EXERCISE 3: SENSORY PATHWAY IN MAN

Julienne Erika R. Alviar1, Jenny P. Concepcion1,

Kristienne Mae S. Diaz1*, Felimon A. Feliciano, Jr.1,
Leonard Q. Guerrero1, and Cigno Adrien I. Pacheco1
1

Department of Biology, College of Science

University of the Philippines Baguio
*kitten_6teen@yahoo.com.ph

INTRODUCTION
Through billion years of life existence on Earth, mammals can be considered as lately
existing group of organisms. But nonetheless, mammals had become the dominant animals of
the world. This was possible primarily because they were able to acquire better body supports,
enhance body processes (metabolism, regulation and reproduction), improve parental care, and
develop larger brains. Especially important was the enlargement of the cerebral hemispheres
which is concerned with higher brain functions such as thinking and reasoning (Cowan, 1994).
Belonging to the group of mammals, the human species-or Homo sapiens, to use the
scientific name- was also able to enhance brain functions as well. In fact, modern humans were
able to go even further and became the most successful of all living organisms. We, humans,
have developed a variety of skills and attributes in order to master many aspects of the world
(King, 1994). One skill/attribute in particular is our ability to acquire knowledge and keen
awareness of the surroundings. A specific study of this skill would show that this was due to
humans development of a higher brain level or a more advanced nerve center, referring to the
central nervous system (CNS).
Associated with the advancement of the CNS is the specialization of the sensory
receptors which composes of sensory cells that respond to specific stimulus or modalities.
Examples of sensory receptors based on the kind of stimulus are mechanoreceptors,
chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, nocireceptors, and many more. In a cellular
level, a sensory cell works by converting an external stimulus into electrical signals via the
opening and closing of ion channels (Sherwood, 2013). But in order to complete the body
process through the nervous system, the electrical signal should enter a particular nerve
pathway. An often used model of nerve pathways is the reflex arc which involves the relay of
information from sense organs to the brain or spinal cord and the formation of response by way
of an effector organ (Rabago, 2008).
The human body, together with other animals, has what is universally called as the
special senses. These include primarily vision, hearing, taste, and smell. Each of these senses
is specialized to respond to one type of stimulus, called its adequate stimulus. It means that
there is a certain sensory receptor accompanying each special sense. However, there are some
cases wherein a certain sense can be activated by various stimuli/modulator (Sherwood, 2013).
Olfactory Sensation (smell). Olfactory sensation may vary depending on several factors
that include the odor concentration and the distance of the odorant from the site of olfaction,
which is generally the nasal epithelium. In humans, smell is important for determining food
flavors and signaling the presence of dangerous gases. It can also induce behavioral changes
and play a powerful role in evoking memories and emotions (Hyman, 1942).
Gustatory Sensation (taste). Humans have thousands of taste buds located in bunches
mainly on surface or edges of the tongue. Stimulated by chemicals in food, the gustatory

sensation of vertebrates- especially humans- are affected by factors such as temperature, food
texture, and even past encounter with the same taste (Sherwood 2013).
Visual sensation (vision). Vision relies on a very complex receptor apparatus called the
eye. It works on a variety of positioning and focusing mechanisms to form an image in the
correct spot on the light-sensitive receptor cells inside the eye (Patton, 2007). These
mechanisms involve muscles, lenses, and other structures present in the visual apparatus. The
visual image perceived by humans has the qualities of resolution, brightness, color, and depth.
Auditory sensation (hearing). Hearing, the ability to detect a range of sound frequencies
(pitches) and intensities, is mediated by the ear apparatus; and it varies among animals based
on the strength of the receptors. Two types of equilibrium are also mediated by ear receptors.
One type, static equilibrium, determines the body position of an organism relative to the center
of gravity. Dynamic equilibrium, on one hand, gives information regarding the speed and
direction of body motion (Patton, 2007).
On one side, there is what is called as the somesthetic or cutaneous sensation. Here,
the skin serves as a large sensory organ. Nerve fibers conduct sensory messages from the
surface of the body to the spinal cord and brain. When the skin is stimulated, any of five
different sensations- touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain- it may be aroused. All of these
sensations depend on the presence of specialized sensory receptors at the end of nerve fibers
(Sherwood, 2013).
Using the special and the somesthetic senses as background of research, the purpose
of the study was to identify the location and functions of some sensory receptors present in the
human body. And this should be able to give an overview of the mechanisms following the
different sensory pathways.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
A. Olfactory sensation
To test the effect of distance of an odor to the site of olfaction, a perfume in a beaker
was prepared, covered with an inverted funnel connected to a rubber tube as shown in the
figure below.

Figure 1. Test for Olfactory Sensation Set-up

(Image taken from: http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/properties-hydrogenchloride)

The task was to place the rubber tube in 2 positions, one at the posterior chamber of the
nose followed by placing at the anterior part inside the nasal chamber, resting for a minute
between the two. In the experiment, the individual should be able to identify which position on
the nasal chamber corresponded to stronger olfactory sensation.
B. Gustatory Sensation
The objective of this test was to identify the effect of the texture of the food (solid or
liquid) and its concentration to the rate of sensation. The test was done by using solid crystals of
sugar and sugar dissolved in water in the following concentrations: 0.5%, 1.0%, 5.0%, 10.0%,
25.0%, and 50.0%.
The test was done by placing each sample to the tip of the tongue and note the time for
the individual to taste each. Before every test, the representative was ordered to rest for a
minute and dry its tongue to prevent easier recognition due to familiarity with the taste.
C. Visual Sensations
One light regulating mechanism of the eye is the dilation and contraction of the pupil
termed, pupillary reflex which is affected by the amount of light that the eyes receive. To
observe more on this, the group studied a representative tasked to stay in a dim area with very
minimal light for several minutes followed by sudden exposure to light. The group observed
carefully the contraction and dilation of the pupil of the eye, paying attention to the difference in
size of the pupil in dim area from its size when there is light present. Another test was done that
tested the eyes capacity of accommodation, or its adjustment of image formation depending on
the distance of the object. The test was done by holding a pencil 50mm directly in front of the
each eye of the tested while letting the other eye closed. As the pencil got nearer to the eye of
the person, the writing on the pencil continued to blur. The distance where the person cannot
read or identify the letters were noted.
The Blind Spot Test was done for the better understanding of the students of the position
where the blind spot is located. In this test, the group representative was tasked to focus at the
center of the two shapes in the figure below then a) to close the left eye and focus the right eye
on the plus sign, moving closer to the figure until the circle disappears; and b) to close the right
eye and focus the left eye on the plus sign, coming closer until the plus sign disappears. The
distance from the figure when the blind spot was identified was recorded then.

Figure 2. Blind Spot Test

(Image retrieved from https://visionaryeyecare.wordpress.com/2008/08/04/eye-test-find-yourblind-spot-in-each-eye/)

D. Auditory Sensations
To test humans sound localization, a watch was placed a distance away from the ear of
a person. The objective was to note the distance it will take for the representative to hear the
ticking of the clock while the ear opposite to the watch was plugged with cotton.
This was tested by having the subject person to stand upright, placing the right foot
closely in front of the left foot. After that, the persons movement was observed when a) the
eyes were open and b) the eyes were closed.
E. Cutaneous Sensations
The first test for cutaneous sensation is to test for pain reception or nociception. This
was done by placing the elbow in ice cold water until the pain is felt somewhere else in the body
besides the elbow.
Skin receptors may vary depending on its sensitivity. These varying skin receptors also
vary in location on the skin. A test was done to determine the presence of a specific type of
receptor which is the most sensitive to even light touches. To do the said test, at the back of the
hand of an individual, a 1x1 cm square was drawn and divided into 16 equal parts. Using a pin,
a dull pencil, cold paper clip, and hot paper clip, the person tried to identify the occurrence of
different types of stimuli like pain and temperature change in the square. The square would also
determine the presence and abundance of different skin receptors in the sample.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Olfactory Sensations
Olfaction is the capacity of an individual to smell involving specialized nerve cells and
structures. The olfactory mucosa that is located in the upper tract of the respiratory pathway
contains three types of cells: olfactory receptors, supporting cells and basal cells which perform
different functions. Supporting cells secrete mucus which coats the nasal passage which works
with the cilia to filter and dissolve particles in the breathed air, basal cells serves as precursors
for new olfactory receptor cells and olfactory receptor cells which contains a large knob
structure bearing several long cilia functions as the binding site of odorants in order to create
the sensation of smell. For a substance to be smelled they must be sufficiently volatile so that
some of its molecules could enter the nose via air or water and they must be sufficiently soluble
in order to be dissolved in the mucus layer of the olfactory mucosa (Sherwood, et. al., 2013).
Within the nose is the nasal cavity which is divided by the nasal septum, it contains projections
called nasal conchae which increases the surface area that increases the area of heat and
moisture exchange furthermore the nasal cavity is lined with mucous membrane which contains
cilia and blood vessels. In the experiment the inner chamber of the nasal cavity showed
stronger sense of smell than the outer part because smell receptors are found in the inner part
of the nasal cavity, these receptors are special nerve cells with cilia which when stimulated by
the binding of the odorants create nerve impulses that are sent to the nerve cells of the olfactory
bulb and through the olfactory nerve these impulses reach the brain where interpretation,
integration and memory storage occurs leading to the creation of the sensation of smell (Tucci,
N. D).

Gustatory Sensations
Table 1. Test for Gustatory Sensations
Concentration
Time before
Remarks
of Sugar
sweet taste
was tasted
(seconds)
100% (Sugar
90.6
Crystal)
0.5%
5.35
Tastes like H2O
(Bland)
1%
3.81
5%
10%

2.00
3.74

Sweeter than 1%
Sweeter than 5%

25%

3.50

50%

3.09

Similar sweetness to
10%
Sweetest

Gustation is the detection of molecules in objects in solids or liquids in contact with the
body where in exteroreceptors and chemoreceptors are utilized in detecting chemicals to
generate neural signals (Sherwood et al, 2013). Chemoreceptors in higher vertebrates are
packed in taste buds which are located in the human oral cavity, throat, digestive tract and even
lungs but only the first two are actually involved in taste and flavor perception. Taste buds are
made up of several spindle-shaped receptor cells each having a small opening called the taste
spore where the microvilli protrude increasing the surface area exposed to the contents of the
mouth. In order to taste something it should be in a solution either dissolved in ingested liquids
or in saliva because it allows the chemicals to attach to the receptor cells thus evoking the
sensation of tastes, this is true with the results obtained where in the sugar crystal had the
slowest time before being recognized by the tongue, trying to taste something that isnt in a
solution with a dry tongue is futile since it would be hard for the chemicals to interact with the
receptor cells of the taste bud (Sherwood et al, 2013). Different concentration of the sugar also
would affect the time as observed in the experiment the lowest concentration had the slowest
time of recognition while the 10% to 50% sugar concentration had an average of 3.44 seconds
before being recognized because with higher concentration more receptor cells would interact
with the allowing easier recognition. Taste thresholds varies from person to person and the
basic tastes of sweet, salty, bitter and sour would also have different concentrations at which
they can be detected.
Visual Sensations
The eye is a very complex organ responsible for vision. It has two fluid-filled sacs
separated by the lens: the anterior filled with aqueous humor and the posterior filled with
vitreous humor. These fluids are further enclosed by three layers: the outermost sclera, the
middle uvea and the innermost retina. The sclera is a tough connective tissue which
differentiates as the cornea at the front of the eye. The cornea is a transparent tissue which
allows the passage of light rays into the eyes. The uvea is composed of three regions: the
choroid filled with blood vessels, the ciliary body enclosing the lens and the iris. The ciliary body

has a muscular component which contributes to the adjustment of the refractive index of the eye
and a vascular component which is responsible in the production of the fluid filling the front of
the eye. The iris is pigmented which determines the color of the eyes. The retina is where the
rods and cones (photoreceptors), bipolar cells and ganglion cells, form layers and convert light
energy into action potentials (Purves, 2008; Saladin, 2008; Sherwood et al., 2013). The axons
of the ganglion cells form the optical nerve which transmits signals to the brain (Sherwood,
2013). The optic nerve exits the rear of the eye in the optic disc (Saladin, 2008).
The region of the retina where the axons of the retinal ganglion meet to form the optic
nerve and leave the eyeball is called the blind spot. It is located approximately 15 towards the
nasal side of the retina and does not have any photoreceptors but it is accompanied by blood
vessels which form the circulation of the eye (Winn, 2001).
Field of vision is defined as the cone of space with its apex at the eye, which is seen by
the subject, when the eye is kept fixed at one point (Ghai, 2013). If the vision is normal, the
visual field extends ~100 temporally (laterally), 60 nasally, 60 superiorly and 70 inferiorly
(Carroll and Johnson, 2013). The field of vision for an eye is charted in a field of vision of that
eye (with the other eye closed). There are several factors that can affect it.
a. Color of the object. For white objects, the visual acuity is better thus the field of vision
is better delineated.
b. Size of the object. If one wants a better visual acuity, then it is recommended that the
size of the object is larger. However, in perimetry, only a standard size is used.
c. Brightness of the object. There are several factors that affect visual acuity. This
includes brightness, contrast and illumination. Since these factors affect visual acuity therefore
these also affects the field of vision.
d. Illumination. As said earlier, illumination is one factor that affects the visual acuity and
field of vision. If theres a decrease in illumination then theres also a decrease in the visual field
(Pal and Pal, 2005).
Analyzing ones field of vision is necessary in neurologic and ophthalmologic
examinations for it is used to check gaps in ones side (peripheral) vision (Healthwise, Inc.,
2013). Simulators which have a wide field of view tend to have greater incidents of simulator
sickness. This is because field of view influences the subjects experiences of vection due to
moving visual scenes (Riva, 1997).

Figure 3. Perimeter Chart

(Image retrieved from
http://www.museyeum.org/info.php?page=0&v=1&s=perimeter&type=all&t=objects&f=&d=)
The circle and the cross disappear as they hit the blind spot of the left and right eye,
respectively.
The photoreceptors in the retina have outer segments facing the back of the eye which
are specialized cilia to absorb light, inner segments housing the cellular organelles and
processes at the base that synapse to the bipolar cells in the next layer which then synapse to
the ganglion cells in the innermost retinal layer. The rods' outer segment is long and tube like
composed of membranous discs stacked together while cones' have shorter and tapering. Rods
provide a gray vision during nighttime or in dim conditions while cones are provide a color vision
during the day or in bright conditions. A few ganglion cells directly absorb light and send signals
to brainstem nuclei which regulate the body's circadian rhythms as well as the diameter of the
pupil, an opening where light passes through (Saladin, 2008). In the experiment, when the
subject was in an area with dim lighting, her pupils appeared dilated but when a light was shined
upon her right eye, its pupil constricted. After 2 minutes with her eyes closed, the subject's pupil
returned to its dilated form. The circular or constrictor muscle (muscle fibers arranged in ring-like
manner around the pupil) and the radial or dilator muscle (muscle fibers radiate outwards similar
to the spokes of a bike), two antagonistic muscles in the iris are responsible for these changes
in the pupil's diameter. In bright conditions, the eye decreases the light coming in the eye by
relaxing the radial muscles and contracting the circular muscles resulting in the constriction of
the pupil. The circular muscle is innervated by the parasympathetic fibers through the
oculomotor nerve. In dim conditions, on the other hand, the pupils dilate by the contraction of
the radial muscles and relaxation of the circular muscles to permit more light to enter the eye.
This dilation is innervated by the sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion (Saladin,
2008; Sherwood, 2013). A similar mechanism occurs when the eye focuses on near or distant
objects and the ability of the eye to do this is called accommodation. Accommodation increases
the power of the lens to focus on near objects and it does this with the help of the ciliary
muscles (found in the ciliary body in mammals) which surrounds it. The lens is connected to the
ciliary muscles through zonule fibers which act antagonistically with the ciliary muscles. The
ciliary muscles are also controlled by the autonomic nervous system just like the iris muscles

are. The sympathetic nerve fibers cause the relaxation of the ciliary muscles which increases
the tension in the zonule fibers, pulling the lens in a flattened weak shape for distant vision. The
parasympathetic nerve fibers innervate the contraction of the ciliary muscles which relaxes the
zonule fibers and increases the lens' curvature due to its elasticity. This happens when the eye
needs to focus on near objects (Purves, 2008; Saladin, 2008; Sherwood et al., 2013).
Accommodation is usually measured in diopters (meter-1) (Nuffieldfoundation.org, 2011). In this
experiment, the subject's eye's near point accommodation was tested. At 5 cm (20 diopters), the
letters on the pencil already appeared blurred which meant that the subject's near point
accommodation may be lower. It is suggested that the normal range of accommodation for both
younger and middle aged adults is 4 m to 70 cm (0.25 to 1.43 diopters) (Lockhart & Shi, 2010).
Auditory Sensations
The process of hearing starts with the conduction of sound waves (vibrations) in the
outer ear through the auditory canal. It then moves to the middle ear where the tympanic
membrane is located. The tympanic membrane vibrates freely when struck with sound waves
and is innervated by the vagus and trigeminal nerves. Three bones, the malleus, incus and
stapes, connected together then transfer the signal from the tympanic membrane, which is
connected to the malleus, to the inner ear through the oval window which is connected to the
stapes. Succeeding the oval window is a system of tubes which function for hearing and
balance and equilibrium. In hearing, a spiral fluid filled structure called the cochlea receives the
amplified vibrations from the oval window. The cochlea is divided into three longitudinal ducts:
scala vestibuli and scala tympani filled with a fluid called perilymph and the organ of hearing, the
cochlear duct housing a fluid called endolymph. The spiral organ or the organ of Corti generates
auditory nerve signals and is located inside the cochlear duct on the basilar membrane. This
organ of Corti is composed of stereocilia or hair cells on its apical surfaces. A tectorial
membrane covering the stereocilia serves as a partition between the endolymph in the duct and
the perilymph in the scala vestibuli and scala tympani. One row of inner hair cells (IHC) and
three rows of outer hair cells (OHC) are neatly arranged on the length of the organ of Corti. The
pressure generated from the amplification of the sound wave is dissipated through the
perilymph. This dissipation then sends waves of pressure to the vestibular membrane, then to
the cochlear duct then to the basilar membrane which causes the vibration of the basilar
membrane, the organ of Corti and its hair cells. The IHC which is responsible for the sound we
"hear" synapses with dendrites of sensory neurons. Then, through a chemical synapse, send
signals to afferent nerve fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve. The OHC synapses, meanwhile,
with the dendrites of sensory neurons and the axons of motor neurons responsible for the
transduction of signals from the brainstem to the hair cells.
It is suggested that the absolute threshold, the minimum amount of energy from a
stimulus that a person can detect, to hear the ticking of a clock is 20 feet (King, 2013). In this
experiment, the absolute threshold of the subject was measured to be at 5.5 cm. It may be that
the reason for this lower absolute threshold is that the ticking of the clock was loud enough and
the place of experimentation was quiet enough.
Interference of the transmission of sound to the hearing apparatus or of the neural signal
to the auditory cortex can generate deafness. Two categories of it exist----conductive and
sensorineural deafness. Conduction deafness results from the malfunction in the transmission
of sound from the outer to the inner ear. Problems in the middle sometimes cause this to
happen. Conduction deafness can happen in adults as ostoclerosis is the most frequent cause.
In this kind of deafness, overgrowth of the labyrinthine bone surrounding the oval window is
present which result to fixation of the stapes (Conn, 2008). This may be the reason why

conduction deafness is also called bone conduction deafness. In sensorineural or nerve

deafness, results from damage of the cochlea, auditory nerve, or the central auditory system.
Possible causes are numerous. It is very important to take note that nerve deafness results in
decreased bone conduction and loss of high-tone appreciation while conduction deafness
results in decreased air conduction and loss of low-tone appreciation (Ross, 2007). It is very
important to differentiate conductive from nerve deafness as many types of conductive deafness
can be treated (Conn, 2008). In cases of conductive deafness, bone conduction is more efficient
(Ross, 2007). Bone conduction hearing has been used for several decades as a hearing
rehabilitation technology although scientists have been in difficulty understanding the underlying
mechanisms of bone conduction (Majdalaweih, 2008). The major step in bone conduction
hearing aid development was the possibility to have direct transmission to the bone with a rigid
system implanted to it. And thus a hearing aid system was created. A bone-anchored hearing
aid system (BAHA) is a device which converts sound waves into sound vibrations. These
vibrations are delivered directly to the inner ear through the skull bone. Bone conduction
principle is used (Auditory Implant Service, 2012).
In the test for equilibrium, the subject was in equilibrium with her eyes closed and eyes
opened but showed more ease with the eyes open.
The sensory system that is considered to have the most important influence on the other
sensory systems is the vestibular system. The vestibular system delivers information regarding
on the spatial orientation which is significant for volitional movement control and it activates
reflexes that help to stabilize the eyes, head, and body in space. It has three important reflexes,
the vestibulospinal reflex (VSR), vestibulo- ocular reflex (VOR) and vestibulocollic reflex (VCR).
Vestibulospinal reflex makes the muscle act to counter or oppose an unwanted movement thus
stabilizes the body. An example of this is when suddenly one starts falling to the right, extensor
muscles of the right leg will contract more slowly whereas the extensor muscles of the left will
relax (Angevine and Cotman, 1981). Vestibulo- ocular reflex, on the other hand, stabilizes the
vision during head rotations (Sunny, 2000). For example, a rightward head movement is
associated with a leftward head movement and vice versa. This is to focus the image on the
fovea of the eye and to compensate for the initial head rotation (Furman, et. al., 2010). Lastly,
the vestibulocollic reflex which acts on the neck musculature to stabilize the head such as when
the head starts to fall to the right, muscles on the neck contract to keep the head in its normal
position ( Herdman and Clendaniel, 2014; Angevine and Cotman, 1981).
Aside from the vestibular functions, breathing, vision, musculoskeletal alignment and
proprioception affect the equilibrium and balance in the body (Young, 2013).
1. Breathing. Oxygen is important for the brain. A relaxed deep breathing provides the
brain oxygen which is essential for brain function and interaction with other sense organs that
detect equilibrium and balance.
2. Vision. Vision is significant in attaining equilibrium because nerve fibers from the eyes
interact with the vestibular system (~ 20%) (Politzer, N. D). The brain senses the bodys
movement, orientation in space as well as the relationship to objects in the environment.
3. Musculoskeletal alignment. Groupings and alignment of muscles can affect
equilibrium by affecting the whole skeletal system (Young, 2013).
4. Proprioception. Proprioception involves sensors, called proprioceptors, which are
responsible for providing information concerning joint position, velocity, muscle tension, rate of

change in length, and other important information related in maintaining equilibrium (McLester
and St. Pierre, 2008).
Cutaneous Sensations
Various sensory receptors can be found in the skin and they can be differentiated in
terms of stimuli, sensitivity and location. There are 6 different types of free nerve endings in the
skin. These are:
Non- encapsulated Nerve Endings
a. Free nerve endings. These are not encapsulated nerve endings or endings without
accessory structures which respond to light touch, pain, itching, and high and low temperatures.
These are found in almost every tissue of the body and in the skin, they reach into the lower
layers of the epidermis particularly the stratum germinativum and encircle the hair follicle
(Alcamo, 2003; Kahle and Frotscher, 2003).
b. Merkels cells or Merkels disks. These are modified epidermal cells which are
sensitive to light touch (like free nerve endings), pressure and texture. Merkels cells are mostly
found in highly sensitive skin like that of the fingertips and at the bases of some hair follicles
(Mescher, 2013).
c. Root hair plexuses. These are receptors which detect light touch that monitor the
bending of hairs thus these are mostly found wrapping around hair follicles.
Encapsulated Nerve Endings
d. Meissners corpuscles. Meissners corpuscles initiate impulses when light- touch or
low-frequency stimuli against skin temporarily deform their shape. These are prevalent in the
fingertips, palms, and soles.
e. Pacinian corpuscles. These are used in sensing coarse touch, pressure (sustained
touch), and vibrations. These are found in the connective tissue of organs located deep in the
body such as the wall of the rectum and urinary bladder.
f. Krause end bulbs. These are like Pacinian corpuscles which sense vibrations however
those vibrations which are low- frequency only. Krause end bulbs are the nerve endings found
prevalent in the skin of the penis and clitoris.
g. Ruffini corpuscles. The sensory axons of Ruffini corpuscles are stimulated by stretch
(tension) or twisting (torque) in the skin. These are found anchored firmly to the surrounding of
connective tissue (Mescher, 2013).
For this experiment, the skin on the back of the hand was used to examine these
receptors. A range of 1-5 was used to describe the sensation felt, with 1 being sensationless
and 5 being the most sensed.

Tables 2-5. Individuals perception of the intensity of pain, pressure, heat and cold
in a 1 cm2 area at the back of the hand
Pin
Tactile
Hot
Cold
2

Figure 4. Area measuring 1 cm2 at the back of the hand of the subject where the different
thermoreceptors and nociceptors were studied
These tests are prone to experimental errors since a lot of factors can affect the
determination of the level of pain felt in a particular area, such as the differences of perception
of individuals, adaptation of the receptor, acuity and reception fields of neurons, and the size of
the source of stimulus (in this case, the tip of a paperclip). The adaptation of receptors to
continuous exposure to pain, pressure, heat and cold can disrupt and affect the perception of
the individual of the stimulus, thinking that it is milder than it really is. The ability of an object to
conduct heat or cold which is related to its size and the material it is made of can also affect the
sensation felt. Based on studies, receptors at the back of the hand have a mean receptive field
diameter of 11.8 mm and the densities of the pain, pressure, heat and cold receptors are
130.5/cm2, 24.7/cm2, 3.4/cm2 and 9.1/cm2, respectively (Sato, et al., 1998). Knowing these, it
can be said that the 10 mm2 is not enough to distinguish two different stimuli. Also, due to the
density of the pain receptors, it may be possible that the sensations felt by the subject were all
of pain and not of pressure, heat or cold.
Although sensory receptors found in the skin differ in almost all aspects, they
nonetheless follow similar sensory pathways. Dermatomes are regions in the skin which deliver
signals to specific spinal nerves (Saladin, 2008). These signals are transmitted specifically to

the posterior (dorsal) horn of the spinal cord to first order neurons. It is then passed on to
second order neurons (may be found in the spinal cord or the medulla) whose axons may
directly or indirectly synapse to a third order neuron located in the thalamus. This third order
neuron's axons ascend further and terminate in the somatosensory cortex, completing the
pathway (Patestas & Gartner, 2006)
A few spinal nerves supplying dermatomes also supply visceral organs which leads to a
phenomenon where pain felt by nociceptors in the viscera is perceived by the brain to be
coming from wrong locations such as the skin and other superficial sites (Patestas & Gartner,
2006; Purves, 2008; Saladin, 2008; Sherwood, 2013). In the experiment, when the subject's
right elbow was placed in ice cold water, pain was centralized at first at the elbow. As the
minutes passed, numbness was felt at the elbow while the pain spread 12 cm up the forearm
and upper arm. No other pain was felt in other parts of the body. If the left elbow was the one
placed in the ice cold water, pain would be felt in the upper chest wall, left shoulder and the
withers region as characterized by anginal pain (Purves, 2008; Sherwood, 2013).
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
1. Make a diagram of the different sensory pathways.
Olfactory Pathway

*odorant receptor protein is a G-protein-coupled receptor - like most of the rest below

Neural Pathway for Taste

Neural Pathway for Vision

Neural Pathway of Hearing

Cutaneous Sensation

(Moyes and Schulte, 2008).

2. What is the role of the sense of smell and taste?
The sense of smell is called olfaction. Olfaction helps us interpret our environment by
detecting molecules given off by different organisms and certain substances. Olfaction can
create memory. Specific odors can trigger long term memory enabling an organism to recall
emotions associated with a recalled experience. The sense of taste is gestation. Sense organs
such as taste buds enable organisms to respond to taste. Olfaction and gustation are closely
related. Both of its neural inputs travel along the same areas in the brain. Olfactory sensations
are produced in the sensory cortex located in temporal lobes while gustatory sensations are
produced in the sensory cortex found in parietal lobes. Both of these senses work frequently
together. Flavor is a combined sense of smell and taste. Breathing out while we are chewing
the food in the mouth triggers olfactory sensory receptors and the gustatory sensory receptors.
Integration of information in the brain is formed and thus the sense of olfactory and gustatory is
combined as a single experience (Patton and Thibodeau, 2009).
3. Diagram the pathway of salivary reflex and discuss mechanism involved. What is the
significance of this type of reflex?
In vertebrates, the only digestive secretion that is under neural control is secretion of
saliva. It is continuously secreted in mammals as it is an essential part in keeping the mouth and
throat moist at all times. It can be enhanced by two different types of salivary reflexessimple
salivary reflex and acquired salivary reflex. In the presence of food, chemoreceptors and
pressure receptors found in the mouth are able to respond to it. These receptors generate
impulses in afferent nerve fibers that transmit the information to the medulla oblongata
specifically salivary center. Sending off signals to the salivary glands through extrinsic
autonomic nerves is then observed to promote salivation. This is simple salivary reflex. In,
acquired salivary reflex oral stimulation is not needed. An organism seeing the food initiates
salivation and this is done by reflex. This reflex is learned based on experience. Inputs that are
from outside the mouth and are mentally associated induce reflex through the cerebral cortex
which will stimulate the medullary salivary center which will then enhance salivation (Sherwood,
et.al., 2013). The diagram below shows and summarizes the pathway of both salivary reflexes

Figure 5. Pathway of Salivary Reflexes

(Image taken from Animal Physiology from Genes to
Organisms, 2nd Edition)
4. Differentiate between nerve and bone conduction deafness. How can bone conduction
remedy abnormalities.
Interference of the transmission of sound to the hearing apparatus or of the neural signal
to the auditory cortex can generate deafness. Two categories of it exist----conductive and
sensorineural deafness. Conduction deafness results from the malfunction in the transmission
of sound from the outer to the inner ear. Problems in the middle sometimes cause this to
happen. Conduction deafness can happen in adults as ostoclerosis is the most frequent cause.
In this kind of deafness, overgrowth of the labyrinthine bone surrounding the oval window is
present which result to fixation of the stapes (Conn, 2008). This may be the reason why
conduction deafness is also called bone conduction deafness. In sensorineural or nerve
deafness, results from damage of the cochlea, auditory nerve, or the central auditory system.
Possible causes are numerous. It is very important to take note that nerve deafness results in
decreased bone conduction and loss of high-tone appreciation while conduction deafness
results in decreased air conduction and loss of low-tone appreciation (Ross, 2007). It is very
important to differentiate conductive from nerve deafness as many types of conductive deafness
can be treated (Conn, 2008). In cases of conductive deafness, bone conduction is more efficient
(Ross, 2007). Bone conduction hearing has been used for several decades as a hearing
rehabilitation technology although scientists have been in difficulty understanding the underlying
mechanisms of bone conduction (Majdalaweih, 2008). The major step in bone conduction
hearing aid development was the possibility to have direct transmission to the bone with a rigid
system implanted to it. And thus a hearing aid system was created. A bone-anchored hearing
aid system (BAHA) is a device which converts sound waves into sound vibrations. These
vibrations are delivered directly to the inner ear through the skull bone. Bone conduction
principle is used (Auditory Implant Service, 2012).
5. Of what importance are vestibular reflexes? Give other factors involved in equilibrium.
The sensory system that is considered to have the most important influence on the other
sensory systems is the vestibular system. The vestibular system delivers information regarding
on the spatial orientation which is significant for volitional movement control and it activates
reflexes that help to stabilize the eyes, head, and body in space. It has three important reflexes,

the vestibulospinal reflex (VSR), vestibulo- ocular reflex (VOR) and vestibulocollic reflex (VCR).
Vestibulospinal reflex makes the muscle act to counter or oppose an unwanted movement thus
stabilizes the body. An example of this is when suddenly one starts falling to the right, extensor
muscles of the right leg will contract more slowly whereas the extensor muscles of the left will
relax (Angevine and Cotman, 1981). Vestibulo- ocular reflex, on the other hand, stabilizes the
vision during head rotations (Sunny, 2000). For example, a rightward head movement is
associated with a leftward head movement and vice versa. This is to focus the image on the
fovea of the eye and to compensate for the initial head rotation (Furman, et. al., 2010). Lastly,
the vestibulocollic reflex which acts on the neck musculature to stabilize the head such as when
the head starts to fall to the right, muscles on the neck contract to keep the head in its normal
position ( Herdman and Clendaniel, 2014; Angevine and Cotman, 1981).
Aside from the vestibular functions, breathing, vision, musculoskeletal alignment and
proprioception affect the equilibrium and balance in the body (Young, 2013).
1. Breathing. Oxygen is important for the brain. A relaxed deep breathing provides the
brain oxygen which is essential for brain function and interaction with other sense organs that
detect equilibrium and balance.
2. Vision. Vision is significant in attaining equilibrium because nerve fibers from the eyes
interact with the vestibular system (~ 20%) (Politzer, N. D). The brain senses the bodys
movement, orientation in space as well as the relationship to objects in the environment.
3. Musculoskeletal alignment. Groupings and alignment of muscles can affect
equilibrium by affecting the whole skeletal system (Young, 2013).
4. Proprioception. Proprioception involves sensors, called proprioceptors, which are
responsible for providing information concerning joint position, velocity, muscle tension, rate of
change in length, and other important information related in maintaining equilibrium (McLester
and St. Pierre, 2008).
6. Define blind spot. Of what importance is the field of vision? Illustrate a perimeter chart.
The region of the retina where the axons of the retinal ganglion meet to form the optic
nerve and leave the eyeball is called the blind spot. It is located approximately 15 towards the
nasal side of the retina and does not have any photoreceptors but it is accompanied by blood
vessels which form the circulation of the eye (Winn, 2001).
Field of vision is defined as the cone of space with its apex at the eye, which is seen by
the subject, when the eye is kept fixed at one point (Ghai, 2013). If the vision is normal, the
visual field extends ~100 temporally (laterally), 60 nasally, 60 superiorly and 70 inferiorly
(Carroll and Johnson, 2013). The field of vision for an eye is charted in a field of vision of that
eye (with the other eye closed). There are several factors that can affect it.
a. Color of the object. For white objects, the visual acuity is better thus the field of vision
is better delineated.
b. Size of the object. If one wants a better visual acuity, then it is recommended that the
size of the object is larger. However, in perimetry, only a standard size is used.
c. Brightness of the object. There are several factors that affect visual acuity. This
includes brightness, contrast and illumination. Since these factors affect visual acuity therefore

these also affects the field of vision.

d. Illumination. As said earlier, illumination is one factor that affects the visual acuity and
field of vision. If theres a decrease in illumination then theres also a decrease in the visual field
(Pal and Pal, 2005).
Analyzing ones field of vision is necessary in neurologic and ophthalmologic
examinations for it is used to check gaps in ones side (peripheral) vision (Healthwise, Inc.,
2013). Simulators which have a wide field of view tend to have greater incidents of simulator
sickness. This is because field of view influences the subjects experiences of vection due to
moving visual scenes (Riva, 1997).

7. Discuss the different types of nerve endings in the skin and their differences in terms of
stimuli, sensitivity and location.
There are 6 different types of free nerve endings in the skin. These are
Non- encapsulated Nerve Endings
a. Free nerve endings. These are not encapsulated nerve endings or endings without
accessory structures which respond to light touch, pain, itching, and high and low temperatures.
These are found in almost every tissue of the body and in the skin, they reach into the lower
layers of the epidermis particularly the stratum germinativum and encircle the hair follicle
(Alcamo, 2003; Kahle and Frotscher, 2003 ).
b. Merkels cells or Merkels disks. These are modified epidermal cells which are
sensitive to light touch (like free nerve endings), pressure and texture. Merkels cells are mostly
found in highly sensitive skin like that of the fingertips and at the bases of some hair follicles
(Mescher, 2013).
c. Root hair plexuses. These are receptors which detect light touch that monitor the
bending of hairs thus these are mostly found wrapping around hair follicles.

Encapsulated Nerve Endings

d. Meissners corpuscles. Meissners corpuscles initiate impulses when light- touch or
low-frequency stimuli against skin temporarily deform their shape. These are prevalent in the
fingertips, palms, and soles.
e. Pacinian corpuscles. These are used in sensing coarse touch, pressure (sustained
touch), and vibrations. These are found in the connective tissue of organs located deep in the
body such as the wall of the rectum and urinary bladder.
f. Krause end bulbs. These are like Pacinian corpuscles which sense vibrations however
those vibrations which are low- frequency only. Krause end bulbs are the nerve endings found
prevalent in the skin of the penis and clitoris.
g. Ruffini corpuscles. The sensory axons of Ruffini corpuscles are stimulated by stretch
(tension) or twisting (torque) in the skin. These are found anchored firmly to the surrounding of
connective tissue (Mescher, 2013).
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