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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 49, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2013

All-Electrical FPSO Scheme With Variable-Speed

Drive Systems
Patrick Pandele, Edouard Thibaut, and Eric Meyer

AbstractThe intent of this paper is to present the possible

electrical solutions for an all-electrical floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) scheme. It describes the underlying
reasons, both technical and economical, that led to the selection of variable-speed drive systems (VSDSs) as drivers of the
large electric motors for the FPSO. This paper gives also the
positive and negative impacts of this innovative architecture on
the FPSO design, capital expenditure, operating expenditure, and
project execution schedule. Finally, this paper gives the challenges
that require particular attention and the way forward for the
all-electrical FPSO scheme using large VSDSs.
Index TermsAll electrical, floating production storage and
offloading (FPSO), variable-speed drive systems (VSDSs).

N OMENCLATURE
AFE
CAPEX
CB
DFE
dc
DLEs
DOL
EMC
GTG
FATs
FPSO
GOR
HV
HVAC
IAC
LCI
LLI
LV
PLC
O&G

Active front end.

Capital expenditure.
Circuit breaker.
Diode front end.
Direct current.
Dry low emissions.
Direct on line.
Electromagnetic compatibility.
Gas turbine generator.
Factory acceptance tests.
Floating production storage and offloading.
Gasoil ratio.
High voltage.
Heating ventilation and air conditioning.
Internal arc classification.
Load commutated inverter.
Long lead item.
Low voltage.
Programmable logic controller.
Oil and gas.

Fig. 1.

FPSO and subsea installation artistic view.

OPEX
PWM
THD
VSI
VSD
VSDSs
WHRU
WLEs

Operating expenditure.
Pulsewidth modulation.
Total harmonic distortion.
Voltage-source inverter.
Variable-speed drive.
VSD systems.
Waste heat recovery unit.
Wet low emissions.

I. I NTRODUCTION

N recent years, an offshore O&G project with an allelectrical FPSO scheme (Fig. 1) has been developed using
large fixed-speed electrical motors.
The next step on a current new offshore project is now to
push the all-electrical FPSO scheme by introducing VSDSs
on the drivers of large electric motors for gas compression
and water injection. This allows only the necessary power to
be consumed, improves stability of the electrical network, and
improves the global plant efficiency.

II. A LL -E LECTRICAL S CHEME

A. Description
Manuscript received April 18, 2012; accepted June 12, 2012. Date of
publication March 11, 2013; date of current version May 15, 2013. Paper
2012-PCIC-158, presented at the 2011 European Conference on Electrical and
Instrumentation Applications in the Petroleum and Chemical Industry, Rome,
Italy, June 79, and approved for publication in the IEEE T RANSACTIONS
ON I NDUSTRY A PPLICATIONS by the Petroleum and Chemical Industry
Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society.
The authors are with TOTAL SA, 92078 Paris La Defense, France
(e-mail: patrick.pandele@total.com; edouard.thibaut@total.com; eric.meyer@
total.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2013.2252133

The all-electrical scheme consists of having only electrical

motors driving the rotating equipment (compressors, pumps,
fans, etc.).
Historically, large rotating equipment installed on FPSOs
has been driven by dedicated gas turbines. In the all-electrical
scheme, these dedicated turbines are replaced by electric motors. The only remaining gas turbines are the ones used for
electric power generation.
There are numerous benefits as well as some downsides in
selecting an all-electrical scheme.

0093-9994/$31.00 2013 IEEE

PANDELE et al.: ALL-ELECTRICAL FPSO SCHEME WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE SYSTEMS

B. Benefits
The benefits of selecting an all-electrical scheme are as
follows.
1) Improvement of the availability. The electric motor maintenance requirements are, in most cases, less stringent
than those of the driven equipment. In the case where
the gas turbine is the driver, it is the opposite; the turbine
will require more frequent and longer shutdowns than the
driven equipment. Thus, this difference in shutdown time
requirements will result in loss of production, because, in
the case of such large machines, no redundancy is implemented. On the other hand, the power generation being
implemented with redundancy (typically, N + 1 configuration) can accommodate the maintenance requirement
of any gas turbine without any impact on the production.
Another availability improvement factor is the difference
in the starting sequence of an electric motor and a gas
turbine. The latter relies on a much more complex and
lengthy procedure and is therefore more subject to failures originating from equipment and/or human factors.
Even though this time difference in starting time would be
expressed in minutes, while the maintenance requirement
would be counted in days, one should consider that the
cumulative duration of starts during the field life (over 20
years) will amount to days if not weeks.
2) Sizing power and power margins. In a conventional
scheme, the compressor or pump rated power will be
subject to gas turbine market range compatibility. This
constraint is avoided with the all-electrical scheme since
HV electric motors will be tailor designed to fit the driven
equipment requirements. In addition, due to the derating
factors of a gas turbine for both aging and fouling, the gas
turbine is selected with a significant power excess. Such
power is not available for use by other loads, so although
it has been designed and accounted for, it does not benefit
operations. In the electrical scheme, since all turbines
are connected to the grid, their power margins can be
consolidated to optimize the power generation sizing.
3) Environmental impact reduction. With the evolution of
national and international constraints regarding CO2 and
NOx emissions, the all-electrical scheme brings several
advantages. The first benefit for the environment is as
a result of the turbine size required for the all-electrical
scheme. For a given supplier and a given technology, the
larger the turbine, the higher the efficiency. Therefore,
when turbine size is increased to drive the largest possible
generator, it is beneficial for the environment. However,
it shall be noted that this effect is partly mitigated by
the fact that more components are introduced in the allelectrical scheme. These electrical components have a
very high efficiency figure, often over 95%, which is
unmatched by mechanical equipment, but they are still
inducing losses from the system. The second benefit for
the environment arises from the centralization of the
power generation facilities. In order to optimize energy
use by the GTGs, WHRUs are fitted to the GTG exhaust
in order to provide heat to process fluids. While these

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WHRUs will derate the GTG by the order of 1%, it will

retrieve an equivalent thermal power in excess of 50% of
the rated electric output of the GTG. The implementation
and regulation of such a WHRU would be extremely
complex to accommodate on dissimilar machines with
dissimilar loadings spread over the entire facility, and
thus, centralization of the power generation improves the
overall efficiency of the plant. Finally, the environmentfriendly regulating systems, either DLE or WLE, are
more difficult to implement for the same reasons as listed
for the WHRU.
C. Downsides
The downsides of selecting an all-electrical scheme are as
follows.
1) Busbar current increase. Both the short circuit and the
rated current are increased in an all-electrical scheme.
The short-circuit level generated by three (or more) GTGs
exceeds the conventional rating of standard electrical
equipment. This issue is typically solved by implementing a pyrotechnic short-circuit current limiter. In case of
high current threshold and/or high slope detected, the
network is split by means of busbar blowing (via cartridge
explosion) in order to ensure that any fault at any location
cannot be fed by more than a predefined number of
generators (and motor loads) which cannot exceed the
electrical equipment rating. This solution is efficient and
has a well-proven record as it has been implemented in
several of our facilities. Spare cartridges shall always be
kept on the FPSO. The rated current cannot be limited
by such devices as it shall be, by definition, permanently
available for use. The rated current can become an issue
for the switching devices (CBs and contactors). While
the current can be kept under a standard value (typically,
lower than 4000 A) for any feeder or incomer, the bus
coupler needs to have a higher value (proportional to
the amount of incomers connected on the bus). For the
kind of scheme described in this paper, couplers will
very often require forced ventilation to achieve the rated
value. When implementing such a design, one should
carefully review the ventilation redundancy scheme and
alarming, the rated current of the CB without forced
cooling, and also the realistic occurrence for the coupler
to be used at such a rating with required cooling. It might
be considered that the ventilation is a backup for very
extreme and unlikely situations.
2) Inrush current. In an all-electrical FPSO concept, since
the main compressors and pumps are driven by electrical
motors either at a fixed speed or a variable speed, the generator design and protection scheme shall also consider
a higher inrush current/voltage drop introduced by the
connection of the DOL motor or by the VSD transformer
connection. In the latter case, a premagnetization system
can be used to mitigate this issue. It has to be noted
that most electrical simulation softwares are not able to
simulate the transformer inrush current which is often
forgotten by engineering procurement contractors during
the basic and detailed studies.

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3) Harmonics. Another downside when VSDS is used in

an all-electrical FPSO is the harmonic electrical network
pollution by the VSDS. This downside is developed later
in this paper.
III. VSDSs
A. Description

Fig. 2.

The VSDs are implemented for two main reasons: process

or operational requirements and electrical limitations. Since
the VSDS is adding new electrical equipment to the design,
this section will be reviewing the solutions to implement this
equipment while minimizing the layout impacts.

C. Converters

B. Transformers
Since VSDs converters are standardized both in power and
in voltage, it is usually required to have an input voltage which
adjusts the grid voltage to a specified value, which is suitable
for the converter operation. For large VSD applications, the
transformer has other functions.
1) It limits the short-circuit power that the grid may
provide to the converter and thus protects the power
semiconductors.
2) When multiple windings are used, it allows the reduction
of harmonic levels by shifting the winding couplings.
3) With the use of electrostatic screen, it reduces capacitive
coupling due to large dV /dt values occurring during the
semiconductors commutation. It creates also a physical
barrier between primary and secondary windings.
For FPSO applications, large VSDS transformers are typically installed outdoors. They are oil cooled with natural ventilation (ONAN). For the case of particularly large VSDs (over 10
MW) with multiple secondary windings, there might be more
than one transformer connected to the converter rectifier. The
reason is to simplify the transformer itself (with respect to either
the crane capacity or the short-circuit impedance requirement
and/or to avoid tank oversizing), but from the electrical point of
view, it remains one transformer.
The cooling could be performed with an oil/water exchanger
in order to reduce the transformers tank size (due to oil
volume reduction) and weight. However, when considering
the implementation of an auxiliary water-cooled system, with
potential redundancy, along with transformer maintenance and
handling requirements, the water-cooled transformer option
was rapidly regarded as ineffective for both commercial and
technical reasons.
The transformer is, without any doubt, the most penalizing
item in terms of layout due to its weight and the fire protection
requirements (fire walls, drains for the oil, etc.). Any solution
that will enable to avoid this item will be a significant step
forward to promote the architecture presented in this paper.
VSD using AFE rectifier configurations (Fig. 2) connected
directly to the main switchboard is the expected answer to this
issue. Nowadays, some VSD manufacturers are proposing such
solutions for 6.6-kV voltage level, but currently, since, for an
all-electrical FPSO, the trend is to have an 11- or 13.8-kV
switchboard, there is a need to develop such HV rectifiers.

VSD with AFE rectifier.

The converter can really be considered as the heart of the

VSDS as it is the equipment that converts a fixed frequency to
an adjustable one. Most converters are composed of five main
parts:
1) control part;
2) rectifier;
3) dc link;
4) inverter;
5) cooling system.
Depending on the size of the VSD, other parts such as
harmonic filters and dV /dt or sine filters may be required.
The rectifier and inverter are largely composed of semiconductors (power electronics) which are the components that
drive the standardization of this type of equipment. This part
of the VSD is the one that evolves most rapidly (compared
to transformers and motors) since the technology for power
electronics is more recent.
For HV VSD, when it is water cooled, deionized water is
required to cool the semiconductors whose heat is generated
by switching and conduction losses. The VSD cooling unit
permanently monitors and regulates the electrical resistivity of
the water to ensure that no electrical fault can be generated. This
cooling system shall have a high level of redundancy (filtering
and pumping) in order to change internal components while the
VSD is operating. Of course, it is a delicate topic to bring water
within an electrical room. Within the room, all water cooling
piping shall be welded as much as possible and not flanged in
order to minimize water leaks. The flange with the converters
water/water exchanger shall be arranged such that detectors can
identify a leak.
While water cooling is recommended to ensure the most
efficient solution, one should not forget that water-cooled
VSDS still produces air heat dissipation (pipe radiation, LV
wiring, relays, PLCs, etc.). For an HV water-cooled VSD, a
rule of thumb is to consider 95% of the overall losses as being
transferred to the cooling water and the remaining 5% to the air.
HV air-cooled VSDs should not generally be considered in
an all-electrical FPSO due to the following: high noise levels
in the electrical room, arc fault issues, and footprint increases.
In the latter case, the VSD losses are transferred to the electrical
room, and the heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
system becomes bigger and more complex. In addition, it
decreases the reliability of the VSDS since it is mandatory to
absorb the VSDS losses.
The layout impact is not as detrimental as it is for transformers. Indeed, electrical rooms are always required, and if
the converter cannot be accommodated in the existing room, an
additional level can be designed in a manner which is close to

PANDELE et al.: ALL-ELECTRICAL FPSO SCHEME WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE SYSTEMS

Fig. 3.

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Synchronous and induction motors.

neutral to the overall FPSO layout. Therefore, the main issue is

the weight and not the footprint, and again, the weight of the
converter is still lower than that of its associated transformer.
D. Motors
In the case of an FPSO where the power requirements do
not exceed 20 MW for a single machine (be it a compressor
or a pump), the motor selection is fairly easy due to the
availability and reliability criteria for the FPSO production.
For this purpose, the induction motor is clearly excellent and
superior to other types of electrical machine like synchronous or
dc motors because it does not need a link between the rotor and
the supply system (Fig. 3). This is because the flux is transferred
to the air gap through the stator.
As a consequence, the rotor has no components such as insulated windings, exciter, rotating diodes, or permanent magnets.
It is only fitted with copper bars short-circuited by rings. Thus,
the reliability and the availability of such motors are naturally
increased, and the use of an induction motor can be justified by
the following reasons.
1) This is the most simple and robust rotating machine.
2) The induction motor is a proven and mature technology
as widely used in many industrial applications.
3) The rotor consists of a simple cylindrical squirrel cage
with no active insulated parts.
4) Safe operation in any condition: Fast demagnetization of
the machine in case of short circuited turns on the stator.
5) Rotor design is optimized for low-slip and low-loss operation.
6) Acoustic noise and vibration are reduced by slot skewing.
7) Its simplicity reduces the maintenance cost.
8) There is easy rotor removal on board.
Regarding footprint and weight, the motor is a very positive
improvement compared to a gas turbine driver. The length, the
weight, and the reduced auxiliaries equipment and piping are
all in favor of the motor drive.
Two main improvements are expected in the years to come.
The first one is to be able to provide power supply to the
motors at voltages above 10 kV. This improvement is actually

relying on the converter development. The second improvement

is to use motors that are integrated in the compressor line.
Such motors are already running in onshore applications with
sweet (treated) gas. The development for nontreated gas by
several suppliers is ongoing, and offshore qualification will
soon follow. The main effects of this last improvement will be
to reduce footprint to a minimum and to remove the lubrication
system by use of magnetic bearings.
E. VSDS Benefits
The first advantage of VSDs is on the process and operational
sides. Since the speed can be adjusted, it is ideal for handling a
fluctuating load profile throughout the plant life. It also provides
flexibility to cope with uncertainties (e.g., gas molecular weight
in the case of compressors).
Regarding mechanical performance, the acceleration of the
motor is not as sudden as in the case of a DOL motor. The
mechanical stresses are reduced, and therefore, the lifetime is
extended. Moreover, the torque is controlled with a VSD, which
provides better control and protection of both driven equipment
and driving equipment.
Regarding efficiency, the VSD only converts the amount of
energy which is required (considering that the load fluctuates
in time). In comparison, with fixed-speed machines where flow
is adjusted via recycling valves and pressure is regulated via
discharge pressure valves, the speed variation generally is the
most flexible and most energy-efficient regulation means.
Many advantages are also expected on the electrical side
when VSDs are used. The electrical network stability is largely
improved for multiple reasons:
1) no inrush current during large motor start-up which is
beneficial for power generation sizing and for the other
loads;
2) higher immunity medium-voltage dips due to the capability to catch the load and reaccelerate while avoiding the
risk of detrimental torque transients;
3) noncontribution to short-circuit current fault;
4) enhanced load shedding capabilities, i.e., instead of
on/off control, the speed can be adjusted to reduce the
consumption to the required level.

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Fig. 5.
Fig. 4. Load commutated inverter.

The electrical equipment lifetime is also improved with a

VSD. Since there is no inrush current, the motor lifetime is
longer because heating is reduced. Another secondary effect
of this reduced heating is the unlimited starting frequency,
whereas typically large motors can be started only two or three
times per hour.
Another VSDS benefit is for the design of the motor which is
usually designed for DOL starting. In other words, it is designed
to start at a fixed frequency, most often at 50 or 60 Hz, either at
full line voltage or at reduced voltage (with an autotransformer
or soft starter). In order to provide good starting conditions,
the performance at full load cannot be optimized because the
squirrel-cage resistance and the motor polarity have to be
chosen as a compromise between starting parameters and rated
speed requirements.
When driven with a VSD, the motor electromagnetic design,
and particularly the rotor, can be drastically optimized because
a completely different approach can be chosen. In these more
favorable conditions, the rotor can be optimized for low-slip
operation, and its cage resistance can be decreased because no
starting torque at unit slip is required as the DOL constraint is
removed. In this design, the motor slip and, consequently, its
torque are always controlled by the frequency converter over
the whole speed range, including zero speed.
F. Converter Choice: VSI or LCI
The natural choice for an FPSO is to use a VSI for the
following reasons.
1) The first one is the capability for a VSI to drive an
induction motor and a synchronous motor when an LCI
is able to drive only a synchronous motor (Fig. 4).
2) The VSI (Fig. 5), with either an AFE or multiple DFE
rectifier, has also an excellent power factor and generally
allows the use of capacitors to compensate the power
factor to be avoided. For an LCI, the reactive power
consumption of the LCI rectifier imposes the use of a
power factor compensation system even if a multiple
pulse rectifier configuration is used, which introduces the
use of a bulky harmonic filter.
3) With a VSI, the fixed-frequency network voltage is rectified by the front-end bridge and filtered via the dc
bus capacitor which avoids interharmonic issues which
can occur with an LCI where interharmonics may cause
torsional oscillations in generators physically close to
the LCI.
4) With a VSI, the PWM patterns on the inverter side allow
torque pulsation issues which would be present with an
LCI to be avoided.

Voltage-source inverter.

G. Selection Drivers for VSDS

In our project, the economical driver to select the VSDS
solution is to optimize the sizing of the power generation. When
the implementation of VSDS enables to remove one GTG, it
likely that an all-electrical scheme with VSDS will ultimately
be selected.
The two main items that must be considered for power
generation optimization on the FPSO are as follows.
1) The offloading. The offloading is a regular operation that
consists in offloading part of the cargo production from
the FPSO storage tanks into a tanker. This operation
is carried out while the FPSO is still producing. This
operating scenario is the FPSO peak power consumption
scenario. It typically lasts 24 h, and it is carried out
every five days during the plateau part of the field life.
This operation usually adds between 4 and 8 MW to the
overall FPSO power demand. This significant increase
may sometimes require an additional GTG to be started.
Dedicated operational procedures allow the FPSO power
demand to be reduced without any load shutdown (e.g.,
reducing water injection rate and reducing the oil flow
of wells with a high GOR to reduce the gas compression
loads). These operational procedures can be seen as very
hindering for operation teams, but considering the fact
that GTGs are sized taking into account aging and fouling
and maximum ambient temperatures, statistically, it will
not be very often that such mitigations are required. In the
few occasions when operational mitigations are required,
the speed adjustment is considered to be a much smoother
alternate to partial shutdown (load shedding).
2) The gas compression and water injection peak years. As
shown in Figs. 6 and 7, the consumption with on/off
regulation of the largest motor and the one with variablespeed regulation has drastically different outcomes. The
on/off regulation scheme is in power deficit from years
29, while the VSD scheme allows the maximum power
demand to remain within the power generation capacity
limits throughout the field life. In addition, the VSD
scheme will enable power generation capacity to be made
available for new power users. Tie-in of production from
new wells can thus be performed earlier.
H. Harmonics
In addition to cost and layout impacts which have already
been addressed, the last downside of the VSDS is the electrical
network pollution.
At this stage, it shall be noted that all loads are polluters
and even a generator produces harmonics on the network. This

PANDELE et al.: ALL-ELECTRICAL FPSO SCHEME WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE SYSTEMS

Fig. 6.

Electrical load evolution with VSD.

Fig. 7.

Electrical load evolution with fixed-speed motor.

means that the network study shall make sure that all the
network components are properly modeled. Preliminary studies
performed by VSDS suppliers are a valid technical input but
cannot be taken as a reliable basis to implement harmonic
mitigation means at the project level.
There are many means to reduce the harmonic level. The intent is to exhaustively review each and to address the suitability
for an FPSO application.
1) Passive Harmonic Filters: The first parameter which
impacts the harmonic content is the short-circuit power. As
a general rule, the higher the power figure, the better the
networks harmonics that will be absorbed. Unfortunately, for
an all-electrical FPSO with VSDS, the power ratio between
polluters and generation is quite high (above 0.5). Therefore,
it is not viable economically to increase power generation for
harmonic reduction purposes.
The second parameter is the number of pulses of the VSDS
rectifier. When the number of pulses is increased, it helps
reducing the amplitude of the first significant harmonic ranks
of the VSD. However, the increase of pulse number will increase equipment size (transformer, cables, and connections)
and make it more complex to build and less reliable.
The third parameter, pseudo 2 pulse mode, is closely
linked to the second. It consists, when twin machines are
required, in manufacturing the twin transformers with phase
shift. Phase shift shall be defined in such a way that the first
significant harmonic ranks of each VSDS will self-compensate
each other. This requires operating identical machines with

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similar loading. Moreover, during start-up conditions, when one

machine will be started after another, the effects of noncompensation shall be assessed.
The fourth parameter is the use of AFE rectifiers which
will hopefully negate the requirement for the second and third
parameters previously mentioned. It consists of replacing the
diodes of the rectifier by controllable semiconductors that will
be triggered with PWM at high frequency in such a way that
harmonics are minimized. When the harmonic level is still too
high, precalculated PWM can at least ensure that no harmonics
will be generated where the network is subject to resonances.
The fifth parameter is to be used when all the previous
options have been considered and harmonic levels remain at a
nonacceptable level. The use of active filters is quite seducing
because it potentially enables the end user to compensate
harmonics at levels that were not identified at design stage and
therefore compensate for design inaccuracies. However, it has
two major drawbacks. The first drawback is that only LV or
HV (up to 6.6 kV) active filters are widely distributed in the
market. Several items of equipment with dedicated transformers
would then be required which is not recommended for offshore
applications. The second drawback is that these filters operate
with current measurement on one particular section of the
network. This means in particular that pseudo 2 N mode
cannot be implemented. Also, in a scheme with several VSDSs
installed, it will be difficult to manage all configurations. Thus,
the active filter solution is not recommended for this kind of
application.
The sixth and final mitigation means that has been considered
for our facility was the most obvious and common type, i.e.,
the passive harmonic filter. The sizing of such filters is quite
delicate and requires good network knowledge and modeling.
It depends on the network configurations and the facilitys
load throughout time. Once it is concluded that one or two
particular ranks will require filtering, it will often happen that
the harmonic filter adds a new resonance to the network. Then,
such a harmonic filter will become relatively large, adding to the
footprint and weight concerns that remain paramount offshore.
In addition, the more the components that are integrated, the
higher the risk that one fails, and for one component failure, the
whole filtering feature is lost.
Considering the aforementioned uncertainties and limitations, it is usually decided to size a harmonic filter with a very
low filtering rank (such as five or seven) tuned to avoid creating
a detrimental new resonance at a lower rank and also to provide
a general damping for all higher ranks. Thus, even if this
solution is neither elegant nor optimized from a pure electrical
standpoint, it is easy to implement and should be considered for
networks where the harmonic levels either are spread on several
ranks or exceed, by a small margin, the allowable values applied
on the project.
When a harmonic study is carried out, attention shall be paid
to simulation tools which have limitations. For instance, most of
these tools use harmonic spectrum libraries and, consequently,
are not able to calculate the influence of the grid short-circuit
power on the current harmonic spectrum. As described by
the International Electrotechnical Commission [8], it is shown
that, for the same firing angle, the amplitude of a harmonic

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Fig. 8. Harmonic 17 amplitude versus dx.

The positive effect of such a solution is to skip two large

power transformers (typically, over 10-MVA rated power) and
to remove additional HV feeders along with incomers and bus
couplers.
Regarding room space savings, we must keep in mind that
11- or 13.8-kV cubicles always come in larger sizes for small
motors than a 6-kV version, but considering the clearances
required for each switchboard and the extension requirements,
the unification of voltage still remains a beneficial solution in
terms of footprint.
However, the linear length of the switchboard is now considerably increased, and within an offshore-sized electrical
room, even back-to-back or rear-to-rear arrangement will not
be sufficient to accommodate the HV switchgear as three (or
even four) sections will be required. This will have an impact on
the room height requirement because exhaust ducts (for internal
arcs), busbars (to link different sections), HVAC ducts, and
structural beams may clash.
B. Capacitive Currents and Neutral Earthing

Fig. 9. Resonances with and without skin effect.

(e.g., H17) can vary from 6% to 1% of the fundamental value

depending on the dx which is a function of the short-circuit
power of the grid (Fig. 8).
Most of these simulations tools also do not take into account
the skin effect which dampens the resonances of the system
(Fig. 9).
It appears also that some of the current harmonic spectrum
libraries used by these softwares do not include any residual
harmonics which are present due to the imperfection of the
system, for instance, Ucc not exactly the same for each line of
a transformer, semiconductor characteristic disparity, and firing
angle difference which introduces harmonics or does not cancel
some others.
IV. D ETAILED D ESIGN C ONSIDERATIONS
A. HV Levels
Since the all-electrical scheme combined with VSDS significantly increases the number of items of electrical equipment,
the design of the electrical network is driven to reduce the number of items of electrical equipment for distribution. Therefore,
in comparison to other FPSOs with multiple HV levels, only
one HV level can be implemented for both topside and hull and
both essential and nonessential consumers.

One other downside of unified HV levels is that, in an

offshore environment, a relatively large network has been reproduced with many HV consumers connected to one or several
busbars that are electrically connected. Hence, these loads
and their associated cables represent a capacitive load on the
network.
The neutral earthing sizing will be affected by the overall
network capacity. The generally accepted rule of thumb is to
size the resistive content of the earth current twice as high as
that of the capacitive current of the network.
However, which capacitive current value shall be used to
carry out the sizing of the resistor, between the steady-state
current and earth fault condition current, is not so widely established. The ratio between the two values is from one to three;
hence, it is of primary importance to be sure which criteria
should be taken into account. It is defined in the technical
literature [5] that the earth fault current is the value to be taken
into account for the resistive content sizing. Unfortunately, this
leads to the higher value of the two.
The European industry tends to try to limit the resistor value
in order to have earth fault currents in the range of 3060 A,
while the North American practice is to have higher earth fault
currents (over 100 A). The reason to limit the earth fault current
is primarily to protect the faulted machine (Fig. 10).
We try to ensure that the fault current remains in a zone
where the faulty equipment is still repairable. However, if the
capacitive current is very high comparatively to the resistive
content, it might be difficult to achieve selectivity between the
real faulty current and the capacitive current discharge from the
healthy part of the network.
This partly explains why it is recommended to have high
resistive content that will only be detected in the faulty part
of the network (and the neutral earthing feeder). In reality,
even if the ratio between resistive and capacitive currents is
low, it is still possible to have proper fault discrimination
because each and every incomer and feeder are fitted with core
balance current transformer. Then, the individual contribution

PANDELE et al.: ALL-ELECTRICAL FPSO SCHEME WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE SYSTEMS

Fig. 10. Damage versus earth fault current.

of each branch still remains low, and the only concern remains for the connection between two switchboards. This
connection will transmit the summation of all the capacitive
current of the loads and generators connected to the bus
which can reach a relatively high value. This case can still
be solved easily by implementing differential protection or
a restricted earth fault that will not be sensitive to the current value. These protections sometimes require a dedicated
relay, but they are required for a very limited number of
instances.
The last and most decisive argument that convinced us to
proceed with larger resistive currents than our company standard was to consider the discharge time constant of the network
(dx). In case of an earth fault, a capacity is discharged. If
this discharge is not fast enough (i.e., R being too high, while
C is not adjustable), then a restriking phenomenon (similar
to the one sometimes observed in vacuum switching [11]) is
likely to occur. This means that a single earth fault on one
piece of equipment may create an overvoltage buildup that can
potentially damage any other (healthy) part of the network. In
order to prevent such phenomena, it is recommended to select
a lower value resistance with a higher current.
An adjustable resistance may be selected if the network
capacitance has many design uncertainties and/or if the network
configuration will change throughout the field life.
C. IAC
The IAC rating [1] of electrical switchgears is one of the
primary safety means to protect operation and maintenance
staff. In an all-electrical scheme with VSDS, it is normal to
ensure that the converters are offering a similar protection level
as the conventional switchgears.
The feedback of our project is that few suppliers had already
integrated this safety aspect in their standard product range.
After many discussions and clarifications with suppliers that
were not able to propose an IAC equipment from their standard
product range, it was concluded with most of them that they
would either develop on their own a certification of their VSDS
or that they would add specific tests in their scope of the project
to demonstrate the suitability of their product.
Hence, the cooperation of VSDS suppliers was positive
and fruitful. However, one should keep in mind that, in any

1195

qualification program, uncertainties will remain. Therefore, in

case of delay in the qualification process, it is advised that a
backup design has been studied in parallel in order to avoid
having to start from scratch.
The other HV item that is not systematically covered by IAC
is the busbars. In the case of a long switchboard with multiple sections in the room, the interlinking busbars are usually
not type tested. That reputable suppliers were proposing IAC
switchgears with non IAC interlinking busbar was originally a
very surprising fact.
For HV switchgears, many suppliers propose insulated busbars as a standard feature, thus limiting the risk of short
circuit. However, the busbars cannot be insulated at the junction
points. At the junction points, the insulation is performed by
covers or boxes. These connection points are deemed to be the
weak point of the system as they cannot be properly verified
without de-energization. Our recommendation and feedback are
to investigate the possibility to implement resin-type insulated
busbars (without interconnections) or to implement optical arc
detection devices in addition to the suppliers standard insulated
busbars.
V. T ESTING
Large VSDS being relatively new equipment in offshore
O&G applications, the reliability of this item can be questioned
and sometimes challenged. While the available feedback is
positive [10], an extensive testing program is an efficient means
to improve the end users confidence in such equipment.
Some constraints will arise while defining such a testing
program. The first constraint is cost. Tests require specialized
staff, technical resources, and special facilities, but all of these
are rare and, therefore, costly once offshore. Therefore, one
should look at the FAT to guarantee that most issues will be
solved at an earlier stage, more quickly, and with more efficient
means than on site or at construction yard. Four main exhaustive
tests can be considered.
A. Type Tests
These tests are the most easy to define, and they are generally
well covered by the IEC and are usually performed at the
manufacturers facilities, i.e., the ideal location to perform
modifications. In some cases, however, generally due to power
supply and/or load brake limitation, these tests cannot be performed at rated power.
Another limitation of such tests is the lack of the system approach. The successful test of each component of the complete
VSDS does not always ensure the successful operation of the
VSDS. Interfaces in particular cannot be fully verified.
B. Back-to-Back Tests
In the case of twin equipment, a back-to-back test (Fig. 11)
where one driving set is used as a generator and the other as
a motor is performed, and most power supply and load brake
issues are solved. Depending on the converter configuration,
power is recycled either at the dc-link level (in the case of the

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 49, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2013

very rarely fitted with both testing equipment and specialized

staff to ensure that the electrical side will be tested with the
same reliability and exhaustiveness as the solutions described
here earlier.
As a conclusion, regarding the testing program, a discussion
should be held with all involved parties to define the critical
aspects of the complete VSDS along with the driven machines.
Depending on economic and/or schedule constraints and also
looking at the number of identical electrical trains, a combination of the aforementioned tests can be selected to optimize
the testing program and ensure that the equipment has been
thoroughly checked and validated.

VI. C ONCLUSION

Fig. 11. Back-to-back tests.

diode rectifier) or at the network level. The advantage of such

a test is that the whole system is tested at load and with its
interface.
However, it will require enough space for two complete
electrical trains and will immobilize both equipment sets for
a relatively long time (including mounting and dismounting the
test bench). Since both equipment sets need to be present at the
same time and they are typically part of the supply of an LLI,
the main problem of such test is its impact on schedule.

Designing an FPSO with an all-electrical scheme and

variable-frequency drives has brought up challenges that were
never addressed for our previous plants. At this stage, it is
deemed that most of the design issues are now solved. Thus,
it is confirmed that VSDSs not only are viable on an FPSO but
also can bring more benefits than constraints.
With the expected improvements in the field of semiconductors, it is anticipated that the type of architecture presented in
this paper will become more and more attractive.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank G. Descorps who has taken
the first steps toward the all-electrical scheme with variablespeed drive systems. With his determination and expertise, he
has been able to promote and validate this new solution in a
challenging environment where the temptation to adopt tried
and tested solutions is always present.

R EFERENCES
C. Load Brake Tests
Load brake tests can be performed provided that there are
both a power supply and a load brake available at the test
location and that these are compatible with the rated power and
input voltage of the project VSDS and also the speed range of
the tested motor.
When all these requirements are met, the conditions for electrical testing are almost ideal. One unit can be tested with less
time constraint and with full dedication to electrical equipment
along with the system checks.
D. String Tests
String tests (at full load and full speed) are generally required
for the mechanical driven machine. Theoretically, this is an
excellent opportunity to perform the electrical tests along with
the mechanical machine.
However, in case of an issue on either the mechanical or the
electrical part, the complete test program will be jeopardized.
In addition, the testing means of the mechanical workshop are

[1] High-Voltage Switchgear and ControlgearPart 200: A.C. MetalEnclosed Switchgear and Controlgear for Rated Voltages Above 1 kV and
Up to and Including 52 kV, IEC 62271-200, 2003.
[2] J. Tastet, S. Marchais, and P. Angays, Electrical installation on FPSO
Basic rules, in Proc. IEEE PCIC Eur., 2009, pp. 4449.
[3] D. Bu, Electrical LNG: Main issues during the multi-MW compressor
call for tender clarifications, in Proc. IEEE PCIC Eur., 2010, pp. 17.
[4] J. Tastet, P. Pieters, and P. Angays, Implementation of variable speed
drive system in oil and gas plants. Lessons learned, in Proc. IEEE PCIC
Eur., 2006.
[5] F. Sautriau, Neutral earthing in an industrial HV network, Merlin Gerin
Tech. Spec. 62.
[6] Adjustable Speed Electrical Power Drive SystemsPart 4: General
RequirementsRating Specifications for A.C. Power Drive Systems Above
1 000 V A.C and Not Exceeding 35 kV, IEC 61800-4, 2002.
[7] E. Thibaut and P. Manuelle, Electric solutions in the LNG chain for compressor drives and LNG carriers propulsion, in Proc. LNG15, Barcelona,
Spain, Apr. 2007, pp. PO-30.1PO-30.3.
[8] Semiconductor Convertors General Requirements and Line Commutated
Convertors Part 12: Application Guide, IEC/TR 60146-1-2, 2011.
[9] IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electrical Power Systems, IEEE Std. 519-1992, 1993.
[10] R. Guyomard, D. Dessogne, B. Martinot, and E. Thibaut, 20 years of
experience in VSDS for high power compressors of steam crackers, in
Proc. IEEE PCIC Eur., 2007, pp. 15.
[11] C. Vollet and B. de Metz Noblat, Protecting high-voltage motors against
switching overvoltages, in Proc. IEEE PCIC Eur., 2007, pp. 17.

PANDELE et al.: ALL-ELECTRICAL FPSO SCHEME WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE SYSTEMS

Patrick Pandele received the B.Eng. degree in

electrical engineering from the Ecole Nationale
Suprieure dIngnieurs Electriciens de Grenoble,
Saint-Martin-dHres, France.
Before joining TOTAL SA, Paris La Defense,
France, in 2007, he was with TECHNIP for eight
years. He is currently with Exploration and Production, Technologies Division, where he is acting as the
Lead Electrical Engineer on TOTAL SAs first allelectrical floating production storage and offloading
with variable-speed drive systems. He has been involved in several major international oil and gas projects both onshore and
offshore.

Edouard Thibaut received the B.Eng. degree in

electrical engineering from the Ecole Suprieure
dIngnieurs en Electronique et Electrotechnique,
Noisy-le-Grand, France.
Before joining TOTAL SA, Paris La Defense,
France, he was with Alstom Power Conversion and,
then, Converteam for 11 years. He is currently with
Exploration and Production, Technologies Division,
TOTAL SA, where he is an Electrical Specialist for
various projects and work on electrical developments
involving new technologies. He has been involved as
a variable-speed drive system design and commissioning engineer in several
major international projects both onshore and offshore.

1197

Eric Meyer received the B.Eng. degree from the

Ecole Spciale de Mcanique et dElectricit Sudria,
Paris, France.
Before joining Exploration and Production, Technologies Division, TOTAL SA, Paris La Defense,
France, he was an Electrical and Control Engineer
on large infrastructure projects with Spie Batignolles
for five years and, then, a Senior Electrical Engineer
on several major oil and gas projects with TECHNIP
for five years. He joined Exploration and Production,
Technologies Division, TOTAL SA, 12 years ago
as an Electrical Engineer, and after various positions on projects and a fiveyear expatriation, he is currently in charge of the Electrical Department,
Technologies Division, where he is involved in the main development projects
and R&D.