580
www.meteogalicia.es/
w3.puertos.es/es/oceanografia_y_meteorologia/index.html
Figure 5. Sketch of the arrangement of cages with connecting lines and mooring.
581
where
Css = Current force coefficient
Cd = Drag coefficient
and the chain drag force has been defined by its normal (Fnchain) and tangential (Ftchain) components.
That is:
Figure 7. Buoys mooring behaviour.
Steel Weight
Solar Panels
Wind Generator
Batteries
Other systems
Total
Weight
KG
4.811 t
0.340 t
0.055 t
1.612 t
0.189 t
7.007 t
1.423 m
2.269 m
6.930 m
0.532 m
2.265 m
1.325 m
582
Table 2.
(Displacement)
V (Volume)
T (Draft to Baseline)
Lwl (Waterline length)
Bwl (Waterline beam)
WSA (Wet surface area)
AT (Max cross sect area)
Aw (Waterplane area)
Cp (Prismatic Coefficient)
Cb (Block Coefficient)
Cm (Midship Coefficient)
Cwp (Waterplane coefficient)
KB (Centre of buoyancy height)
KG (Centre of gravity height)
BMt (Transverse metacentric radius)
BMl (Longitudinal metacentric radius)
GMt (Transverse metacentric height)
GMl (Longitudinal metacentric height)
KMt (Transverse Metacentre)
KMl (Longitudinal Metacentre)
TPc (Tons per cm Immersion)
MTc (Moment to change trim 1 cm)
RM (Restoring Moment) at
1 deg = GMt.Disp.sin(1)
7.007 t
6.836 m3
0.475 m
6.072 m
6.064 m
29.653 m2
1.961 m2
28.825 m2
0.574
0.391
0.681
0.783
0.307 m
1.325 m
9.717 m
9.640 m
8.698 m
8.621 m
10.02 m
9.946 m
0.295 t/cm
0.099 t cm
1.064 t cm
SIMULATION
583
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was partially funded by the Xunta de Galicia
through project 10REM007CT and by Feder founds
by the MICIIN through project ENE2010-20680C03-03.
REFERENCES
Wave forces
Wind forces (including wind turbine)
Marine current forces
CONCLUSIONS
584
ABSTRACT: An overview of existing Wave Energy Converters (WECs) is presented, concentrating on the
main features of the devices dynamics, the power take off mechanisms and the mooring systems. The aim is to
identify the most promising technologies that are worth to be considered when planning the installation of wave
energy offshore. A common approach to classify WECs is based on their mode of operation, but it is recognized
that some devices have additional features that influence their performance and cost. The definition of a power
conversion chain is recognized to be a useful tool. Advantages and disadvantages of each class are outlined,
and concepts presenting distinguishing features are pointed out. Parameters are identified, on which to base an
evaluation and comparison between devices.
INTRODUCTION
DEVICES DYNAMICS
585
of this power conversion chain are found in existing or proposed devices (not considering the option
of having other final products than electricity, i.e.
typically, desalinated water): these are schematically
represented in Figure 1.
Each of the mentioned conversion steps can be
performed in more than one way, nonetheless a general scheme can be outlined, with a primary interface
representing the conversion operated by the part of
the device in direct contact with the waves (applying a damping force to them), that has in turn to be
referenced to either the seabed, the shore or another
component of the WEC, fixed or moving out of phase
from it; there can be intermediate transformations or
storage/accumulation of energy, and eventually the
conversion to electrical energy.
In the following, a review of the principles proposed so far is given, both the most common and the
unique ones, divided according to the primary conversion step they operate, with reference to Figure 1;
advantages and disadvantages common to all the
machines included in each of the classes are pointed
out; machines having peculiar features are individually
described.
2.1
Potential energy
2.1.1 Overtopping
These devices consist of a sloped structure (either
floating or fixed to shore), over which the waves topple; one or more reservoirs where the water is collected
and temporarily stored, create a static head of water;
and low-head hydro turbine(s) installed at the bottom
of the reservoir, through which the water flows out,
back to sea. These machines make use mainly of wellestablished technologies, thus reducing development
costs and risks; the only moving parts are the turbine(s)
and there are no components moving with the waves
(the device is not wave activated), thus minimizing
loadings and breaking risks, as well as reducing the
requirements on the structure and moorings (in floating devices). They are easily scalable without the need
for reconfiguration/tuning. The presence of a reservoir, acting as a buffer, helps smoothing the power
output.
586
Mechanical energy
wave force or a non-coupled body experiencing different exciting forces). Point absorbers can collect energy
from all directions and may be designed or controlled
so as to resonate that is, to move with larger amplitudes
than the waves themselves, in order to maximize the
amount of power captured. Their motion mode can be
heave, pitch or roll, or a combination of these. Thanks
to resonance, a point absorber is capable of collecting
more energy than that present in a wave front of its
same width. This same phenomenon, though, exposes
the machines and moorings to high and potentially
destructive loads, making over-engineering necessary.
Vantorre et al. (2004) have proposed a heaving point
absorber that moves with respect to a platform.
Point absorbers that are connected to the sea bottom are not the most frequent ones but reference can
be made to one taut-moored buoy concept that uses a
linear electric generator on the bottom (Eriksson et al.
2005, Leijon et al. 2006).
Elwood et al. (2010) have also developed a wave
energy conversion system that consists of a deep draft
spar and a taurus-shaped buoy having a saucer-shaped
profile. The outer buoy is free to heave relative to the
spar but is constrained in all other degrees of freedom
by a linear bearing system. Wave forces are transferred from the buoy to the spar using a contact-less
force transmission system. The wave forces imposed
on the spar along with the relative velocity between
the two floating bodies is converted into electricity by
a permanent magnet linear generator.
The systems that depend on the relative motion of
two bodies (Falnes 1999) are more frequent. Examples
are the Aquabuoy (Weinstein et al. 2004), the Wavebob (Weber et al. 2009), which are floating buoys that
have parts moving vertically. The Archimedes Wave
Swing (AWS) has a bottom fixed cylinder and oscillating one on the upper part, which responds to the
pressures of the waves as they pass. The system was
tested in Portugal in 2004 and its performance can be
improved with control strategies (Valrio et al. 2007).
Another device depends on its pitch motion is the
PS Frog MK.5, which is a floater that has a vertical
floater with a ballast tank hanging below (McCabe
et al. 2005). When it pitches there is a mass that moves
sideways above the sea level, providing the motion for
the PTO.
Installation of arrays of devices is often foreseen,
with consequent higher costs of deployment (and manufacturing, although economies of scale will occur) as
compared to a single, bigger unit; a positive issue is
that the failure or temporary shutoff of one machine
will not affect the overall production significantly. The
hydrodynamic interaction between devices within an
array is complex and it can have negative effects on
absorbed power of some of the devices in the array,
and positive on others.
Point absorbers have been among the first kind
of devices to be proposed and investigated, and
there are several studies on their interaction. Falnes
(1980) neglected the scattered wave potential under the
assumption that the device dimension is much smaller
587
588
3.2
A variety of Power Take Off System (PTO) arrangements have been proposed: these are not univocally
associated to a specific device or family, but can in
general be matched to several. Some PTOs developed by independent parts are proposed as off-theshelf components to device developers (Trident linear
generator, Artemis hydraulic systems, Sara Magnetohydrodynamic generator, Electroactive Polymer Artificial Muscle EPAM). There is no agreement on which
method is best, as each method has advantages and
disadvantages, and depending on device and site specifications different solutions will result to be better
than others. A brief description of different PTOs,
with their main advantages and drawbacks, follows.
A more extensive treatment can be found in Mynett
et al. (1979) and Salter et al. (2002).
Compressed fluids
3.1 Turbines
3.1.1 Air turbines (Wells, Denniss-Auld, airwave,
HydroAir)
These are used in Oscillating Water Column devices
and are in most cases of the Wells type, either single or twin rotor, with or without guide vanes. Other
kinds of turbines are also used and studied: namely
variable-pitch and impulse wheels. The Wells turbine
is characterized by an efficiency curve dropping quite
fast away from optimal rotational speed; variablepitch machines perform better but add in construction
complexity and are more prone to failure (requiring
therefore more maintenance). A review of this type of
turbines is given by Raghunathan (1995), while Curran
and Gato (1997) have compared the performance of
several types of turbines.
Another type of turbine is the self-rectifying
impulse turbine (Setoguchi et al. 2001), but it is not
clear if this type of turbine has advantages over the
Wells turbine.
An advantage with air turbines is that they are
away from, and not in direct contact with, the potentially corrosive salty water and potentially destructive high waves; also, they are easily accessible for
maintenance.
3.1.2 Low-head Kaplan (reaction)
A well-known technology used in overtopping devices;
it requires for an efficient control strategy to work at
optimal flows, if the head is variable. These axial flow
reaction turbines are used in mini-hydroelectric plants
and they operate with small heads of water of few
meters (Paish 2002).
3.1.3 High-head (impulse)
These impulse turbines operate with heads of tens
of meters, in some cases of Pelton type, are used in
some devices (Estefen et al. 2008, Henry et al. 2010)
where pressurized water is the power transmission
medium.
3.3
Direct drive
589
The design of the mooring systems for floating structures has been made for some time within the offshore
industry, in particular as it has been moving towards
deep waters and relying more on floating than on fixed
structures.
As compared to the offshore industry, the WECs
tend to be smaller and to operate in shallower waters.
Furthermore, some types, as the point absorbers, have
part or the whole of the structure that is aimed at
operating in resonance and thus to undergo relatively
large displacements, which goes against one of the
common purposes of mooring systems, which are to
keep the structure in its original position (Johanning
et al. 2006).
Thus, mooring systems for this kind of WECs need
to be designed in such a way that they do not hamper the oscillatory motion of the device. Additionally,
the mooring system will have a dynamic response to
wave or wave group loading, and this may be critical when the WEC and its moorings are considered
together as a coupled system. For some WECs this
dynamic response, or the lack of it, is a key element in the mooring system design. Thus, just as
there is diversity among WEC configurations, there is
diversity among the associated mooring systems and
the requirements upon them. Therefore, design issues
on mooring systems have to include new constraints
with respect to what has already been addressed for
offshore structures.
However in some cases of larger non oscillating structures, such as floating overtopping or OWC
devices, mooring systems designed for oil platforms
can be applied without much difference. In these cases
use can be made of the available guidelines and regulations for mooring systems of offshore oil platforms,
published by various authorities around the world such
as the American Petroleum Institute or any of the Classification Societies. Some have specific documents for
mooring and in other cases they are incorporated in
the rules for the design, analysis and maintenance for
floating structures in the offshore oil and gas industry.
There are also in some cases specific rules for floating
fish farms and for mobile offshore units, which can
support the design of mooring systems for WECs.
Harris et al. (2004) listed standard requirements
for mooring lines applied to WECs, (mostly derived
from the offshore industry), including other issues
strictly related to the challenge of harnessing ocean
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
590
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
591
Licences 1%
Insurance14%
Monitoring 4%
Planned maintenance 29%
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been performed within the research
project WAVE CONVERTERS Hydrodynamic
analysis of wave energy converters with different
motion characteristics, which has been financed by
the Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundao
para a Cincia e a Tecnologia), from the Portuguese
Ministry of Science and Technology, under contract
PTDC/EME-MFE/105006/2008.
The second author has been funded by the
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology
(FCT, Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia, Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior)
through a Post-Doctoral Fellowship under the contract
no. SFRH/BPD/47210/2008.
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594
ABSTRACT: Due to economic reasons related to the mooring system characteristics and to the electrical grid
connection, most floating wave energy converters under development are planned for operation in relatively
shallow water, typically 30 m to 70 m. The limited water depth reduces the wave energy resource as compared to
offshore deep water. This paper reviews the existing simplified methods for wave energy spectrum modification
as the water depth reduces. The TMA method (Bouws, 1985) is implemented and applied with the aim of
assessing both the reduction in the available wave power resource and the energy converted by a floating wave
energy converter. This method is based on the hypothesis that the similarity principle for the saturation range of
shallow-water spectrum (Kitaigororodskii, 1975) is not restricted to the equilibrium range, but is valid across
the entire spectrum. This hypothesis has been proven, thus demonstrating that a finite depth spectrum can be
obtained by simply multiplying the corresponding deep water spectrum by a function of the angular frequency.
The Pelamis machine and the wave climatology of Figueira da Foz (Portugal) are used as a case study.
1
INTRODUCTION
595
Since the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum (or PM spectrum) is assumed to represent fully-developed conditions (both the fetch and the duration are infinite) in
deep water, the peak frequency can depend only on
the wind speed (fPM = 0.13g/U10 ) (Holthuijsen, 2007,
pp. 159).
The relation between the peak frequency and the
significant wave height has the form:
596
where:
Hs is the significant wave height,
p = 2fp is the angular spectral peak frequency,
A = 1 0.287 ln() is a normalizing factor.
Approximate expressions for the significant wave
height and peak period, as functions of the peak-shape
parameter and the mean zero-up-crossing period Tz
were numerically found (see Tucker 1991, Chakrabarti
1984).
where:
: dimensionless spectral width parameter, with
value a for f < fp and b for f > fp to account the
slightly different width on the two sides of the spectral
peak;
: peak-enhancement factor (random variable,
approximately Gaussian, with mean 3.3 and variance
0.62);
fp : dimensionless peak frequency
597
Kitaigorodskii
598
CASE STUDY
599
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
600
Table 4.
Deep water
50 m
30 m
Power [kW/m]
29
21
15
0.0%
26.89%
47.15%
where
is the water density [kg/m3 ]
g is the gravity acceleration [m/s2 ]
601
Table 6.
Table 7.
Deep Water
50 m
30 m
Caputure Energy
[GWh/year]
% Energy
captured
% Energy
lost
0.99
0.87
0.67
100.00%
87.47%
67.76%
0.00%
12.53%
32.24%
602
Table 9.
Table 10.
Energy captured by the Pelamis in deep water for each sea state in one year [kWh].
Energy captured by the Pelamis in 50 m depth water for each sea state in one year [kWh].
CONCLUSIONS
603
Table 11.
Energy captured by the Pelamis in 30 m depth water for each sea state in one year [kWh].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work was performed in the scope of the project
Design of mooring systems for floating wave energy
converters, which is financed by Fundao para
a Cincia e a Tecnologia (FCT) under contract
PTDC/EME-MFE/103524/2008.
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604
605
ABSTRACT: This paper shows the result of a research project that had as main objective the development of
the conceptual design of a new type of submarine electrical generator to get the exploitation of marine currents
that are sited on many places in the world into deeper waters, with good performance. The proposed device can
work into the water and gets the right depth and position by itself only using hydrodynamics forces that allow it
to go the surface or dive without any other help. The generator has not fixed foundations and it is placed on an
intermediate level between the surface and the bottom through a simple anchor system, the entire device even
the anchor system included will be able to be removed without any damage to the marine environment.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
607
sun, if the moon and the sun are aligned the attraction
is larger (spring tides) and is short when the directions
take the form of 90 (nape tide).
The main characteristics of the tidal energy
source are:
Reliable long term prediction of power and speed
Very short environmental impact
High reliability
2.2
At present time as it is known, tidal stream exploitation technology is yet in the beginning of its life and
608
Simplified deployment
Minimum environmental impact
Without surface elements on operation
Robust and simple construction
Easily scalable (depth, stream, speed, nominal
power)
Integration of mature technologies
With these requests a new conceptual design,
the Submarine Electrical Generator with Y Shape
Framework (GESMEY), was done.
The Project was germinated from an initial idea of
Professor Lopez Pieiro, patented by the Technical
University of Madrid (UPM) (Lopez-Pieiro 2007)
and it has been developing in collaboration between
research teams, one from the E.T.S. Ingenieros Navales
of the UPM and other one from the Foundation Technological Centre SOERMAR. The Project has been
supported by funds from The National Research
Program 2008/2011 of the Spanish Administration.
This new concept of generator will have one rotor
with three blades that it propels one electrical generator, placed into a pod and joined it there are three
columns, situated on a perpendicular plane with the
axis of the rotor and at the end of each column there
is one float with torpedo shape than has its axis in a
parallel way of the rotors one.
There were developed two options; one is a generator GESMEY A6.7 with 600 kW of power that its
optimum for places with bidirectional currents flux
and the other one GESMEY U1M with 1 MW of power
for places where the one way flux of the stream is
highest. Both of them are shown on the Figures 23.
609
GESMEY
A6.7
GESMEY
U1
600
2.0
60/100
20
15
1000
1.8
80
32
34
12/1500
12/750
20/50
20/50
Installation
It would be necessary, as first step of the technical process, the definition of a specific mooring system and
its installation in the sea (Lopez-Pieiro, SomolinosSanchez, Nuez-Rivas, Santamaria-Romojaro 2010).
This system will fix the generator on the right position against the flow of the current during electrical
generation and it is formed by the following elements:
Submerged buoys with cylindrical shape, three by
generator
Three mooring lines that fixed the buoys to the
generator
One mooring line that anchor the buoy to sea bed
The anchorage into the sea bed
These cylindrical buoys are conformed from steel
plates on a very simple way of construction, the
anchorage is formed by a concrete monopile and the
mooring lines are steel or synthetic fiber, wires.
With this shape, all the mooring system is sufficiently simple, easy of install and with a very less
impact over the marine environment and gets the
following objectives:
Maximum independence between the mooring and
the generator
Easy access to the hook point
High reliability and safety of the device because
the system support one line failed
The joint of the mooring system to the generator doesnt produce large mechanical forces that
would can do the lack of balance of the generator
Modular conform that allows by a simple concentration the anchoring of all the generator of a park
or only one of them
With this system there are three submerged buoys
by generator, one by the bow part and two at the rear,
the bow wire of mooring is 94 m long and the two
rear wires are 101 m each one and with this configuration into a park the generators will be separated
610
6
6.1
611
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
612
ABSTRACT: The objective of the present work is to evaluate the wave energy resources in two enclosed seas,
the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. A first perspective of the wave and wind climate in these areas is given
by a medium term analysis of some recent satellite data. This allowed the identification of the most energetic
sectors. As a further step, wave prediction systems based on the SWAN spectral phase averaged model were
implemented and validated in the two seas. Comparisons carried out against remotely sensed data show that these
wave prediction systems generally provide accurate results in terms of significant wave heights. Finally, using
the numerical wave models, the spatial distribution of the wave energy was analyzed for some case studies that
correspond to the most relevant wave patterns. The present work gives some insight about the wave conditions,
and the wave energy potential, in the basins of the Black and the Caspian Seas. Moreover, the perspective of the
development of the wave energy devices for small amplitude waves is expected to be very dynamic in the near
future and to bring technological breakthroughs. Thus following such tendencies, the problem of extracting this
type of renewable energy in the Black and the Caspian Seas, most probable coupled in hybrid farms wind-waves,
might become of actuality.
INTRODUCTION
613
Pt
Poz
Mean
(m)
Max
(m)
Std
Kurt
Skew
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
40 E, 42 N
40 E, 43 N
32 E, 42 N
36 E, 42 N
34 E, 43 N
38 E, 43 N
36 E, 44 N
38 E, 44 N
0.85
0.85
0.97
0.91
0.94
0.87
0.89
0.86
5.4
5.2
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
0.54
0.53
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.48
0.48
11.75
10.41
5.58
7.25
6.12
8.17
6.90
7.82
2.47
2.33
1.84
1.92
1.79
2.02
1.85
1.95
614
Pt
Poz
Mean
(m)
Max
(m)
Std
Kurt
Skew
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
50 E, 38 N
51 E, 38 N
52 E, 38 N
51 E, 39 N
51 E, 40 N
51 E, 41 N
50 E, 41 N
51 E, 42 N
50 E, 42 N
49 E, 42 N
51 E, 43 N
50 E, 46 N
51 E, 46 N
52 E, 46 N
0.79
0.79
0.78
0.86
0.91
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.88
0.60
0.59
0.58
3.85
3.81
3.76
4.09
4.24
4.43
4.35
4.18
4.01
3.90
4.10
3.33
3.27
3.25
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.58
0.61
0.64
0.64
0.65
0.64
0.65
0.62
0.41
0.41
0.41
3.29
3.21
3.09
4.01
3.63
3.10
3.02
2.75
2.65
2.56
3.23
9.57
9.63
9.59
1.56
1.55
1.54
1.68
1.62
1.54
1.53
1.51
1.50
1.49
1.62
2.50
2.52
2.52
Pt
Poz
Mean
(m)
Max
(m)
Std
Kurt
Skew
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
40 E, 42 N
40 E, 43 N
32 E, 42 N
36 E, 42 N
34 E, 43 N
38 E, 43 N
36 E, 44 N
38 E, 44 N
3.86
3.96
3.97
4.76
4.18
4.07
4.28
4.42
16.4
16.4
16.4
16.3
16.3
16.3
16.2
16.2
2.27
2.22
2.25
2.37
2.12
2.20
2.09
2.11
2.55
2.20
2.10
1.22
1.50
1.66
1.42
1.28
1.27
1.20
1.18
1.03
1.05
1.08
1.03
1.00
Pt
Poz
Mean
(m)
Max
(m)
Std
Kurt
Skew
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
50 E, 38 N
51 E, 38 N
52 E, 38 N
51 E, 39 N
51 E, 40 N
51 E, 41 N
50 E, 41 N
51 E, 42 N
50 E, 42 N
49 E, 42 N
51 E, 43 N
50 E, 46 N
51 E, 46 N
52 E, 46 N
4.21
4.21
4.20
4.58
4.86
5.14
5.15
5.32
5.31
5.33
5.29
4.72
4.70
4.68
14.00
13.93
13.78
15.96
17.1
18.27
18.15
17.77
17.43
17.19
17.57
16.30
16.27
16.23
2.35
2.34
2.34
2.52
2.69
2.84
2.84
2.92
2.92
2.93
2.85
2.56
2.56
2.57
0.74
0.70
0.68
0.70
0.60
0.38
0.40
0.24
0.23
0.20
0.49
1.11
1.13
1.14
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.88
0.83
0.77
0.77
0.73
0.73
0.72
0.81
0.97
0.98
0.98
3
Tables 3 and 4 present the overall Hs and Vw
statistics for the remotely sensed data registered in
the Caspian Sea in the fourteen reference points
considered.
The results presented in Tables 3 and 4 show that
the central part of the Caspian Sea is more energetic,
especially the locations corresponding to the reference
615
Xm
a) Hs (m)
P4
0.91
P8
1.03
P9
1.04
P10
1.01
P12
0.60
b) Vw (m/s)
P4
4.49
P8
5.33
P9
5.29
P10
5.20
P12
5.08
Ym
bias
rmse
si
1.04
1.18
1.16
1.02
0.44
0.13
0.14
0.12
0.01
0.16
0.37
0.39
0.38
0.34
0.33
0.41
0.37
0.37
0.34
0.55
0.79
0.83
0.81
0.82
0.77
4.37
5.60
5.26
4.83
5.44
0.12
0.27
0.03
0.37
0.36
1.26
1.40
1.28
1.29
1.28
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.25
0.25
0.83
0.86
0.88
0.89
0.90
616
Figure 6. The Caspian Sea; Scatter plots for the parameters Hs and Vw model (wave and wind) against satellite data
for the entire year 2009 a) Hs for reference point 8; b) Vw
for reference point 8; c) Hs for reference point 9; d) Vw for
reference point 9; e) Hs for reference point 10; f) Vw for
reference point 10.
sea to evaluate and analyze the most relevant patterns concerning the spatial distribution of the wave
energy.
In SWAN, the energy transport components
(expressed in W/m, i.e., energy transport per unit
617
Figure 7a. The Black Sea, Case study 1 1997/01/12/h12, average energetic situation, representation for the entire Black
Sea. In background normalized wave power, in foreground energy transport vectors (in kW/m of wave front).
Figure 7b. The Black Sea, Case study 2 1997/01/12/h12, average energetic situation, representation for the entire Black
Sea basin. In background normalized wave power, in foreground energy transport vectors (in kW/m of wave front).
618
Figure 8. The Caspian Sea; a) Case study 1 2009/10/02/h18, average energetic situation, b) Case study 2 2009/11/27/h03,
high energy conditions. In background normalized wave power, in foreground energy transport vectors (in kW/m of wave
front).
4.3
5
4.4
619
quality of the wind fields. Many studies have been performed on the effects of the wind fields when modeling
waves in enclosed, semi-enclosed or relatively small
basins (as for example Ardhuin et al., 2007 or BolanosSanchez et al., 2007). The most obvious conclusion
would be that the accuracy of the results provided by
the wave models is highly dependent on the accuracy
of the meteorological models that were used to force
them.
Looking at the wind comparisons presented in
Table 5 and Figure 6 it can be noticed that the
ECMWF (acronym for European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasts) wind field with 1.5 degrees
spatial resolution and six-hour temporal resolution
(Berrisford et al., 2009) that was used for forcing
SWAN in the present study is in general reasonably
close with the satellite data, but in the same time it is
far to provide a perfect match. Thus a higher accuracy
and resolution (in both space and time) of the wind
field would definitively lead to an improvement of the
wave predictions.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
As regards the average energetic conditions, the maximum values encountered for the wave power were
between 2050 kW/m in the Black Sea and a little over
20 kW/m for the Caspian Sea, while for example in the
Iberian coast these values are 50100 kW/m. On the
other hand, in relation with the highest energetic conditions the differences are even more significant for
the three environments considered. In the Black Sea,
it was around 300 kW/m, while in the Caspian Sea
less than 100 kW/m, and in the Iberian nearshore
the maximum wave power had sometimes values
exceeding 600 kW/m.
Nevertheless, it should be also highlighted that is
expected in the near future a quite dynamic development of the wave energy devices for small amplitude
waves. In this perspective, the problem of renewable
energy extraction in the Black and the Caspian Seas
might become of actuality at least as regards the hybrid
projects wind-waves energy farms.
REFERENCES
Ardhuin, F., Bertotti, L., Bidlot, J.-R., Cavaleri, L.,
Filipetto, V., Lefevre, J.-M. & Wittmann, P., 2007. Comparison of wind and wave measurements and models in the
Western Mediterranean Sea. Ocean Eng. 34, 526541.
Berrisford, P., D. Dee, K. Fielding, M. Fuentes, P. Kallberg, S.
Kobayashi & S. Uppala, 2009. The ERA-Interim archive,
Publisher Shinfield Park, Reading.
Bolanos-Sanchez, R., Sanchez-Arcilla, A. & Cateura, J.,
2007. Evaluation of two atmospheric models for wind
wave modelling in the NW Mediterranean. J. Mar. Syst.
65, 336353.
Dykes, J. D., Wang, D. W. & Book, J. W., 2009. An evaluation
of a high-resolution operational wave forecasting system
in the Adriatic Sea, J. Mar. Syst. 78, 255271.
620
621
ABSTRACT: The possibility of colonizing the seas and oceans is an important step in the exploitation and
sustainable management of marine resources of our planet. With the increasing need for renewable offshore
energy and the need to relocate the existing shoreline fish farms due to local pollution associated, it is imperative
to create infrastructures that support these exploitations in offshore environment with particular concern on
spatial planning, environmental sustainability and economic viability. Based on these assumptions, this paper
describes a new concept of a Multi-purpose Offshore Platform as headquarters of wind farm/wave farm and
fish farm. To be sited in locations where water depth exceeds 50 m, the proposed solution is a semi-submersible
platform, framed type, with a payload of nearly 600 metric tons. Can be fully assembled onshore and towed
to its final location with significant commissioning cost savings. The platform may have multiple layouts with
dedicated areas for work on deck, cranes, accesses for equipments and personnel, ration silos and helipad.
This new concept enables an efficient development of different business areas coexisting on offshore environment, minimizing environmental impact with large economic benefits in infrastructures investment and
management.
INTRODUCTION
STATE-OF-THE-ART
623
Platform Types
LOCATION CONDITIONS
624
625
and some can be operated in ultra deepwater. A suitable location will be sited over 30.5 nm far from shore,
and therefore, in Portugal the depth for this distance is
over 50 m. For this distance, the installation and commissioning costs of fixed structures are much more
expensive than in shallow waters. This means that a
floater type will be the suitable type due to it can be
sited in a no depth limit location or seabed type and, as a
vessel, can be towed for installation, relocation, maintenance/repair and decommissioning with no need of
offshore barges and offshore cranes.
When comparing floater types, wave and wind
induced motions are not the only elements of performance to consider. Economic viability plays a
significant role and is important to carefully analyze
construction, installation, commissioning, decommissioning and ease of access and suitable conditions
for O&M.
In general terms, spar type has better heave performance than semi submersibles due to its deep draft and
reduced vertical wave-exciting forces, but it has more
pitch and roll motions since the water plane area contribution to stability is reduced. TLP has very good
heave and angular motions, but has a complex and
expensive mooring system related to installation and
operation. Semi-submersible can offer good heave, roll
and pitch performances with simple mooring configurations at a relative low cost. NUI have an interesting
design concept due to small size, be operated remotely
and be easier to build and maintain, avoiding the high
operating costs.
Combining a semi-submersible with a NUI concept
the result is a small platform with good response to
wave and wind induced motions, easier to build with
low cost of installation and commissioning and low
cost of O&M (most of the task operated remotely)
with a simple but reliable mooring system. Deep-water
semi-submersibles state of the art is actually in 6th generation with 4, 6 or 8 columns and 2 pontoons (braced)
or ring pontoon (framed). The conceptual approach
6 APPROACH
Nowadays, all types of state of the art oil and gas offshore platforms are developed to operate in deepwater
626
MAIN PARTICULARS
STABILITY
A stable and upright position in the water is important for the safety of the crew, equipment and for a
proper transport, operational and survival conditions.
To keep the CG as close to z-axis as possible, primary
and secondary ballast tanks are located in pontoons.
All tanks have vertical divisions to reduce free surface
effects on stability.
8.1 Transport condition (wet towing)
The platform could be 100% build in a shipyard and
then wet towed to offshore location, saving cost in
installation and commissioning with offshore barges
and offshore cranes. One typical hazard that may affect
semi-submersible platform installation during towing
is loss of stability in bad weather conditions. The water
plane area can drop suddenly, GM drops consequently
and the platform can capsize. As the depth of pontoon is 3 m, towing the platform with less of 3 m
draft condition, even if possible, could be dangerous.
Considering 5m draft, corresponding 30% ballast, GM
for this condition is 4.79 m against 68.10 m of 0%
ballast. The drag of Towing 2 condition is higher than
Towing 1 condition but this one is a safer condition to
tow the platform, see Table 1.
8.2 Operation condition
After installation, primary ballast tanks will be partial
filled with the necessary ballast to reach the operation
draft. During normal operation, platform CG will shift
due to varying distribution of the daily consumed and
restored fish ration, fresh water, fuel and equipment/
spares/helicopter as well as external effects from wind
Table 1.
Main particulars
LOA
Beam Overall
Operating draft
Air gap
Areas:
Main deck
Work deck
627
Capacities
35
35
6
10
m
m
m
m
1225 m2
300 m2
Fish ration
Fresh water
Fuel
Helideck
Crew
Spare parts
Payload:
200
30
70
7
20
15
600
ton
ton
ton
ton
person
ton
ton
Load (ton)
Ballast (ton)
Deadweight (ton)
Draft (m)
Air Gap (m)
KG (m)
GM (m)
Table 3.
0% ballast
Towing 1
30% ballast
Towing 2
0
0
1.650
2
14
10.00
68.10
0
380
2.050
5
11
8.31
4.79
10% load
Operation 2
300
194
2.155
6
10
8.83
3.91
30
473
2.155
6
10
7.87
4.87
10 ACCESSES
Load (ton)
Ballast (ton)
Deadweight (ton)
Draft (m)
Air Gap (m)
KG (m)
GM (m)
11
Survival condition
MOORING CONFIGURATION
628
There are some suitable configurations of mooring systems that can be applied to a framed semisubmersible platform. We can divide in two categories:
spread mooring (sm) and dynamic positioning (dp).
Catenary Mooring (sm) The mooring lines of a
free hanging catenary mooring arrive horizontal to the
seabed so that the anchor point is only subjected to
horizontal forces. The restoring forces are mainly generated by the weight of the mooring lines returning the
system to equilibrium.
Multi-Catenary Mooring (sm) The catenaries
mooring lines incorporate weights and buoys to form
S or Wave type configurations.
Taut Spread Mooring (sm) The mooring lines of
a Taut Spread Mooring arrive, typically at an angle
to the seabed with the anchor point capable of resisting horizontal and vertical forces. The restoring forces
are mainly generated by the elasticity of the mooring
line. The mooring lines of a TLP are orthogonal to the
seabed, with the restoring force mainly generated by
the change in buoyancy of the topside structure.
Active Mooring (dp) Active Mooring consists
of mooring lines which are spread around the floating structure, where the inboard end of each mooring
line is held by a servo controlled winch. A central
computer tensions or loosens the mooring lines in
order to keep a fixed seabed position.
Propulsion (dp) The technique consists of
positioning a floating structure above a fixed seabed
point by the use of propellers or thrusters that are
controlled from a central computer.
As a semi-submersible the mooring configuration
will be with catenary spread with large motions vertically and large motions horizontally.Any options could
be a suitable configuration depending of equipment
technical requirements for heave, sway, roll, cost and
seabed type. At this preliminary design stage we cant
define what is the best mooring configurations to use
but, for now, dynamic positioning is excluded due to
the cost of equipments and O&M associated.
12
CONCLUSIONS
13.1 Location
Minimum 30.5 nm far from shore in order to mitigate
visual impact. For this distance, in Portugal, water deep
is around 50 m to 80 m.
13.2 Wind/wave farm_requirements
130 MVA transformer, switchgear and other
equipment 200 tons, offshore crane, workboat (RIB),
4 permanent members crew accommodation facilities,
spare parts store container, helipad.
13.3 Fish farm requirements
Silos for 250 tons of ration, 625 m3 of capacity; 10
days of storage; 8 silos; fish feeding system; offshore
crane; workboat (RIB); and 4 permanent members
crew accommodation facilities, spare parts container,
helipad.
13.4 Accommodation
Machinery room and control room are structural
and accommodations facilities are based on 20 ISO
standard containers. There are Multi layout possibilities to meet different business model.
13.5 Payload
MpOP has a total payload of 600 tons (Wind/Wave
farm 220.0 tons; Fish farm 205.7 tons; Accommodations 65.5 tons and Logistics 108.8 tons).
OTHERS ACTIVITIES
13.6 Stability
629
REFERENCES
13.9
Mooring configuration
Others activities
630
F. Duarte
Associao das Indstrias Navais, Lisbon, Portugal
J. Abreu Valente
Euroshide, Lisbon, Portugal
L. Baptista
Veranavis, Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT: The British organization Carbon Trust promoted a competition within the Offshore Wind
Accelerator framework for solving one of the critical issues concerning the operation of far offshore wind
farms. The maintenance of 200 turbines in the new offshore wind farms which will be built around the United
Kingdom poses a considerable challenge, as turbine access and work platforms will be located 20 m above the
water in open sea conditions, up to 300 km from the coast line. This paper describes an integrated system for
personnel and equipment transfer (ISPET) to the offshore wind turbines.
The system consists of a swath ship with an ample aft deck where up to 6 capsules, inverted cone shaped, are
stowed in berths. In seastates between 1 m and 3 m wave height, each of these capsules is to be moved to the wind
turbine platform, carrying up to 6 persons and 1t of equipment, using a shipboard crane when the ship is suitably
located alongside the wind turbine at a safety distance. The wind turbine work platform is fitted with a 360 ring
where the capsule is to be deposited using the crane and left during the duration of the maintenance operations.
The main benefits of this system are that it is capable of providing access to wind turbines in seastates up to 3 m
and personnel and cargo are transferred protected inside a capsule. Costs are relatively low as a wind farm with
200 turbines can be serviced by 23 ships.
INTRODUCTION
631
2 ACCESS SYSTEMS
2.1 Transfer of personnel
Current access methods to offshore wind turbines
include mostly the use of small craft of single hull or
catamaran types. Helicopters are also to used to access
the nacelle directly when weather conditions prevent
access by boat, but are only capable of accommodating 5 technicians. Typically wind farm operators will
contract the helicopter operator for a number of days
of use a year. However, this access method is dangerous and a number of accidents have been registered
including fatalities. In the oil/gas offshore industry,
access by means of baskets is also common.
In the North Sea, early experience of offshore wind
has shown that access to a wind turbine by boat is
challenging in waves of around 1 m height or more.
Currently most standard boat transfers cannot be performed in sea states where the significant wave height
is greater than 1.5 m and wind conditions are in excess
of 12 m/s. In exposed locations, such as in UK and Irish
waters, the average number of days where the wave
height is greater than 1.5 m is considerably greater.
Operating in concert with the wave height restrictions are restrictions from the water depth, swell and
underwater currents. Shallow waters amplify the local
wave height and can significantly change the wave
form characteristics. Generally, where a turbine in a
wind farm is located in the shallow water, this turbine
will present the most access problems.
Wave data (UK offshore wind farm sites) shows
that access using a standard boat and ladder (significant wave heights up to 1.5 m) is possible 80 per
cent of the available time. However this accessibility
rate is too low for good overall wind farm availability. Accessibility is defined as the percentage of total
available time a turbine can be accessed.
In winter, accessibility is typically worst when there
is the greatest likelihood of turbine failures; yet at
these times there are higher winds and hence potentially higher levels of production loss. Accessibility
can be improved to above 90 per cent if access is
made possible in significant wave heights between 2.0
and 2.5 m.
Providing access in yet more extreme conditions is
probably too challenging considering cost, technical
difficulty and safety. A safety limit on sea conditions has to be set and rigidly adhered to by the wind
farm operator. This implies that 100 per cent accessibility to offshore wind plant will not be achievable
632
200
5 MW
1 km
45 m
up to 300 km
20 km 8 km
See Figure 4
Tidal range
Current speed
Wind speed
Wind direction
Wave period
Wave direction
up to 5 m
up to 3 knots
up to 30 knots
variable
up to 25 s
variable
These craft are deployed next to the turbine foundations and ladders are used by the technicians to climb
to the turbine work platform. Figure 2 shows some
examples of these crafts.
2.3 Innovative access systems
A number of innovative systems have been proposed
in recent years aiming at extending the accessibility limits as shown in Figure 3. Innovations fall in a
number of different categories: articulated gangways,
stairways, elevators, articulated arms. Most innovative
concepts are still at a development stage except for
the Amplemann system which is already undertaking
trials.
3 WIND FARM MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Reference wind farm and wind turbine
and 90 per cent accessibility seems a reasonable target. Improvements in availability thereafter must be
achieved through improved system reliability.
2.2 Vessels
A key requirement for the vessels employed in access
to offshore wind turbines is that these vessels are
robust and can operate in adverse weather conditions.
In many cases, aluminium catamarans approximately
20 m in length, with capacity for 12 technicians are
being used. Vessels speed can be in excess of 20 knots.
633
634
Table 2.
Main particulars.
Length overall
Beam
Draught
Depth main deck
Displacement
Work deck area
Maximum speed
Economical speed
Electrical plant
Propulsion plant
Bow thrusters
Fuel oil
Fresh water
Water ballast
57.0 m
25.0 m
7.0 m
14.5 m
1770 t
300 m2
16 kn
12 kn
5 800 kW
2 1800 kW
2 300 kW
170 m3
90 m3
770 m3
4.2
Preliminary design
Critical for the success of the design was that the vessel
has as low as possible motions in waves. This requirement leads to the selection of a swath type of hull form,
as shown in Figures 6 and 7. The ship is to have capacity to perform transfer operations in the wind farm
during one month. She will carry up to 6 capsules in
an ample aft deck on the port side (300 m2 ) equipped
with special rails, similar to those of the platform, for
storing and fixing the capsules. The accommodation
will be for a crew of 40 members which will be composed by 16 seamen, with double cabins for sailors
and single cabins for officers and 24 technicians (in
double cabins) belonging to the maintenance teams.
The ship is capable of carrying 20 t of spare parts
and equipment and has consumables for an endurance
of 30 days. The ship shall be capable of making 16
knots for transit to and from the wind farm (10 hours).
Within the wind farm the ship will operate at a reduced
safety speed of 12 knots. She shall have diesel electric propulsion with 5 gensets and 2 pods. Ship to be
635
636
the special personnel being the 24 technicians. Damage stability would then be according with Solas as a
passenger vessel but without need for applying safe
return to port requirements.
4.4.1 Gangway
The ship has on the bridges top structure a specially designed gangway with 3 degrees of freedom,
consisting on two articulated ramps. The gangway is
hydraulically operated and once positioned, it deploys
personnel and small equipments directly at platform
level (20 meters high at L.A.T.). This gangway is
operable in sea states up to 1 meter wave height.
The combined weight of the gangway structure and
auxiliary parts is about 7 tonnes. The dimension of
the gangway fully extended is about 12 meters plus
additional 2 meters of the stand by platform.
The gangway tower is located on the portside of the
bridge top, above a reinforced bridge wing structure.
The gangway can easily reach the tower ring platforms
landing areas with a 7 meters clearance between the
637
Figure 11. Access using the crane and capsule (in bad
weather conditions).
638
639
5.1 Seakeeping
The availability of the turbines depends in first place on
the number of faults actually occurring, however this
assessment is beyond the scope of this work. Availability also depends on the maintenance vessels being
available for servicing the faulty turbines and this
aspect was covered above, being shown that maintenance operations might be covered with two vessels.
A third factor comes into play because the service vessels may be available, but unable to provide access to
the turbines due to bad weather. It is the aim of this new
concept to extend the access from the current 1.5 m to
3.0 m significant wave height.
In order to demonstrate that the proposed swath ship
and transfer system is able to provide access in 3.0 m
640
641
compensated by the active heave compensation system of the crane and small rotations of the crane.
The result is minimal motions at the tip of the crane,
and also of the suspended capsule.
A criterion for safe operation is defined as a 95%
probability that the motions at the end of the crane
arm are smaller than 0.4 m. This objective is achieved
using a ship with excellent seakeeping behavior
together with a crane with oscillatory motion compensation. The objective is that the operation can be
carried out, complying with the criterion, in seastates
with significant wave height of up to 3.0 m.
It is concluded that the transfer operation complies
with the operational criterion if:
(a) The heave and pitch motions of the ship are controlled with a purpose designed active system so
that the dynamic amplification response around
the natural frequencies is reduced;
(b) The crane oscillatory motion compensation system is able to compensate both the vertical and
the longitudinal motions with amplitude of up to
2.5 m and a minimum period of 7 seconds.
Given the former premises, the proposed system
successfully extends the operability of the transfer
operation from the current 1.5 m to 3.0 m of significant wave height.
5.2
Powering
642
Table 3. Summary
consumables).
Lightship
Diesel Oil
Fresh water
Provisions
Stores
Capsules
Crew and effects
Freefall
Displacement
KG (solid)
Draft fwd
Draft aft
GM (fluid)
KMt
TPC
of
departure
condition
(100%
1378.00 t
169.70 t
95.10 t
60.00 t
20.00 t
32.00 t
4.00 t
10.00 t
1768.80 t
9.05 m
6.96 m
6.98 m
2.25 m
11.29 m
1.47 t/cm
1378.00 t
16.97 t
9.55 t
104.13 t
6.00 t
20.00 t
32.00 t
4.00 t
10.00 t
1580.65 t
9.46 m
5.40 m
5.92 m
2.38 m
11.88 m
1.47 t/cm
The main advantage of the proposed system is personnel and equipment being transferred protected inside
a capsule, which is lifted to and from the work platform. The dangers associated with helicopters (wind,
collisions), suspension (failing of ropes), gangways
(failure of connection to tower), stairs (climbing) are
not incurred.
A quantitative risk assessment of the system is to
be carried out in order to assess the most significant
risks. However, below, a brief qualitative review of
some hazards and safety measures aiming at mitigating
the consequences is given.
Failure of suspension cable leading to capsule
falling to water: capsule floats and is stable; design
considers impact in water; personnel and equipment
to be appropriately secured, immersion suits used,
ribs provided to recover personnel.
Capsule suspended collides with tower: capsule
structure designed to sustain collisions with tower
using design principles for lifeboats.
Capsule sustains damage when deploying and
cannot be recovered: other capsule may be deployed in
643
8
7
7.1
The building costs can be split between ship, capsules and platform. The values (in percentage) given in
Figure 23 are estimates. It is anticipated that
the dynamic positioning system and active heave
compensated crane, while using technology currently
in use in offshore applications, will have to be adapted
to this specific type of operation. The total cost of the
ship is expected to be around 21 million euro.
The capsules cost is expected to be, in total, for
six units, around 300000 euros. The cost of the work
platform to be installed in each wind turbine is
estimated to be around 250000 euros.
7.2
CONCLUSIONS
644
different hull designs, with passive systems to minimize vertical motions, the development and assessment of an active control system based on vertical
thrusters
to minimize the ship vertical motions, development
and assessment of an active control system based on
a longitudinal tank partially filled with water to control the pitch motion, assessment of aerodynamics of
different capsule shapes.
Finally, some model testing of ship-capsule-tower
with waves and wind in tank facilities would be needed
before the detailed design of the ship, integration
of crane and dynamic positioning system and detail
design of capsule and platform.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Engo scar
Mota and Engo Ventura de Sousa, on behalf of
AIN, for bringing to our attention the Carbon
Trust Competition and for their encouragement to
this work.
REFERENCES
Bureau Veritas (2002), Rules for the Classification of High
Speed Craft.
Bureau Veritas (2006), Rules for the Classification of Naval
Ships.
645
ABSTRACT: The models presented here aim at evaluating the wave energy in Portugals continental coast.
The system implemented for this effect is based in SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore), a coastal prediction
model, using as input wind fields from the atmospheric model MM5 (Mesoscale Meteorological Model) and
wave boundary conditions from WAVEWATCH III model, which is forced by re-analysis data of NCEP/NCAR
on the scale of the North Atlantic. SWANs simulations are validated with data from two buoys, Sines and Leixes,
which belong to the Portuguese Hydrographic Institute. A statistical analysis of the errors in the predictions of
significant wave height and mean wave period is carried out and their time evolution is presented. Since previous
studies had already been carried out for this area, using the WAM model for wave generation in the Atlantic
Ocean and SWAN for wave transformation in the coastal area, a comparison between those results and the ones
obtained in this study is also made.
INTRODUCTION
This work has the aim to evaluate the wave conditions for Portugals continental coast and to study its
potential wave energy.
The MM5 model (Dudhia et al. 2000) is used
for meteorological forecast, of limited area, not
647
hydrostatic, with a system of sigma coordinates, appropriate to simulate or predict atmospheric circulation of
mesoscale and microscale.
The WW III (Tolman 2009) model has been developed at the Marine Modeling and Analysis Branch
(MMAB) of the Environmental Modeling Center
(EMC) of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). This is a third generation model that
solves the spectral action density balance equation,
using as input wind and ice fields and bathymetry.
The SWAN model allows predictions of the wave
conditions in limited water depth, like the case of
estuaries, lakes and coastal zones, using as input
boundary conditions, bathymetric data, wind and currents fields. It is based on the energy balance equation
that describes the evolution of the wave spectrum
in time, geographical and spectral spaces. In most
third generation wave models, the action density spectrum (N(, )) is considered, instead of the energy
density spectrum (E(, )), since in the presence of
ambient currents action density is conserved whereas
energy density is not. The action density is equal to
the energy density divided by relative frequency ().
SWAN considers effects of spatial propagation, refraction, dissipation, generation, and non-linear wavewave interactions represented in Hasselmann equation
(The SWAN team, 2006):
This equation can be related to spherical coordinates defined by longitude and latitude , and get
the form:
The difference between the system now implemented and the one described in Rusu and Guedes
Soares (2009) is that the present one uses WW III
wave model as boundary conditions for SWAN while
the other used WAM. Furthermore in the work of Rusu
648
Table 2.
Buoy 1
Buoy 2
Longitude
Depth
41.2033 N
37.9211 N
9.0883 W
8.9289 W
83 m
97 m
Computational grid.
Latitude
North Atlantic
(WWIII)
North Atlantic
(NCEPs
Reanalysis 2)
Portugal
(SWAN)
Portugal
(MM5)
Longitude
Resolution
15 N/72 N 66 W/7 E
1 1
15 N/72 N 66 W/7 E
1.875 1.905
649
Buoy 1
Buoy 2
Statistical results.
Hs (m)
Tm (s)
Hs (m)
Tm (s)
BMED
SMED
BIAS
RMSE
SI
1.988
7.649
1.725
7.749
1.959
5.783
1.882
5.309
0.038
1.865
0.16
2.439
0.425
2.328
0.449
2.829
0.213
0.304
0.260
0.365
0.908
0.603
0.875
0.545
207
207
217
217
650
For the case of mean wave period the results are not
as good.
4 ANALYSIS OF THE ENERGETIC POTENTIAL
The energy in SWAN is computed with transport
components (expressed in W/m, i.e. energy transport per unit length of wave front) given by the
relationships:
651
Resolution
Table 5.
0.01 0.02
0.0083 0.0083
RMSE SI
B1 Hs 3.31
(m)
B2 Hs 3.32
(m)
RMSE SI
N
Table 7.
4.09
0.77 0.97
3.84
0.52 0.75
RMSE SI
RMSE SI
The next study made by Bento et al. (2010), considered the period from October 30th to November 21st,
2009, and the wind fields were from MM5. Taking into
account that this period is within the time frame used
in this work, the domain of model SWAN implementation (without nestings) and the wind field are the same,
it was not necessary to run the SWAN again. Therefore only a validation is made for the same period. The
652
CONCLUSIONS
The present work describes a prediction system implemented in Portuguese nearshore, which uses three
models, MM5 (for wind fields), WAVEWATCH III
(for wave generation) and SWAN (for nearshore simulations), where data from the first two models forced
the third.
The validation results show better results for significant wave height than for mean wave period, with
better correlation coefficient, as expected.
Comparing the results obtained in this work with the
outcome of previous studies, it can be seen that, when
coupling WWII with SWAN, the results are similar to
systems that couple WAM with SWAN.
In terms of wave energy analyses, the west coast of
Portugal has higher potential with an average about of
60 kW/m.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been performed within the project
MAREN Marine Renewable Energy, Energy Extraction and Hydro-environmental Sustainability, which is
partially funded by the Atlantic Area Programme.
REFERENCES
Bento, A. R., Silva, D., Rusu, L. & Guedes Soares, C. 2010.
Evaluation of sea waves offshore the Faro and Setubal harbours (in Portuguese), Proceedings of 1st Hydrographic
Engineering Journeys, Lisbon, 2122 of June 2010;
Bernardino, M., Rusu, L.; Silva, D., Bento, R., Pilar, P. &
Guedes Soares, C. 2009. Performance evaluation of the
forecasting system implemented in the Portuguese harbours (in Portuguese), Proceedings of 6th Portuguese
Journeys of Coastal and Portuary Engineering; Funchal,
89 of October 2009;
Booij, N., Ris, R.C., Holthuijsen, L. H. 1999. A third generation wave model for coastal regions. Part 1: Model
description and validation, J. Geophys. Res. 104, C4,
pp. 76497666;
Dudhia, J., Gill, D., Kuo, Y.R., Bourgeois, A., Wang, W.,
Bruyere, C., Wilson, J. & Kelly, S. 2000. PSU/NCAR
Mesoscale Modeling System. MM5 Modeling System
Version 3. NCAR Tech. Notes;
Guedes Soares, C., Bhattacharjee J.,Tello, M., Pietra, L. 2012.
Review and classification of wave energy converters. Maritime Technology and Engineering, C. Guedes Soares et al.
(Eds.), Taylor & Francis Group, London (this volume).
Guedes Soares, C., Rusu, L., Bernardino, M., Pilar, P. 2011.
An operational wave forecasting system for the Portuguese continental coastal area. Journal of Operational
Oceanography 4 (2), 1626.
Paillard, M., Prevosto, M., Barstow, S. F. & Guedes Soares, C.
2000. Field Measurements of Coastal Waves and Currents
in Portugal and Greece. Coastal Engineering, Vol. 40,
N. 4, pp. 285296.
Pilar, P.; Guedes Soares, C. & Carretero, J.C. 2008. 44-year
wave hindcast for the North East Atlantic European coast.
Coastal Engineering, 55, pp. 861871;
Rusu, E. & Guedes Soares, C. 2009. Numerical modeling to estimate the spatial distribution of the wave
energy in the Portuguese nearshore. Renewable Energy 34,
pp. 15011516.
Rusu, E. & Guedes Soares, C. 2008. Wave energy assessments in the coastal environment of Portugal continental. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference
on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering (OMAE
2008) Estoril, Portugal. New York, USA: ASME; Paper
OMAE2008-57820.
Rusu, L., Pilar, P. & Guedes Soares, C. 2008. Hindcast of
the wave conditions along the west Iberian coast. Coastal
Engineering, 55, pp. 906919.
Rusu, L., Bernardino, M. & Guedes Soares, C. 2009. Influence of wind modelling on the predictions of waves
generated in an estuary. Journal of Coastal Research,
N. 56, pp. 14191423.
The Swan team 2006. SWAN Technical documentation cycle
III version 40.51.
Tolman, H., (2009), User manual and system documentation
of WAVEWATCH III version 3.14.
WAMDI Group, 1988. The WAM model-a third generation ocean wave prediction model, Journal of Physical
Oceanography, vol. 18, pp. 17751810.
Weisse, R. & F. Feser, 2003: Evaluation of a method to
reduce uncertainty in wind hindcasts performed with
regional atmosphere models. Coastal Engineering, 48(4),
211225.
653
ABSTRACT: The hydrodynamic and dynamic performance of a wave energy device designed to convert ocean
wave energy by roll motion is analysed. To perform the study, the coastal zone of Leixes, Portugal, is chosen
as the installation site; the main hull characteristics are designed aiming to match the predominant wave period
of the operational zone. Frequency domain transfer functions are obtained, viscous roll damping corrections are
introduced, and the power take off influence is also taken into account. Moreover, analysis based on irregular
seas is made aiming to estimate the responses in a real sea state. The results show that the designed geometrical
shapes guaranties amplitudes in roll higher than 3 for the most common zero crossing period and the observed
significant wave height. Further, a static analysis of the mooring system reveals that less heavy materials for the
mooring line reduces the vertical loads on the fairlead and the anchor point. In addition, subsurface floaters may
be added to the mooring system in order to further reduce the load, especially the vertical load at the fairlead.
1
INTRODUCTION
655
Sub Classification
Examples
Distance from
shoreline
Shoreline
Near shore
Offshore
Attenuators
Overtopping
Oscillating water
column
Oscillating wave
surge converter
Point absorber
Pressure differential
Pico plant
Waveroller, Oyster
Pelamis, MacCabe
Pelamis, MacCabe
Wave dragon
Azores pico plant
Technological
type
Others
Waveroller, Oyster
Powerbuoy, PsFrog
CETO
Anaconda, Tetron
656
Table 2.
Shape
Main hull parameters and hydrodynamic coefficients for the triangular, elliptical and rectangular geometries.
L B T
[m] [m] [m] [tons] L/B B/T Cb Ixx
Triangular 12 6
Ellipse
12 6
Rectangular 12 6
2
2
2
43.49 2
92.29 2
137.95 2
3
3
3
Vcb
T
Vcg kxx kyy kzz BMl BMt GMt roll [s] B44
657
A44
Figure 3. Heave and roll motion for the triangular and the elliptical geometries in following, beam and bow quartering waves.
that the roll amplitudes for the elliptical shape is bigger than for the triangular geometry for a wave period
ranging from 4 [s] to 11 [s] for quartering bow and
bean seas.
This variation can be understood from the exciting
moment applied to the vessel. Figure 4 shows how the
exciting roll moment applied to the vessel vary with
respect to the cross sections of the floating structure.
In the case of rectangular cross section, the moments
are due to areas (1 + 2 + 3), for the round cross section
areas (2 + 3) and for the V cross section the exciting
moment is only due to area (3).
Then to maximize energy production and match the
wave period of the Leixes area, the floating devices
should match the following requirements:
where Iz is the mass moment of inertia of the spinning element about the axis of spin, r is the angular
velocity of spin, and 4 the velocity of rolling motion.
Figure 5 plots the RAO for roll motion for a given
hull geometry with and without the influence of the
PTO. It can be observed that a significant reduction of
the roll amplitude occurs when applying the PTO.
658
Table 3.
Shape
OPTMAL01 12
roll
T
Vcb Vcg kxx kzz BMt GMt 90 135 [s] B43
Ixx
A43
Figure 6. Heave and roll motion for OPTMAL01 geometry in following, beam and bow quartering waves, respectively,
and a profile view of elliptical geometry.
659
Table 4.
Shape
L
B T
[m] [m] [m] [tons] L/B B/T Cb Ixx Vcb
T
Vcg kxx kyy kzz BMt GMt 90 135 [s] B43 A43
OPTMAL01 6.00 3.6 1.8 16.2 1.67 2.00 0.42 13.7 0.63 0
OPTMAL01 3.98 3.98 1.8 14.2 1.00 2.21 0.50 12.3 0.66 0
1.4 2.4 2.4 0.85 0.22 16.8 11.7 6.3 6.1 3.1%
1.6 1.6 1.6 0.87 0.2 14.9 10.5 7.0 184.1 1.0%
Figure 7. Heave and roll motion for UFO02 and the sphere geometries in following, beam and bow quartering waves,
respectively, and a profile view of geometries.
design are bigger than the spherical form and also their
respective resonance period are different. However,
pitch amplitudes presented by UFO02 are subjected
to smaller wave periods and consequently smaller
wave amplitudes than that experienced by the spherical
design.
Roll motions are plotted in Fig. 7 and a broader
shape is presented for both designs which are approximately the same for bow quartering and beam waves.
The similarity of the roll motion can be understood
when looking to Table 4 where the resonance period,
the added mass and the potential damping are found
similar for both. Finally, from the analysis of these
designs to carry one PTO, it seems that the UFO02
shape is better than the spherical shape.
3.2.3 Motion responses in irregular seas
The present analysis estimates the responses of the
floating device in a given irregular sea. This analysis is
made considering the same wave spectrum approaching the device for incident wave angles from 180 to 0 .
However, the discussion is only restricted to incident
angles from 120 to 30 , which represent the area of
operability of the device, since it is designed to operate
near shore. Vertical acceleration and other longitudinal
660
Table 5.
Sea states most probable of occurrence in the area 16, of Global Wave Statistics (Hogben et al. 1986).
Sea state 1
Sea state 2
Sea state 3
Sea state 4
H [m]
Tz [s]
H [m]
Tz [s]
H [m]
Tz [s]
H [m]
Tz [s]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
Figure 8. Motion in roll and lateral accelerations calculated at the bow for the geometries OPTMAL01, UFO02 and sphere.
The first three polar plots are for roll motion while the remaining three are for lateral acceleration.
661
Figure 9. Coordinate systems and forces action on the cable (Wang et al. (2010)).
662
Table 6.
System 1
System 1
Item
N
sys
H
[m]
D
[m]
x
[m]
z
[m]
Buoy
[kN]
Mat
D1
[m]
H1
[m]
Mat.
D2
[m]
H2
[m]
M. 1
M. 2
M. 3
M. 4
M. 5
M. 6
M. 7
M. 8
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
40
30
50
50
30
30
40
30
20
30
30
20
20
45
45
45
40
40
45
45
175
175
190
163
80
120
105
Chain
Chain
Chain
Chain
Chain
Chain
Chain
Steel w.
10
50
10
10
20
20
10
10
5
50
5
5
10
10
5
5
Chain
Chain
Chain
Chain
Steel w.
Steel w.
Steel w.
40
30
30
30
30
20
20
45
45
45
40
40
45
45
663
Table 7.
Item
Group 1
Mooring 2
Tension 1
Tension1
Tension 3
Tension 4
Mooring 1
System 1
System 2
Group 2
Mooring 3
System 1
System 2
Mooring 4
System 1
System 2
Group 3
Mooring 5
System 1
System 2
Mooring 6
System 1
System 2
Group 4
Mooring 7
System 1
System 2
Mooring 8
System 1
System 2
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
n+1
1
T
[kN]
Th
[kN]
Tv
[kN]
Alpha
[deg]
Lo
[m]
L
[m]
Gw
[kN]
250.0
97.4
300.0
147.5
350.0
197.4
400.0
247.4
60.0
45.1
185.3
46.0
60.0
45.1
185.3
45.6
60.0
45.9
199.9
59.6
75.0
45.2
170.4
46.5
75.0
45.2
93.0
57.6
60.0
44.9
132.6
93.1
52.0
47.7
129.8
90.3
95.6
97.4
140.8
142.0
180.7
181.7
219.0
219.8
44.2
44.8
44.0
46.0
44.2
44.8
44.1
45.6
44.2
44.8
44.1
45.6
43.7
45.2
43.6
46.5
43.7
45.2
43.5
43.7
44.2
44.7
45.2
45.4
44.5
44.5
44.1
44.2
231.0
1.0
264.9
39.6
299.8
77.2
334.7
113.4
40.6
4.8
180.0
0.9
40.6
4.8
180.0
0.6
40.6
4.8
195.0
38.3
61.0
1.3
164.7
1.1
61.0
1.3
82.2
37.4
40.6
4.9
124.6
81.3
26.9
16.9
122.1
78.7
67.5
0.7
62.
15.6
58.9
23.0
56.8
27.3
42.6
6.1
76.3
1.2
42.6
6.1
76.3
0.8
42.6
6.1
77.3
40.0
54.4
1.6
75.2
1.4
54.4
1.6
62.1
40.6
42.6
6.2
70.0
60.8
31.2
20.8
70.6
60.7
74.26
74.27
212.4
71.91
71.92
205.6
71.17
71.19
203.6
70.78
70.80
202.4
11.33
11.33
32.4
67.45
67.45
192.9
11.33
11.33
32.4
57.55
57.55
164.9
11.33
11.33
32.4
49.97
49.97
142.9
23.53
23.53
67.3
53.72
53.72
153.6
23.53
23.53
67.3
50.23
50.24
143.7
11.33
11.33
32.4
49.20
49.21
140.7
11.15
11.15
31.9
49.24
49.25
140.8
To analyse the mooring effects at the fairlead position, the following consideration for the design of
the mooring system is made: when only one cable is
designed to restrain the WEC then system 1 is defined
between the fairlead and the anchor point, while in
the case of the design with two cables, system 1 lies
between the fairlead and the joint of the two cables (See
Fig. 10) while system 2 is placed between the joint and
the anchor point. In addition, when a buoy is employed
this will be placed at the joint of the two cables.
Design requirements for moorings 1, 3-8 have been
considered. These requirements are: the same profile
for system 1 (only valid in each group of analysis) and
designed to transmit the same horizontal tension in all
configurations conformed by two systems. Finally the
smaller vertical tension is considered as a selecting
criterion.
The study for groups 2, 3, 4 and mooring 2 in
group 1 should be designed with anchor which can
support vertical tension at the anchor, while only mooring 1 presents the smaller vertical tension thus drag
anchor could be suitable for this configuration. When
664
reduction of the vertical load is observed. The importance of considering materials with less weight is
evident as it decreases mooring loads on the WECs.
Less heavy materials are also needed due to the reduction of the net buoyancy required (see Table 6). On
the other hand, there might be an extra loading on the
mooring due to the buoy near the sea surface. Thus the
depth of the buoy position should be studied in detail.
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been performed within the project
Hydrodynamic analysis of wave energy converters
with different motion characteristics (WAVE CONVERTERS). The project has been financed by the
Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundao
para a Cincia e a Tecnologia), from the Portuguese
Ministry of Science and Technology, under contract
PTDC/EME-MFE/105006/2008. The second author
has been funded by the Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology (Fundao para a Cincia e a
Tecnologia,) through a Post Doctoral Fellowship under
the contract no. SFRH/BPD/47210/2008.
REFERENCES
Bhattacharya, R. 1978. Dynamics of marine vehicles. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
665
666
Diverse
ABSTRACT: The CARCACE project aims to study ecosystems created by large organic falls in the deepsea and it required the deployment of cow carcasses at 1000 m depth in the Setubal Canyon. The carcasses
were attached to a platform designed to enable the deployment of a variety of instruments and experiments.
A total of 5 survey dives will take place every six months using ROVs or research submersibles. Various
prototypes of instruments and innovative systems can be tested during theses dives. Sediment traps, current
meters, hydrophones, cameras and miniaturized automated labs, are some examples of the instruments that can
be attached to the platforms. It will also be possible to conduct long-term studies of materials resistance, which
will be subjected to 100 atmospheres for up to two years. Cooperation with various entities that can provide
technologies for the project, through Barter Agreements has been initiated and some examples are presented.
669
Date
Vessel
Deployment
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
670
sample design. On the other hand, recurrent sampling is essential because of the dramatically different
faunal communities at different stages while the
community develops, and sampling at different spatial scales are important to address questions related to
species distribution, dispersal strategies, phylogeography, population genetics and population dynamics. On
top of these constraints, the study of artificially sunken
organic matter, as in the CARACE project, requires
the deployment and the sinking of a large quantity of
organic matter to the seafloor, which is usually done
by means of a concrete weight or railway bars. Also,
the risk that relatively large predators feeding on the
carcasses that would end up scattering the bones over
a wide area on the seafloor should be avoided.
To optimize the deployment activities we propose
to design a platform that allows to maximize the
amount of organic material deployed and at the same
time fitting positioning and environmental monitoring equipment. We developed an initial customized
deployment strategy that was intended to allow the
assembly of a particularly large lander, and the subsequent attachment of at least two tons of organic matter,
without having to use large oceanographic ships.
2.2
Innovative designs
A special platform was designed as a digital prototype using Autodesk Inventor. This floating platform
uses the JETFLOAT commercial system, together with
a proprietary new support infrastructure design from
BAROMETRICS (a company that is currently being
set up). This system allows the platform to be towed at
higher speed than it would otherwise be possible. Four
ramps are used to transport and deploy large bovines.
In the center of the platform there is a moon-pool and
a special A-Frame structure that will allow the descent
of a special partially-assembled lander. At a depth of
15 meters, a team of divers completes the assembly of
the large lander.The lander has some moving parts, and
it follows a design philosophy relatively similar to the
project intelliSTRUCT being researched at SINTEF
from Norway that apply the principles of Tensegrity
(Tensional Integrity Structuring), that are also known
as floating compression. Muscles and bones allow
various complex movements of the human body using
these mechanical phenomena.
We are also exploring other possible overlap areas
between naval engineering and biology, using the
concepts from Biomimicry research. Both the initial
and final designs of the first platform have features to
allow easy interfacing with possible future advanced
underwater robotic systems designed along the lines
of the studies of root systems for ground anchoring
developed by the biomimetics group of the Advanced
Concepts Team from the European Space Agency
(Dario et al. 2008).
Uncertainties with the time needed to fully test
this new design, together with the additional time
that would be required to obtain the necessary sea
worthiness certification, led to the postponement of
the construction and deployment of this new floating platform for the first mission. Instead, during a
design review meeting, a more simple design was chosen and built, focusing on the main task that need to
be preformed by the platform, which is, above all,
to be able to anchor in a reliable manner for three
years, all the organic material that will give rise to
the chemosynthetic ecosystem.
Since the intensity of the currents at 1000 m in
the Setubal Underwater Canyon is unknown, during
a design review meeting it was decided that it would
be desirable to have a concrete block (Fig. 2) weighing two tons to serve as a reliable anchoring system
able to cope with the possible existence of occasional
strong currents.
2.3 Innovative organizational options
One innovation of the first underwater platform from
the CARCACE project consists of the use of barter
agreements at national level in a way that enabled
a faster pace of the final design, construction, and
deployment. Barter agreements are frequently used
as tools for international cooperation. These arrangements allow for no-cost exchanges of ship-time and
major marine equipment, and promote a more efficient
and cost-effective use of each countrys resources by
giving the scientific communities access to a wider
range of marine facilities and geographical areas
in a given year than would otherwise be possible.
At the national level, and among private companies
and universities, however, these tools are not used
as frequently as they could be. The authors believe
that it is possible to deepen and broaden the use
of this enabling tool at the national level. Besides
the barter agreements, there is also the possibility to
increase the impact on the market of each mission
or research dive. This is based on the maximization
of a new parameter based on the stakeholder concept (R. Edward Freeman, 1984): stakeholder density
per mission. In space projects, due to the very high
cost of orbital launches this value is usually very high.
671
3
3.1
FIRST MISSION
Construction of the concrete platform
672
NEXT MISSIONS
673
Several different commercial ROVs are being evaluated as potential tools. The location of the instrumentation platform, being relatively near the shore, allows
a wider selection of support vessels that will be able
to make a short detour from their main mission and
therefore provide flexible opportunities to conduct the
survey dives. Each survey dive must bring back six
pushcores of sediments, as well as a variety of underwater organisms that will be collected in order to study
the evolution of the chemosynthetic ecosystem.
In order to document the gradual emergence of
new life forms on the experiment site, the dives are
scheduled to take place every six months.
4.2
FUTURE PROJECTS
CONCLUSIONS
674
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The CARCACE project is financed by the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the
COMPETE programme and by national funds
through FCT, project contract number PTDC/MAR/
099656/2008.
The second author is financed by the FCT grant
SFRH/BPD/22383/2005.
REFERENCES
Aliprandi, S (2010) Creative commons: a user guide.
Lulu.com Publishers. 84 pp.
Baco AR, Smith CR (2003) High species richness in
deep-sea chemoautotrophic whale skeleton communities.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 260:109114.
Braby CE, Rouse GW, Johnson SB, Jones WJ, Vrijenhoek
RC (2007) Bathymetric and temporal variation among
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ABSTRACT: MAR The International Shipping Register of Madeira, created within the framework of the
International Business Centre of Madeira (IBCM), provides Portugal with an important role in the in shipping
world. All entities undertaking the maritime transportation of persons and goods may register vessels in MAR,
flying the Portuguese flag. In addition to commercial vessels and oil-rig platforms, both commercial and pleasure yachts may be registered in MAR. MAR, as a Portuguese register, has become a credible and competitive
alternative compared to other international registers, maintaining the quality levels and the safety culture of
an E.U. register. All international conventions ratified by Portugal are fully applicable to and respected and,
as a consequence, MAR has never been regarded as a flag of convenience. MAR has a Technical Commission (TC) composed of a President, directly appointed by the Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and
Communications, a representative of the Madeira Autonomous Region and a representative of the Portuguese
Institute for Ports and Maritime Transportation (IPTM). The duties of the Technical Commission of MAR include
the management of the registration process, as well as the establishment of the crew composition, being also
responsible, in close articulation with IPTM, for the full compliance of international conventions ratified by
Portugal on safety and the preservation of the quality of life on board and at sea.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Foreword
677
YEARS
3%
4%
5%
REGISTRATION OF COMMERCIAL
VESSELS AND OIL-RIG PLATFORMS
3.1 Formalities
678
Permanent registration
Vessels must deliver proof of the deletion of the previous registration, if applicable. However, a document
issued by the competent maritime authorities, stating that the deletion of the previous registration was
requested, may be initially accepted by MAR.
679
Bareboat Charter;
Commercial Certificate of the Charterer;
Power of attorney granted by the charterer to a local
legal representative;
Permission of the Permanent Registry for the
registration of the vessel in MAR;
Permission granted by the mortgagee(s) in case of
any mortgage.
Bareboat charter;
Certificate of the registry issued by the registry
where the vessel will be temporarily registered
confirming the temporary registration.
3.4
Other requirements
Certification and Watch Keeping for Seafarers Convention of 1978 (STCW), as amended in 1995.
The ship-owner or his legal representative may
apply for the manning proposal of a vessel already
registered or to be registered in MAR. The application
must be accompanied by the following documents:
Summary identification of the vessel, including technical characteristics, equipment, area and
trade where it will operate;
General arrangement plan;
Safety plan;
Stability book;
Any other elements that the applicant may consider
necessary for such application;
Ships manning proposal duly justified.
Labour contracts shall be signed between the seamen or unions and employer, containing the following terms:
680
4.1
Formalities
3.5
Registration fees
Scale
Up to 250 NT
From 250 NT up to 2,500 NT
From 2,500 NT up to 10,000 NT
From 10,000 NT up to 20,000 NT
From 20,000 NT up to 30,000 NT
From 30,000 NT up to 40,000 NT
From 40,000 NT up to 50,000 NT
From 50,000 NT up to 60,000 NT
Above 60,000 NT
225
0.90 per NT
0.75 per NT
0.60 per NT
0.50 per NT
0.40 per NT
0.30 per NT
0.20 per NT
0.10 per NT
NT = Net tonnage
Scale
Up to 250 NT
From 250 NT up to 2,500 NT
From 2,500 NT up to 20,000 NT
Above 20,000 NT
200
0.80 per NT
0.40 per NT
0.25 per NT
Up to 250 GT
Above 250 GT
200
0.75 per GT
NT = Net tonnage
Ships transferred from the Portuguese traditional Registry are subject to different fees.
The fee due for passenger vessels, tug boats and
other auxiliary embarkations are those stated above,
adding thereto 15% to the initial registration or renewal
fees and 30% to the annual fee.
Other fees will be applicable on the issue, recognition or renewal by the Technical Commission of MAR
of various documents, declarations and certificates, as
well as on the undertaking of inspections on board
vessels registered in MAR.
681
Scale
Up to 250 GT
Above 250 GT
200
0.75 per GT
CONCLUSIONS
MAR is a high standard quality register with appropriate measures to ensure an efficient interface with all
vessels registered. All International Conventions ratified by Portugal are complied with by the International
Shipping Register. All well reputed Classification
Societies acknowledged by Portugal are entitled to
undertake surveys and other services in respect of
vessel registration. Registrations in MAR benefit
REFERENCES
Ship Registration in Madeira document downloaded from
www.ibc-madeira.com on 23 March 2011
Ship Registration Brochure document downloaded from
www.ibc-madeira.com on 23 March 2011
682
Author index
Henriques, V. 19
Hilrio, A. 669
Huang, W. 301
Rajendran, S. 223
Ramos, A.A. 63
Requeijo, J.G. 127
Ribeiro e Silva, S. 97, 231
Ribeiro, D. 669
Robledo de Miguel, F. 607
Rodrigues, J.M. 153, 165
Roskilly, A.P. 121
Ruas, J.C. 79
Rusu, E. 481, 525, 613
Rusu, L. 467, 533
Rutgersson, A. 539
Farias, P. 579
Fernandes, L. 505
Ferrari, V. 173
Ferreo, S. 579
Fonseca, N. 45, 53, 195, 213,
223, 595, 631
Fonseca, P. 19
Fortes, C.J. 505
Malta, E.B. 63
Mantari, J.L. 317, 323
Martinho, P. 563, 647
Martins, M.R. 433
Martins, P.T. 73, 147
Martins, R.F. 339
Mateus, A.R. 339
Matos, A.S. 127
Mendes, B. 19
Mesquita, P. 141
Mikalsen, R. 121
Monarcha, A. 195, 595
Moreira, L. 173, 205
Mota, E. 277
Moura, A. 73
Munn, A. 579
Muraleedharan, G. 487
Datta, R. 165
Dias, J.M. 127
Daz-Casas, V. 579
Dong, S. 459
Duarte, F. 631
Ekinci, S. 115
683
Padhy, C.P. 25
Parente, J. 19
Pao, A. 213
Perera, L.P. 9, 133, 153
Pessoa, J. 631
Petrov, V. 497
Pietra, L. 585
Pilar, P. 533
Pilar-Fonseca, T. 19
Pinheiro, L. 505
Queirs, J. 513
Saad-Eldeen, S. 331
Salvao, N. 467
Sampaio, C.M. 63
Santana, N. 623
Santos, F.P. 441
Santos, J. 141
Santos, J.A. 505
Santos, M.S. 339
Santos, T.A. 631
Semedo, A. 539
Sen, D. 25
Sequeira, M. 677
Silva, C.A. 87
Silva, D. 647
Silva, J.E. 451
Silva, P.P. 339
Silveira, P. 35
Somolinos Sanchez, J.A. 607
Sterl, A. 539
timac, G. 349
Sutherland, L. 53
Sutulo, S. 173, 241
Suelj, K. 539
Vairinhos, V. 127
Valente, J.A. 97
Walkley, M. 505
Wang, S. 399
684