Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 1 -

Emotional Intelligence and Intrapersonal Conversations

By:
Suzette Plaisance Bryan, Ph.D.
Southeastern University
Department of Communication
Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?
That depends a good deal on where you want to get to, said the Cat.
I dont much care where said Alice.
Then it doesnt matter which way you go, said the Cat.
Dodgson, C. L, 1865
The construct of Emotional Intelligence appears to be at a crossroads. While a number of
investigations support the argument that there is indeed something besides cognitive
intelligence (IQ) and specific job skills that accounts for the variance between average
and superior performance (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004), there are many questions
yet to be answered concerning Emotional Intelligence. Perhaps the most significant issue
regarding EI is the lack of a specific methodology to facilitate the development of
Emotional Intelligence competencies, although a variety of different approaches have
been enumerated. This paper will investigate the controversy surrounding the construct,
specifically how it relates to the development of Emotional Intelligence competencies,
and identify a methodology to develop these competencies.
There appears to be no dearth in controversies regarding the construct of Emotional
Intelligence. Emotional Intelligence is defined in a myriad of ways, but ultimately
appears to reflect a similar orientation among researchers. There are strong congruities
among definitions, although the philosophies guiding the formulation of these definitions
are strikingly different. Caruso (2005) references EI as a conceptual inkblot (p.1)
referring to the large numbers of interpretations associated with Emotional Intelligence.
He identifies three distinct approaches representing different fields of study whereby
Emotional Intelligence was defined. The first, delineated by Bar-On, was influenced by
his interest in the aspects of performance not linked to intelligence; the second,
Golemans interpretation, approached EI through competency models; and the third,
represented by Mayer and Salovey, was influenced by their interest in the relationship
between cognition and emotion.
Landy (2005) recently referenced these interpretations, evoking Thorndikes (1920)
conception of a type of social intelligence that he considered distinct from cognitive
abilities. In recounting the conceptual history on which his model is based, Bar-On
(2005) supports the contention that Emotional Intelligence models do have many
similarities. He suggests, for example, that all are inclusive of components which include
the ability to mindfully recognize ones emotions and how they are expressed; the ability
to perceive how ones emotions affect others; and the ability to manage these emotions in

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 2 -

an efficacious manner. The definition offered by Salovey and Mayer (1990) evokes these
very abilities when they suggest that Emotional Intelligence involves attending and
identifying to ones emotions and discerning how these are associated with both thought
and action. Golemans (2002) model engenders this definition in the self awareness and
self management components that he further suggests are the bases for developing
abilities to manage others within an organizational context. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso
(2004) identify EI as a type of intelligence; however, they reference the emotional
component as the meaning of emotions, emotional patterns and sequences, and the
appraisals of relationships they reflect (p. 209). Even the Army War College (Wong, et
al., 2003) has recognized the importance of self-awareness, specifically defined as the
ability to assess abilities, determine strengths in the environment, and learn how to
sustain strengths and correct weaknesses, (p.3) as essential for military leaders, although
this is not referenced specifically as a component of Emotional Intelligence.
Locke (2005) has interpreted these definitions as problematic owing to the copiousness of
the construct, but does suggest that the general emphasis on introspection is useful since
it allows for individuals to monitor emotions, feelings, and actions and attribute causation
to these internal states as they relate to external events. He suggests that emotions are
automatic productions of the subconscious mind (p. 427) whose function is to promote
action. This observation is supported in part by LeDoux (1998, 2002) whose
investigations of fear responses suggests emotions can be described as automatic,
primarily controlled by the relatively primitive amygdala in a complex neural circuit that
is much more efficient than that which accesses high level thought processes controlled
by the frontal cortex. However, Lockes (2005) suggestion that reason and emotion are
incompatible is at present not supported by the majority of extant research. In fact,
LeDoux (1998, 2002) argues that while human animals may be at an evolutionary
crossroads where emotions are registered at more primitive and efficient portions of the
brain, cortical connections with the amygdala are far greater in primates in general and
humans in particular. This suggests the ability to monitor and ultimately alter emotional
responses, although requiring rewiring at the synaptic level. Lopes, Cote, and Salovey
(2005) support this contention, at least in part: their extensive review of literature
suggests that Emotional Intelligence abilities can be developed though training.
This perhaps addresses the heart of the Emotional Intelligence construct, since it is the
ability to consciously develop EI competencies that speaks to the needs of applied
researchers and practitioners. The case for EI and higher levels of success has been
supported in conclusions emanating from qualitative and quantitative research conducted
in a variety of settings by researchers from throughout the world. For example, Goleman
(1998) and Goleman, Boyatis, and McKee (2002) review a plethora of examples
whereby individuals displaying higher levels of Emotional Intelligence competencies
achieve higher levels of success in work contexts. In their meta-analysis of 69 studies of
Emotional Intelligence Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) concluded EI should indeed
be considered a valuable predictor of performance (p.87). Emmerling and Goleman
(2003) reference additional research suggesting that EI (or something like it) can explain
the variance in performance not attributed to either cognitive intelligence (IQ) or specific
job skills. Most recently Mount (2005) has investigated Emotional Competencies such as

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 3 -

achievement motivation and impact and influence and found these to be positively and
significantly associated with superior performance in international business dealings. His
competency model revealed that of the variance between superior and average
performances, 19% could be attributed to cognitive intelligence (IQ), 38% to specific
skills and expertise, and 44% to Emotional Intelligence (EQ). While Mount (2005)
focused on individual performance, Elfenbein (2005) discovered that higher average
levels of Emotional Intelligence in team members predicted higher levels of performance
by the team.
Arguments regarding the robustness of the construct and the measurement instruments
associated with Emotional Intelligence notwithstanding, there appears to be at least a
modicum of agreement that EI or something like it is associated with variance between
superior performance and adequate performance that cannot be attributed to cognitive
intelligence and/or specific job skills. It is, however, the ability (or inability) to develop
ones Emotional Intelligence competencies that moves the argument forward into the
realm of practical application. That is, a case certainly has been made for the association
between well-developed Emotional Intelligence competencies and greater success in a
variety of work and non-work settings; however, for further exploration of the construct,
a methodology must be identified that assists individuals to develop one or more of these
competencies. While a number of methods have been utilized, most are based at least to
some degree on enhancing the mindfulness of participants. For example, Locke (2005)
refers to introspection as a method for developing ones Emotional Intelligence while
Ciarrochi and Godsell (2005) offer mindfulness-based emotional intelligence training.
Introspection and mindfulness have been utilized clinically with varying degrees of
success. For example mindful cognitions termed visualization (Wientjes, 2002), mindful
meditation (Ott,2004) or guided imagery (Wallace, 1999) have been used to elicit a sense
of well-being by heightening awareness. These techniques have been associated with
positive outcomes such as mood improvement (Bakke, Purtzer, & Newton, 2002) and
increased relaxation (Walker et al., 1999).
Perhaps Langer (1988) has proffered the best developed theory of causation in
relationship to the mindlessness debate and by extension, the manner in which one can
become more mindful. She suggests a number of reasons why mindlessness tends to be
the default for the majority of our responses: 1) because of extreme certainty, new or
contradictory information is ignored; 2) a tendency to think in either/or terms; 3) ways of
responding that guide behaviors without conscious notice; and finally, 4) premature
cognitive commitment defined as decision-making based on initial impressions rather
than responding to a more fully realized situation. She suggests that mindlessness is
associated with a variety of unintended consequences such as reduction in creativity and
negative impacts upon the immune system, and she recommends though we cannot and
would not want to be mindful of everything simultaneously, we can always be mindful
of something (p. 199).
Certainly, identifying causes and willfully increasing attending behaviors can be
associated with gaining more conscious control over ones emotions and their effects on

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 4 -

others. However, research by both LeDoux (1998, 2002) and Gottman (1994) suggest
that this process must be more rigorous, that new responses must be learned and practiced
repeatedly, causing new patterns of neurons to fire and generating new synaptic
pathways. Behaviors that occur with great frequency, albeit mindless, become well
established through the strengthening of neural pathways forming what Edleman (1997)
refers to as the secondary repertoire; increasing the likelihood that the behaviors will be
repeated. Both LeDoux (1998, 2002) and Gottman (1994) reveal the difficulty associated
with replacing one set of behaviors with another, implying that simply increasing
mindfulness may be necessary but not sufficient to alter behaviors. Early research by
Barthol and Ku (1959) suggested the difficulties inherent in changing behaviors when
they discovered that under stress an individual tends to respond with earlier behavior
patterns. This has been substantiated in case studies referenced by Boyatzis and McKee
(2005) who suggest that under changing conditions, leaders often resort to old habits
(p.38) rather than respond creatively to new challenges To successfully integrate
responses into ones repertoire of behaviors requires conscious effort that goes beyond
mindfulness training. Programs that report success in developing Emotional Intelligence
(Boyatzis and Van Oosten, 2002) reveal that mindfully identifying behaviors to be
changed combined with opportunities to practice new skills produce more lasting
behavioral changes.
Imagined Interaction Theory, a theory of intrapersonal communication, offers a
methodology that can bridge the gap between identification of competencies associated
with success and incorporation of these competencies into ones repertoire of behaviors.
Imagined Interactions are defined by Honeycutt and Zagacki (1990) as cognitive
representations of conversation experienced as internal dialogues with significant others.
p.893). Gotcher and Edwards (1990) reference Imagined Interactions as instantiations or
exemplars of cognitive scripts (p. 257). Simply stated, Imagined Interactions are
thoughts about interactions. These imagined dialogues can be of any duration, reflecting
the conversations they reference, allowing an individual to conceptualize different
resolutions to a particular encounter as well as take different perspectives in the
encounter. Imagined Interaction Theory is constituted from a long and varied tradition of
the study of social interaction and its influence (Mead, 1934).
Imagined Interactions (II) have been found to have a number of significant characteristics
and perform functions associated with the actual interactions they represent. These
functions and characteristics appear particularly germane to developing more conscious
control of interactions. A confirmatory factor analysis (Honeycutt et al, 1992-93)
suggested that Imagined Interactions display the characteristics of discrepancy, or the
deviation of the II from the actual interaction; activity or frequency, associated with how
often an individual experiences IIs; retroactivity, or whether the II occurs after the target
interaction; proactivity, or whether the II occurs prior to the anticipated interaction;
valance, which measures whether the II is interpreted as pleasant or unpleasant; variety,
which references the number of different individuals with whom the target has IIs;
specificity, which refers to whether the II is detailed or more vaguely recalled; and selfdominance, a characteristic that references who communicates more frequently within the
interaction, the individual himself or his partner. Imagined Interactions characteristics

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 5 -

have been specifically associated with increased communication competency in a variety

of areas. As Honeycutt et al. (1992-93) discovered, increased frequency of having
Imagined Interactions is associated with the ability to effectively paraphrase a
communication partners comments. Specificity, the characteristic that references the
detail inherent in the communication encounter, and variety, the characteristic of
Imagined Interactions referencing the number of relational partners as well as topics
addressed, both appear to be related to conversational sensitivity in that individuals who
imagine more specific conversations tend to be more aware of anticipating others
responses and responding in kind. Conversely, the characteristic of self-dominance has
been utilized in reverse (imagining ones partner to take the lead in a conversation) to
allow an individual to recognize the tendency for egocentrism.
It is these characteristics coupled with the following functions that make Imagined
Interactions an effective methodology for developing EI as part of a mindfulness-based
intervention program. First, Imagined Interactions may substitute for actual interactions
with relational partners who are separated by distance thus allowing the partners to
maintain the relationship. In addition, Imagined Interactions can offer an individual an
opportunity to practice for an anticipated interaction, serving a rehearsal function. They
can serve a compensatory function when actual interactions are precluded and they can
assist an individual to clarify his thoughts, feelings, and actions as he reflexively reviews
his behaviors; they may also serve a cathartic function, providing an emotional release.
By definition Imagined Interactions cannot be associated with individuals with whom the
subject has no viable opportunity of engaging in an actual interaction. This distinguishes
them from fantasies. Imagined Interactions, although representing thought processes,
must have an association with a past or future possible or actual event. Imagined
Interactions have been found to be strongly associated with many different aspects of
interpersonal communication, a process that is closely aligned with Emotional
Intelligence. For example Honeycutt, Edwards, and Zagacki (1989) discovered that
Imagined Interactions high in discrepancy, i.e. those determined to be dramatically
different from the actual interactions they referenced, predicted higher levels of
loneliness. Honeycutt (1999) discovered that husbands and wives satisfaction with the
communication in their marriages was correlated with pleasant IIs.
It is specifically the rehearsal and self-understanding functions of Imagined Interactions
that can be most effective in assisting individuals to develop Emotional Intelligence
competencies. These functions coupled with the characteristics of specificity,
proactivity, retroactivity, and valance afford the opportunity to explore past encounters
and prepare for future ones. Imagined Interactions allow an individual to reflect on past
interactions to enhance self understanding, specifically invoking the self awareness
component of Emotional Intelligence models. In a similar vein, preparing for future
encounters provides an avenue to explore potential responses in relationship to particular
EI competencies. Incorporating the characteristics of specificity and self-dominance,
Imagined Interactions would allow any individual involved in developing his Emotional
Intelligence an opportunity to create a number of different scenarios, extending a
potential behavior repertoire to include those which demonstrate higher levels of EI

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 6 -

competencies. These exercises thus expand on the concept of training in mindfulness to

include the depiction of actual behaviors and possible responses in order to select those
determined to be most efficacious in any particular context. The self talk in American
Express training program alludes to a training strategy similar to Imagined Interactions,
but does not reference an interactive component (Emotional Competence Training
AMEX, n.d.). Lopes, Cote, and Salovey (2006) suggest a similar type of intervention
strategy:
Helping people to broaden their repertoire of coping strategies and try out new
ways of handling emotionally charged situations may be a good way to enhance
emotional management skills. This might involve discussing coping strategies
and ways to handle particular situations to raise awareness about alternative
strategies. (p. 69)
Training that incorporates Imagined Interactions into any EI intervention offers a specific
methodology that can be most efficacious in allowing participants to expand their
repertoire of behaviors, selecting those that demonstrate the higher levels of EI
competencies, and rehearsing them in anticipated encounters as well as offering an
avenue for exploration of behaviors associated with past encounters. That is, programs
could incorporate both the causes of mindlessness (Langer, 1989) coupled with exercises
that include participants envisioning a variety of Imagined Interactions, specifically
recounting both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Identifying those behaviors displaying
the higher levels of EI competencies, would allow participants to prepare for subsequent
similar encounters. As Gottman (1994) suggests, behaviors must be practiced repeatedly
to become incorporated into ones repertoire. Imagined Interactions provide a resource
whereby an individual can rehearse a variety of behaviors, anticipate responses to each
behavior set, and select the most efficacious to practice in role play and subsequently
utilize in actual encounters. Conversely, individuals can be taught to use Imagined
Interactions retroactively to assess performance, identifying those behaviors associated
with both successful encounters and those associated with less efficacious results.
Research has illustrated that most individuals have Imagined Interactions; however,
coupled with mindfulness training and using an Emotional Intelligence model, training
participants could be taught to utilize these mental movies as tools to develop
competencies identified for development. Although a relatively new construct, Imagined
Interactions are reported to help individuals develop behavioral scripts for encounters in
unfamiliar locales (Grendrin, 1991), homeless women to plan for their futures (Grendrin,
2000), and debaters in college forensic events achieve higher levels of success (Gotcher
and Honeycutt, 1989). Thus the use of Imagined Interactions is as yet an untapped
resource that appears to have great potential for addressing an integral portion of the
Emotional Intelligence paradigm.

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 7 -

References
Bakke, A.C., Purtzer, M.Z., & Newton, P. (2002). The effect of hypnotic -guided imagery
on psychological well-being and immune function in patients with prior breast cancer,
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 1131-1138.
Barthol, R.P. & Ku, N.D. (1959). Regression under stress to first learned behavior.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 134-136.
Boyatzis, R. & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant Leadership. Boston: Harvard Business
School Press.
Boyatzis, R. & Van Oosten, E. (2002). Developing emotionally intelligent organizations.
In Roderick Miller (ed.). International Executive Development Program. London: Kogan
Page Publishers. Retrieved March 7, 2006, from http://www.eiconsortium.org/research/
Caruso, D. (2004). Defining the inkblot called emotional intelligence. Issues in
Emotional Intelligence. Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence, [Online serial], 1(2). Available http:// www.eiconsortium.org.
Ciarrochi, J. & Godsell, C. (2006). Mindfulness-based emotional intelligence: Research
and training. In Druskat, V., Sala, F., & Mount, G., (Eds.). Linking Emotional
Intelligence and performance at Work: Current Research Evidence with Individuals and
Groups (pp.21-52). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Dodgson, C. L, 1865. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. London:MacMillan.
Edleman, G.M. (1987). Neural Darwinism: The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection.
New York: Basic Books.
Elfenbein, H.A. (2006). Team emotional intelligence; What it can mean and how it can
affect performance. In Druskat, V., Sala, F., & Mount, G., (Eds.). Linking Emotional
Intelligence and performance at Work: Current Research Evidence with Individuals and
Groups (pp.165-184). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Emmerling, R. J. & Goleman, D. (2003). Emotional Intelligence: Issues and Common
Misunderstandings. Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence, [On-line
serial], 1(1). Available http://www.eiconsortium.org.
Emotional Competence Training-AMEX. (n.d.). Retrieved March 4, 2006, from
http://www.eiconsortium.org/model_programs.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam.

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 8 -

Goleman, D., Boyatis, R., & McKee. A(2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power
of Emotional Intelligence. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Gotcher, J.M. & Edwards, R. (1990). Coping strategies of cancer patients: Actual
communication and imagined interactions. Health Communication, 4, 255-266.
Gotcher, J.M. & Honeycutt, J.M. (1989). An analysis imagined interactions of forensic
participants. National Forensic Journal, 7, 1-20.
Gottman, J. (1994). What Predicts Divorce? The Relationship Between Marital Processes
and Marital Outcomes. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Grendrin, D.M. (1991). An intrapersonal process in cross-cultural adaptation: Imagined
interactions among temporary sojourners. In R.G. Kunzendorf (Ed.), Mental Imagery (pp.
129-138). New York: Plenum.
Grendrin, D.M. (2000) Homeless womens inner voices: Friends or foes? In M.
Hardman & A. Taylor (Eds.), Hearing many voices (pp. 2-3-220). Cresskill, NJ:
Hampton Press.
Honeycutt, J.M., Edwards, R. & Zagacki, K.S. (1989-1990). Using imagined interaction
features to predict measures of self-awareness: Loneliness, locus of control, selfdominance, and emotional intensity. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 17-34.
Honeycutt, J.M. and Ford, S G. (2001). Mental imagery and intrapersonal
communication: A review of research on imagined interactions (IIs) and current
developments. Communication Yearbook, 25, 315-338.
Honeycutt, J.M. & Zagacki, K.S. (1990). Imagined interactions and interpersonal
communication. Communication Reports, 3, 893-901.
Honeycutt, J.M. Zagacki, K.S., & Edwards, R., (1992-1993). Imagined interaction,
conversational sensitivity and communication competence. Imagination, Cognition, and
Personality, 12, 139-157.
Langer, E. (1989). Mindfulness. New York: Perseus.
LeDoux, J. (1998). The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional
Life. New York: Touchstone.
LeDoux, J. (2002). Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York:
Penguin.
Locke, E.A. (2005). Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 26, 425-431.

Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations

e-Journal: Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence

EI and Intrapersonal Conversations - 9 -

Lopes, P., Cote, S., and Salovey, P. (2006). An ability model of emotional intelligence:
Implications for assessment and training. In Druskat, V., Sala, F., & Mount, G., (Eds.).
Linking Emotional Intelligence and performance at Work: Current Research Evidence
with Individuals and Groups (pp. 53-80). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D.R. (2004). A further consideration of the issues of
emotional intelligence. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 249-255.
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D.R. (2004b). Emotional intelligence: Theory,
findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 197-215.
Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mount, G. (2006). The role of emotional intelligence in developing international business
capability: EI provides traction. In Druskat, V., Sala, F., & Mount, G., (Eds.). Linking
Emotional Intelligence and performance at Work: Current Research Evidence with
Individuals and Groups (pp.97-124). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Ott, M.J. (2004). Mindfulness meditation: A path of transformation & healing. Journal
of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 42, 22-31.
Van Rooy, D.L. & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic
investigation of predictive validity and nomological net, Journal of Vocational Behavior,
65, 71-95.
Walker, L.G., Walker, M.B., Ogston, K., Heys S.D., Ah-See, A.K., miller, I.D.,
Hutcheon, A.W., Sarkar, T.K., Eremin, O. (1999). Psychological, clinical and
pathological effects of relaxation training and guided imagery during primary
chemotherapy, British Journal of Cancer, 80, 262-270.
Wallace, S. (1999). Guided imagery: using visualization to heal. Alternative and
Complementary Therapies, 5, 175-181.
Wienties, K.A. (2002). Mind-body techniques in wound healing. Ostomy/Wound
Management, 48, 62-69.
Wong, L., Gerras, S., Kidd, W. Pricone, R., & Swengros, R. (2003). Strategic Leadership
Competencies. Retrieved November 12, 2005 from the Strategic Studies Institute of the
U.S. Army War College website:
http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/people.cfm?authorID=1