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Sequence
Siliciclastic
in Well
Well Logs,
Logs,
Stratigraphyin
Stratigraphy
Cores, and
and Outcrops:
Outcrops:
Cores,
Concepts for
for High-Resolution
High-Resolution
Concepts
of TilDe
~ i mand
and
e Facies
Facies
Correlation of
Correlation
-
by
J.C.Van
VanWagoneI;
Wagoner,R.M.
R.M. Mitchum,
Mitchum,
J.C.
K.M.Campion,
Campion,and
andV.D.
V.D. Rahmanian
Rahmanian
K.M.
AAPG Methods
Methodsin
inExploration
ExplorationSeries,
Series, No.7
No. 7
AAPG
Publishedby
by
Published
The
American
Association
of
Petroleum
Geologists
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
74101
U.S.
A.
Tulsa,
Oklahoma
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101 U.s.A.
1990 The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, All Rights Reserved.
Previous stratigraphic
stratigraphic concepts
concepts
PREVIOUS STRATIGRAPHIC
STRATIGRAPHIC
PREVIOUS
CONCEPTS
CONCEPTS
AND
AND TERMINOLOGY
TERMINOLOGY
The sequence
sequence as
as an
an unconformity-bounded stratal
stratal
The
unit was
was proposed
proposed by Sloss
Sloss in
in 1948
1948(Sloss
(Sloss et
et al.,
al., 1949;
1949;
. Sloss,
Sloss, 1950,
1950, 1963).
1963). Sloss
Sloss (1963)
(1963) pointed out,
out, "The
"The
sequence
sequence concept
concept is
is not new and
and was
was already
already old
old
when
when itit was
was enunciated
enunciated by the
the writer
writer and
and his
his colcolleagues in
in 1948.
1948. The
The concept
concept and
and practice
practice isis as
as old
old as
as
leagues
organized
organized stratigraphy:'
stratigraphy." Nonetheless,
Nonetheless, Sloss
Sloss deservdeservedly
edly is
is given
given credit
credit for
for developing
developing the
the unconformity-bounded sequence
sequence as
as aa stratigraphic
stratigraphic tool.
tool.
formity-bounded
Sloss
Sloss(1963)
(1963)recognized six
six packages
packages of
of strata
strata bounded
by interregional
interregional unconformities on
on the
the North AmeriAmerican craton
craton between latest
latest Precambrian and
and Holocene
Holocene
can
deposits.
deposits. He
H e called
called these
these stratal
stratal packages
packages
"sequences" and
and gave
gave them
them native
native American
American names
names
"sequences"
to emphasize
emphasize their
their North
North American
American derivation
derivation (Sloss,
(Sloss,
to
1988).
1988). Sloss
Sloss (1988)
(1988) used
used these
these cratonic
cratonic sequences
sequences as
as
operationalunits
units for
forpractical
practical tasks
tasks such
such as
asfacies
facies mapmapoperational
ping,
ping, although
although he
he felt
felt that
that these
these sequences
sequences "have
"have no
no
necessary applications
applications to
to the
the rock
rock stratigraphy
stratigraphy and
and
time stratigraphy
stratigraphy of
of extracratonic
extracratonic or
or extracontinental
extracontinental
time
areas"
areas" (Sloss,
(Sloss, 1963).
1963).Although
Although the
the concept
concept of
of the
the cracratonic sequence
sequence provided the
the foundation
foundation for
for sequence
sequence
tonic
stratigraphic concepts
Previous stratigraphic
basin-floor fan, slope fan,
fan, lowstand-prograding
lowstand-prograding
incised-valley fill (Vail,
(Vail, 1987).
1987). Type-1
Type-1 and
wedge, and incised-valley
type-2 referred to the type of unconformity upon
rested. Systems tracts and type-1
type-1
which the sequence rested.
and type-2 sequences will be explained further in the
"Sequence"
"Sequence" section, later in the book.
Concurrently with the development of the conceptual models, other Exxon stratigraphers strongly influenced by D.E.
D.E. Frazier (1974)
(1974) and c.v.
C.V. Campbell (1967)
(1967)
began to analyze the stacking patterns of shallowingupward siliciclastic
siliciclastic strata in well logs, cores, and outcrops. The goal of this analysis was to use stacking
patterns to improve subsurface correlations of time
and facies.
facies. These shallowing-upward stratal units are
bounded by chronostratigraphically
chronostratigraphically significant
marine-flooding surfaces and are composed of laminae, laminasets, beds, and bedsets.
bedsets. Beds, bounded by
practically synchronous
synchronous bedding surfaces, were used
well-log
as informal time-stratigraphic markers for well-log
correlation (Campbell, 1967).
1967).
This line of research quickly converged with the conceptual models when it became apparent that the
shallowing-upward stratal units and their component
sedimentary layers were the building blocks of the systems tracts and sequences. Although shallowingupward units had been called "cycles" by some other
(Wilson, 1975;
1975; Goodwin and Anderson,
workers (Wilson,
1985), these units were called"parasequences"
called "parasequences" by Van
1985),
(1985). This usage preserved the dictionary
Wagoner (1985).
use of the word "cycle" by Vail et al.
al. (1977)
(1977)to indicate a
time in which a regularly repeated event occurs and
emphasized the relationship between the parasequence and the sequence.
Groups of associated parasequences were observed
to stack into retrogradational, progradational, and
aggradational patterns; these distinct associations of
parasequences were called "parasequence sets" (Van
(Van
1985; Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
1988).Each paraseWagoner, 1985;
quence set approximately corresponded to a systems
tract. In addition, each systems tract generally was
facies and by
characterized by a distinct association of facies
a position within the sequence.
Recognition of parasequences and parasequence
sets as the building blocks of the systems tract and the
sequence placed them within a chronostratigraphic
framework in which their stacking patterns, constituextent, their compoent bedding types, and, to a great extent,
nent depositional environments, were predictable.
This enhanced their use for the subsurface correlation
facies.
of time and facies.
The concept of the parasequence, or upwardshoaling cycle as it is commonly named in literature,
(1836) and includes
dates back at least to Phillips (1836)
(1912), Weller (1930),
(1930), Wanless
Wanless (1950),
(1950), Duff et al.
al.
Udden (1912),
(1967),
(1967), Busch (1971,
(1971, 1974),
1974), Wilson (1975),
(1975), and Einsele
(1982). The chronostratigraphic signifisignifiand Seilacher (1982).
cance of the marine-flooding surface bounding a para-
stratigraphy.
As more basins were analyzed with sequencestratigraphic techniques two important observations
(1) Siliciclastic
Siliciclasticsequences in many parts of
were made. (1)
100,000- to
the sedimentary record occur with a 100,000200,000-year frequency.
frequency. This is much higher than has
200,000-year
been observed previously by seismic stratigraphers
al., 1987;
1987; Van Wagoner and
andMitchum,
Mitchum,
(Goldhammer et al.,
1989).
1989). (2)
(2) The lowstand systems tract is the dominant
systems tract preserved in siliciclastic
siliciclastic sequences, and
valley.
on the shelf, its major component is the incised valley.
litExamples of incised valleys have been cited in the lit(1944) documented the
erature for many years. Fisk (1944)
extensive incision in the Mississippi valley in response
to the last sea-level
sea-level fall
fall commencing approximately
27,000 years ago (Williams,
(Williams, 1984).
1984). The incised alluvial
alluvial
27,000
valley of the Mississippi is, in places, 260 ft deep and
120
120 mi (193
(193 km) wide (Fisk,
(Fisk, 1944).
1944). The lower twothirds of the alluvial
fill
from
Cairo,
alluvial fill
Cairo, Illinois, to the
present coastline, a distance of approximately 600 mi
(963 km),
km), contains gravel and coarse-grained sand.
sand.
(963
Using high-resolution seismic data, Suter and Berry(1985) documented regional incision across the
hill (1985)
Mexico, also
continental shelf of the northern Gulf of Mexico,
sea-level fall.
fall. Incised valleys in
in response to the last sea-level
the Albian-aged Muddy Sandstone and its stratigraphic equivalents in the western United States have
been studied extensively (Harms,
(Harms, 1966;
1966; Stone, 1972;
1972;
Dresser,
Dresser, 1974;
1974; Weimer,
Weimer, 1983,
1983, 1984,
1984, 1988;
1988; and Aubrey,
1989).
1989).
Sequence stratigraphy relates the formation of
incised valleys to relative changes in sea level and, for
the first time, places them in a chronostratigraphic
context of parasequence and sequence boundaries.
boundaries.
Detailed analysis of sequences in well logs, cores, and
outcrops reveals the widespread occurrence in time
and space of incised valleys within the updip part of
the lowstand systems tract.
tract. As a result, the timing and
distribution of valley incision and fill
fill becomes more
predictable. This, in turn, is critical for understanding:
(1)
(1) variations in type-l
type-1 sequence-boundary
shelf;
expression on the shelf;
(2) regional distribution of shallow-marine
shallow-marine and
(2)
nonmarine depositional environments within
each sequence; and
(3)
(3) reservoir distribution within the sequence,
because on the shelf, incised valleys commonly contain the best reservoirs within each
sequence.
THE SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE AS A TOOL
STRATIGRAPHICANALYSIS
FOR STRATIGRAPHIC
Application of sequence-stratigraphic analysis
depends on the recognition of a hierarchy of stratal
units including beds, bedsets, parasequences, parasequence sets, and sequences bounded by chronostratigraphically significant surfaces of erosion,
nondeposition, or their correlative surfaces. This
method of stratigraphic analysis contrasts with the use
of transgressive and regressive cycles of strata for
regional correlation of time and facies.
facies.
Transgressive and regressive cycles have been used
for regional correlation for at least 50 years (Grabau,
1932; Krumbein and Sloss,
Sloss, 1963).
1963). Recently,
Recently, propo1932;
nents of transgressive and regressive cycles, referred
to as T-R units, for regional correlation have included
(1983), Busch and Rollins (1984),
(1984), Busch et al.
Ryer (1983),
(1985),
(1985), and Galloway (1989a).
(1989a). Galloway (1989a)
(1989a) introduced the"genetic
the "genetic stratigraphic sequence;'
sequence," which is a
regressive depositional unit bounded by transgressive
surfaces. Although he did not define it specifically, he
described it as "a package of sediments recording a
significant episode of basin-margin outbuilding and
basin filling,
filling, bounded by periods of widespread basinflooding."
margin flooding:'
The genetic stratigraphic sequence is based on Frazier's (1974)
(1974) concept of depositional episodes pat"sequences" deposited
terned after late Quaternary "sequences"
during high-frequency "episodes"
"episodes" controlled by gla-
cial cycles.
cycles. The depositional episodes are bounded by
"hiatuses" or flooding surfaces formed during sealevel rise or by shifting delta lobes. Galloway (1989b)
(198913)
applied Frazier's (1974)
(1974) concept to much larger Cenozoic units of the Gulf of Mexico
Mexico basin, recognizing
about 14
14 major continental-margin outbuilding episodes, each of which culminated in a major flooding
event. Although Frazier's (1974)
(1974) depositional episodes
have frequencies
frequencies comparable to fourth-order
sequences, Galloway'S
Galloway's (1989b)
(1989b) units average 4 to 5 Ma
in frequency.
frequency. They commonly include several thirdorder sequences as defined by Vail et al. (1977).
(1977).
Both T-R cycle analysis and the nearly identical
"genetic stratigraphic
stratigraphic sequence" analysis rely on the
transgressive surface at the top of a regressive unit or
the surface of maximum flooding
flooding for regional correlacorrelation. We believe that the sequence boundary is a better
surface for regional stratigraphic analysis than a transgressive surface for the following reasons:
(1) The sequence boundary is a single, widespread surface that separates all of the rocks
above from all of the rocks below the boundary.
ary. Although all points on the sequence
boundary do not represent the same duration
of time, one instant of time is common to all
points. This synchroneity is basinwide and is
interpreted to be global within limits of biostratigraphic dating. For these reasons the
sequence boundary has time-stratigraphic
significance.
(2) The sequence boundary forms independently
of sediment supply. A rapid relative fall
fall in sea
level coupled with a large supply of sediment
delivered rapidly will result in a sequence
boundary strongly marked by truncation. A
rapid relative fall
fall in sea level coupled with a
minor supply of sediment delivered slowly
will result in a sequence boundary marked by
Widespread
widespread subaerial exposure but little truncation.
cation. In contrast, transgressions and regressions are strongly controlled by sediment
supply and for that reason may not be synchronous, even within a given basin.
basin. For
example, movements of the shoreline are
often due to local differences in sediment supply around a basin rather than sea-level
changes, and therefore typically are regionally
diachronous.
(3)
(3) There are two major transgressive surfaces
within the sequence: the first flooding surface
forming
forming the upper boundary of the lowstand
systems tract and the maximum-flooding surface
face associated with the condensed section.
section.
Typically, several other transgressive surfaces,
bounding parasequences within the transgres-
Sequence
Sequencestratigraphy
stratigraphy
sive systems
systemstract,
tract, occur
occur between
between these
these major
major
sive
surfaces. All
All of
of these
these surfaces
surfaces potentially
potentially can
can
surfaces.
be confused
confused in
in regional
regional correlation,
correlation, especially
especially
be
the data
dataused
used to
to correlate
correlateare
arewidely
widelyspaced.
spaced.
ifif the
Theage
ageof
of each
eachtransgressive
transgressivesurface
surfacewithin
withinaa
The
sequenceat
atdifferent
differentpoints
pointsin
inaabasin
basin may
maydifdifsequence
fer
significantly
depending
upon
variations
in
fer significantly depending upon variations in
regional
sediment
supply.
regional sediment supply.
(4) The
Thesequence
sequenceboundary
boundary commonly
commonlyisis marked
marked
(4)
onlap,
by significant
significant regional
regional erosion
erosion and
and onlap,
by
which exert
exertaastrong
strongcontrol
controlon
on facies
faciesdistribudistribuwhich
tion. Transgressive
Transgressive surfaces
surfaces are
are characterized
characterized
tion.
byvery
veryslow
slowdeposition
depositionor
ornondeposition
nondepositionwith
with
by
onlyrelatively
relativelyminor
minor transgressive
transgressivescour.
scour.
only
(5) Systems
Systems tracts
tracts occur
occur predictably
predictably within
within the
the
(5)
sequence and
and are
are related
related to
to the
the sequence
sequence
sequence
boundary; each
each systems
systems tract
tract is
is associated
associated
boundary;
with the
the boundary
boundary at
at some
some point.
point. This
This relarelawith
tionship is
is not
not true
true of
of the
the transgressive
transgressive sursurtionship
faces.
faces.
(6) There
There isis aa distinct
distinct break in
in deposition
deposition and
and aa
(6)
basinward shift
shift in
in facies
facies across
across the
the unconunconbasinward
formable portion
portion of
of aa type-1
type-1 sequence
sequenceboundboundformable
ary, making
making itit aa natural
natural surface
surface for
for separating
separating
ary,
relatively conformable
conformable facies
facies packages
packages above
above
relatively
and below.
below. Commonly,
Commonly, this
this break occurs
occurs
and
within the
the middle
middle to
to upper parts
parts of regressive
regressive
within
units. If
If the
the transgressive
transgressive surfaces
surfaces bounding
bounding
units.
Galloway's (1989a)
(1989a) "genetic
"genetic stratigraphic
stratigraphic
Galloway's
sequence" are
are used to
to subdivide
subdividebasin
basin stratigstratigsequence"
and the sequence
sequence boundaries are
are overoverraphy and
looked, then the
the basic depositional unit
looked,
contains aa potentially major
major unconformity
contains
within it,
it, making
making the
the accurate
accurateinterpretation
interpretation of
within
lateral-faciesrelationships
relationships difficult.
difficult.
lateral-facies
(7) Recognizing
Recognizing the
the unconformable
unconformableportion
portion of the
the
(7)
sequence boundary as
as part of the hierarchy of
sequence
chronostratigraphic stratal
stratal surfaces
surfaces and disdischronostratigraphic
continuities
described
in
this
book
has
great
continuities described
great
chronostratisignificance in working out chronostraticontemporaneity of facies.
facies. HowHowgraphy and contemporaneity
facies boundaries, or
ever, using only facies
subordinating "the stratigraphy of surfaces"
(Galloway, 1989a)
1989a) to facies
facies boundaries that
(Galloway,
commonly transgress geologic
geologic time,
time, may lead
commonly
to erroneous
erroneous conclusions
conclusions about
about contemporacontemporato
facies distribution.
distribution.
neity of facies
book, the
As will be discussed throughout this book,
correlasequence, bounded by unconformities or their correlaconformities, is a highly practical
practical stratal
stratal unit for
tive conformities,
regional stratigraphic
stratigraphic analysis
analysis with seismic, well log,
and biostratigraphic
biostratigraphic data, as well as for reservoir-scale
reservoir-scale
analysis using well logs, outcrops,
outcrops, and cores.
cores. It is most
analysis
completely understood and used at all scales of
analysis by a synthesis of these data bases.
analysis
bases.
55
SEQUENCE
SEQUENCESTRATIGRAPHY
STRATIGRAPHY
AND
AND THE
THE HIERARCHY
HIERARCHY
OF
STRATAL
OF STRATALUNITS
UNITS
As
As already
already discussed,
discussed, stratal
stratal units
units from
from the
the lamina
lamina
to
to the
the sequence
sequencecan
can be
be grouped
grouped into
into aa hierarchy.
hierarchy.RecRecognition
ognitionof
of these
thesestratal
stratalunits
unitsand
andtheir
their use
use in
incorrelatcorrelatof sequence
sequence
ing
ing time
time and
and facies
facies isis the
the essence
essence of
stratigraphy.The
Thefollowing
followingdiscussion
discussionbuilds
builds upward
upward
stratigraphy.
fromthe
the smallest
smallestunit
unit in
in the
the hierarchy,
hierarchy, the
the lamina,
lamina,to
to
from
the
thelargest
largestunit
unit considered
consideredin
in this
this book,
book, the
the sequence.
sequence.
Eachstratal
stratalunit
unit in
inthe
thehierarchy
hierarchyisis defined
definedand
andidenidenEach
tified only
only by
by the
the physical
physical relationships
relationships of
of the
the strata,
strata,
tified
including
including lateral
lateral continuity
continuity and
and geometry
geometry of
of the
the sursurfaces bounding
bounding the
the units,
units, vertical-stacking
vertical-stacking patterns,
patterns,
faces
and lateral
lateral geometry
geometry of
of the
the strata
strata within
within the
the units.
units. In
In
and
addition,
addition, facies
facies and
and environmental
environmental interpretations
interpretations of
of
strata
strata on
on either
either side
side of
of bounding
bounding surfaces
surfaces are
are critical,
critical,
especially for
for parasequence,
parasequence, parasequence
parasequence set,
set, and
and
especially
sequence-boundaryidentification.
identification.Thickness,
Thickness,time
timefor
for
sequence-boundary
formation, and
and interpretation
interpretation of
of regional
regional or
or global
global orioriformation,
gin
gin are
are not used to
to define
definestratal
stratalunits
units or
or to
to place
place them
them
in
in the
the hierarchy.
hierarchy. In
In particular,
particular, parasequences and
and
sequences
sequences can
can be
be identified
identified in
in well
well logs,
logs, cores,
cores, or
or outoutcrops and
and used to
to construct
construct aa stratigraphic
stratigraphicframework
framework
crops
regardless of
of their
their interpreted
interpreted relationship
relationship to
to changes
changes
regardless
in eustasy.
eustasy.
in
Documentation of
of parasequences, parasequence
parasequence
Documentation
sets, and
and sequences
sequencesin
in this
this book isis primarily
primarily from
from TerTersets,
tiary
tiary strata
strata in
in the
the northern Gulf
Gulf of
of Mexico
Mexico and
and CretaCretaceous strata
strata of
of the
the basins
basins in
in the
the western
western interior
interior of
of the
the
ceous
United States.
States. Examples
Examples are
are exclUSively
exclusiveiy of siliciclastic
siliciclastic
United
rocks; however,
however, many of the concepts
concepts documented
documented by
rocks;
examples can
can also
also be applied
applied to
to carbonate
carbonate strata
strata
these examples
(Sarg, 1988).
(Sarg,1988).
LAMINA, LAMINASET,
BED, BEDSET
Campbell
Campbell (1967)
(1967) identified laminae,
laminae, laminasets,
laminasets,
beds, and bedsets as
as the components
components of a sedimentary
sedimentary
body;
body; we recognize
recognize these stratal
stratal units as
as the building
blocks of parasequences.
parasequences. General
General characteristics
characteristics of
these units are given in Table 1;
1; definitions
definitions and more
detailed
2. Figure
Figure 11
detailed characteristics
characteristics are given in Table
Table 2.
shows these
these types of strata from
fromdelta-front
delta-front turbidites
turbidites
shows
in cores, outcrops,
outcrops, and well logs
logs from
from the Panther
Panther
Tongue of late Santonian age
age (Fouch
(Fouch et aI.,
al., 1983)
1983) in
Tongue
east-central Utah.
Utah. Because treatment of these units is
east-central
(1967) paper is recrecnot our major thrust, Campbell's (1967)
additional detail.
detail.
ommended for additional
four types of stratal
stratal units listed above
above are genetigenetiThe four
similar; they differ primarily in the interval of
cally similar;
formation and in the areal extent of the boundtime for formation
arcing surfaces. The surfaces bounding the units are
defined by (1)
(1)changes in texture,
texture, (2)
(2) stratal terminaterminations, and (3)
(3) paraconformities (Dunbar
(Dunbar and Rogers,
Rogers,
Stratal
Stratal Units
Units in
in Hierarchy:
Hierarchy: Definitions
Definitions and
and Characteristics
Characteristics
TABLEt
TABLE 1
STRATAL
STRATAL
UNITS
UNITS
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
AA RELATIVEL
Y CONFORMABLE
RELATIVELY
CONFORMABLE SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION
OF
ALL Y RELA
TEp STRA
TA
OFGENETIC
GENETICALLY
RELATED
STRATA
SEQUENCE
UNCONFORMITIESAND
AND THEIR
THEIR
BOUNDED BY
BY UNCONFORMITIES
SEQUENCE BOUNDED
CORRELATlVE
(MITCHUM
CORRELATIVE CONFORMITIES
CONFORMITIES (MITCHUM
AND OTHERS 19771
RANGE
RANGE OF
OF
THICKNESSES
(FEETI
THICKNESSES (FEET)
1000 100 10
RANGE
RANGE OF
OF LATERAL
LATERAL
EXTENTS
EXTENTS(SQ.
(SO. MILESI
MILES1
INCHES 100001000100 10 1
RANGE
RANGE OF
OF TIMES
TIMES FOR
FOR
FORMATION
FORMATION (YEARS)
(YEARS)
lo6
105104lo3 10' 10
TOOL
TOOL RESOLUTION
4.
~I-A-N_D-O-T-H-E-R-S-.- 1-9-7-7-'---------t-_f-_-t-_+-_f--+__t--t-__t---i_+-t_--if-t---i_+---i_-t_+--i__+_0..
I-
PARAPARA
SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE
SET
SET
AA SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION OF
OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALLY RELATED
RELATED
PARASEQUENCES
PARASEQUENCESFORMING
FORMINGAA DISTINCTIVE
DISTINCTIVE
ST
ACKING PATTERN
Y
STACKING
PATTERNAND
AND COMMONL
COMMONLY
BOUNDED
BY MAJOR
MAJORMARINE-FLOODING
MARINE FLOODING
BOUNDEDBY
SURFACES
SURFACESAND
AND THEIR
THEIRCORRELATIVE
CORRELATIVE SURSUR
FACES_
FACES
PARA
PARA
SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE
AA RELA
TIVEL Y CONFORMABLE
RELATIVELY
CONFORMABLE SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION
OF
ALL Y RELA
TED BEDS
OFGENETIC
GENETICALLY
RELATED
BEDS OR
OR
BEDSETS
BEDSETS BOUNDED
BOUNDEDBY
BY MARINE-FLOODING
MARINE FLOODING
SURFACES
THEIRCORRELATIVE
CORRELATIVE SURSUR
SURFACES AND
AND THEIR
FACES
FACES
BEDSET
BEDSET
~
rJ)
II:
d
o..J
9
a
a..
::
SEE
SEE TABLE
TABLE TWO
TWO
0
<.:l
o..J
S
1-----1r-------------------+-+--t--t-+-t---+-t---+-+-II-t--+-+-+-+-+-+_-t-+--t-------:j
I
I I
2,
BED
aED
SEE TABLE
TABLE TWO
TWO
SEE
LAMINASET
SEE
SEE TABLE
TABLE TWO
TWO
II
a
a..
g
a:
0
u
0
Il-
?=,
00.
0P
LAMINA
LAMINA
SEE TABLE
TABLE TWO
TWO
SEE
II
II
zZ
LU
w
a
a:.
00
U
u
Characteristics of Lamina,
Lamina, Laminaset,
Laminaset, Bed,
Bed, and
and Bedset
Bedset (from Campbell,
Campbell, 1967)
1967)
Detailed Characteristics
TABLE 22
TABLE
STRATAL
STRATAl
UNIT
UNIT
BEDSET
BEDSET
BED
BED
LAMINASET
DEFINITION
DEFINITION
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
OF CONSTITUENT
OF
STRATAL UNITS
UNITS
STRATAL
RELATIVELY CONFORMABLE
CONFORMABLE
A RELATIVELY
SUCCESSION OF
OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALLY
SUCCESSION
RELATED BEDS
BEDS BOUNDED
BOUNDED BY
BY
RELATED
BEDSET
SURFACES 'CALLED
(CALLED BEDSET
SURFACES
SURFACES) OF
OF EROSION,
EROSION. NONNONSURFACES)
DEPOSITION. OR
OR THEIR
THEIR CORRELCORRELDEPOSITION,
ATlVE
A
TlVE CONFORMITIES
RELATIVELY
CONFORMABLE
A RELATlVEL
Y CONFORMABLE
SUCCESSION OF
OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALLY
SUCCESSION
LAMINARELATED LAMINAE OR
OR LAMINARELATED
SETS BOUNDED BY
BY SURFACES
SURFACES
SETS
(CALLED BEDDING SURFACESI
SURFACES1 OF
(CALLED
EROSION. NON-DEPOSITION
NON-DEPOSITION OR
EROSION,
THEIR CORRELATIVE
CORRELATIVE CONFORMI
CONFORMITHEIR
TIES
TIES
DEPOSITIONAL
PROCESSES
PROCESSES
EPISODIC
EPISODIC OR
OR PERIODIC.
PERIODIC.
(SAME
(SAME AS BED
BED BELOW)
BELOW)
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF
OF
BOUNDING
BOUNDING SURFACES
SURFACES
(SAME
(SAME AS BED
BED BELOW)
BELOW)
PLUS
PLUS
BEDSETS
BEDSET SURFACES
SURFACES FORM
FORM
BED
SETS AND BEDSET
OVER
OVER A LONGER
LONGER PERIOD
PERIOD OF
OF TIME THAN
THAN
BEDS
BEDS
COMMONLY HAVE
HAVE A GREATER
GREATER LATERAL
EXTENT
EXTENT THAN
THAN BEDDING
BEDDING SURFACES
SURFACES
EPISODIC OR PERIODIC
PERIODIC
EPISODIC
FORM
FORM RAPIDLY,
RAPIDLY, MINUTES
MINUTES TO
TO YEARS
YEARS
EPISODIC
EPISODIC DEPOSITION
DEPOSITION INCLUDES
INCLUDES
DEPOSITION FROM
FROM STORMS,
STORMS.
DEPOSITION
FLOODS,
FLOODS. DEBRIS
DEBRIS FLOWS,
FLOWS. TURTURCURRENTS
BIDITY CURRENTS
SEPARATE
SEPARATE ALL YOUNGER STRATA FROM
FROM
ALL OLDER
OLDER STRATA OVER THE
THE EXTENT
EXTENT OF
OF
THE
THE SURFACES
SURFACES
FACIES
FACIES CHANGES ARE BOUNDED
BOUNDED BY BEDBEDDING
DING SURFACES
SURFACES
USEFUL FOR
FOR CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY
USEFUL
UNDER CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES
TIME
TlME REPRESENTED
REPRESENTED BY BEDDING
BEDDING SURFACES
SURFACES
PROBABLY
PROBABLY GREATER
GREATER THAN TIME
TlME REPREREPRESENTED
SENTED BY BEDS
BEDS
FORM RAPIDLY.
RAPIDLY, MINUTES TO DAYS.
PERIODIC DEPOSITION
DEPOSITION INCLUDES
PERIODIC
DEPOSITION
DEPOSITION FROM
FROM SEASONAL
CLIMATIC CHANGES
CHANGES
OR CLIMATIC
A RELATIVELY
RELATlVEL Y CONFORMABLE
SUCCESSION OF GENETICALLY
GENETICALL Y
RELATED LAMINAE BOUNDED
BOUNDED BY
SURFAC~S
SURFACES (CALLED LAMINASET
SURFACE)
SURFACEI OF EROSION.
EROSION. NONNONDEPOSITION OR THEIR CORRELA.
CORRELA
TlVE
TIVE CONFORMITIES
CONSISTS OF A GROUP OR
SET OF CONFORMABLE
LAMINAE THAT COMPOSE
DISTINCTIVE STRUCTURES
STRUCTURES
IN
IN A BED
EPISODIC.
EPISODIC, COMMONLY FOUND
IN WAVEWAVE OR CURRENT-RIPPLED
CURRENT-RIPPLED
IN
BEDS, TURBIDITES, WAVEBEDS.
RIPPLED
RIPPLED INTERVALS IN
IN HUMBEDSETS, OR CROSS
MOCKY BEDSETS,
BEDS AS REVERSE
REVERSE FLOW RIPRIPBEDS
PLES
PLES OR RIPPLED
RIPPLED TOES OF
FORESETS
FORESETS
UNIFORM IN
IN COMPOSITION/
COMPOSITIONI
TEXTURE
TEXTURE
EPISODIC
EPISODIC
LAMINA
NEVER INTERNALLY
LAYERED
LAYERED
Parasequence
PARASEQUENCE
PARASEQUENCE
Observations
Scope of Observations
Parasequences have been identified
identified in coastal-plain,
coastal-plain,
Parasequences
deltaic, beach, tidal, estuarine, and shelf environdeltaic,
(Van Wagoner, 1985).
1985). It is difficult to identify
ments (Van
parasequences in fluvial
fluvial sections
sections where marine or
marginal-marine rocks are absent, and in slope or
marginal-marine
basinal sections,
sections, which are deposited too far below sea
influenced by an increase
increase in water depth.
depth.
level to be influenced
The general
general concepts
concepts presented here apply to all of the
depositional
depositional environments mentioned above in which
following
parasequences have been recognized; the following
discussion illustrates
illustrates deltaic
deltaic and beach parasequences
discussion
because these are common in most basins.
Definitions
following terms in the described conconWe will use the following
texts:
texts:
Parasequence:
relatively conformable
conformable succession
succession of
Parasequence: A relatively
genetically related beds or bedsets bounded by
surfaces or their correlative
correlative surfaces.
surfaces.
marine-flooding surfaces
In special positions within the sequence,
sequence, parasequences may be bounded either above or below by
sequence
sequence boundaries.
Marine-Flooding Surface:
Surface: A surface
surface separating younacross which there is evidence of
ger from older strata across
an abrupt increase in water depth. This deepening
commonly is accompanied
accompanied by minor submarine erosubaerial erosion
sion or nondeposition (but not by subaerial
due to stream rejuvenation or a basinward shift in
facies), with a minor hiatus indicated.
indicated. The marinefacies),
flooding surface
surface has a correlative
correlative surface
surface in the coastal
coastal
flooding
plain and a correlative surface on the shelf.
shelf.
Delta:
Delta: A genetically related succession of strata
coastline
deposited at the mouth of a river, causing the coastline
water. The delta can be
to bulge into a standing body of water.
delta-plain and distributary-channel
distributary-channel
subdivided into delta-plain
subenvironments dominated by unidirectional, fluvial
processes;
processes; and stream-mouth bar, delta-front, and
prodelta subenvironments
subenvironments dominated by unidirectional or bidirectional processes. The subenvironments of the delta are interpreted from associations
associations of
beds and bedsets, sandstone/shale
sandstonelshale ratios, and
sandstone-body geometry.
geometry.
Beach: A genetically related succession of strata
processes and deposdeposdominated by wave and current processes
ited as a ribbon of sediment along
along a coastline
coastline of a
water. The beach can be subdivided
standing body of water.
into backshore, foreshore,
foreshore, upper-shoreface, and
lower-shoreface subenvironments based on associaassocialower-shoreface
ichnofossil assemblages,
assemblages,
tions of beds and bedsets, ichnofossil
sandstonelshale ratios.
ratios.
and sandstone/shale
Characteristics
Characteristics
Parasequence characteristics are summarized in
1.Most siliciclastic
siliciclasticparasequences are progradaTable 1.
progradadistal toes of successively
successively younger
tional, i.e., the distal
farsandstone bedsets were deposited progressively fardepositional pattern results in an
ther basinward. This depositional
facies in which younupward-shoaling association of facies
ger bedsets were deposited in progressively shallower
Some siliciclastic,
siliciclastic, and most carbonate, parasewater. Some
quences are aggradational
aggradational and also shoal upward.
quences
schematic well-log and stratal characteristics
characteristics of
The schematic
upward-coarsening and upward-fining parasequences are shown in Figure 3. In the typical upwardcoarsening
coarsening parasequence (Figures
(Figures 3A-3C), bedsets
thicken,
thicken, sandstones coarsen, and the sandstone/
sandstone1
mudstone ratio increases upward. In the upward3D), bedsets thin,
(Figure 3D),
fining parasequence (Figure
finer grained (commonly
(commonly culmiculmisandstones become finer
coals), and the sandstone/
sandstone1
nating in mudstones and coals),
mudstone ratio decreases
decreases upward.
The vertical-facies
vertical-facies associations within both the
upward-coarsening and upward-fining parasequences are interpreted to record a gradual decrease in
depth. Evidence
Evidence of an abrupt decrease in water
water depth.
foreshore bedsets lying sharply on
depth, such as foreshore
lower-shoreface bedsets, has not been observed
within parasequences.
parasequences. Also, vertical-facies associaassociations indicating
indicatinga gradual increase
increase in water depth have
If individual
individual
not been observed within parasequences.
parasequences. If
parasequences do exist,
exist, they
"deepening-upward" parasequences
0-
A!'( U~ITS
'"
Parasequence
BEDDING
.., ~
IN
::l: 0
COAE
GR
API UNITS
,0
~ ;;
WITHIN EACH PARA SeQUENCE:
SANDSTONE BEDSET$ AND BEDS THICKEN UPWARD
PARASEQUENCE
eOUNDA,AYi
FACIES
WlTHlN
EACH PARASEOUENCE
SHOAL
THE
BOUNDARY
TO MUDSTONE
ORUPWARD
SILTSTONE ABove THE
BOUNDARY
ABRUPT
DECREASE
IN BED THICKNESS
ABRUPT CHANGE
IN LITHOLOGY
FROM SANDSTONE BELOW
OR SILTSTONE
ABOVE THELAMINAE
THE BOUNDARY
TO MUDSTONE
TRUNCATION
OF UNDERLYING
POSSIBLE
MINOR
BOUNDARY
SANDSTONE
SANDSTONE
MUDSTONE
ENVIRONMtNT ACROSS
ABRUPT
DEEPENING
IN DEPOSITIONAL
GLAUCONITE,
PHOSPHORITE,
SHELL HASH, ORGANIC-RICH
THE
BOUNDARY
SHALE.
SHALE PEBBLES
DIMINISHES DOWNWARD
MUDSTONE
TROUGHCROSS
BEDDING
PLANAR BEDDING
HUMMOCKY BEDDlriG
~
.;;.;:..
~ ~v
A WAVERIPPLW SANDSTONE
BED
Y~~;,;::;;:;;:~~~
Isl
TROUGH-CROSS
HUMMOCKY BEDDING
PLANAR BEDDING
FS _ FORESHORE;
USF _ UPPER SHOREFACE:
BEDDING LSF _ LOWER SI-fOREFACE; O,LSF _ DISTAL LOWER SHOREFACE: SH SHELF
BED
'"
API UNITS
z
'" o.
BEDDING
~~
PAAASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY.,
"
"
$2
"
5 CORE
2
,, ,
, ,.i s
0
API UNITS
v
V
"<
I0
5
BEDDING
IN
CORE
ffi~i
SANDSTONE
BEDS
BEOSETS
THICKEN
BEDSETS
THICKEN
UPWARDUPWARD
SANDSTONE BEDS
OR OR
.-;:u
d?
s g,"> O
O z
v~"<:
..
SANDSTONEIMUDSTONE RATIO
INCREASES
UPWARDUPWARD
SANDSTONE/MUDSTONE
RATIO
INCREASES
GRAIN SlZE INCREASES UPWARD
ABRUPTDECREASE
CHANGEININ
LITHOLOGY
ABRUPT
BED
THICKNESS FROM SANDSTONE BELOW TO
MUDSTONE
ABOVE
POSSIBLE
SLIGHT
TRUNCATION OF UNDERLYING LAMINAE
SANDSTONE
SHALE
MUDSTONE
SANDSTONE
CURRENT-RIPPLE LAMINAE
THE BOUNDARY
TROUGH
MUDSTONE
OSMB
THICKNESS
ABRUPT OF
DECREASE
IN BED
HORIZON
BIOTURBATION,
BURROWING
INTENSITY
DECREASES SLIGHT
DOWNWARD
TRUNCATION OF UNDERLYING LAMINAE
POSSIBLE
GLAUCONITE. SHELL HASH, PHOSPHORITE. OR ORGANIC-RICH
HORIZON OF BIOTURBATION; BURROWING INTENSITY
SHALE
DECREASES DOWNWARD
ABRUPT DEEPENING IN DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT ACROSS
GLAUCONITE,
THE
BOUNDARY SHELL HASH, PHOSPHORITE. OR ORGANICRICH
CURRENT_RIPPLE LAMIN"'E
F71 BURROWS
Figure 3B-Stratal characteristicsof an upward-coarsening
This
type of parasequence
is interpreted to
H PLANARparasequence.
LAMINAE
TURBIDITE
c:::J WAVE-RIPPLED LAMINAE
shoreline.
form in a deltaic environment on a sandy, fluvial- or wave-dominated
I-fOMOGENEOUS
TROUGHCROSS. BEDS
OSMB _ OUTER STEAM-MOUTH BAR. DF DELTA FRONT. PAD 0 PAD DELTA. SH SHELF
facies relationships
relationships
Vertical facies
venation, downward shift in coastal onlap, or onlap of
overlying strata;
strata; it may be marked by local erosion due
to fluvial processes and local evidence
evidence of subaerial
subaerial
exposure
exposure such as soil or root horizons normally found
coastal-plain deposits.
deposits. The correlative
correlative surface on
in coastal-plain
the shelf is a conformable
conformable surface
surface with no significant
significant
hiatus indicated and is marked by thin pelagic or hemipelagic deposits. These deposits include
include thin carbonates, organic-rich mudstones, glauconites, and
volcanic ashes indicating
indicating terrigenous-sediment
terrigenous-sediment starvation. Strata across
across correlative
correlative surfaces usually do
not indicate
indicate a change in water depth; commonly
commonly the
correlative
correlative surfaces
surfaces in the coastal plain or on the shelf
can be identified
identified only by correlating updip or downdip
from a marine-flooding surface. In even deeper-water
environments,
environments, such as the slope or basin floor,
floor, parasealso be unrecognizable.
quence boundaries may also
unrecognizable.
The characteristics
characteristics of parasequence boundaries suggest that they form in response to an abrupt increase in
sufficiently rapid to overcome
overcome
water depth that is sufficiently
deposition.
parasequence-boundary fordeposition. The stages of parasequence-boundary
forsimplisticallyillustrated
illustrated in Figure 4.
mation are simplistically
In two special cases, shown in Figure 5, parasequences may be bounded either above or below by
sequence
sequence boundaries. In the first case (Figure
(Figure5, Example 1),
I), a sequence
sequence boundary truncates a parasequence
in the underlying transgressive systems tract and
erodes into lower-shoreface
lower-shoreface sandstones (well
(well A) and
marine mudstones (well
(well B). Subsequent deposition of
a lowstand-shoreline parasequence on top of the
sequence
sequence boundary results in (1)
(1) a younger paraseabove by a marine-flooding surface
quence bounded above
(2) an older
sequence boundary,
and below by a sequence
boundary, and (2)
parasequence bounded below by a marine-flooding
surface and above by an erosional sequence
sequenceboundary.
surface
boundary.
Example 1,
1,
The correct parasequence interpretation in Example
sequence boundary, is conconbased on recognition of the sequence
trasted in Figure 5 with the incorrect parasequence
parasequence
if the sequence
sequence boundary is
interpretation that results if
identified.
not identified.
(Figure 5,
5, Example 2)
2) the
In the second case (Figure
sequence boundary in well 2, expressed as a surface
surface of
subaerial
subaerial exposure,
exposure, coincides
coincides with a marine-flooding
surface. This juxtaposition of surfaces
surfaces results in a parasurface.
sequencebounded above by a sequence
sequence boundary and
sequence
surface. There are three
below by a marine-flooding surface.
surfaces at the top of the youngest paraseparasecoincident surfaces
quence in well
we11 2:
2: (1)
(1) the marine-flooding surface
surface origiparasequence, probably formed
formed at
nally bounding the parasequence,
the end of the highstand, (2)
(2) the sequence
sequence boundary,
boundary,
expressed
expressed as a subaerial
subaerial exposure
exposure surface, and (3)
(3) the
last marine-flooding surface formed
formed during the seasealevel rise that terminated the lowstand.
Parasequence boundaries, within a framework of
Parasequence
regional sequence
sequence boundaries, are the best surfaces to
logs and
correlationof time and facies
facies from
fromlogs
use for local correlation
cores,
cores, and as surfaces
surfaceson which paleogeographic maps
13
13
several reasons.
reasons. (1)
(1) Parasequence
Parasequence
can be made, for several
boundaries are easily recognizable
recognizable surfaces that sepasepa(2)The boundaries
rate older beds from younger beds. (2)
(similarobservations
observations have been made by
form rapidly (similar
other authors, notably Wilson,
Wilson, 1975;
1975; and Goodwin
Anderson, 1985),
1985), probably within hundreds of
and Anderson,
approximate time
years to thousands of years, and approximate
markers
markers useful for chronostratigraphy
chronostratigraphy (Sears
(Sears et al.,
1941; Krumbein and Sloss, 1963;
1963; Wilson, 1975;
1975;
1941;
1985). (3)
(3) Parasequence
Goodwin and Anderson, 1985).
boundaries bound genetically
genetically related assemblages
assemblages of
facies, providing an essential
essential framework for facies
facies
facies,
interpretation and correlation on well-log
well-log cross secsecsequence. (4)
(4) Finally,
Finally, they commonly
tions within the sequence.
areally extensive enough for local subsurface
subsurfacecorrecorreare areally
lation within a basin. However, parasequence
parasequence boundaries usually cannot be easily correlated regionally
regionally
with widely spaced well control.
control. For this reason, and
because parasequence
parasequence distribution is very sensitive to
sediment supply, parasequence boundaries usually
are not good surfaces
surfaces for regional correlation of time
and facies.
facies.
Vertical Facies Relationships
in Parasequences
Well-exposed outcrops
outcrops in the Blackhawk Formation
Well-exposed
east-centralUtah were studied to document the ververof east-central
facies relationships
relationships in parasequences
tical and lateral facies
subsurface correlation. These exposures
exposures
as a guide for subsurface
(1949), Young
also have been studied by Spieker (1949),
(1955), Balsely and Horne (1980),
(1980),Kamola and Howard
(1955),
(1985), and Swift et al.
al. (1987).
(1987). To
To relate outcrop obserobser(1985),
vations of parasequences to subsurface
subsurface expression,
expression,
vations
Prothree wells were drilled on the outcrop by Exxon ProResearch Company
Company in 1982.
1982. Each well was
duction Research
continuously with a suite of convenconvencored and logged continuously
electric- and nuclear-logging tools.
tools. The vertical
tional electricfacies relationships
relationships of parasequences
facies
parasequences from the Late
Cretaceous age (Campanian)
(Campanian) Blackhawk Formation
Cretaceous
outcrop, core,
core, and well log,
log,
are shown in Figure 6 in outcrop,
the latter from
from one of the nearby 1982
1982wells.
wells. Each paraparasequence on the log is marked by an upward decrease
decrease
sequence
in gamma-ray response, indicating an upward
increase in the sandstone/mudstone
sandstone/mudstone ratio within the
increase
parasequence and generally an upward increase in the
thickness. This vertical patsandstone bed or bedset thickness.
coarsening and thickening
thickening reflects
tern of upward coarsening
parasequence progradation. .'
parasequence boundary in Figure 6 is marked
Each parasequence
by a blue line on the well log.
log. The parasequence from
from
interval A (160
(160 to 218 ft, or 49 to 66 m)
m) begins at the
interval
base with interbedded mudstones and burrowed,
hummocky-bedded sandstones deposited in the
shoreface of a beach. The upper part of the cored
lower shoreface
interval consists of trough and tabular cross-bedded
cross-bedded
interval
depossandstones and planar-laminated
planar-laminated sandstones deposshoreface and foreforeited, respectively,
respectively, in the upper shoreface
PARASEQUENCES IN OUTCROP
PARASEQUENCES IN CORES
~~~
...
"
PARASEQUENCE_
BOUNDARY
50
,.
.
I--~ ....~4!.,.-..:..--Il
~~COAL
...
::
00
: i'
or
u
w<
u~
z<
w>
::lor
Ow
w ....
V>z
AU RIOE
~---
;
tPARASEQUENCE CORE INTERVAL B
IIU til
'IIIC( IIIVI II
CO,ll Me.1
Tl2S
TllS
,
,,
,
..
, ., ,'
-.
- r""7
~'='=
,
350
! ;
., . ..
__"l .:..;
.,
_-
: I ;
: ! :
...
; ,
,
i':l !f,,,..
~V
.;_
L
,
i 400
OH+t--
..
~
L:
,
Figure 6-Parasequences in outcrop, well log, and core from the Blackhawk Formation, Spring Canyon Member, in the
Book Cliffs, near Helper, Utah.
PARASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY
PAAASEOUENCE
BOUNDARY
EXXON
ELM GROVE PLANTATION
BOSSIER PARISH, LA.
SEC.23-T16N-RllW
12000
SP
3000
100000
r-------Tl-II:.:.:.~~;-------1
l
-_-_-_-_-_-----
SFL
EXXON
FARMERS LIFE G.U. NO.2
DUVAL CO. TEXAS
1 - - - - - - - - I 8600
10000
GR
00
L
00
10000
ILD
2000
ILM
2000
ol
AMP
SHORT NORMAL
2
I
f - + - - - -.....
<
I
I
. .~...
<
~====j
12200
1----:
f
\
\
12300 t---.F---
,
"
13900
~ )"
~
~
~-,'
I
1----;
'~
9200
I----'l~----i 8900
1.
13800
4000
8700
SP
1600
12000
,>
00
SFLA
10.00
I~_---::-=-:---";;"'
00
SFLA
2.0
13700
10
SHORT NORMAL
~!===::;;r~I---~I::;,~=~::=~!
t---~~
9300
"7
~
9400
1
12400
r9600
14000
12500
f-t----=:;
,,-------j
:s;
9600
1-------'1---1 9300 1 - - - -
9700
14100
9800
7-
14200
SHALLOWMARINE BEACH PARASEQUENCES FROM
THE LATE JURASSIC TO EARLY CRETACEOUS
COTTON VALLEY GROUP OF LOUISIANA. CORES
WERE AVAILABLE FOR FACIES INTERPRETATION.
....
:::-----==
c
13300 1---'
13400
r-~ ~-------'
14400
10000
r
SHALLOW MARINE DELl AIC PARASEQUENCES FROM
THE MIOCENE OF CENTRAL LOUISIANA. FACIES
INTERPRET A TIONS FROM LOG RESPONSE AND
REGIONAL WELL LOG CORRELATIONS.
9900
{-=F
14300
o
o
Figure 7-Well-Iog responses for beach and deltaic parasequences from Jurassic to Miocene in age. All well-log depths are in feet.
facies relationships
Lateral facies
shore of the beach.
beach. The parasequence boundary
occurs
at
158.5
(48 m)
m) near the top of the last core
occurs 158.5 ft (48
is
marked by deeper-water,
box.
The
boundary
box.
deeper-water, black,
shelf mudstones lying sharply on burrow-churned,
low-angle
low-angle to planar-laminated sandstone beds with no
intervening transgressive lag. In outcrop, this parasequence boundary can be traced approximately 15
15 mi
(24 km)
km)along depositional dip. This core was cut near
the youngest, most basinward position of the foreforeshore in the parasequence.
Interval B (308
(308 to 255 ft,
ft, or 94 to 78
78 m)
m) contains two
parasequences (Figure
(Figure 6).
6). The lower parasequence
begins at the base of the core with burrowed, black
mudstones and partially burrowed-churned, waverippled sandstones deposited on a shelf.
shelf. This facies
facies is
overlain by burrowed, hummocky-bedded sandstones interbedded with thi11.,
thin, black mudstones deposited in the lower shoreface of a beach. The boundary
for the lower parasequence is a burrowed surface
surface at
274 ft (84
(84 m)
m) defined by black mudstones lying
abruptly on hummocky-bedded sandstones.
sandstones. The
upper parasequence in interval B
B begins at the base
with burrowed, black, shelf mudstones and thin
wave-rippled sandstones; like the lower parasequence, it is capped with burrowed, hummockybedded sandstones deposited in the lower shoreface
shoreface
of a beach.
beach. The parasequence boundary for the upper
parasequence occurs at 260 ft (79
(79m).
m). The boundary is a
distinct surface
surface defined by black mudstones in sharp
contact with underlying burrowed and hummockybedded sandstones. In outcrop, these parasequence
boundaries can be traced at least 12
12 mi (19
(19 km)
km) along
depositional dip.
dip. As in interval A, both parasequence
boundaries in interval B are devoid of transgressive
lags in the core and outcrop.
outcrop.
The parasequence boundaries in intervals A and B
are marine-flooding
marine-flooding surfaces
surfaces interpreted to result from
an abrupt increase in water depth. This deepening is
indicated by the facies
facies contrasts across
across the parasequence boundaries. Vertical-facies
Vertical-facies associations
associations within
parasequences in intervals A and B do not exhibit any
significant discontinuities and are interpreted to result
from normal-shoreline progradation. Additional welllog responses of parasequences and parasequence
boundaries in different regions and formations are
shown in Figure 7.
15
15
Parasequence
Parasequence set
set
that
that the
the rate
rate of
of accommodation
accommodation exceeded
exceeded the
the rate
rate of
of
sediment supply.
supply.
sediment
Three different
different mechanisms
mechanisms can
can generate
generate paraseparaseThree
quence boundaries.
boundaries. One
One well-documented
well-documented mechamechaquence
nism isis the
the relatively
relatively rapid
rapid increase
increase in
in water
water depth
depth
nism
caused by
by compaction
compaction of
of prodelta
prodelta mudstones
mudstones in
in aa
caused
delta
delta lobe
lobe following
following distributary-channel
distributary-channel avulsion
avulsion
(Frazier, 1967).
1967).The
The drowning
drowning of
of the
the lobe
lobe produces
produces an
an
(Frazier,
abrupt, planar,
planar, slightly
slightly erosional
erosional surface,
surface, commonly
commonly
abrupt,
with little
little or
or no
no preserved
preserved transgressive
transgressive lag
lag lying
lying
with
above itit (Elliott,
(Elliott, 1974).
1974). The
The resulting
resulting parasequence
parasequence
above
has aa lateral
lateral extent
extent equivalent
equivalent to
to the
the areal
areal
boundary has
extent of the
the lobe
lobe itself.
itself. Frazier
Frazier and
and Osanik
Osanik (1967)
(1967)
extent
showed that the
the three
three youngest lobes
lobes in
in the
the Holocene
Holocene
showed
San Bernard delta
delta in
in southeastern
southeastern Louisiana have
have
San
2
areal extents
extents ranging from
from 300
300 to
to 3000
3000 mi
mi2
(777to
to 7770
7770
areal
(777
2
km2).
The rates
rates for
for lobe
lobe progradation range
range from
from 800
800to
to
km
). The
1400 years.
years. Because
Because the
the surfaces
surfaces bounding each
each of
of
1400
these lobes
lobes are
are extensive
extensive areally
areally and
and formed
formed rapidly,
rapidly,
these
provide local
local time
time lines
lines for
for chronostratigraphic
chronostratigraphic
they provide
and lithostratigraphic
lithostratigraphic analysis
analysis over
over relatively
relatively large
large
and
areas in
in the
the subsurface.
subsurface.
areas
A second
second mechanism for
for the
the formation
formation of
of aa paraseparaseA
quence boundary isis aa rapid relative
relative rise
rise in
in sea
sea level
level
quence
caused by subsidence
subsidence along
along tectonically
tectonically active
active faults.
faults.
caused
Earthquakes such
such as
as the
the 1964
1964 earthquake
earthquake in
in Alaska
Alaska
Earthquakes
(Plafker,
1965)
or
the
1960
earthquake
in
Chile
(Plafker
(Plafker, 1965) or the 1960 earthquake in Chile (Plafker
and Savage,
Savage, 1970)
1970) produced nearly instantaneous,
instantaneous,
and
coastal subsidence
subsidence of
of 6.5
6.5 and
and 99 ftft (2
(2 and
and 33
maximum coastal
m), respectively.
respectively. Plafker
Plafker and
and Savage
Savage (1970)
(1970)document
document
m),
of subsidence
subsidence 600
600 mi
mi (963
(963km)
km) long
long and
and 70
70 mi
mi
a zone of
(112km)
km) wide along
along the
the Chilean coastline.
coastline. Along lowlow(112
lying shorelines,
shorelines, such
such subsidence
subsidence could drown large
large
lying
areas of coastal
coastal deposits
deposits rapidly,
rapidly, thereby producing a
areas
boundary. Short-term
Short-term increases in the
the
parasequence boundary.
subsidence on
on the
the order of a few
few thousand
rate of subsidence
coastal salt domes
domes or growth faults
faults also
also
years near coastal
local relative
relative rises
rises in sea
sea level
level sufficient
sufficient
could produce local
to drown coastal
coastal deposits and
and produce parasequence
parasequence
to
boundaries.
for parasequence boundary forforA third mechanism for
is eustasy.
eustasy. The
The relationship of eustasy and
and subsubmation is
to parasequence and
and sequence
sequence deposition
deposition is
is
sidence to
39 and
and is
is discussed
discussed later,
later, in
in "Interpresented in Figure 39
the
pretations of Depositional Mechanisms" within the
section.
"Sequence" section.
PARASEQUENCE SET
SET
PARASEQUENCE
Definition
is a succession of genetically
A parasequence set is
forming a distinctive stacking
related parasequences forming
pattern bounded by major marine-flooding surfaces
and their correlative surfaces. Parasequence set characteristics are
are summarized in Table
Table 1.
1.
acteristics
17
17
Parasequence Set
Set Boundary
Boundary
Parasequence
Like
Like parasequence
parasequence boundaries,
boundaries, parasequence
parasequence set
set
boundaries
boundaries are
are marine-flooding
marine-flooding surfaces
surfacesand
and their
their corcorrelative
shows aa parasequence
parasequence set
set
relative surfaces.
surfaces. Figure
Figure 99 shows
boundary
boundary with
with hummocky-bedded
hummocky-bedded and
and burrowed,
burrowed,
lower-shoreface
lower-shoreface sandstones
sandstones lying
lying in
in sharp
sharp contact
contact on
on
coastal-plain
coastal-plain coals.
coals. Parasequence
Parasequence set
set boundaries
boundaries (1)
(1)
separate
separate distinctive
distinctive parasequence-stacking
parasequence-stacking patterns,
patterns,
(2)
(2) may
may coincide
coincide with
with sequence
sequence boundaries,
boundaries, and
and (3)
(3)
may
may be
be downlap
downlap surfaces
surfaces and
and boundaries
boundaries of
of systems
systems
tracts.
tracts.
Types
Types of Parasequence
Parasequence Sets
Sets
Stacking
Stacking patterns
patterns of
of parasequences within paraseparasequenee
quence sets
sets are
are progradational, retrogradational, or
or
aggradational
1985),depending
depending on
on the
the
aggradational (Van
(VanWagoner,
Wagoner, 1985),
ratio
ratio of
of depositional
depositional rates
rates to
to accommodation
accommodation rates.
rates.
Figure
Figure 10
10 schematically
schematically illustrates
illustrates these
these stacking
stacking patpatterns
terns and
and their well-log
well-log responses.
responses. In
In aa progradational
progradational
parasequence
parasequence set,
set, successively
successively younger parasequences
parasequences
are
are deposited
deposited farther
farther basinward;
basinward; overall,
overall, the
the rate
rate of
of
deposition
deposition isis greater
greater than
than the
the rate
rate of
of accommodation.
accommodation.
In
In aa retrogradational
retrogradafional parasequence
parasequenceset,
set, successively
successivelyyounyounger
ger parasequences
parasequences are
are deposited
deposited farther
farther landward,
landward, in
in
aa backstepping pattern; overall,
overall, the
the rate
rate of
of deposition
deposition
is
is less
less than
than the
the rate
rate of
of accommodation.
accommodation. Although
Although each
each
parasequence in
in aa retrogradational
retrogradational parasequence
parasequence set
set
progrades, the
the parasequence set
set deepens
deepens upward
upward in
in aa
"transgressive
"transgressive pattern." We
We use
use the
the term "retrograda"retrogradation" in
in the
the dictionary
dictionary sense
sense(Gary
(Garyet
et aI.,
al., 1972)
1972)to
to mean
"the backward (landward)
(landward) movement or retreat of a
shoreline or coastline:'
coastline." As
As Gary
Gary et a1.
al. (1972)
(1972) pointed
out,
out, retrogradation is
is the
the antonym
antonym of progradation.
progradation. In
an
an aggradational
aggradational parasequence
parasequence set,
set, successively
successively younger
parasequences are
are deposited above
above one
one another
another with
no
no significant
significant lateral shifts;
shifts; overall,
overall, the
the rate of accomaccommodation approximates the
the rate
rate of deposition.
deposition.
Vertical
Vertical Facies
Facies Relationships
Relationships
in
in Parasequence
Parasequence Sets
Sets
Parasequence
Parasequence sets
sets can
can be identified from
from a single
single
well log.
log. In a progradational
progradational parasequence
parasequence set
set (Figure
(Figure
11),
l l ) , successively younger parasequences
parasequences contain
sandstone with greater depositional
depositional porosities and
and
higher percentages of rocks
rocks deposited in
in shallowshallowmarine
marine to
to coastal-plain environments than underlying
parasequences. The
The youngest parasequence in
in the
the
well may
may consist entirely of rocks
rocks that were
were deposited
in
in a coastal-plain environment. In addition, younger
parasequences tend to
to be thicker than older parasequences
quences in
in the
the set.
set.
In a retrogradational
retrogradational parasequence set (Figure
(Figure 11),
ll),
successively
successively younger parasequences contain more
shale
rocks
shale or mudstone and higher percentages of rocks
deposited in deeper-water
deeper-water marine environments,
environments,
such as
as lower shoreface,
shoreface, delta front,
front, or shelf,
shelf, than
Lateral facies
facies relationships in parasequence sets
underlying parasequences. The youngest parasequence in the set commonly is composed entirely of
rocks deposited on the shelf.
shelf. In addition, younger
parasequences tend to be thinner than older parasequences in the set. .
In an aggradational parasequence set (Figure
(Figure 11)
11)the
facies, thicknesses, and sandstone to mudstone ratios
significantly.
do not change significantly.
in Parasequence
Parasequence Sets
Sets
The vertical expressions of different kinds of parase11) also have
quence sets in single well logs (Figure 11)
sections.
characteristic lateral expressions on cross sections.
expresThese subsurface and outcrop cross-section expresFigsions are illustrated with four examples, shown in Figures 12
12 through 16.
16.
In the first example, the dip-oriented distribution of
parasequences in a progradational parasequence set
(Campanian) Blackhawk
from the Late Cretaceous age (Campanian)
Cliffs, north of Price,
Price,
Formation exposed in the Book Cliffs,
Utah, is shown in Figure 12.
12. A gamma-ray curve from
the Exxon Production Research Company Price River
section. Facies
Facjes
No.33 well is included on the cross section.
Coal No.
data plotted on the gamma-ray curve are from contin3-in. (7.62-cm)
(7.62-cm) cores recovered from that well
uous 3-in.
(Figure 6).
6). Successively
Successively younger parasequences step
(Figure
farther basinward, and produce the well-log patterns
11for a progradational parasequence
shown in Figure 11
set. The updip pinchouts of porous marine sandstones
set.
into nonporous, coastal-plain mudstones also step
basinward in successively younger parasequences.
The highest depositional porosities in each parasequence are preserved just seaward of the pinchout of
marine rocks into coastal-plain deposits. These pinchouts are very abrupt, commonly occurring laterally
100 ft (30
(30 m).
m). Such pinchover a distance of less than 100
outs can lead to confusion in well-log correlations
because of the abrupt change in log shape between
two closely spaced wells. One of the updip pinchouts
13. In this
within a parasequence is shown in Figure 13.
foreshore and upper-shoreface sandstones
example, foreshore
are truncated updip by a landward-dipping erosional
surface, interpreted to be cut by a migrating tidal inlet.
A wedge-shaped sandstone body with a maximum
15 ft (4.6
(4.6 m), consisting of imbricate,
thickness of 15
floodlandward-dipping bedsets, and interpreted as a floodsurface. The
b he pinchtidal delta, rests on the erosional surface.
(Figure 13)
13) occurs on the cross section (Figure
(Figure 12)
12)
out (Figure
between Gentile Wash (Sec.
(Sec. 2, T13S,
T13S, R9E)
R9E) and Spring
(Sec. 15,
15, T12S, R9E).
R9E).
Canyon (Sec.
In the second example, the dip-oriented distribution
of parasequences in three progradational parasequence sets from the subsurface Parkman and Teapot
(Campanian)
sandstones of the Late Cretaceous age (Campanian)
Mesaverde Formation, Powder River basin, Wyo-
21
21
22
Sequence
the porous sandstones will be separated by shelf mudstones or thin beds of nonporous sandstones.
Concepts
Correlation Concepts
Parasequence and parasequence set correlations
commonly yield results that differ significantly
significantly from
from
commonly
conventional lithostratigraphic
lithostratigraphic corcorthose obtained by conventional
relations that rely on formations,
formations, or formation "tops"
of sandstone or mudstone intervals.
intervals. To illustrate
illustrate some
differences, schematic
schematic cross
cross sections through
of these differences,
a progradational parasequence set and a retrogradational parasequence set are compared with typical lithostratigraphic correlations
correlations (Figures
(Figures 17
17 and 18).
18).
ostratigraphic
cross section
section
The progradational parasequence set cross
17 was constructed using the parasequence
in Figure 17
set boundary as a datum. The shallow-marine
shallow-marine and
coastal-plain rocks of each younger parasequence step
coastal-plain
upward and basinward. The shallow-marine
shallow-marine sandstones are potential reservoirs. Many are isolated
above
above and below in mudstones, ensuring poor vertical
communication and possibly separate oil-water contacts. Because of amalgamation of shoreline sandsome of the potential reservoirs
reservoirs have good
stones, some
vertical communication near the updip pinchouts of
coastal-plain rocks.
rocks.
marine rocks into coastal-plain
lithostratigraphic cross section in Figure 17
17 was
The lithostratigraphic
constructed using the tops of the shallow-marine
(1)comsandstones as a datum because this boundary (1)
site of coal deposition
deposition providing a good
monly is the site
log marker,
marker, (2) is the most conspicuous
conspicuous boundary on
(3) provides
the SP or gamma-ray log, and (3)
provides a similar
facies,
resistivity response on each log inasmuch as the facies,
porosities, and fluids
fluids in each massive,
massive, shallow-marine
shallow-marine
sandstone
sandstone are similar.
similar. If
If this datum is selected,
selected, as is
lithofacies are correlated by
commonly done, and the lithofacies
connecting the sandstone tops, the continuity
continuity of the
connecting
genetically different sandreservoir is exaggerated, genetically
together, and potential shallowshallowstones are linked together,
marine sandstone reservoirs
reservoirs are interpreted to change
facies updip into marine shales and mudstones.
facies
The retrogradational
retrogradational parasequence
parasequence set cross section
section
18was constructed using a parasequence set
in Figure 18
boundary as a datum.
datum. This boundary can be traced
basinward into a diagnostic resistivity marker bed in
the shale.
shale. The marine rocks in successively
successively younger
backstep. Each paraparasequences step landward or backstep.
sequence progrades and each shallow-marine
shallow-marine sandsequence
changes facies
facies updip into coastal-plain
coastal-plain rocks.
stone changes
shallow-marine sandstone reservoirs are isolated
isolated
The shallow-marine
above and below in marine mudstones and commonly
above
contacts.
have separate oil-water contacts.
lithostratigraphic cross section in Figure 18
18 was
The lithostratigraphic
significant
constructed using the top of the youngest, significant
shallow-marine
shallow-marine sandstone in each well as a datum.
lithologic break. It has a simisimiThis horizon is a distinct lithologic
lar appearance
appearance in all of the wells and is easy to identify
identify
on the logs because it commonly is marked by an
SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE
Definitions
Sequence: A relatively conformable
conformable succession of
Sequence:
genetically related strata bounded by unconformities
genetically
correlative conformities
conformities (Mitchum,
(Mitchum, 1977).
1977).
or their correlative
Parasequences and parasequence sets are the stratal
Parasequences
building blocks of the sequence.
sequence. Sequence
Sequencecharacteris1.
Table 1.
tics are summarized in Table
Unconformity: A surface separating younger from
from
Unconformity:
evidence of subaerialolder strata along which there is evidence
erosional truncation and, in some areas, correlative
correlative
erosional
subaerial exposure,
exposure, with a sigsubmarine erosion, or subaerial
indicated (Van
(Van Wagoner et aI.,
al., 1988).
1988).
nificant hiatus indicated
definition restricts the usage of unconformity to
This definition
subaerial surfaces
surfaces and their correlative
correlative submarine erosubaerial
surfaces and is somewhat more restrictive than
sional surfaces
the definition of unconformity used by Mitchum
(1977). Local, contemporaneous erosion and deposideposi(1977).
geological processes such as
tion associated with geological
point-bar development or aeolian-dune
aeolian-dune migration are
excluded from the definition of unconformity used in
this book.
Confomzity:A surface separating younger from older
Conformity:
strata along
along which there is no evidence
evidence of erosion (nei(neisubaerial nor submarine)
submarine) or nondeposition, and
ther subaerial
along which no significant hiatus is indicated. It
includes surfaces onto which there is very slow depoincludes
sition or low rates of sediment accumulation, with
long periods of geologic time being represented by
very thin deposits.
deposits.
Sequences can be subdivided into systems tracts
Sequences
(Van Wagoner et aI.,
al., 1988;
1988; Posamentier
al., 1988)
1988)
(Van
Posamentier et aI.,
based on objective
objective criteria including
including types of boundsurfaces, parasequence set distribution,
distribution, and posiing surfaces,
tion within the sequence.
sequence. Systems
Systems tracts also can be
characterized by geometry
geometry and facies
facies associations.
associations.
characterized
contemporaSystems tracts are defined as a linkage of contemporadepositional systems
systems (Brown
(Brown and Fisher, 1977);
1977);
neous depositional
WEST
ANADARKO
NO. A-l PISTOL POINT
CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING
SEC.22- T45N-R76W
EAST
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NO. 3-19 POWELL-FED.
CAMPBELL CO., WYOMING
SEC.19- T45N-R75W
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COASTAlptAIN SANDSTONES AND MUDSTONES
SHAllOW MARINE SANDSTONES
SHELF MUDSTONES
PARKMAN
SANDSTDNE
'f
UNCONfORMITY
Figure 14-Parasequence stacking in progradational parasequence sets. Three parasequence sets are shown; one
parasequence set is in the Parkman Sandstone, Mesaverde Formation (Campanian), two parasequence sets are in the
Teapot Sandstone (Campanian). The Teapot Sandstone in the three western wells rests on an unconformity (sequence
boundary). These wells are from the Powder River basin, Wyoming.
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Figure 15-Parasequence stacking in a retrogradaHonal parasequence set, Almond Sandstone, Late Cretaceous age,
Washakie basin, Wyoming,
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'1
~
.".
A. T. MAST NO.1
NACOGDOCHES CO .. TEXAS
'I.
"
{
?
~
['
, '\
..).I
3;;
FIgure 16-Parasequence stacking in an aggradational parasequence set, Cotton Valley Group, Schuler Formation, east Texas.
D
O
SHALLOWMARINE
SANDSTONES
SHELF
MUDSTONES
100 FT
6 MILES
26
type-1 sequences
Stratal patterns in type-1
shelf
In addition to being deposited in a basin with a shelf
break, the following
additional
conditions
must
exist:
(1) sufficiently large fluvial systems to cut can(1)
yons and deliver sediment to the basin;
(2) enough accommodation for the parasequence
(2)
sets to be preserved; and
(3) a relative fall in sea level of
of a rate and magni(3)
tude sufficient to deposit the lowstand sysjust beyond the shelf break.
tems tract at or just
Stratal
Stratal patterns
patterns in
in type-2
type-2 sequences
sequences
deposited as
as the
the parasequences
parasequences step
step landward
landward and
and as
as
deposited
the shelf
shelf isis starved
starved of
of terrigenous
terrigenous sediment.
sediment.The
The greatgreatthe
est diversity
diversity and
and abundance
abundance of
of fauna
fauna within
within the
the
est
sequence are
are found
found in
in this
this terrigenous-starved
terrigenous-starved interintersequence
val. Deposition
Deposition within
within the
the condensed
condensed section
section isis conconval.
tinuous although
although the
the section
section commonly
commonly is
is thin,
thin,
tinuous
accumulates at
at very
very slow
slow rates,
rates, and
and encompasses
encompasses aa
accumulates
great deal
deal of
of time.
time.
great
Condensedsections
sectionsare
aremost
most extensive
extensive at
at the
the time
time of
of
Condensed
maximum regional
regional transgression
transgression of
of the
the shoreline
shoreline
maximum
(Loutitet
etaI.,
al., 1988).
1988).These
These characteristics
characteristicsof
of condensed
condensed
(Loutit
sections have
have two
two important
important implications
implications for
for stratistratisections
graphic analysis.
analysis. First,
First, ifif the
the sampling
sampling of
of outcrop,
outcrop,
graphic
core, or
or cuttings
cuttings for
for biostratigraphic-age
biostratigraphic-age determinadeterminacore,
tion isis not
not selective,
selective, the
the condensed
condensed section
section can
can be
be
tion
missed. If
If the
the condensed
condensed section
section is
is missed,
missed, there
there may
missed.
be an
an apparent
apparent major
major time
time gap
gap in
in the
the biostratigraphic
be
prompting paleontologists to
to infer
infer aa major
major
record, prompting
unconformity where
where deposition
deposition really
really was
was continucontinuunconformity
ous. Second,
Second, the
the condensed
condensed section
section commonly
commonly conconous.
tains more
more abundant,
abundant, diverse,
diverse, deep-water
deep-water fauna
fauna than
than
tains
do rocks
rocks above
above or
or below.
below. Few
Few or
or no
no fauna
fauna are
are recovrecovdo
ered from
from the
the largely
largely fluvial,
fluvial, estuarine,
estuarine, or
or shallowshallowered
sandstones of the
the transgressive
transgressive or
or lowstand
marine sandstones
systems tracts.
tracts. If
If fauna
fauna from
from successive
successive condensed
condensed
systems
sections are
are sampled
sampled through
through several
several sequences
sequences in
in aa
sections
well, and
and no
no attention
attention is
is paid to
to interpretations
interpretations of
of
well,
depositional environments
environments from
from well-log
well-log or
or seismic
seismic
depositional
data in
in the
the same
same interval,
interval, aa continuous,
continuous, deep-water
deep-water
data
environment may
may be
be interpreted
interpreted for
for the
the sampled
sampled
environment
interval. This
This interpretation
interpretation misses
misses the
the important
important
interval.
sequence boundaries along
along which fluvial
fluvial or
or shallowshallowsequence
marine, reservoir-quality sandstones
sandstones might have
have been
marine,
introduced farther
farther into
into the
the basin.
basin. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the
the
introduced
sandstones might be
be interpreted
interpreted erroneously
erroneously as
as havhavsandstones
ing been deposited
deposited in
in deep
deep water.
water.
ing
Highstand Systems
SystemsTract
Tract
Highstand
Ramp Margin
Margin
Ramp
to Figure
Figure 19,
19, the
the type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence in FigFigIn contrast to
20A was deposited in a basin with a ramp
ramp margin.
margin.
ure 20A
on a ramp
ramp margin is
is characterized by
Deposition on
27
27
(3)
(3) no
no abrupt
abrupt breaks
breaks in
in gradient
gradient separating
separating relarelatively
tively low
low dips
dips from
from much
much steeper
steeper dips;
dips;
(4)
(4) no
no abrupt
abrupt changes
changes in
in water
water depth
depth from
from shalshallow
low water
water to
to much
much deeper
deeper water;
water;
(5)
(5) incision
incision to,
to, but
but not
not below,
below, the
the lowstand
lowstand shoreshoreline
line in
in response
response to
to aa relative
relative fall
fall in
in sea
sea level;
level;
and
and
(6)
(6) deposition
deposition of
of lowstand
lowstand deltas
deltasand
and other
other shoreshoreline
line sandstones
sandstonesin
inresponse
response to
to the
the sea-level
sea-levelfall
fall
(basin-floor
(basin-floor submarine
submarine fans
fans and
and slope
slope fans
fans
unlikely
unlikely to
to be
be deposited
deposited on
on the
the ramp
ramp margin).
margin).
Cretaceous strata
stratain
in the
theinterior
interior foreland
forelandbasin
basin of
of the
the
Cretaceous
western
western United
United States
States and
and Canada
Canada contain
contain examples
examples
of this
this type
type of
of sequence.
sequence. Asquith
Asquith (1970)
(1970)showed
showed wellwellof
defined examples
examples of
of sigmoidal
sigmoidal to
to shingled
shingled clinoforms
clinoforms
defined
with present dips
dips of
of 0.5
0.5 or
or less
less in
in the
the Washakie,
Washakie, Big
Big
and Powder River
River basins
basins in
in Wyoming.
Wyoming.
Horn, and
the transgressive and
and highstand
highstand systems
systems
Although the
tracts
tracts in
in Figure
Figure 19
19and
and Figure
Figure 20A
20A are
are similar,
similar, the
the lowlowstand
stand systems
systems tracts
tracts in
in these
these two
two figures
figures differ.
differ. Thick,
Thick,
shale-prone
shale-prone lowstand
lowstand wedges,
wedges, slope
slope fans,
fans, and
and basinbasinfloor
floor fans
fans are
are unlikely
unlikely to
to form
form in
in the
the lowstand
lowstand systems
systems
tract because the
the depositional
depositional dips
dips on
on ramps
ramps are
are relarelalowstand systems
systems
tivelylow
lowand
and uniform.
uniform. Instead,
Instead, the
thelowstand
tively
tract in
in aa ramp
ramp margin
margin typically
typically consists
consists of
of narrow to
to
broad incised
incised valleys, usually filled
filled with
with tidetidedominated deltaic
deltaic deposits
deposits and
and age-equivalent,
age-equivalent, updip
updip
dominated
strata. Low-angle
Low-angle clinoforms,
clinoforms, such
such as
as those
those
fluvial strata.
fluvial
documented
documented by Asquith (1970),
(1970), commonly
commonly are
are found
found
highon ramp
ramp margins
margins within the
the transgressive or
or highon
stand
stand systems
systems tracts.
tracts. Delta-front
Delta-front turbidites, such
such as
as
those
those documented
documented from
from the
the Panther Tongue
Tongue delta
delta
(Figure 1),
I), are
are common
common in
in this
this type
type of
of basin and
and may
may
(Figure
be mistaken
mistaken for
for submarine
submarine fans.
fans.
be
Two
Two end-members
end-members of type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence deposition
deposition
are
are represented
represented by Figures
Figures 19
19and
and 20A.
20A. In the
the first
first end
member (Figure
(Figure 19),
19),the
the relative
relative fall
fall in sea
sea level
level is
is sufsufshoreline beyond the
the
ficient to
to move the
the lowstand shoreline
ficient
depositional-shoreline
depositional-shorelinebreak to
to the
the shelf break, resulting
ing in probable
probable canyon and
and submarine-fan
submarine-fan formation.
formation.
In
In the
the second
second end member (Figure
(Figure 20A),
ZOA), either
either the
the relrelative
ative fall
fall in sea
sea level
level moves the
the lowstand shoreline
shoreline
the depositional-shoreline break but not to
to the
the
beyond the
shelf
shelf break, or
or no
no shelf
shelf break exists
exists in
in the
the basin
because the
the margin
margin isis aa ramp,
ramp, resulting
resulting in
in aa lowstand
lowstand
because
systems tract consisting of a relatively
relatively thin wedge with
systems
no canyon or submarine-fan
submarine-fan formation.
formation.
no
Stratal Patterns
Patterns in
in Type-2
Type-2 Sequences
Sequences
Stratal
The
The distributions
distributions of parasequence sets
sets and
and systems
systems
20B.
tracts in
in a type-2
type-2 sequence
sequence are
are illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 20B.
tracts
1",with The
(1) uniform, low-angle dips
dips of less
less than 1,
(1)
The lowest system tract in the
the type-2
type-2 sequence
sequence is
is the
the
0.50;O;
dips less
less than 0.5
most dips
shelf-margin systems
systems tract
tract (Posamentier
(Posamentier et al.,
al., 1988).
1988).
(2) shingled to
to sigmoidal
sigmoidal clinoforms
clinoforms (Mitchum
(Mitchum et It
(2)
It can
can be deposited anywhere on
on the
the shelf and
and consists
consists
al., 1977);
1977);
aI.,
one or more
more weakly
weakly progradational to
to aggradational
of one
30
30
characteristics
Sequence boundary characteristics
parasequence sets
sets composed of shallow-marine paraparasequence
sequences
with
updip coastal-plain
coastal-plain deposits.
deposits. The
The base
sequences
of the shelf-margin systems
systems tract is
is the type-2
type-2
sequence
boundary,
and
the
top
is
the
first
significant
sequence boundary, and the
is the first significant
flooding surface on the
the shelf.
shelf. The
The transgressive
transgressive and
and
flooding
highstand systems tracts
tracts in type-2
type-2 and type-1
type-1
sequences are
are similar.
similar.
sequences
Type-2
sequences
(Figure 20B)
20B) and type-1
type-1 sequences
sequences
Type-2 sequences (Figure
deposited on a ramp (Figure
(Figure 20A)
20A) superficially
superficially resemresemfans and canyons,
canyons, and both of
ble each other; both lack fans
their initial
initial systems
systems tracts (shelf-margin
(shelf-margin systems
systems tract
type-2 sequence
sequence and lowstand systems tract in
in the type-2
the type-1
type-1 sequence)
sequence) are
are deposited on the shelf.
shelf. HowHowever, unlike the type-1
type-l sequences deposited on ramps,
ever,
is no relative fall
fall in sea level
level at the depositionaldepositionalthere is
for the type-2
type-2 sequence. ConseConseshoreline break for
quently, type-2 sequences do not have incised valleys
valleys
quently,
significant erosional truncation that
and they lack the significant
results from stream rejuvenation and a basinward
facies.
shift in facies.
Sequence Boundary
Boundary Characteristics
Characteristics
Sequence
A sequence boundary is an unconformity and its
correlative conformity;
conformity; it is a laterally continuous,
correlative
widespread surface covering at least an entire basin
and seems to occur synchronously in many basins
(Vailet al., 1977;
1977; Vail and Todd, 1981;
1981;
around the world (Vail
1984; Haq et aI.,
al., 1988).
1988). A sequence boundVail et al., 1984;
ary separates all of the strata below the boundary from
1977)
all of the strata above the boundary (Mitchum, 1977)
significance. Correlation
and has chronostratigraphic significance.
of sequence boundaries on well-log cross sections provides a high-resolution chronostratigraphic
chronostratigraphic framework for facies
facies analysis. If
If sufficient well control is
available, not only does this framework equal or suravailable,
pass other tools in chronostratigraphic resolution, but,
if necessary, the framework can be developed from the
well-log data base. The following discussion of
sequence boundaries is divided into three parts: recognition criteria, incised-valley attributes and examples, and correlation pitfalls.
Recognition Criteria
The criteria that identify the unconformable part of
sequence boundaries in a single well log, core, or outcrop include a basinward shift in facies
facies for a type-1
type-1
sequence boundary and a vertical change in parasequence stacking patterns for a type-1 or a type-2
sequence boundary. As an example of
of the latter criterion, consider the case of
of three parasequence sets
arranged in vertical order from the oldest to the
youngest: retrogradational, progradational (or aggradational),
dational), followed by retrogradational. In this case,
there is commonly a sequence boundary
boundary at the top or
the base of
the
progradational
(or
aggradational) paraof
sequence set.
On a well-log or outcrop cross section the recognition
criteria for
for the unconformable part of aa type-2
type-2
sequence
onlap of overlying
overlying strata,
sequence boundary include
include onlap
aa downward shift in
in coastal
coastal onlap,
onlap, and
and subaerial expoexposure
sure with minor subaerial
subaerial truncation,
truncation, all
all landward
landward of
the
the depositional-shoreline
depositional-shoreline break within the
the updip,
updip,
coastal-plain part of the sequence
sequence where correlation is
is
less
less precise.
precise. For this reason, these criteria
criteria are
are particularly
larly difficult to recognize in well-log or outcrop cross
cross
sections.
sections. Type-2
Type-2 sequence
sequence boundaries are
are most readily
defined by the changes
changes in parasequence stacking patterns described above.
above. Based on this criterion,
criterion, type-2
sequence
sequence boundaries in siliciclastic
siliciclasticstrata appear to be
rare in most basins.
On a well-log or outcrop cross
cross section the recognirecognition criteria
criteria for
for the unconformable part of a type-1
type-1
sequence
sequence boundary include
include the following:
following:
-Subaerial-erosional
*Subaerial-erosional truncation, a laterally correlacorrelative subaerial-exposure surface marked by soil or
root horizons, and laterally correlative-submarine
erosion, especially
especially in the deep-water slope envienvironment must be present.
.Onlap
O n l a p of overlying strata either onto the margins of
incised valleys or coastal onlap must exist.
exist.
-*A
A downward shift in coastal
onlap (Vail
coastalonlap
(Vailet aI.,
al., 1977);
1977);
however, this commonly cannot be demonstrated
on well-log cross sections because much of the
coastal onlap occurs in the updip, fluvial
fluvial part of the
sequence where accurate well-log correlation is difdifficult,
ficult, and therefore, the criterion of a basinward
shift in facies
facies must be used.
-To
*To confirm that erosional truncation and a basinward shift in facies
facies marks a sequence boundary and
not a local-distributary channel, one or more of
these criteria must be demonstrated over a regionarea.
ally significant area.
The unconformable part of a type-1
type-1 sequence
boundary can be traced seaward into a conformable
surface on the shelf or slope, commonly occurring at or
near the base of a marine parasequence. Based on the
criteria listed above, applied to the stratigraphic
type-1
analysis of many basins around the world, type-1
sequence boundaries appear to predominate in siliciclastic strata.
Not all of the recognition criteria presented above
occur everywhere along a particular type-1 sequence
type-1 sequence boundary has
boundary in a basin. A type-1
different physical expressions depending on where it
is observed and on the variations along a basin margin
of sediment supply and sea-level change.
in rates of
of the shelf
shelf break or in
On the slope, seaward of
pronounced
deeper-water environments, the most pronounced
of a type-1 sequence boundary are truncaattributes of
of these recognition
tion and onlap. The distribution of
of submarine
criteria is controlled by the distribution of
canyons, slope failure, contour-current erosion set up
by lowstand conditions, and the deposition of
of the
basin-floor and slope fans.
31
31
32
Sequence
Sequence boundary characteristics
characteristics
initially flooded.
flooded. This condition
condition may explain
explain why
were initially
the incised valleys
valleys in the central
central and eastern part of the
map have more interfluves
interfluves at their southern or downdip ends. Incised-valley
Incised-valley sheet sandstones, commonly
commonly
bifurcating to the south,
south, are a typical reservoir pattern
Tertiary strata along the Texas
Texas and Louisiana Gulf
in Tertiary
Coast.
Coast.
incised-valleyfill in the western part of the map
The incised-valley
relatively narrow sandstone 11to 5 mi (1.6
(1.6 to 8 km)
km)
is a relatively
(64km)
km) long,
long, and up to 270 ft (82
(82 m)
m)
wide, at least 40 mi (64
dimensions are comcomthick. Except for thickness, these dimensions
dimensions of the Muddy Sandstone
parable to the dimensions
incised valleys in the Powder River basin, Wyoming
(Figure 21).
21). These relatively narrow incised valleys
valleys
(Figure
probably formed
formed when a single
single small- to moderatemoderatesized river entrenched during a sea-level
sea-level fall.
fall.
Not all type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence boundaries marked by erosional truncation associated with incised valleys
facies. The third example
example
exhibit a basinward shift in facies.
of a type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence boundary (Figure
(Figure 24)
24) illustrates
illustrates
truncation along one side of an interpreted incised valley at the 80-Ma
80-Ma sequence
sequence boundary (Haq
(Haq et aI.,
al., 1988)
1988)
on the top of the Gammon Ferruginous
Ferruginous Member of the
Pierre Shale in the Powder River basin, eastern Wyoming. The incised valley is filled with siltstones,
ming.
marine mudstones, and bentonites. In the cross section (Figure
(Figure 24),
24), 300 ft (92
(92 m)
m) of strata within the GamGammon are truncated where the sequence
sequence boundary at
the base of the incised valley cuts down to the southeast. Above the sequence
sequence boundary the Ardmore beneast.
tonite, interbedded marine mudstones, and the
Shale (another
Sharon Springs Member of the Pierre Shale
marine mudstone), onlap to the northwest. The ArdSprings
more bentonite and lower half of the Sharon Springs
obfusus ammonite
ammonite biozone (Gill
Baculites obtusus
are within the Baculifes
and Cobban, 1966).
1966). Shallow-marine
Shallow-marine to fluvial
fluvial sandrecording a basinward shift in facies
facies have not
stones recording
directly above the sequence
sequence boundary.
boundary.
been observed directly
This pattern of truncation below the sequence
sequence boundabove has been
ary and onlap of marine mudstones above
observed regionally within the Powder River basin.
80-Ma sequence
sequence
The regional truncation below the 80-Ma
boundary, interpreted to have been formed by
regional paleovalleys,
25. In conconpaleovalleys, is shown on Figure 25.
trast to Figure 24, Figure 25 shows both sides of the
major incised valley. This map illustrates
illustrates the subcrop
thickness
thickness in the Powder River basin from
from the 80-Ma
80-Ma
sequence boundary to an underlying resistivity
sequence boundary at the
marker coincident with a sequence
base of the Sussex sandstone.
sandstone. Small,
Small, open circles indiindicate the distribution
distribution of well logs used to make the
axes in Figure 25, indiindimap. North-south
North-south erosional axes
cated by heavy lines, are interpreted to be incisedincisedaxes cut during the 80-Ma
80-Ma sea-level
sea-level fall
fall (Haq
(Haq et
valley axes
al., 1988).
1988).These axes suggest a dendritic
dendritic drainage
drainage pataI.,
tern; this regional pattern is unlikely to be produced
margin. A rapid
by submarine erosion on this ramp margin.
NW
SE
CARDINAL PET. CO.
FEDERAL 7 -11
SEC, 11- T43N-R66W
WESTON CO .. WYOMING
C. E. WEIR
NO.1 SIMMONS
SEC.13- T43N-R66W
WESTON CO .. WYOMING
RIMROCK DRILLING CO
VOSS-GOV'T NO 1
TAYLOR OIL CO.
SEC.8~T42N-A65W
FISHER NO. 1
Sec.17- T42N-R65W
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'"
~
1::-+-+- '-'y,---+---------+--+--+-
9-
J;:-
-=S
>:~5;j----lti:;;:'-~=~::--j------t----=>
J'
~~
~P:~=t=======~=t:
'i
--
"
---
ONE MILE
TEN FEET
Figure 21-An incised valley in the Powder River basin. Albian-aged Muddy Sandstone within the incised valley erodes
into the Skull Creek Shale. The sequence boundary at the base of the Muddy Sandstone is marked by regional-subaerial
erosion or exposure, a downward shift in facies, and onlap.
_ -"-J1
o
o
o..
b ....
1~
~
<;.
.~
11:.
';~":'===1
FtuVIAl OR ESTUARINE
INCISED VAlln FILL
SANDSTONES
NONMARINE MUDSTONES
SHAllOW-MARINE SANDSTONES
SHElFAl MUDSTONES
SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
AND TRUNCATION
SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
AND ONlAP
,
I g
--
,,
o
o
" , ,
"-
,----"o
"0"0"
"
o "\
,,
"
ST. JAMES
o
o
,,-_/
I,
,
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o
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o \
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o
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o
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0
"
"- -
_Q.. _
0
00 0
100
INCISED
VALLEY
EDGE
--_
o
0
- --
"
(,
CROSS SECTION,
FIGURE 22
~
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TERREBONNE
o
38
. -''
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,,'"
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,,
I
o
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;"'--30
(
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'-,
-_.~
00
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\
\
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o '
,4'
o
o
00
ST JOHN
THE BAPTIST ,dl
00
6
C,1. = 50 FEET
SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
Figure 2~Paleogeographic map of the middle Miocene-aged sequence 2 from Figure 22 showing the distribution of the lowstand incisedvalley fill below the trangressive surface in south-eentral Louisiana. Contours show the incised-valleyfill thickness; the major incised-valley axes are highlighted with heavy lines. The
incisedvalley fill is sheet-like in the eastern area of the map. This pattern is common in Tertiary incised valleys in the Gulf Coast and probably forms when several
river systems coalesce during sea-level lowstand. The incisedvalley fill is ribbon-like in the western area of the map, probably reflecting incision of a single fluvial
system during sea-level lowstand. This pattern is developed in basins with small or widely spaced fluvial systems. The location of the cross section in Figure 22 is
indicated on the map.
FS
FS/SB
SB
33
33
o0
I
I
"0
o
o
o
00
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2 0 FEET
C.I
A'
100
1008 0 MA SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
>w
~
50
REGIONAL RESISTIVITY
0
-- 50
50-
2CSubcmp map showing the thickness of the erosional remnant between the 80-Ma sequence
sequence boundary and an
Figure 25-Subcrop
underlying regionally correlative
correlative resistivity marker. The resistivity marker is interpreted to have been nearly horizontal
Cross-section A-A'
A-A ' represents the relief of the erosional remnant. The surface
surface represented by
at the time of deposition. Cross-section
this map is interpreted to have been incised during the 80-Ma sea-level lowstand.
lowetand. Axes of interpreted incised valleys
valleys are
coincide with the low areas on the A-A'
A-A ' cross
cross section.
section. Following incision, a rapid relative rise in
shown on the map and coincide
sea level drowned the valleys, which were subsequently filled with onlapping bentonites and prograding, downlapping
marine mudstones.
34
Sequence
Sequence boundary characteristics
characteristics
of a basin with rivers carrying little or no bed load and
moderate to rapid rate of relative sea-level
sea-levelrise will be
a moderate
marked by truncation and widespread soil or root
horizons or equivalent evidence
evidence of subaerial
subaerialexposure,
exposure,
if preserved, but not by a basinward shift in facies.
facies. The
sequence boundary would not be recognized in an
sequence
individual
individual well log and probably not recognized in
cores. However,
However, correlation demonstrating truncation
cores.
resistivity markers on well-log
well-logcross
cross sections or seisseisof resistivity
mic lines would readily reveal the incised valley and
sequence
sequence boundary.
boundary.
Finally,
Finally, a type-1
type-1 sequence
sequence boundary in a basin or a
portion of a basin with no rivers will be marked only by
if this evievisubaerial exposure,
exposure, if
widespread evidence of subaerial
sea-level rise.
rise.
dence is not removed by the subsequent sea-level
transgressivelag of calcareous
calcareous nodules lying on
A thin transgressive
the flooded sequence
sequence boundary is commonly the only
indication that a soil horizon existed on the sequence
sequence
boundary before the sea-level
sea-level rise.
rise. This lag is disdis"Parasequence
cussed in more detail in the section "Parasequence
Characteristics" and more briefly discussed
discussed
Boundary Characteristics"
at the end of this section.
section. Significant
Significant erosion and a
basinward shift in facies
facies will not be associated with the
sequence
sequence boundary in this case.
case. The sequence
sequence boundary will probably not be recognized in a well log in the
absence of core, and might be only recognized in the
well if it were correlated from
from another area where it
expressed.
was more clearly expressed.
type-1
In Figure 26, different expressions of the type-1
sequence
sequence boundary on the shelf or ramp are labelled
SB1
SB1 where they are beneath sandstone-filled
sandstone-filled incised
valleys; SB2
SB2 where they are beneath shale-filled
incised valleys; and SB3
SB3 to show where the sequence
sequence
boundary is conformable
conformable on the shelf or ramp seaward
of the lowstand shoreline.
shoreline. Marine-flooding
Marine-flooding surfaces
surfaces
marking parasequence
parasequence boundaries are labelled FS,
and subaerially exposed interfluves marking the
sequence boundary away from
from the incised valleys
coincident with the flooding surface are labelled
FSISB. Depositional environments,
environments, stratal terminaterminaFS/SB.
tions, and other diagnostic criteria associated with
type-1 sequence
sequence boundaries in siliciclastic
siliciclastic strata on a
type-1
26.
shelf or ramp are summarized in the table in Figure 26.
In addition to the criteria listed in the table in Figure
26, sequence
sequence boundaries can be marked by various
types of lag deposits.
deposits. These lags include:
include:
(1)
(1) transgressive
transgressive lags of calcarous
calcarous nodules deposdepossurfaces that are coincoinited on marine-flooding surfaces
cident with sequence
sequence boundaries (FS/SB)
(FSISB)or on
sequence boundaries within incised valleys.
valleys.
sequence
The calcareous
calcareous nodules are derived by shoreshoreface erosion from
from soil horizons
horizons formed during
face
the subaerial
subaerial exposure
exposure of the sequence
sequence boundary.
ary.
(2)
(2) organic or inorganic carbonates
carbonates deposited on
marine-flooding surfaces
surfaces that are coincident
with sequence
sequence boundaries.
35
36
boundary characteristics
Sequence boundary
of incised valleys or are partially to totally pre- salt is not subdued, the paleovalleys have little or no
front of
"stranded" on the shelf
shelf at the edges of, or truncation at their bases. When little or no truncation
served and "stranded"
(3) the
the""stranded"
stranded" exists, the sequence boundary is still marked by a
adjacent to, the incised valleys, and (3)
of the paleovalley
parasequences are overridden by the subaerial- basinward shift in facies at the base of
properly be described
fill, but the paleovalley cannot properly
of the sequence boundary.
exposure surface of
"stranded" lowstand parasequences repre- as incised.
incised.
These "stranded"
sent early lowstand systems tract deposition on the
shelf or ramp. In basins with a shelf break, these para- Correlation Pitfalls
To interpret type-1 sequence boundaries correctly in
sequences could predate submarine-fan deposition
shelf edge. well logs, cores, or outcrops, it is critical to distinguish
before the sea-level fall reaches the shelf
of the sea- between incised valleys and local channels, such as
Although they form during the early part of
fall, they are overlain by a regionally extensive distributary channels, in constructing an accurate
level fall,
unconformity marked by subaerial exposure and trun- chronostratigraphic framework. In the examples preSB1, SB2,
SB2, SB3, and sented in Figures 21 through 25,
25, we interpreted the
cation labelled on Figure 26 as SB1,
FS/SB. Although it does not record the time of
of the ini- vertical association of
of facies
facies on the cross sections as
FSISB.
tial sea-level fall over its entire extent, this unconform- incised valleys and not distributary channels or other
(1) it separates all local channels because the valleys are too wide to be
ity is the sequence boundary because (1)
(2) although distributary channels, the strata at the edges of the
of the rocks below from the rocks above; (2)
all points on the surface do not represent the same incised valleys are distal-marine sandstones and shelf
duration of time, one instant of time is common to all mudstones, not delta-front or stream-mouth bar
points when the sea-level fall ends and the uncon- deposits, and valley fills occur along certain surfaces,
formed; (3)
(3) it is readily identified i.e., sequence boundaries, that are widespread in the
formity is completely formed;
(4) it is the surface that controls basin and not confined to one deltaic lobe. Criteria for
over most of its extent; (4)
the distribution of overlying strata in the lowstand sys- the differentiation of incised valleys from distributary
leg and on a well-log cross
(5) it forms relatively channels in a single well
welllcg
tems tract on the shelf; and (5)
section or in an outcrop are explained more fully in the
quickly, probably in less than 10,000
10,000 years.
following paragraphs.
The"
stranded" lowstand parasequences below the following
The "stranded"
difficult in a
Incised-valley interpretation is more difficult
sequence boundary commonly have the following
stratal characteristics:
distribusingle well log than on a cross section because distribucharacteristics:
deltaic
(1)
(1) they typically are deltaic or beach parase- tary channels, eroding deeply into underlying deltaic
quences, but commonly consist of sharp- deposits, can juxtapose
juxtapose relatively coarse-grained
mimickstrata directly on prodelta mudstones thereby mimick. based, lower-shoreface sandstones;
facies. However, where a dis(2)
(2)' they have no significant updip coastal-plain ing a basinward shift in facies.
equivalents,
equivalents, and there is no sediment accomaccom- tributary channel of a given delta lobe cuts into but not
modation updip because of the sea-level
through the prodelta mudstones of the same lobe, the
sea-level fall;
fall;
(3)
fill cannot be
(3) they rest, commonly abruptly, on open- thickness of the distributary-channel fill
marine strata, although their bases cannot be much greater than the paleowater depth of the eroded
interpreted as a basinward shift in facies;
mudstones. For example, if prodelta mudstones were
facies;
fill of the distrib100ft (30
(30m) of water, the fill
deposited
in 100
(4)
they
rest
on
a
conformable
surface,
and
each
(4)
100ft
parasequence gradually shoals upward;
utary channel eroding into them must be nearly 100
(5)
m) thick. This
This is not necessarily the case with
(30 m)
( 5 ) they are overlain by the unconformable part of (30
the sequence boundary marked either by incised valleys. Because incised valleys erode in
minor truncation or subaerial exposure; and
fall in sea level,
level, the paleowater
response to a relative fall
sequence
(6)
(6) they generally are thin because of reduced depth of the eroded mudstones beneath the sequence
thickaccommodation on the shelf;
shelf; their thicknesses boundary is commonly much greater than the thickfill. For example, shelf mudstones
typically do not exceed tens of feet;
feet; and they ness of the valley fill.
(92 m)
m) of water can be truncated by
also
also may vary in thickness due to a varying deposited in 300 ft (92
amount of truncation below the overlying an incised valley only 30
30 ftft (9
(9 m)
m) thick or less. As
as this relationship is, it is
is not always possisequence
important as
sequence boundary.
boundary.
accurately the paleowater depth of
Paleovalley
Paleovalley distribution on the shelf is
is often concon- ble to determine accurately
log. Cores,
Cores, cuttings,
cuttings, or an
trolled by tectonic
tectonic features
features such as
as basement-involved the strata imaged on a well log.
faults,
available, may provide enough data to
faults, thrusts, and growth faults.
faults. Structural
Structural lows outcrop, if available,
caused by salt withdrawal also
depth.
also control valley
valley distribu- interpret the paleowater depth.
tion.
Another important distinction between distributary
tion. In many cases,
cases, the paleovalleys
paleovalleys deposited in low
valleys that may be recognized in
areas
areas controlled by tectonics
tectonics or salt are
are incised and can channels and incised valleys
core or outcrop is
is that the sequence
sequence boundary at the
properly be called incised valleys.
valleys. In other cases,
cases, espeespe- a core
cially
shows evidence of
cially when the topography created by the tectonics
tectonics or base of an incised valley commonly shows
Sequences
Sequences in outcrop and subsurface
a hiatus between the times of erosion and deposition.
Root zones, soils,
soils, or burrowed horizons can form on
the valley floor during sea-level lowstand but before
the valley is flooded and filled
filled with sediment (Weimer,
(Weimer,
1983).
1983). A distributary channel is always full
full of fresh
water,
water, or if
if discharge is low, salt water. It is unlikely
that evidence of significant subaerial exposure will
floor.
occur on a distributary-channel floor.
On a well-log cross section or in a relatively continuous outcrop, differentiation between incised valleys
and distributary channels depends on an analysis of
channel width and lateral-facies
lateral-facies relationships. Distributary channels are relatively narrow. The distributary
channels of the modern Mississippi River range from
(153 to 1673
1673 m) wide.
wide. Incised valleys are
500 to 5500 ft (153
(Figures 2l
21,22,
23)
22, and 23)
commonly several miles wide (Figures
to many tens of miles wide (Figure 23).
23). These widths
can be identified on cross sections or in outcrops, and
regionally. Furtherif possible, should be mapped regionally.
more, widespread incised-valley erosion occurs along
a single stratigraphic surface. Deltaic distributary
channels usually stack to form multiple horizons.
facies encasing the channel
It is critical to analyze the facies
in order to distinguish between distributary channels
and incised valleys. Distributary channels are encased
(Figure
in delta-plain or stream-mouth bar deposits (Figure
27). Even when the distributary channel of a given
27).
lobe erodes through the prodelta of that lobe into an
underlying parasequence, most of the distributarydistributaryfill is laterally encased in stream-mouth bar
channel fill
deposits. Distributary channels can only step seaward
if they have a subaqueous,
subaqueous, shallow-water delta platmigrate. By their nature,
form across which they can migrate.
distributary channels cannot be encased regionally in
deeper-water deposits. For much of their length,
incised valleys commonly are encased in middle- to
incise during a
outer-neritic mudstones because they incise
fall in sea level.
relative fall
37
38
BALIZE BAYOU
(ABANDONED)
DISTRIBUTARY CHANNELS
- -'-
SOUTHEAST
PASS
A'
---- - - - - - ?
'r---- -
----- --
--
-'::>
c,_
-'- -------- -- -- --
_- --
---
0
100
0W
200
'"z
~
300
400
ONE MILE
o
o
I
f-
"
TENNECO
RATTLESNAKE STATE 2-12
GRAND CO . UTAH
SEC.2-T19S-R19E
"0
GR
S'LA
UPPER
PART
.(
OF SEGO
ESTUARINE
00:
w
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MEMBER
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ESTUARINE
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az
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az
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TRANSGRESSIVE
SYSTEMS TRACT
LOWSTAND
SYSTEMS TRACT
HIGHSTAND
LOWER SHOREFACE
SHELf
3200
SYSTEMS
TRACT
D1STAllDWEA
0>
LOWSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
~~
=>0
=>0
g~
a:
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"'i
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TRANS. S. T,
<n
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SYSTEMS TRACT
w
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z<n
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awo
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TRACT
aw
<n
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ESTUARINE
o<ow
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ESTUARINE
3400
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awo
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TRANS. S. T.
LOWSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
~ LOWER SHOREFACE
0:
:I;
I-
:;
0<
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0:
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;:
'"
S L O W E R SHOAEFACE
0>
3500
I-
sc:..
0:
w
w
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DISTAL LOWER
SHOREfAce
015TAt LOWER
SHELF
=>
0<
:r
'"0<
U
0>
--->0:
",w
",0>
0<:1;
0:1;
o:w
SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
3600
SHOREFAce
z
w
u
zw
'"
HIGHSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
<n
DISTAL LOWER
SHOREFACE
AND SHELF
f-------TRANSGRESSiVe
SYSTEMS
TRACTm
3700
PARASEQUENCE-SET BOUNDARY
PARASEQUENCE BOUNDARY
Figure 28-Well-logexpression of sequence stratigr~phy in the Tenneco Ra"lesn~ke St~te 2-U, Book Oiffs,
UI~h_
o1
- ...
150 6.0
~::
~~~
<...-
MSFL
(OHMS)
,'-
2000.0
~::]=l==~:..
-.-
COASTAL S lXl
+-'P~LA"""N'____!~V>'--+.'""..,"",..j
0
LOWSTAND
ESTUARINE w"'" SYSTEMS
(,I)
TRACT
.
RANS. 5'.. ~
: =====I=::='SHEL
ESTUARINE 7
10 LOWSTAND
200
fa
==I==I===>:=====t==
300
400
ffi
>
!""""
::-_-+_-+__-1 ~-----tl ~ fa
i
.
(,I)
t-
ESTUARINE
(,I)
SL-7S~~~
L. SF.
L. F.
LOWER
i::-+--l__}-i=
HIGHSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
+S~H:!!O!!!R~EF':!A~C~e
!o!
IE
ESTUARINE d
LOWSTAND
TIDAL
~ '" SYSTEMS
-i_riBili:ARS
TRACT
L
SH
ot TRANS. S. T.
SHELF
i"'t-"OO+-__ 1-,.....--+=:.,--1
"
--I SHOREFACE
LOWeR
DISTAL
'--...... -~<'.....,r-+--
r~;-
.--
TRANS.
SYSTEMS
TRACT
AND
SHELF
~
~~:::!:l==]~~===l~F;L~u~v~'~A~LJ
Iiii'il~~~
r
~ ~ ~ "'i:
c( :E
cow
AND
SYSTEMS
LOWSTAND
re;;;S,.TUARI"N;;;e+_~~T.::RA?C:_T_:_l
~~I:~:S~:N~'
"--I
S.
SHOREFACE
LOWER
SHOREFACE
.,
~~~~~
SHELF
~
~
8V>
)
,
SEQUENCE
BOUNDARY
1000
PARASQUENCE SET
BOUNDARY
HIGHSTAND
SYSTEMS
TRACT
DISTAL
LOWER
SHOREFACE
AND
SHELF
PARASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY
Figure 29-Well.log ell:pression of sequence stntigrilphy in the Exxon Production ReseaKh Co. Sego
unyon no. 2, Book Cliffs, Utah.
40
sandstones and
coarse-grained, braided-stream sandstones
conglomerates.
conglomerates.
Tide-dominated deltas
deltas were deposited within the
Tide-dominated
partially flooded incised valley of sequence
sequence 4 during
the early stages of a sea-level
sea-level rise, presumably because
linear, relatively narrow embayment focused
focused tidal
the linear,
gradually filled
filled with tidetidecurrents. The incised valley gradually
dominated deposits,
deposits, while there was no deposition on
the subaerially exposed shelf adjacent to the incised
valley at this time. As sea level continued to rise, most
flooded. This flooding
flooding finally
finally terminated
of the shelf flooded.
valley, and created
tidal deposition within the incised valley,
conditions for deposition of sheet-like, wavedominated deposits over the entire shelf.
shelf. The sharp
from the
contact separating the estuarine sandstones from
lower-shoreface sandstones records this
overlying lower-shoreface
flooding. The progradation direction of the wavewaveflooding.
dominated shoreline
shoreline deposits of the transgressive
transgressive syssystems tract appears to be oriented nearly parallel to the
valleys.
longitudinal axes of the incised valleys.
As the previous examples (Figures
(Figures 28 through 30)
30)
show, the lithostratigraphic
lithostratigraphic subdivision
subdivision of these Creshow,
taceous rocks does not always correspond to the
chronostratigraphic or sequence
sequence subdivision
subdivision (Figures
(Figures
chronostratigraphic
28 and 29).
29). For example, the sequence boundary
within the Desert Member separates the lower part of
the Desert, interpreted as a highstand systems tract for
sequence
sequence I,
1, from
from the upper part of the Desert, interinterpreted as a lowstand systems tract for sequence
sequence 2, with
large, intervening stratigraphic
stratigraphic gap. The
a potentially large,
sequence
sequence boundaries record the fundamental breaks
in deposition;
slate is
deposition; at each sequence
sequence boundary the "slate
wiped clean" and a new depositional
depositional record begins.
begins.
Lithostratigraphic subdivisions
subdivisions commonly miss these
fundamental boundaries, making it difficult to conconstruct accurately
accurately a chronostratigraphic
chronostratigraphic and regionalregionalfacies
facies framework.
framework. Once the sequence-stratigraphie
sequence-stratigraphic
subdivision is made, the lithostratigraphic
lithostratigraphic terminolsubdivision
confusing that it needs to be modified
ogy is often so confusing
substantially or abandoned.
substantially
example of sequences
sequences is a well-log cross
The second example
section through middle Miocene strata of onshore
Louisiana. The cross
cross section
section is illustrated in Figure 33.
33.
Louisiana.
sequences are typical of much of the Tertiary
These sequences
rocks in the Gulf Coast basin. Five sequences
sequences can be
recognized on this cross section (Figure
(Figure 33).
33). Each
sequence boundary is marked by erosional
erosional truncation
sequence
facies. The sequence
sequence boundaand a basinward shift in facies.
ries have been mapped by means of these criteria,
criteria,
using nine other regional cross
cross sections constructed
illusfrom 700 well logs in addition to the cross section illushere; the sequences
sequences can be recognized over an
trated here;
2
mi2 (14,500
(14,500 km
km2)
central and
) in central
area of at least 5600 me
southern Louisiana.
Louisiana. The systems tracts, parasequence
sets, and facies
facies within the five
five sequences
sequences are similar;
sequence 11 typifies
typifies the distribution of these stratal
sequence
components.
11
R105W
R105W
R19E
R20E
R21E
R22E
R25E
R24E
R23E
R26E'
WEST
WILD COW
BITTER
WASH
CREEK
CANYON
T
16
S
7
S
8
5
T
17
R17E
158
19
5
20
5
TENNECO
RATTLESNAKE 2 - 12
GRAND CO . UTAH
SEC.2-T19S-R19E
.~-+-----
19
5
COTTONWOOD
CANYON
20
S
21
5
AREA COVERED
COVERED
AREA
BY LOCATION
LOCATION
BY
MAP
6
US 50
R20E
R21E
R22E
LOCATION-MAP SCALE
o0
.,,,p.'.
.
CASTLEGATE, DESERT,
DESERT,
CASTLEGATE,
AND SEGO
SEGO OUTCROPS
OUTCROPS
AND
u
5
!
eU~
MILES
MILES
Figure 32-Map
32-Map showing
showing the
the location
location of the
the Desert,
Desert, Castlegate,
Castlegate, and
and Sego
Sego outcrops
outcrops in
in eastern
eastern Utah,
Utah, the
the Tenneco
Tenneco Rattlesnake
Rattlesnake State
State 2-12
2-12 (Figure
(Figure28),
28), the
the EPR Co.
Co. Sego
Sego
Figure
Canyon
canyon no.
no. 22 (Figure
(Figure29),
29), and
and the
the sequence
sequence cross
cross section
sectionillustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 31.
31.
rn
42
(Figure33)
33)
The lowstand systems tract of sequence 11(Figure
consists of sandstones up to 250 ft (76
(76 m)
m) thick, characwell-log patterized by a blocky to upward-fining SP well-log
tern.
tern. The sequence boundary at the base of the
sandstones is a regional-erosional
regional-erosional surface
surface with locallocal(61 m).
m). The deposierosional relief as great as 200 ft (61
tional environment of the sandstone is interpreted to
have been fluvial
fluvial or estuarine, filling
filling a broad, incisedincisedcomplex, based on log response and widely
valley complex,
spaced core control. Maps constructed using the addiaddiregional cross sections
sections in the area show
tional nine regional
75 mi
that the incised-valley complex is approximately 75
(120 km)
km) wide. The depositional environment of the
(120
mudstones and thin sandstones below the sequence
boundary is interpreted to have been middle to outer
shelf, based on biostratigraphy and well-log
responses. No intermediate water-depth deposits
incised-valley-fill sandoccur between the lowstand, incised-valley-fill
stones and the underlying shelf mudstones of the presimilar-aged
vious sequence. Incised valleys of similar-aged
sequences from Louisiana
Louisiana are illustrated in Figures 22
and 23.
(FigThe transgressive systems tract of sequence 11(Figure 33) is composed of thin backstepping paraseset. A
quences in a retrogradational parasequence set.
syscondensed section has not been identified in this systract. Only mudstones and very thin sandstones
tems tract.
tract. The
are preserved in the highstand systems tract.
coarser-grained part of the highstand systems tract
apparently was truncated by the next sequence
boundary. Erosion of the highstand systems tract by
overlying sequence boundary is common in many
the overlying
Tertiary sequences in the Gulf Coast basin. This pattern of systems tract distribution in sequence 11 is
secrepeated in the other four sequences on the cross section.
The mudstone in the transgressive and highstand
systems tracts is within the Cibicides opima shale. Based
on the fauna in this shale, the lower sequence bound15.5 Ma (L.c.
(L.C. Menconi,
ary on Figure 33 is dated as 15.5
personal communication,
communication, 1989)
1989) and appears on the
global-cycle chart of Haq et a1.
al. (1988).
(1988). The
Exxon global-cycle
youngest sequence in Figure 33 is within the Bigenerina
humblei biozone and corresponds to the Hollywood
informal regional mapping unit within
sandstone, an informal
this biozone, suggesting an age date of 14.7 Ma for
sequence boundary 5 (L.
C. Menconi, personal com(L.C.
1989). Based on these age dates, each of
munication, 1989).
the five
five sequences in Figure 33
33 is interpreted to have
been deposited during sea-level cycles lasting 100,000
to 200,000 years. These frequencies may be even
higher if one assumes a significant hiatus on the thirdslopebasin-floor and slopeorder boundary representing basin-floor
fan deposition. A model for the development of these
high-frequency sequences and their implications
implications for
the interpretation of eustasy as a driving mechanism
for
for sequence development are the topics of the next
section.
section.
46
-6
,
>.
z
RATE OF EUSTATIC RISE IS AT A MINIMUM AND IN THE LATE HIGHSTAND, FALLS SLOWLY
RATES OF DEPOSITION GREATER THAN THE RATES OF SEA-LEVEL RISE, PARASEQUENCES BUILD BASINWARD IN
RATE OF
EUSTATIC RISE
AT A MINIMUMPARASEQUENCE
AND IN THE LATE
FALLSSYSTEMS
SLOWLYTRACT
AGGRADATIONAL
TO IS
PROGRADATIONAL
SETS HIGHSTAND,
OF THE HIGHSTAND
RATES PARASEQUENCES
OF DEPOSITION DOWNLAP
GREATERONTO
THANTHE
THE
RATES OFSECTION
SEA-LEVEL RISE, PARASEQUENCES BUILD BASINWARD IN
CONDENSED
AGGRADATIONAL TO PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SETS OF THE HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
PARASEQUENCES DOWNLAP ONTO THE CONDENSED
SECTION
PHOTOGRAPH
CONDENSED SECTION (PHOSPHATIC OOLITES) AND PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET, HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS
TRACT; CASTLEGATE, BUCK TONGUE, AND SEGO PHOTOGRAPH
MEMBERS, PRICE RIVER FORMATION, BOOK CLIFFS, DOUGLAS
CREEK ARCH, COLORADO
CONDENSED SECTION IPHOSPHATIC OOLITES) AND PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET, HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS
Figure CASTLEGATE,
37-Sequence evolution:
4. SlowAND
relative
rise,MEMBERS,
stillstand, and
slow
relative
fall of sea level.
TRACT;
BUCK TONGUE,
SEGO
PRICE
RIVER
FORMATION,
BOOK CLIFFS, DOUGLAS
CREEK ARCH, COLORADO
Figure 37-Sequence evolution: 4. Slow relative rise, stillstand, and slow relative fall of sea level.
48
50
into, and are encased in, outer- to mid-shelf mudstones and thin, distal-marine sandstones.
sandstones. Delta-front
stream-mouth sandstones are absent, both lateral
and stream-mouth
to and beneath, the blocky sandstones of the incised
valleys-according
valleys-according to interpretation of well-log
well-log shapes
and regional correlations.
correlations. Furthermore, the fluvial
fluvial or
estuarine sandstones within the incised valleys do not
facies into shoreline deposits along deposideposichange facies
tional strike.
strike. In comparison, distributary channels of
rivers like the modern Mississippi may erode into or
through prodelta deposits, but are laterally encased in
stream-mouth bar and delta-front sandstones.
sandstones. These
lateral-facies relationships exist because a distributary
lateral-facies
channel builds seaward over the subaqueous-delta
platform, even if
if deltaic progradation is extremely
rapid. Sixteen deltas associated with the Mississippi
rapid.
River have been deposited in the last 7000 years and
(Frazier, 1974).
1974).
record extremely rapid progradation (Frazier,
However, the preserved deltas and delta lobes show
distributary-channel deposits encased in stream(Fisk 1961,
1961, Gould,
mouth bar and delta-front deposits (Fisk
1970).
The
notable
lack
of
subaqueous,
sandy
deltaic
1970).
subaqueous,
deposits beneath the sequence boundary or adjacent
to the incised valley-fill sandstones in Figures 22 and
33 argues strongly against rapid-deltaic progradation
associated with large rates of sediment supply as a
formation.
mechanism for sequence-boundary formation.
If tectonic uplift and distributary-channel erosion
associated with deltaic progradation are ruled out as
viable mechanisms for the formation of sequence
boundaries, then eustasy is the most likely mechanism
to explain the stratal geometries observed in Figures 22
33. Pleistocene eustatic falls
falls produced surfaces
and 33.
1974;
and facies
facies associations (Fisk,
(Fisk, 1944;
1944; Frazier,
Frazier, 1967,
1967,1974;
Suter and Berryhill,
Berryhill, 1985;
1985; Suter et a1.,
al., 1987;
1987; Boyd et
1988)identical to those seen in the Miocene of the
al., 1988)
(Figure 33).
33). Carbon-isotope curves provide
Gulf Coast (Figure
evidence for Miocene eustatic changes (Renard, 1986).
1986).
The role that tectonism plays in forming or enhancing sequence boundaries is widely debated by stratig(1983) stated that
raphers. Pitman and Golovchenko (1983)
changes in sea level rapid enough to match the Exxon
1987,1988)
cycle chart (Haq et al., 1987,
1988) can be formed only
by glacially induced sea-level
sea-level fluctuations.
fluctuations. Yet others
Watts, 1984)
1984) have pointed out that
(e.g., Thorne and Watts,
geologic column apparently lack evilarge parts of the geologic
activity, Therefore, the formation of
dence of glacial activity.
sequence boundaries has been attributed alternatively
by many scientists to tectonism (Sloss,
(Sloss, 1979,
1979, 1988;
1988;
Bally, 1980,
1982; Watts, 1982;
1980,1982;
1982; Thorne and Watts,
Watts, 1984;
1984;
1984; Parkinson and Summerhayes,
Summerhayes, 1985;
1985; Miall,
Mid,
Hallam, 1984;
1986; Ooetingh,
Cloetingh, 1988;
1988; Hubbard, 1988;
1988; and others).
others).
1986;
However, the type of tectonic events that would produce rapid, short-term fluctuations in sea level
remains unclear, especially those tectonic events that
would produce type-1
type-1 unconformities. Cloetingh
(1988) has advanced the idea of rapid alternations in
(1988)
Exploration
Exploration application
applicationand
and play
play types
types
51
51
sedimentary
sedimentary strata.
strata. Fundamental
Fundamental to
to sequence
sequence stratigstratigraphy
raphy isis the
the recognition
recognition that
that sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are
composed
composed of
of aa hierarchy
hierarchy of
of stratal
stratal units,
units, from
from the
the
smallest
smallest megascopic
megascopic unit,
unit, the
the lamina,
lamina, to
to the
the largest
largest
unit
unit considered
considered in
in this
this book,
book, the
the sequence.
sequence. With
With the
the
exception
exceptionof
of the
the lamina,
lamina, each
each of
of these
these units
units isis aagenetigenetically
cally related
related succession
successionof
of strata
strata bounded
bounded by
by chronoschronostratigraphically
tratigraphically significant
significant surfaces.
surfaces. Correlation
Correlation of
of
these
these bounding
bounding surfaces
surfaces provides
provides aa high-resolution
high-resolution
chronostratigraphic
chronostratigraphic framework
frameworkfor
forfacies
facies analysis
analysis and
and
prediction
prediction of
of rock
rock types
types at
at aaregional
regionalto
to reservoir
reservoirscale.
scale.
Sequences
Sequences are
are the
the fundamental
fundamental stratal
stratal units
units of
of
sequence
sequence stratigraphic
stratigraphicanalysis.
analysis.A
Asequence
sequenceboundary
is
is aa chronostratigraphically
chronostratigraphicallysignificant
significantsurface;
surface;itit sepaseparates
rates all
all of
of the
the rocks
rocks above
above the
the boundary
boundary from
from all
all of
of the
the
rocks
rocksbelow.
below. In
In most
most cases,
cases, the
the rocks
rocks above
abovethe
the boundboundary
ary have
have no
no physical
physical or
or temporal
temporal relationship
relationship to
to the
the
rocks
rocks below.
below. Although sequence
sequence boundaries do
do not
not
EXPLORATION APPLICATION
APPLICATION
EXPLORATION
form
form instantaneously,
instantaneously, they probably
probably form
form in
in from
from aa
TYPES
AND PLAY
PLAY TYPES
AND
few
few thousand to
to about
about ten thousand years,
years, and
and so
so
form
very
rapidly
in
geologic
terms.
For
these
reasons,
form
very
rapidly
in
geologic
terms.
For
these
reasons,
The stratigraphic
stratigraphic concepts
concepts we
we document
document in
in this
this
The
recognition of sequence boundaries is
is critical
critical for
for accuaccuhave broad application
application to
to exploration
exploration and
and propro- recognition of sequence
book have
rate
facies
interpretations
and
correlations.
rate
facies
interpretations
and
correlations.
chronoduction. The
The concepts
concepts provide
provide techniques for
for chronoduction.
A sequence
sequence boundary is
is aa better surface
surface for
for the
the
stratigraphic correlation
correlation of
of well
well logs
logs that
that result
result in
in (1)
(1)
stratigraphic
is
aa transregional
correlation
of
time
and
facies
than
regional
correlation
of
time
and
facies
than
is
transmore accurate
accuratesurfaces
surfacesfor
for mapping
mapping and
and facies
faciescorrelacorrelamore
gressive surface.
surface. This
This is
is true
true primarily
primarily because
because the
the
(2)higher-resolution
higher-resolution chronostratigraphy
chronostratigraphy for
for gressive
tion, and
and (2)
tion,
timing
of
the
formation
of
aa sequence
boundary is
not
timing
of
the
formation
of
sequence
is
not
improved definition
definition of
of plays,
plays, especially
especially stratigraphic
stratigraphic
improved
affected
affected by variations
variations in
in sediment
sediment supply;
supply; conversely,
conversely,
traps.
traps.
the
timing
of
the
formation
of
aa transgressive
surface,
the
timing
of
the
formation
of
transgressive
surface,
The concepts
concepts also
also provide
provide techniques
techniques for
for lithostratilithostratiThe
at
the
top
of
aa regressive
unit,
is
controlled
strongly
by
at
the
top
of
regressive
unit,
is
controlled
strongly
graphic correlation
correlation of
of well
well logs,
logs, thereby
thereby yielding
yielding (1)
(1)aa
graphic
sediment
supply.
Temporal
and
spatial
changes
in
the
sediment
supply.
Temporal
and
spatial
changes
in
the
more effective
effectivemethod for
for evaluating
evaluating sandstone
sandstone conticontimore
rate and distribution of sediment
sediment entering
entering a basin are
are
directions in reservoirs,
reservoirs, superior
superior to
to rate
nuity and trend directions
common.
Furthermore, the sequence
boundary is
common.
sequence
is
conventional correlation
correlation methods using sandstone or
conventional
accompanied
usually by regional
erosion
and onlap
accompanied
regional
erosion
onlap
shale tops, (2)
(2) improved methods
methods for
for predicting
shale
control facies
facies distribution.
distribution. The
The transgressive
transgressive sursurreservoir, source,
source, and sealing
sealing facies
facies away
away that control
potential reservoir,
face
is
marked by slight
erosion
and no
onlap.
face
is
slight
erosion
no
onlap.
from the well, and (3)
(3) an
an alternative
alternative to
to exploration
exploration
from
Sequences
Sequences are
are composed
composed of parasequences and syssysconcepts such
such as
as offshore-bar
offshore-bar reservoirs-resulting
reservoirs-resulting in
concepts
tems
tracts.
Parasequence
boundaries are
most useful
tems
tracts.
Parasequence
are
useful
more accurate
accurate trend prediction.
prediction.
more
for local correlation of time
time and facies
facies within the
Finally, these
these concepts
concepts provide tools
tools for
for looking
looking at
at for local
Finally,
chronostratigraphic framework
framework of individual
individual
mature basins in fresh
fresh ways
ways that result in (1)
(1)definition
definition
mature
sequences.
Parasequences
stack
to
form
aggradaaggradasequences.
stack
to
form
types, opening up
up heavily
heavily drilled
drilled basins
of new play types,
tionat
progradational,
and
retrogradational
parasetional,
progradational,
parasefor new exploration,
exploration, (2)
(2)improved ability
ability to
to define
define and
for
quenee
sets.
Parasequence
sets
generally coincide
quence
sets.
Parasequence
sets
coincide
locate subtle,
subtle, but potentially
potentially profitable,
profitable, stratigraphic
stratigraphic
locate
systems tracts
tracts within the sequence
sequence in
traps, (3)
(3) re-evaluation
re-evaluation of producing fields
fields to
to extend with the systems
traps,
to
nonmarine facies.
They
are
shallow-marine
shallow-marine
to
facies.
They
are less
less evievilives and increase
increase reserves,
reserves, and (4)
(4) a more
more inteintetheir lives
dent in deeper-water facies
of the basin-floor
and
facies
basin-floor
stratigraphic framework
framework for
for risking
risking new plays.
plays.
grated stratigraphic
slope fans. Systems tracts provide aa high degree
degree of
of
Figure 40
40 summarizes
summarizes potential stratigraphicstratigraphic- and slope fans. Systems tracts
Figure
facies
predictability
away
from
the well
bore
or outfacies
predictability
away
from
well
bore
outstructurallstratigraphic-play types
types assoassocombination structural/stratigraphic-play
combination
crop within the sequence.
sequence. This
This predictability
predictability is
is espeespeciated with the sequences
sequences and parasequences on
on two
two crop
ciated
cially
important for
analyzing
reservoir,
source,
and
cially
for
analyzing
reservoir,
source,
different basin margins:
margins: a margin with a shelf break,
break,
different
seal
facies
within a basin or a field.
seal
facies
field.
referred to in Figure 40 as
as a shelf-edge-type
shelf-edge-type margin,
margin,
Three
Three systems
systems tracts are
are recognized in the ideal
ideal
and a ramp-type margin.
margin.
type-1
type-1 sequence:
sequence: lowstand, transgressive, and highhighstand systems
systems tracts.
tracts. The
The lowstand systems tract is
is
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
composed of a basin-floor
basin-floor fan,
fan, a slope
slope fan,
fan, and a lowlowwedge. On the shelf the most conspicuous
conspicuous comcompowerful meth- stand wedge.
Sequence stratigraphy provides a powerful
is the incised
incised valley.
valley. A
odology for
for analyzing time and rock relationships in ponent of the lowstand wedge is
presence of
of these
these sequences
sequencesstrongly
stronglysuggests
suggests that
that the
the
presence
higher-frequency eustatic
eustatic overprint
overprint isis superposed
superposed on
on
higher-frequency
the lower-frequency
lower-frequency or
or non-cyclic
non-cyclic tectonic
tectonic and
and
the
sediment-supply controls.
controls. Hubbard's
Hubbard's (1988)
(1988)article
article isis
sediment-supply
excellent for
for its
its description
description of
of sequence-stratigraphic,
sequence-stratigraphic,
excellent
basin-analysis procedures,
procedures, and
and for
for its
its use
use of
of tectonitectonibasin-analysis
cally enhanced
enhanced sequences
sequences to
to describe
describe and
and date
date basin
basin
cally
development. However,
However, we
we feel
feel that
that there
there isis aa much
much
development.
stronger interrelationship
interrelationship than
than he
he recognized
recognized
stronger
between eustasy
eustasy and
and tectonism
tectonism in
in controlling
controlling sedisedibetween
ment type
type and
and distribution
distribution within
within the
the basin.
basin.
ment
Although tectonism is
is the
the dominant
dominant control
control in
in
Although
determining the
the shape
shape of
of the
the basin,
basin, the
the rate
rate of
of sedisedidetermining
supply, and
and possibly
possibly even
even the
the longer-term,
longer-term,
ment supply,
second-order arrangement
arrangement of
of sequences,
sequences, we
we believe
believe
second-order
eustasy controls
controls the
the timing
timing and
and distribution
distribution of
of
that eustasy
higher-frequency thirdthird- and
and fourth-order
fourth-order sequences.
sequences.
higher-frequency
RAMP-TYPE MARGIN
FOUND IN: CRATONIC BASINS ON CONTINENTAL CRUST
SHELF-EDGE TYPE MARGIN
--
7
9
3
SEQUENCE
BOUNDARIES
2
SEOUENCE
BOUNDARIES
2
4
NO.
PLAY TYPE
INCISED VALLEY
SHELF ONLAP
BASINALLY RESTRICTED
ONLAP
SUBMARINE FAN
RESERVOIR-FACIES TYPE
POTENTIAL SEAL
EXAMPLES
BEACH OR DELTAIC
SANDSTONES
COASTAL-PLAIN
MUDSTONES
FALL RIVER
SANDSTONE, POWDER
RIVER BASIN
BRAIDED-STREAM OR
ESTUARINE SANDSTONES
SHELF
MUDSTONES
YEGUA. MIOCENE;
GULF OF MEXICO;
MUDDY, POWDER RIVER
BASIN
SHELF
MUDSTONES
DELTAIC SANDSTONES
SLOPE/BASIN
MUDSTONES
SUBMARINE-FAN. TURBIDITE
SANDSTONES
SLOPE/BASIN
MUDSTONES
WOODBINE,
TUSCALOOSA;
GULF OF MEXICO
PLEISTOCENE,
GULF OF MEXICO
SLOPE/BAIN
MUDSTONES
YEGUA.
GULF OF MEXICO
DELTAIC, BEACH, OR
SUBTIDAL SANDSTONES
INEED STRUCTURAL TILTI
SHELF
MUDSTONES
PARKMAN SANDSTONE,
SHANNON SANDSTONE.
POWDER RIVER BASIN
TRUNCATION
BEACH OR DELTAlC
SANDSTONES
SHELF
MUDSTONES
WILCOX, GULF OF
MEXICO; SUSSEX.
POWDER RIVER BASIN
FAULT CLOSURE
1.2. OR 3 ABOVE
SHELF
MUDSTONES
PLIOCENE, PLEISTOCENE;
GULF OF MEXICO
SUBMARINEFAN
SANDSTONES
SHALLOW-MARINE
SANDSTONES
SHELF MUDSTONES
FLUVIAl/ESTUARINE INCISED
VALLEY SANDSTONES
COASTALPLAIN SANDSTONES
AND MUDSTONES
ORGANIC RICH SHALES, CARBONATES,
GLAUCONITES, VOLCANIC ASHES
52
Acknowledgments
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Exxon Production Research Company for permission to publish this book. Paul
Weimer, Tom Moslow,
Loomis, and Keith ShanMoslow, Karen Loomis,
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