AS Physics

Unit 1: Particle, Quantum

Phenomena & Circuits
Joel Biffin

Joel Biffin

Particles & Radiation [1.1]

Quantum Phenomena [1.2]

Electricty [1.3]

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Particles & Radiation [1.1]

Unit 1 | Particles & Radiation [1.1]

Inside the Atom
- An atom is made up of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons.
Particle Name

Charge
Relative

Mass
Actual /C
1.60x10

-19

Relative

Actual /kg

1.67x10-27

Proton

+1

Neutron

1.67x10-27

Electron

-1

-1.60x10-19

5.45x104

9.11x10-31

Stable & Unstable Nuclei

- The strong nuclear force (S.N.F.) overcomes electrostatic repulsion between protons and holds
nucleons together.
- The S.N.F. has a range of +3fm (3x10-15m).
- Atoms can decay radioactively by the following equations:
> Alpha Decay

> Beta (-) Decay

> Beta (+) Decay

Quarks & Particle Classification

- Quarks are a type of fundamental particle which can join together to create Hadrons.
- There are 3 different quarks (and 3 corresponding anti-quark) - Up, Down & Strange.
- Hadrons interact via the strong force (and decay via the weak force in strange interactions).

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Particles & Radiation [1.1]

- Different combinations of quarks form different types of Hadrons:

> Baryons - they contain 3 quarks (and have a baryon number of 1 or -1)
> Mesons - they contain 1 quark and 1 anti-quark and can be either Pions or Kaons
~ Pions contain only up or down quarks/antiquarks
~ Kaons always have one strange quark/antiquark
- Leptons are fundamental particles with a very small mass.
- There are three different types of lepton:
> Electrons, Muons & Neutrinos (Electron-Neutrinos & Muon-Neutrinos).

Interactions Involving Particles, Anti-Particles & Photons

- For each particle, there is a corresponding anti-particle (e.g. Electron (e-) - Positron (e+)).
- When particles interact, exchange particles (gauge bosons) are the force particles which are
exchanged between bodies to produce the force.
> Electromagnetic Force

(Virtual) Photon

> Weak Force

W+ or W-

> Strong Force

Gluon

> Gravitational Force

Gravitron / Higgs-Boson

- We can illustrate how particles interact by using Feynman diagrams.

Electromagnetic Repulsion

Electron Capture

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Particles & Radiation [1.1]

Neutron - Neutrino Collision

Antineutrino - Proton Collision

Electron - Proton Collision

Beta- Decay

Definitions
Specific Charge
Isotope

The charge (in coulombs) divided by the mass (in kg). Sometimes referred to
as the charge to mass ratio
A nucleus with the same number of protons but with a different number of
neutrons

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Quantum Phenomena [1.2]

Unit 1 | Quantum Phenomena [1.2]

The Photoelectric Effect
- The process by which electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal due to incident light of an
appropriate frequency is called the photoelectric effect.

Collisions of Electrons with Atoms

- Ionisation occurs when electrons with a high level of kinetic energy hit gaseous atoms - the electrons
have such a high energy that they knock out an electron from the incident atom.
- Excitation occurs when electrons with kinetic energy collide with atoms - upon collision, the incident
electron transfers its energy to the atom, allowing an electron inside the atom to move to a higher
energy level.
- De-excitation occurs following excitation, when the excited atom needs to lose energy - the excited
electron moves to a lower energy level emitting characteristic electromagnetic radiation (spectra)
due to energy conservation laws.
- The spectra that are produced when an atom de-excites support the fact that there are discrete
energy levels in an atom as the spectra produced help to show the distance (energy change) between
energy levels.
- The energy of the emitted photon, following de-excitation, is shown by the following:

Wave-Particle Duality
- When an electron beam is fired at metal foil the electrons are diffracted by the foil - this is an
example of particles behaving in a wave-like nature.
- The photoelectric effect is an example of waves behaving in a particle-like nature as the energy is
absorbed from incident light.
- The de Broglie equation for wavelength allows us to compare particle properties and wave properties
in order to make calculations using a mixture of data types.

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Quantum Phenomena [1.2]

Definitions
Photoelectric Effect
Work Function

The emission of electrons from metal surfaces by incident light of an

appropriate frequency
The minimum energy required for an electron to escape from the surface of
the metal

Threshold Frequency The minimum frequency of a photon to produce photoelectrons

Electron Volt (eV) The energy given to an electron as it passes through a p.d. of 1 volt
Ionisation Energy of an The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in its
Atom ground state
Excitation Energy

The energy required to move an electron from a lower energy level to a

higher energy level

Line Spectra The characteristic wavelengths of light produced by individual excited atoms

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Electricity [1.3]

Unit 1 | Electricity [1.3]

Current & Potential Difference
- Electric current is the flow of charge per unit of time.
- Potential Difference is the work done per unit of charge from one point to another.

Resistance & Resistivity

- Resistance is the potential difference across a component divided by the current going
through it.
- In a filament lamp, when the temperature increases (i.e. higher current) there is a higher resistance
due to more vibration in its particles.
- In a semiconductor diode, the resistance is infinite until the p.d. across the diode reaches 0.7V the
diodes resistance falls rapidly
- The resistivity of a material is a measurement of how the material works as a resistor.

- Superconductors are materials that at (or below) a certain temperature have a resistivity of zero.
- Superconductors can be very useful in making strong magnets.

Potential Divider
- The potential divider can be used to change the voltage supply in a circuit.
> Can be used in volume controls, for example.

Joel Biffin

Unit 1: Particles, Quantum & Electricity

Electricity [1.3]

Electromotive Force (E.M.F.) & Internal Resistance

- E.M.F. is the energy supplied to a charge as it passes through a cell.
- Internal resistance is found in power supplies when the chemical reactions inside the cell do not
happen instantaneously there are lost volts across the internal resistance which reduces the
terminal voltage of the power supply.

Definitions
Electric Current The number of coulombs of charge passing a point every second
Potential Difference
Resistance

The work done per unit charge in moving charges from one point in the circuit
to another
The ratio of the potential difference across a component to the current
through it

Ohmic
The ratio of the potential difference to current remains constant
Conductor/Resistor
Ohms Law
Critical Temperature

The current through a component is proportional to the potential difference

across it
The temperature at(/below) which the resistivity of a superconductor
becomes zero

Kirchoffs 1st Law The sum of the currents into a junction is zero
Kirchoffs 2nd Law In any closed loop, the sum of the EMF equals the sum of the p.d.
E.M.F.

The total energy supplied (per coulomb) given to charges as they pass through
the cell

Internal Resistance The resistance inside a component which supplies power (e.g. Battery/Cell)
Useful Volts The p.d. across the terminals of the power supply
Lost volts The p.d. across the internal resistance of the power supply
Time Base
Y-Gain

The control on an oscilloscope which changes the time it takes for the beam to
cross the screen horizontally
The control on an oscilloscope which changes the sensitivity of the vertical
voltage scale

Joel Biffin