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TheScienceofFingerprints

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UNITEDSTATESDEPARTMENTOFJUSTICE
FEDERALBUREAUOFINVESTIGATION
JohnEdgarHoover,Director

INTRODUCTION
ThisbookletconcerningthestudyoffingerprintshasbeenpreparedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation
fortheuseofinterestedlawenforcementofficersandagencies,particularlythosewhichmaybe
contemplatingtheinaugurationoffingerprintidentificationfiles.Itisbasedonmanyyears'experiencein
fingerprintidentificationworkoutofwhichhasdevelopedthelargestcollectionofclassifiedfingerprintsin
theworld.Inasmuchasthispublicationmayserveasageneralreferenceonclassificationandother
phasesoffingerprintidentificationwork,thesystemsutilizedintheIdentificationDivisionoftheFederal
BureauofInvestigationaresetforthfully.Theproblemofpatterninterpretation,inparticular,is
discussedindetail.
Criminalidentificationbymeansoffingerprintsisoneofthemostpotentfactorsinobtainingthe
apprehensionoffugitiveswhomightotherwiseescapearrestandcontinuetheircriminalactivities
indefinitely.Thistypeofidentificationalsomakespossibleanaccuratedeterminationofthenumberof

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previousarrestsandconvictionswhich,ofcourse,resultsintheimpositionofmoreequitablesentencesby
thejudiciary,inasmuchastheindividualwhorepeatedlyviolatesthelawfindsitimpossibletopose
successfullyasafirst,orminor,offender.Inaddition,thissystemofidentificationenablestheprosecutor
topresenthiscaseinthelightoftheoffender'spreviousrecord.Italsoprovidestheprobationofficers,
paroleboard,andtheGovernorwithdefiniteinformationuponwhichtobasetheirjudgmentindealing
withcriminalsintheirjurisdictions.
Fromearliesttimesfingerprinting,becauseofitspeculiaradaptabilitytothefield,hasbeenassociatedin
thelaymindwithcriminalidentificationtothedetrimentoftheotherusefulphasesofthescience.
However,theCivilFileoftheIdentificationDivisionoftheFederalBureauofInvestigationcontainsthree
timesasmanyfingerprintsastheCriminalFile.Thesecivilfingerprintsareaninvaluableaidinidentifying
amnesiavictims,missingpersonsandunknowndeceased.Inthelattercategorythevictimsofmajor
disastersmaybequicklyandpositivelyidentifiediftheirfingerprintsareonfile,thusprovidinga
humanitarianbenefitnotusuallyassociatedwithfingerprintrecords.
TheregularcontributorswhovoluntarilysubmitfingerprintstotheFederalBureauofInvestigationplaya
mostimportantroleinthe[Pgiv]dramaofidentification.Theiractionexpandsthesizeofthefingerprint
files,therebyincreasingthevalueofthefilestoalllawenforcementagencies.Mutualcooperationand
efficiencyareresultantbyproducts.
Theuseoffingerprintsforidentificationpurposesisbasedupondistinctiveridgeoutlineswhichappearon
thebulbsontheinsideoftheendjointsofthefingersandthumbs.Theseridgeshavedefinitecontours
andappearinseveralgeneralpatterntypes,eachwithgeneralandspecificvariationsofthepattern,
dependentontheshapeandrelationshipoftheridges.Theoutlinesoftheridgesappearmostclearly
wheninkedimpressionsaretakenuponpaper,sothattheridgesareblackagainstawhitebackground.
Thisresultisachievedbytheinkadheringtothefrictionridges.Impressionsmaybemadewithblood,
dirt,greaseoranyotherforeignmatterpresentontheridges,orthesalinesubstanceemittedbythe
glandsthroughtheductsorporeswhichconstitutetheiroutlets.Thebackgroundormediummaybe
paper,glass,porcelain,wood,cloth,wax,putty,silverware,oranysmooth,nonporousmaterial.
Ofallthemethodsofidentification,fingerprintingalonehasprovedtobebothinfallibleandfeasible.Its
superiorityovertheoldermethods,suchasbranding,tattooing,distinctiveclothing,photography,and
bodymeasurements(Bertillonsystem),hasbeendemonstratedtimeaftertime.Whilemanycasesof
mistakenidentificationhaveoccurredthroughtheuseoftheseoldersystems,todatethefingerprintsof
notwoindividualshavebeenfoundtobeidentical.
Thebackgroundandhistoryofthescienceoffingerprintsconstituteaneloquentdramaofhumanlives,of
goodandofevil.Nothing,Ithink,hasplayedapartmoreexcitingthanthatenactedbythefascinating
loops,whorls,andarchesetchedonthefingersofahumanbeing.

FeaturedProducts

J.EDGARHOOVER,
Director.
[Pgv]

CONTENTS
Chapter
Introduction
I.TheIdentificationDivisionoftheFBI
II.TypesofPatternsandTheirInterpretation

Page
iii
1
5

III.QuestionablePatterns

71

IV.TheClassificationFormulaandExtensions

87

V.ClassificationofScarredPatternsAmputationMissingatBirth

98

VI.FilingSequence

103

VII.SearchingandReferencing

109

VIII.HowToTakeInkedFingerprints

114

IX.ProblemsintheTakingofInkedFingerprints

118

X.ProblemsandPracticesinFingerprintingtheDead

131

XI.EstablishmentofaLocalFingerprintIdentificationBureau

160

XII.LatentImpressions

173

XIII.PowderingandLiftingLatentImpressions

175

XIV.ChemicalDevelopmentofLatentImpressions

177

XV.TheUseoftheFingerprintCamera

184

XVI.PreparationofFingerprintChartsforCourtTestimony

190

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XVII.UnidentifiedLatentFingerprintFile

194

CHAPTERI
TheIdentificationDivisionoftheFBI
LatentFingerprintKit
$29.95

TheFBIIdentificationDivisionwasestablishedin1924whentherecordsoftheNationalBureauof
CriminalInvestigationandtheLeavenworthPenitentiaryBureauwereconsolidatedinWashington,D.C.
Theoriginalcollectionofonly810,000fingerprintcardshasexpandedintomanymillions.The
establishmentoftheFBIIdentificationDivisionresultedfromthefactthatpoliceofficialsoftheNation
sawtheneedforacentralizedpoolingofallfingerprintcardsandallarrestrecords.
TheFederalBureauofInvestigationoffersidentificationservicefreeofchargeforofficialusetoalllaw
enforcementagenciesinthiscountryandtoforeignlawenforcementagencieswhichcooperateinthe
InternationalExchangeofIdentificationData.Throughthiscentralizationofrecordsitisnowpossiblefor
anofficertohaveavailableapositivesourceofinformationrelativetothepastactivitiesofanindividual
inhiscustody.ItistheBureau'spresentpolicytogivepreferredattentiontoallarrestfingerprintcards
sinceitisrealizedthatspeedisessentialinthisservice.
InorderthattheFBIIdentificationDivisioncanprovidemaximumservicetoalllawenforcement
agencies,itisessentialthatstandardfingerprintcardsandotherformsfurnishedbytheFBIbeutilized.
Fingerprintsmustbeclearanddistinctandcompletenameanddescriptivedatarequiredontheform
shouldbefurnishedinallinstances.Fingerprintsshouldbesubmittedpromptlysincedelaymightresultin
releaseofafugitivepriortonotificationtothelawenforcementagencyseekinghisapprehension.
WhenitisknowntoalawenforcementagencythatasubjectunderarrestisanemployeeoftheU.S.
GovernmentoramemberoftheArmedForces,anotationshouldbeplacedinthespacefor"occupation"
onthefrontofthefingerprintcard.Datasuchaslocationofagencyormilitarypostofassignmentmaybe
addedbesidethespacereservedforthephotographonthereversesideofthecard.
Manyinstanceshavebeenobservedwhereanindividualisfingerprintedbymorethanonelaw
enforcementagencyforthesamearrest.Thisduplicatesubmissionoffingerprintscanbeeliminatedby
placinganotationonthefirstsetoffingerprintssenttotheFBIrequestingcopiesoftherecordforother
interestedlawenforcementagencies,therebyeliminatingsubmissionoffingerprintsbythelatter
agencies.
IfaphotographisavailableatthetimefingerprintsaresubmittedtotheFBIIdentificationDivision,it
shouldbeidentifiedonthereversesidewiththeindividual'scompletename,nameofthedepartment
submitting,thedepartment'snumber,anditshouldbesecurelypastedinthespaceprovidedonthe
fingerprintcard.Ifaphotographistobesubmittedatalaterdate,itshouldbehelduntiltheidentification
recordor"norecord"replyfromtheFBIisreceivedinorderthatFBInumberorfingerprintclassification
canbeaddedtothereversesideofthephotographforassistanceoftheIdentificationDivisioninrelating
ittotheproperrecord.
TheFBInumber,ifknown,andanyrequestforspecialhandling,suchascollectwireortelephonereply,
shouldbeindicatedonthefingerprintcardintheappropriatespace.Suchnotationseliminatetheneedfor
anaccompanyingletterofinstructions.
Asindicated,theFBI'sserviceisgivenwithoutcosttoregularlyconstitutedlawenforcementagenciesand
officers.Suppliesoffingerprintcardsandselfaddressed,frankedenvelopeswillbeforwardeduponthe
requestofanylawenforcementofficer.Thefollowingtypesofcardsandformsareavailable:Criminal
(FormFD249),usedforbotharrestandinstitutionrecordsApplicant(FormFD258)Personal
Identification(FormFD353)DeathSheet(FormR88)DispositionSheet(FormR84)WantedNotice
(Form112)RecordofAdditionalArrest(Form11).Anorderformforidentificationsuppliesappears
eachmonthwiththeinserttotheFBILawEnforcementBulletin.
Inadditiontoitscriminalidentificationactivities,theBureau'sIdentificationDivisionmaintainsseveral
auxiliaryservices.Nottheleastoftheseisthesystemwherebyfugitivesareidentifiedthroughthe
comparisonoffingerprintswhicharereceivedcurrently.Whenalawenforcementofficerdesiresthe
apprehensionofafugitiveandthefingerprintsofthatindividualareavailable,itisnecessaryonlythathe
informtheBureauofthisfactsoawantednoticemaybeplacedinthefugitive'srecord.Thisinsures
immediatenotificationwhenthefugitive'sfingerprintsarenextreceived.
ThefugitiveserviceisamplifiedbytheBureau'sactionintransmittingamonthlybulletintoalllaw
enforcementagencieswhichforwardfingerprintsforitsfiles.Inthisbulletinarelistedthenames,
descriptions,andfingerprintclassificationsofpersonswantedforoffensesofamoreseriouscharacter.
Thisinformationfacilitatespromptidentificationsofindividualsarrestedforanyoffenseorotherwise
locatedbythosereceivingthebulletin.
MissingpersonsnoticesarepostedintheIdentificationfilessothatanyincomingrecordonthemissing
personwillbenoted.Noticesarepostedbothbyfingerprintcardandbyname,orbynamealoneif
fingerprintsarenotavailable.Thefullname,date,andplaceofbirth,completedescriptionand
photographofamissingpersonshouldbeforwarded,alongwithfingerprints,ifavailable.Uponreceiptof
pertinentinformation,thecontributingagencyisadvisedimmediately.Asectiononmissingpersonsis
carriedasaninsertintheLawEnforcementBulletin.
TheFBIIdentificationDivisionhasarrangedwiththeidentificationbureausofmanyforeigncountriesto

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exchangecriminalidentifyingdataincasesofmutualinterest.Fingerprintsandarrestrecordsofpersons
arrestedinthiscountryareroutedtotheappropriateforeignbureausincaseswhentheinterestedagency
intheUnitedStateshasreasontobelieveanindividualincustodymayhavearecordinorbewantedby
theothernation.Similarly,fingerprintsarereferredtotheFederalBureauofInvestigationbyforeign
bureauswhenitseemsarecordmaybedisclosedbyasearchoftheBureau'srecords.Numerous
identifications,includinganumberoffugitives,havebeeneffectedinthismanner,anditisbelievedthat
thecompletedevelopmentofthisprojectwillprovidemoreeffectivelawenforcementthroughoutthe
world.Whenthefactsindicateanindividualmayhavearecordinanothercountry,andthecontributor
submitsanextrasetofhisfingerprints,theyaretransmittedbythisBureautotheproperauthorities.
Inveryrarecasespersonswithouthandsarearrested.Afileonfootprintsismaintainedinthe
IdentificationDivisiononsuchindividuals.
Inviewofthefactthatmanyindividualsintheunderworldareknownonlybytheirnicknames,the
IdentificationDivisionhasforyearsmaintainedacardindexfilecontaininginalphabeticalorderthe
nicknamesappearingonfingerprintcards.Whenrequestingasearchofthenicknamefile,itisdesired
thatallpossibledescriptivedatabefurnished.
TheLatentFingerprintSectionhandleslatentprintwork.Articlesofevidencesubmittedbylaw
enforcementagenciesareprocessedforthedevelopmentoflatentimpressionsintheLatentFingerprint
Section.Inaddition,photographs,negatives,andliftsoflatentsarescrutinizedforprintsofvaluefor
identificationpurposes.PhotographsoftheprintsofvaluearealwayspreparedfortheFBI'sfilesandare
availableforcomparisonsforanindefiniteperiod.Shouldthelawenforcementagencydesireadditional
comparisonsitneedsonlyadvisetheFBIIdentificationDivision,attentionLatentFingerprintSection,and
eithernameorsubmittheprintsofthenewsuspect.Itisnotnecessarytoresubmittheevidence.When
necessary,afingerprintexpertwilltestifyinlocalcourtastohisfindings.Shouldadepartmenthaveany
specialproblemsinvolvingthedevelopmentorpreservationoffingerprintsatacrimescene,theexperts
areavailableforsuggestions.InconnectionwiththeLatentFingerprintSectionthereismaintaineda
generalappearancefileofmanyconfidencegameoperators.Searchesinthisfilewillbemadeupon
request.Infurnishingdataonasuspect,theagencyshouldmakesurethatcompletedescriptivedatais
sentin.Photographsandothermaterialonindividualswhomaybeidenticalwiththosebeingsoughtwill
befurnishedtotheinteresteddepartments.
DuringtheyearsmanypersonshavevoluntarilysubmittedtheirfingerprintstotheIdentificationDivision
forpossibleuseinthecaseofanemergency.Thesecardsarenotfiledwiththecriminalfingerprintsbut
aremaintainedseparately.Suchprintsshouldbetakenonthestandard[Pg4]fingerprintformentitled
"PersonalIdentification"(FormFD353).NoanswerisgiventoPersonalIdentificationfingerprintcards.
ThefingerprintrecordsoftheFBIIdentificationDivisionareusedliberallynotonlybypoliceagenciesto
obtainpreviousfingerprinthistoriesandtoascertainwhetherpersonsarrestedarewantedelsewhere,but
byprosecutorstowhomtheinformationfromtheBureau'sfilesmayprovetobevaluableinconnection
withtheprosecutionofacase.Theserecordsarelikewiseoffrequentvaluetothejudgeforhis
considerationinconnectionwiththeimpositionofsentence.Obviously,theendsofjusticemaybeserved
mostequitablywhenthepastfingerprintrecordofthepersonontrialcanbemadeknowntothecourt,or
informationmaybefurnishedtotheeffectthatthedefendantisofhithertounblemishedreputation.
ItshouldbeemphasizedthatFBIidentificationrecordsarefortheOFFICIALuseoflawenforcementand
governmentalagenciesandmisuseofsuchrecordsbydisseminatingthemtounauthorizedpersonsmay
resultincancellationofFBIidentificationservices.

CHAPTERII
TypesofPatternsandTheirInterpretation

Typesofpatterns
Fingerprintsmayberesolvedintothreelargegeneralgroupsofpatterns,eachgroupbearingthesame
generalcharacteristicsorfamilyresemblance.Thepatternsmaybefurtherdividedintosubgroupsby
meansofthesmallerdifferencesexistingbetweenthepatternsinthesamegeneralgroup.Thesedivisions
areasfollows:
I.ARCH

II.LOOP

a.Plainarch.

a.Radialloop. a.Plainwhorl.

III.WHORL

b.Tentedarch. b.Ulnarloop.

b.Centralpocketloop.

c.Doubleloop.

d.Accidentalwhorl.

Illustrations1to10areexamplesofthevarioustypesoffingerprintpatterns.

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[Figs.110]

Interpretation
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Beforepatterndefinitioncanbeunderstood,itisnecessarytounderstandthemeaningofafewtechnical
termsusedinfingerprintwork.
Thepatternareaistheonlypartofthefingerimpressionwithwhichweareconcernedinregardto
interpretationandclassification.Itispresentinallpatterns,ofcourse,butinmanyarchesandtented
archesitisimpossibletodefine.Thisisnotimportant,however,astheonlypatternsinwhichweneedto
definethepatternareaforclassificationpurposesareloopsandwhorls.Inthesetwopatterntypesthe
patternareamaybedefinedasfollows:
Thepatternareaisthatpartofalooporwhorlinwhichappearthecores,deltas,andridgeswithwhich
weareconcernedinclassifying.
Thepatternareasofloopsandwhorlsareenclosedbytypelines.
Typelinesmaybedefinedasthetwoinnermostridgeswhichstartparallel,diverge,andsurroundortend
tosurroundthepatternarea.
Figure11isatypicalloop.LinesAandB,whichhavebeenemphasizedinthissketch,arethetypelines,
startingparallel,divergingatthelineCandsurroundingthepatternarea,whichisemphasizedinfigure
12byeliminatingalltheridgeswithinthepatternarea.

[Figs.1112]

Figures72through101shouldbestudiedforthelocationoftypelines./p>
Typelinesarenotalwaystwocontinuousridges.Infact,theyaremoreoftenfoundtobebroken.When
thereisadefinitebreakinatypeline,theridgeimmediatelyoutsideofitisconsideredasits
continuation,asshownbytheemphasizedridgesinfigure13.

[Fig.13]

Sometimestypelinesmaybeveryshort.Caremustbeexercisedintheirlocation.Noticetherighttype
lineinfigure14.

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[Fig.14]

Whenlocatingtypelinesitisnecessarytokeepinmindthedistinctionbetweenadivergenceanda
bifurcation(fig.15).

[Fig.15]

Abifurcationistheforkingordividingofonelineintotwoormorebranches.
Adivergenceisthespreadingapartoftwolineswhichhavebeenrunningparallelornearlyparallel.
Accordingtothenarrowmeaningofthewordsinfingerprintparlance,asingleridgemaybifurcate,butit
maynotbesaidtodiverge.Therefore,withoneexception,thetwoforksofabifurcationmaynever
constitutetypelines.Theexceptioniswhentheforksrunparallelafterbifurcatingandthendiverge.In
suchacasethetwoforksbecomethetwoinnermostridgesrequiredbythedefinition.Inillustration16,
theridgesmarked"AA"aretypelineseventhoughtheyproceedfromabifurcation.Infigure17,
however,theridgesAAarenotthetypelinesbecausetheforksofthebifurcationdonotrunparallel
witheachother.Instead,theridgesmarked"T"arethetypelines.

[Fig.16]

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[Fig.17]

Anglesareneverformedbyasingleridgebutbytheabuttingofoneridgeagainstanother.Therefore,an
angularformationcannotbeusedasatypeline.Infigure18,ridgesAandBjoinatanangle.RidgeB
doesnotrunparallelwithridgeDridgeAdoesnotdiverge.RidgesCandD,therefore,arethetypelines.

[Fig.18]

FocalpointsWithinthepatternareasofloopsandwhorlsareenclosedthefocalpointswhichareusedto
classifythem.Thesepointsarecalleddeltaandcore.
Thedeltaisthatpointonaridgeatorinfrontofandnearestthecenterofthedivergenceofthetype
lines.
Itmaybe:
Abifurcation
Anabruptendingridge
Adot
Ashortridge
Ameetingoftworidges
Apointonthefirstrecurvingridgelocatednearesttothecenterandinfrontofthedivergenceofthe
typelines.
Theconceptofthedeltamayperhapsbeclarifiedbyfurtherexposition.Websterfurnishesthefollowing
definition:"(1)DeltaisthenameofthefourthletteroftheGreekalphabet(equivalenttotheEnglishD)
fromthePhoeniciannameforthecorrespondingletter.TheGreekscalledthealluvialdepositatthemouth
oftheNile,fromitsshape,theDeltaoftheNile.(2)Atractoflandshapedliketheletter"delta,"
especiallywhenthelandisalluvial,andenclosedwithintwoormoremouthsofariver,astheDeltaof
theGanges,oftheNile,oftheMississippi"(fig.19).

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[Fig.19]

Whentheuseoftheword"delta"inphysicalgeographyisfullygrasped,itsfitnessasappliedin
fingerprintworkwillbecomeevident.Riverswearawaytheirbanksandcarrythemalongintheirwaters
intheformofafinesediment.Astheriversunitewithseasorlakes,theonwardsweepofthewateris
lessened,andthesediment,becomingcomparativelystill,sinkstothebottomwherethereisformeda
shoalwhichgraduallygrows,asmoreandmoreisprecipitated,untilatlengthaportionoftheshoal
becomeshigherthantheordinarylevelofthestream.Thereisasimilaritybetweentheuseoftheword
"delta"inphysicalgeographyandinfingerprints.Theislandformedinfrontofthedivergingsidesofthe
bankswherethestreamemptiesatitsmouthcorrespondstothedeltainfingerprints,whichisthefirst
obstructionofanynatureatthepointofdivergenceofthetypelinesinfrontofornearestthecenterof
thedivergence.
Infigure20,thedotmarked"delta"isconsideredasthedeltabecauseitisthefirstridgeorpartofa
ridgenearestthepointofdivergenceofthetwotypelines.Ifthedotwerenotpresent,pointBonridgeC,
asshowninthefigure,wouldbeconsideredasthedelta.Thiswouldbeequallytruewhethertheridges
wereconnectedwithoneofthetypelines,bothtypelines,ordisconnectedaltogether.Infigure20,with
thedotasthedelta,thefirstridgecountisridgeC.Ifthedotwerenotpresent,pointBonridgeCwould
beconsideredasthedeltaandthefirstcountwouldberidgeD.ThelinesXXandYYarethetype
lines,notXAandYZ.

[Fig.20]

Infigures21to24,theheavylinesAAandBBaretypelineswiththedeltaatpointD.

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[Figs.2124]

Figure25showsridgeAbifurcatingfromthelowertypelineinsidethepatternarea.Bifurcationsarealso
presentwithinthispatternatpointsBandC.Thebifurcationatthepointmarked"delta"istheonlyone
whichfulfillsallconditionsnecessaryforitslocation.Itshouldbeunderstoodthatthedivergingtypelines
mustbepresentinalldeltaformationsandthatwhereveroneoftheformationsmentionedinthe
definitionofadeltamaybe,itmustbelocatedmidwaybetweentwodivergingtypelinesatorjustin
frontofwheretheydivergeinordertosatisfythedefinitionandqualifyasadelta.

[Fig.25]

Whenthereisachoicebetweentwoormorepossibledeltas,thefollowingrulesgovern:
Thedeltamaynotbelocatedatabifurcationwhichdoesnotopentowardthecore.
Infigure26,thebifurcationatEisclosertothecorethanthebifurcationatD.However,Eisnot
immediatelyinfrontofthedivergenceofthetypelinesanditdoesnotopentowardthecore.AAandB
Baretheonlypossibletypelinesinthissketchanditfollows,therefore,thatthebifurcationatDmust
becalledthedelta.ThefirstridgecountwouldberidgeC.

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[Fig.26]

Whenthereisachoicebetweenabifurcationandanothertypeofdelta,thebifurcationisselected.
Aproblemofthistypeisshowninfigure27.Thedot,A,andthebifurcationareequallyclosetothe
divergenceofthetypelines,butthebifurcationisselectedasthedelta.Theridgesmarked"T"arethe
typelines.

[Fig.27]

Whentherearetwoormorepossibledeltaswhichconformtothedefinition,theonenearestthecoreis
chosen.
Printsaresometimesfoundwhereinasingleridgeentersthepatternareawithtwoormorebifurcations
openingtowardthecore.Figure28isanexampleofthis.RidgeAentersthepatternareaandbifurcates
atpointsXandD.ThebifurcationatD,whichistheclosertothecore,is[Pg13]thedeltaandconformsto
therulefordeltas.AAandBBarethetypelines.Abifurcationwhichdoesnotconformtothe
definitionshouldnotbeconsideredasadeltairrespectiveofitsdistancefromthecore.

[Fig.28]

Thedeltamaynotbelocatedinthemiddleofaridgerunningbetweenthetypelinestowardthecore,
butatthenearerendonly.

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Thelocationofthedeltainthiscasedependsentirelyuponthepointoforiginoftheridgerunning
betweenthetypelinestowardthecore.Iftheridgeisentirelywithinthepatternarea,thedeltaislocated
attheendnearerthepointofdivergenceofthetypelines.Figure29isanexampleofthiskind.

[Fig.29]

Iftheridgeentersthepatternareafromapointbelowthedivergenceofthetypelines,however,the
deltamustbelocatedattheendnearerthecore.RidgeAinfigure30isofthistype.

[Fig.30]

Infigure31,AAandBBarethetypelines,withthedotasthedelta.Thebifurcationscannotbe
consideredastheydonotopentowardthecore.

[Fig.31]

Infigure32,thedotcannotbethedeltabecauselineDcannotbeconsideredasatypeline.Itdoesnot
runparalleltotypelineAAatanypoint.ThesamereasonpreventslineEfrombeingatypeline.The
endofridgeEistheonlypossibledeltaasitisapointontheridgenearesttothecenterofdivergenceof
thetypelines.Theothertypelineis,ofcourse,BB.

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[Fig.32]

Thedeltaisthepointfromwhichtostartinridgecounting.Inthelooptypepatterntheridgesintervening
betweenthedeltaandthecorearecounted.Thecoreisthesecondofthetwofocalpoints.
Thecore,asthenameimplies,istheapproximatecenterofthefingerimpression.Itwillbenecessaryto
concernourselveswiththecoreofthelooptypeonly.Thefollowingrulesgoverntheselectionofthecore
ofaloop:
Thecoreisplaceduponorwithintheinnermostsufficientrecurve.
Whentheinnermostsufficientrecurvecontainsnoendingridgeorrodrisingashighastheshouldersof
theloop,thecoreisplacedontheshoulderoftheloopfartherfromthedelta.
Whentheinnermostsufficientrecurvecontainsanunevennumberofrodsrisingashighasthe
shoulders,thecoreisplacedupontheendofthecenterrodwhetherittouchestheloopingridgeornot.
Whentheinnermostsufficientrecurvecontainsanevennumberofrodsrisingashighastheshoulders,
thecoreisplacedupontheendofthefartheroneofthetwocenterrods,thetwocenterrodsbeing
treatedasthoughtheywereconnectedbyarecurvingridge.
Theshouldersofalooparethepointsatwhichtherecurvingridgedefinitelyturnsinwardorcurves.
Figures33to38reflectthefocalpointsofaseriesofloops.Infigure39,therearetworods,buttherod
marked"A"doesnotriseashighastheshoulderlineX,sothecoreisatB.

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[Figs.3339]

Figures40to45illustratetherulethatarecurvemusthavenoappendageabuttinguponitataright
anglebetweentheshouldersandontheoutside.Ifsuchanappendageispresentbetweentheshouldersof
aloop,thatloopisconsideredspoiledandthenextloopoutsidewillbeconsideredtolocatethecore.In
eachofthefigures,thepointCindicatesthecore.Appendageswillbefurtherexplainedinthesection
concerningloops.

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[Figs.4045]

Figures46to48reflectinterlockingloopsatthecenter,whilefigure49hastwoloopssidebysideatthe
center.Inallthesecasesthetwoloopsareconsideredasone.Infigure46,whentheshoulderlineXX
isdrawnitisfoundtocrossexactlyatthepointofintersectionofthetwoloops.Thetwoloopsare
consideredone,withonerod,thecorebeingplacedatC.Infigure47,theshoulderlineXXisabovethe
pointofintersectionofthetwoloops.Thetwoareconsideredasone,withtworods,thecorebeingatC.
Infigure48,theshoulderlineXXisbelowthepointofintersectionoftheloops.Againthetwoare
treatedasone,withtworods,thecorebeingplacedatC.Infigure49,thetwoaretreatedasone,with
tworods,thecorebeingplacedatC.

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[Figs.4649]

Infigure50,thedeltaisformedbyabifurcationwhichisnotconnectedwitheitherofthetypelines.The
firstridgecountinthisinstanceisridgeC.Ifthebifurcationwerenotpresent,thedeltawouldbeapoint
onridgeCandthefirstridgecountwouldberidgeD.Infigure51,theridgewhichbifurcatesisconnected
withthelowertypeline.Thedeltainthiswouldbelocatedonthebifurcationasdesignatedandthefirst
ridgecountwouldberidgeC.Figure52reflectsthesametypeofdeltashowninthepreviousfigurein
thattheridgeisbifurcatingfromatypelineandthenbifurcatesagaintoformthedelta.

[Figs.5052]

Awhitespacemustintervenebetweenthedeltaandthefirstridgecount.Ifnosuchintervalexists,the
firstridgemustbedisregarded.Infigures53and54,thefirstridgebeyondthedeltaiscounted.Infigure
55,itisnotcountedbecausethereisnointervalbetweenitandthedelta.Noticethattheridgerunning
fromthedeltatowardthecoreisinastraightlinebetweenthem.Ifitwerenot,ofcourse,aninterval
wouldinterveneasinfigures53and54.

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[Figs.5355]

Theloop
Infingerprints,aswellasintheusualapplicationoftheword"loop,"therecannotbealoopunlessthere
isarecurveorturningbackonitselfofoneormoreoftheridges.Otherconditionshavetobeconsidered,
however.Apatternmustpossessseveralrequisitesbeforeitmaybeproperlyclassifiedasaloop.This
typeofpatternisthemostnumerousofallandconstitutesabout65percentofallprints.[Pg19]
Aloopisthattypeoffingerprintpatterninwhichoneormoreoftheridgesenteroneithersideofthe
impression,recurve,touchorpassanimaginarylinedrawnfromthedeltatothecore,andterminateor
tendtoterminateonortowardthesamesideoftheimpressionfromwhencesuchridgeorridges
entered.

Essentialsofaloop
Asufficientrecurve.
Adelta.
Aridgecountacrossaloopingridge.
Asufficientrecurvemaybedefinedasthatpartofarecurvingridgebetweentheshouldersofaloop.It
mustbefreeofanyappendagesabuttingupontheoutsideoftherecurveatarightangle.
AppendagesSomeexplanationisnecessaryoftheimportanceattachedtoappendages.Muchcaremust
beexercisedininterpretingappendagesbecausetheysometimeschangetheshapeoftherecurvingridge
towhichtheyareconnected.Forexample,aloopwithanappendageabuttinguponitsrecurvebetween
theshouldersandatrightangles,asinillustration56,willappearsometimesasinillustration57withthe
recurvetotallydestroyed.Forfurtherexamplesseefigures161to184.

[Figs.5657]

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Thesameistrueofawhorlrecurve,asinfigures58and59.

[Figs.5859]

Itisnecessary,therefore,toconsiderandclassifyfigures56and58asiftheyactuallyappearedasin
figures57and59.
Infigure60,thereisaridgemarked"A"whichentersononesideoftheimpressionand,afterrecurving,
passesanimaginarylinedrawnfromthecoreCtodeltaD,andterminatesonthesamesideofthe
impressionfromwhichitentered,marked"B",thusfulfillingalltheconditionsrequiredinthedefinitionof
aloop.XandYarethetypelines.Itwillbenotedinfigure61thatthereisaridgewhichentersonone
sideofthe[Pg20]impression,recurves,andpassesanimaginarylinedrawnfromthedeltatothecore.It
doesnotterminateonthesidefromwhichitenteredbuthasatendencytodoso.Inthiscase,allthe
requirementsoftheloophavebeenmet,andconsequentlyitisclassifiedassuch.

[Fig.60]

[Fig.61]

Figure62showsaridgeenteringononesideoftheimpression,recurving,andpassingbeyondan
imaginarylinedrawnfromthedeltatothecore,althoughoppositefromthepatternshowninfigure61.
Afterpassingtheimaginaryline,therecurvingridgedoesnotterminateonthesideoftheimpression

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fromwhichitentered,butithasatendencytodoso,andthepatternis,therefore,aloop.

[Fig.62]

Infigure63,aridgeentersononesideoftheimpressionandthenrecurves,containingtworodswithinit,
eachofwhichrisesashighastheshoulderoftheloop.Fromourstudyofcores,weknowthatthetopof
therodmoredistantfromthedeltaisthecore,buttherecurvingridgedoesnotpasstheimaginaryline.
Forthatreasonthepatternisnotclassifiedasaloop,butisgiventhepreferentialclassificationofa
tentedarchduetothelackofoneofthelooprequisites.Theproperlocationofthecoreanddeltaisof
extremeimportance,foranerrorinthelocationofeithermightcausethispatterntobeclassifiedasa
loop.[Pg21]

[Fig.63]

Figure64reflectsasimilarcondition.

[Fig.64]

Infigure65,thereisaloopingridgeAwhichentersononesideoftheimpression.TheridgesBandCare
thetypelines.Asdeterminedbyrulesalreadystated,thelocationofthecoreandthelocationofthe
delta[Pg22]areshown,andifanimaginarylinewereplacedonthecoreanddelta,therecurvingridgeA
wouldcrossit.Thisisanotherfigureshowingaridgewhichdoesnotterminateonthesideofthe
impressionfromwhichitenteredbuttendstodoso,and,therefore,isconsideredasaloop.

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[Fig.65]

Infigure66,wehaveaprintwhichissimilarinmanyrespectstotheonedescribedinthepreceding
paragraph,butheretherecurvingridgeAcontinuesandtendstoterminateontheoppositesideofthe
impressionfromwhichitentered.Forthisreasonthepatternisnotaloop,butatentedarch.The
recurvingridgemusttouchorpasstheimaginarylinebetweendeltaandcoreandatleasttendtopass
outtowardthesidefromwhichitentered,sothataridgecountofatleastonecanbeobtained.

[Fig.66]

Figure67showsaridgewhichentersononesideoftheimpressionand,afterflowingtowardthecenter,
turnsorloopsonitselfandterminatesonthesamesidefromwhenceitentered.Thispatternwouldbe
classifiedasaloop.Thispatternshouldbedistinguishedfromthepatternappearinginfigure139.Careful
studyofthepatterninfigure67revealsthatthecoreislocatedatCandthedeltaD.Theimaginaryline
betweenthesepointswillbecrossedbytheridgeformingaloop.Infigure139,thecoreislocatedonthe
recurveandanimaginarylinebetweenthedeltaandthecoredoesnotcrossaloopingridge.Figure139is
thusclassifiedasatentedarch,aswillbeseenlater.

[Fig.67]

Figure68showsatthecenteroftheprintaridgewhichformsapocket.ItwillbenoticedthatridgeA
doesnotbeginontheedgeoftheprint,butthisisofnosignificance.TheridgeAwithinthepatternarea
recurvesorloops,passingtheimaginarylinebetweenthedeltaandthecore,andtendstoterminate
towardthesamesideoftheimpressionfromwhenceitentered.Thisisalooppatternpossessingallof
therequirements.[Pg23]

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[Fig.68]

Infigures69and70,itwillbeobservedthatthereisaridgeenteringononesideofthepatternwhich
recurvesandthenturnsbackonitself.Thesepatternsaredifferentfromanyotherswhichhavebeen
showninthisrespectbutareclassifiedasloops.Ineachofthepatternsthecoreanddeltaaremarked
"C"and"D".Thereadershouldtracethetypelinesinordertoascertainwhythedeltaislocatedatpoint
D,andthenapplythedeltarule.

[Fig.69]

[Fig.70]

Figure71isanexampleofloopsastheyappearontherolledimpressionportionofafingerprintcard.[Pg
24]

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[Fig.71]
[Enlarge]

Ridgecounting
Thenumberofridgesinterveningbetweenthedeltaandthecoreisknownastheridgecount.The
technicalemployeesoftheFederalBureauofInvestigationcounteachridgewhichcrossesortouchesan
imaginarylinedrawnfromthedeltatothecore.Neitherdeltanorcoreiscounted.Aredlineuponthe
reticuleofthefingerprintglassisusedtoinsureabsoluteaccuracy.Intheeventthereisabifurcationofa
ridgeexactlyatthepointwheretheimaginarylinewouldbedrawn,tworidgesarecounted.Wherethe
linecrossesanisland,bothsidesarecounted.Fragmentsanddotsarecountedasridgesonlyifthey
appeartobeasthickandheavyastheotherridgesintheimmediatepattern.Variationsininkingand
pressuremust,ofcourse,beconsidered.
Figures72to97andfigures98to101showvariouslooppatterns.Thereadershouldexamineeachone
carefullyinordertostudythecoresanddeltasandtoverifythecountwhichhasbeenplacedbeloweach
pattern.[Pg25]

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[Pg26]

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[Pg27]

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[Pg28]

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[Pg29]

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[Figs.72101]

[Pg30]
Figure102isasketchreflectingthevarioustypesofridgeswhichtheclassifierwillencounterwhen
engagingincountinglooppatterns.

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[Fig.102]

Infigure103,thelighterlinesarecausedbythesplittingorfrayingoftheridges.Sometimesingrained
dirtwillcauseasimilarconditionbetweentheridges.Theselinesarenotconsideredridgesandshouldnot
becounted.

[Fig.103]

Infigure104,thedotisnotthedeltabecauseitisnotasthickandheavyastheotherridgesandmight
notbepresentifthefingerwerenotperfectlyinkedandprinted.

[Fig.104]

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Whenthecoreislocatedonaspikewhichtouchestheinsideoftheinnermostrecurvingridge,therecurve
isincludedintheridgecountonlywhenthedeltaislocatedbelowalinedrawnatrightanglestothe
spike.
Figures105and106areexamplesofthisrule.

[Figs.105106]

IfthedeltaislocatedinareasA,therecurvingridgeiscounted.
IfthedeltaislocatedinareasB,therecurvingridgeisnotcounted.
[Pg31]

Radialandulnarloops
Theterms"radial"and"ulnar"arederivedfromtheradiusandulnabonesoftheforearm.Loopswhich
flowinthedirectionoftheulnabone(towardthelittlefinger)arecalledulnarloopsandthosewhichflow
inthedirectionoftheradiusbonearecalledradialloops.
Fortestpurposes,fingersoftherighthandmaybeplacedonthecorrespondingprintoftherighthand
appearinginfigure71,anditwillbenoticedthatthesideofeachfingerwhichisnearertothethumbon
thehandisalsonearertothethumbonthefingerprintcard.Placethefingersofthelefthandonthe
correspondingprintsofthelefthandshowninfigure71.Itwillbenoticedthatthearrangementofthe
printsonthecardisthereverseofthearrangementofthefingersonthehand.Theclassificationofloops
isbasedonthewaytheloopsflowonthehand(notthecard),sothatonthefingerprintcardfortheleft
hand,loopsflowingtowardthethumbimpressionareulnar,andloopsflowingtowardthelittlefinger
impressionareradial.[Pg32]

Theplainarch
Inplainarchestheridgesenterononesideoftheimpressionandflowortendtoflowouttheotherwitha
riseorwaveinthecenter.Theplainarchisthemostsimpleofallfingerprintpatterns,anditiseasily
distinguished.Figures107to118areexamplesoftheplainarch.Itwillbenotedthattheremaybe
variousridgeformationssuchasendingridges,bifurcations,dotsandislandsinvolvedinthistypeof
pattern,buttheyalltendtofollowthegeneralridgecontouri.e.,theyenterononeside,makeariseor
waveinthecenter,andflowortendtoflowouttheotherside.

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[Pg33]

[Pg34]

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[Figs.107118]

Figures119and120areexamplesofplainarcheswhichapproximatetentedarches.Also,figure121isa
plainarchapproximatingatentedarchastherisingridgecannotbeconsideredanupthrustbecauseitisa
continuous,andnotanending,ridge.(Seefollowingexplanationofthetentedarch.)

[Figs.119121]

[Pg35]

Thetentedarch
Inthetentedarch,mostoftheridgesenterupononesideoftheimpressionandflowortendtoflowout
upontheotherside,asintheplainarchtypehowever,theridgeorridgesatthecenterdonot.Thereare
threetypesoftentedarches:
Thetypeinwhichridgesatthecenterformadefiniteanglei.e.,90orless.
Thetypeinwhichoneormoreridgesatthecenterformanupthrust.Anupthrustisanendingridgeof
anylengthrisingatasufficientdegreefromthehorizontalplanei.e.,45ormore.
Thetypeapproachingthelooptype,possessingtwoofthebasicoressentialcharacteristicsoftheloop,
butlackingthethird.
Figures122to133areexamplesofthetentedarch.

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[Pg36]

[Pg37]

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[Figs.122133]

Figures122to124areofthetypepossessinganangle.
Figures125to129reflectthetypepossessinganupthrust.
Figures130to133showthetypeapproachingtheloopbutlackingonecharacteristic.
Tentedarchesandsomeformsoftheloopareoftenconfused.Itshouldberememberedbythereader
thatthemereconvergingoftworidgesdoesnotformarecurve,withoutwhichtherecanbenoloop.On
theotherhand,therearemanypatternswhichatfirstsightresembletentedarchesbutwhichonclose
inspectionarefoundtobeloops,aswhereoneloopingridgewillbefoundinanalmostverticalposition
withinthepatternarea,entirelyfreefromandpassinginfrontofthedelta.
Figure134isatentedarch.Theridgemarked"AA"inthesketchentersononesideoftheimpression
andflowstotheotherwithanacuteriseinthecenter.RidgeCstrikesintoAatpointBandshouldnotbe
consideredasabifurcatingridge.Theridgesmarked"DD"wouldformatentedarchiftherestofthe
patternwereabsent.

[Fig.134]

[Pg38]
Figure135isasketchofapatternreflectingaridge,AB,enteringononesideoftheimpression,
recurving,andmakingitsexitontheothersideoftheimpression.Thereadershouldstudythissketch
carefully.Itshouldbeborneinmindthattheremustbearidgeenteringononesideoftheimpression
andrecurvinginordertomakeitsexitonthesamesidefromwhichitentered,orhavingatendencyto
makeitsexitonthatside,beforeapatterncanbeconsideredforpossibleclassificationasaloop.This
patternisatentedarchoftheupthrusttype.TheupthrustisC.ThereisalsoanangleatE.Dcannotbe
termedasadelta,astheridgetotheleftofDcannotbeconsideredatypelinebecauseitdoesnot
divergefromtheridgetotherightofDbutturnsandgoesinthesamedirection.

[Fig.135]

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Inconnectionwiththetypesoftentedarches,thereaderisreferredtothethirdtype.Thisformoftented
arch,theonewhichapproachestheloop,mayhaveanycombinationoftwoofthethreebasicloop
characteristics,lackingthethird.Thesethreeloopcharacteristicsare,torepeat:
Asufficientrecurve.
Adelta.
Aridgecountacrossaloopingridge.
Itmustberememberedthatarecurvemustbefreeofanyappendageabuttinguponitatarightangle
betweentheshoulders,andatrueridgecountisobtainedonlybycrossingaloopingridgefreely,witha
whitespaceinterveningbetweenthedeltaandtheridgetobecounted.
Figures136and137aretentedarcheshavingloopformationswithinthepatternareabutwithdeltasupon
theloops,byreasonofwhichitisimpossibletosecurearidgecount.Thetypelinesrunparallelfromthe
leftinfigures136and137.Thesetentedarcheshavetwooftheloopcharacteristics,recurveanddelta,
butlackthethird,theridgecount.[Pg39]

[Figs.136137]

Infigure138,thereaderwillnotethesimilaritytothefigures136and137.Theonlydifferenceisthatin
thisfigurethetypelinesarerunningparallelfromtheright.Itwillbenotedfromthesethreepatterns
thatthespacesbetweenthetypelinesattheirdivergenceshownothingwhichcouldbeconsideredas
deltaformationsexcepttheloopingridges.Suchpatternsareclassifiedastentedarchesbecausetheridge
countnecessaryforaloopislacking.

[Fig.138]

Figure139isanexampleofatentedarch.Inthispattern,iftheloopingridgeapproachedtheverticalit
couldpossiblybeaonecountloop.Oncestudied,however,thepatternpresentsnorealdifficulty.There
arenoridgesinterveningbetweenthedelta,whichisformedbyabifurcation,andthecore.Itwillbe
notedthatthecore,inthiscase,isatthecenter[Pg40]oftherecurve,unlikethoseloopswhichare
broadsidetothedeltaandinwhichthecoreisplacedupontheshoulder.Thispatternhasarecurveanda
separatedelta,butitstilllackstheridgecountnecessarytomakeitaloop.

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[Fig.139]

Figures140and141areexamplesoftentedarches.Thesetwofiguresaresimilarinmanyways.Eachof
theseprintshasthreeabruptendingridgesbutlacksarecurvehowever,infigure141adeltaispresent
inadditiontothethreeabruptendingridges.Thisconditiondoesnotexistinfigure140,wherethelower
endingridgeisthedelta.

[Figs.140141]

Wheninterpretingapatternconsistingoftwoendingridgesandadeltabutlackingarecurve,donot
confusetheridgecountofthetentedarchwiththatoftheridgecountfortheloop.Theridgecountofthe
tentedarchismerelyaconventionoffingerprinting,afictiondesignedtofacilitateascientific
classificationoftentedarches,andhasnoconnectionwithaloop.Toobtainatrueridgecounttheremust
bealoopingridgewhichiscrossedfreelybyanimaginarylinedrawnbetweenthedeltaandthecore.The
ridgecountreferredtoassuchinconnectionwiththetentedarchespossessingendingridgesandno
recurveisobtainedbyimaginingthattheendingridgesarejoinedbyarecurveonlyforthepurposeof
locatingthecoreandobtainingaridgecount.Ifthispointissecureinthemindoftheclassifier,little
difficultywillbeencountered.
Figures140and141,then,aretentedarchesbecausetheyhavetwoofthecharacteristicsofaloop,delta
andridgecount,butlackthethird,therecurve.
Figure142isaloopformationconnectedwiththedeltabuthavingnoridgecountacrossaloopingridge.
Bydrawinganimaginarylinefromthecore,whichisatthetopoftherodinthecenterofthepattern,to
thedelta,itwillbenotedthatthereisnorecurvingridgepassingbetweenthisrodandthedeltaand,
therefore,noridgecountcanresult.Thispatternisclassifiedasatentedarch.Theremustbeawhite
spacebetweenthedeltaandthefirstridgecounted,oritmaynotbecounted.Figure143isalsoatented
archbecausenoridgecountacrossaloopingridgecanbeobtained,thebifurcationsbeingconnectedto
eachotherand[Pg41]totheloopinastraightlinebetweendeltaandcore.Theloopingridgeisnot
crossedfreely.Nowhitespaceintervenesbetweenthedeltaandtheloop.Thesepatternsaretented
archesbecausetheypossesstwoofthecharacteristicsofaloop,adeltaandarecurve,butlackthethird,
aridgecountacrossaloopingridge.

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[Figs.142143]

Figure144isatentedarchcombiningtwoofthetypes.Thereisanangleformedbyridgeaabuttingupon
ridgeb.Therearealsotheelementsofthetypeapproachingaloop,asithasadeltaandridgecountbut
lacksarecurve.

[Fig.144]

Figures145to148aretentedarchesbecauseoftheanglesformedbytheabuttingridgesatthecenterof
thepatterns.

[Figs.145148]

Figure149isatentedarchbecauseoftheupthrustpresentatthecenterofthepattern.Thepresenceof
theslightestupthrustatthecenteroftheimpressionisenoughtomakeapatternatentedarch.[Pg42]

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[Fig.149]

Anupthrustmustbeanendingridge.Ifcontinuousasinfigure150,noanglebeingpresent,thepatternis
classifiedasaplainarch.

[Fig.150]

Figures151to153areplainarches.Figure154isatentedarch.

[Figs.151154]

Figure155isaplainarchbecauseitisreadilyseenthattheapparentupthrustAisacontinuationofthe
curvingridgeB.Figure156isatentedarchbecauseridgeAisanindependentupthrust,andnota
continuationofridgeB.

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[Figs.155156]

[Pg43]
Figures157and158areplainarches.Figure158cannotbesaidtobealoopingridge,becauseby
definitionaloopmustpassoutortendtopassoutuponthesidefromwhichitentered.Thisapparentloop
passesoutupontheoppositesideandcannotbesaidtotendtoflowoutuponthesameside.

[Figs.157158]

Infigures159and160,thereareendingridgesrisingataboutthesamedegreefromthehorizontalplane.

[Figs.159160]

Figure159,however,isaplainarch,while160isatentedarch.Thisdifferentiationisnecessarybecause,
ifthefirstpatternwereprintedcrookedlyuponthefingerprintcardsothattheendingridgewasnearer
thehorizontalplane,therewouldbenowaytoascertainthetruehorizontalplaneofthepattern(ifthe
fissureofthefingerdidnotappear).Inotherwords,therewouldbenomeansofknowingthattherewas
sufficientrisetobecalledanupthrust,sothatitissafetoclassifytheprintasaplainarchonly.Infigure
160,however,nomatterhowitisprinted,thepresence[Pg44]ofasufficientrisecouldalwaysbe
ascertainedbecauseofthespaceinterveningbetweentheendingridgeandtheridgeimmediatelybeneath
it,sothatitissafetoclassifysuchapatternasatentedarch.Thetestis,iftheridgesonbothsidesof
theendingridgefollowitsdirectionorflowtrend,theprintmaybeclassifiedasaplainarch.If,however,
theridgesononlyonesidefollowitsdirection,theprintisatentedarch.
Anupthrust,then,mustnotonlybeanendingridgerisingatasufficientdegreefromthehorizontalplane,
buttheremustalsobeaspacebetweentheendingridgeandtheridgeimmediatelybeneathit.This,
however,isnotnecessaryforashortupthrustorspike,oranyupthrustwhichrisesperpendicularly.
Inconnectionwiththeproperclassificationtobeassignedtothoseborderlinelooptentedarchcases
whereanappendageorspikeisthrustingoutfromtherecurve,itisnecessarytorememberthatan
appendageoraspikeabuttinguponarecurveatrightanglesinthespacebetweentheshouldersofaloop
ontheoutsideisconsideredtospoiltherecurve.
Iftheappendingridgeflowsofftheloopingridgesmoothlyinsuchawaythatitformsabifurcationand
notanabutmentoftworidgesatarightangle,therecurveisconsideredasremainingintact.Thetestis
totracetheloopingridgetowardtheappendage,andif,whenitisreached,thetracingmaybecontinued
asreadilyupontheappendageasupontheloopingridge,withnosudden,sharpchangeofdirection,the

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recurveissufficient.Figures161to184shouldbestudiedwiththisinmind.

[Pg45]

[Pg46]

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[Figs.161184]

[Pg47]
Figures185to190showadditionalexamplesoftentedarches.

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[Figs.185190]

Thereasonthatfigure185isgiventheclassificationofatentedarchisbecauseofthepresenceofallthe
looprequirementswiththeexceptionofone,whichistherecurve.Inthispatternappearthreeending
ridges.[Pg48]Thelowestendingridgeprovidesthedelta,andtheothertwobytheconventionexplained
previously,providetheridgecount.Itisatentedarch,then,ofthetypeapproachingtheloop,withtwoof
thecharacteristics,butlackingthethird,arecurve.Figures186and187aretentedarchesofthesame
type.Acloseexaminationoftheseprintswillrevealthatwhentheimaginarylineisdrawnbetweendelta
andcorenoridgecountacrossaloopingridgecanbeobtained.Itmustberememberedthatthecoreofa
loopmaynotbeplacedbelowtheshoulderline.Lackingoneofthethreecharacteristicsofaloop,these
patternsmustbeclassifiedastentedarches.Whenfigure188isexamined,itwillbenoticedthatthe
recurveisspoiledbytheappendageabuttinguponitbetweentheshouldersatarightangle,soitmust
alsobeclassifiedwiththetentedarches.Infigure189,theonlypossibledeltamustbeplaceduponthe
loopingridge,thuspreventingaridgecountalthoughdeltaandrecurvearepresent.Figure190is
assignedtheclassificationofatentedarch.Oneoftherequirementsofalooptypeisthattheridgeenters
ononeside,recurves,andmakesitsexitonthesidefromwhichitentered.This,ofcourse,makesit
necessary[Pg49]thattheridgepassbetweenthedeltaandthecore.Itwillbenotedfromthisfigurethat
althoughthisridgepassesbetweenthedeltaandthecore,itdoesnotshowanytendencytomakeitsexit
onthesidefromwhichitentered,andthereforetheloopclassificationisprecluded,anditisatented
arch.

Thewhorl
Thepatternstowhichnumericalvaluesareassignedinderivingthe"primary"intheextensionofthe
HenrySystemoffingerprintclassificationusedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigationarethewhorltype
patterns,whichoccurinabout30percentofallfingerprints.
Thewhorlisthattypeofpatterninwhichatleasttwodeltasarepresentwitharecurveinfrontineach.
Figures191to193reflecttheminimumrequirementsforthewhorl.

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[Figs.191193]

Itisimportanttonotethattheabovedefinitionisverygeneralhowever,thispatternmaybesubdivided
forextensionpurposesinlargegroupswherewhorlsarepredominant.Eventhoughthisextensionmaybe
used,alltypesofwhorlsaregroupedtogetherunderthegeneralclassificationof"Whorl"andare
designatedbytheletter"W".
Theaforementionedsubdivisionsareasfollows:ThePlainWhorl,TheCentralPocketLoop,TheDouble
Loop,andTheAccidental.

Theplainwhorl
The"plainwhorl"consistsofthesimplestformofwhorlconstructionandisthemostcommonofthewhorl
subdivisions.Itisdesignatedbythesymbol"W"forbothgeneralclassificationandextensionpurposes.
Theplainwhorlhastwodeltasandatleastoneridgemakingacompletecircuit,whichmaybespiral,
oval,circular,oranyvariantofacircle.Animaginarylinedrawnbetweenthetwodeltasmusttouchor
crossatleastoneoftherecurvingridgeswithintheinnerpatternarea.Arecurvingridge,however,which
hasanappendageconnectedwithitin[Pg50]thelineofflowcannotbeconstruedasacircuit.An
appendageconnectedatthatpointisconsideredtospoiltherecurveonthatside.
Figures194to211aretypicalexamplesoftheplainwhorltype.Figure212is,however,aloop,asthe
circuitisspoiledononesidebyanappendage.

[Pg51]

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[Pg52]

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[Figs.194212]

[Pg53]

Centralpocketloop
Withinthewhorlgroup,thesubclassificationtype"centralpocketloop"isusedforextensionpurposes
only.Ingeneralclassificationitisdesignatedbytheletter"W".Figures213to236arecentralpocket
loops.

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[Figs.213236]

Thecentralpocketlooptypeofwhorlhastwodeltasandatleastoneridgemakingacompletecircuit,
whichmaybespiral,oval,circular,oranyvariantofacircle.Animaginarylinedrawnbetweenthetwo
deltasmustnottouchorcrossanyoftherecurvingridgeswithintheinnerpatternarea.Arecurvingridge,
however,whichhasanappendageconnectedwithitinthelineofflowandonthedeltasidecannotbe
construedasacircuit.Anappendageconnectedatthatpointisconsideredtospoiltherecurveonthat
side.
Inlieuofarecurveinfrontofthedeltaintheinnerpatternarea,anobstructionatrightanglestotheline
offlowwillsuffice.
Itisnecessarythattheinnerlineofflowbefixedartificially.Theinnerlineofflowisdeterminedby
drawinganimaginarylinebetweentheinnerdeltaandthecenteroftheinnermostrecurveorlooping
ridge.
Inthecentralpocketloop,oneormoreofthesimplerecurvesoftheplainlooptypeusuallyrecurvea
secondtimetoformapocketwithintheloop.Thesecondrecurve,however,neednotbeacontinuationof
orevenconnectedwiththefirst.Itmaybeanindependentridge.
Ifnosecondrecurveispresent,anobstructionatrightanglestotheinnerlineofflowisacceptableinlieu
ofit.Anobstructionmaybeeithercurvedorstraight.Adot,ofcourse,maynotbeconsideredan
obstruction.
Thedefinitiondoesnotrequirearecurvetocrossthelineofflowatrightangles.Theangletestneedsto
beappliedtoobstructionsonly.
Therecurveorobstructionofthecentralpocketloop,asthatoftheplainwhorl,mustbefreeofany
appendageconnectedtoitatthepointcrossedbythelineofflowandonthedeltaside.Anappendageat
thatpointisconsideredtospoiltherecurveorobstruction.
[Pg58]
Figures237and238arealsocentralpocketloopsdespitetheappendagesconnectedtotherecurves,

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becausetheyarenotconnectedatthepointcrossedbythelineofflow.

[Figs.237238]

Figure239,althoughpossessingarecurve,isclassifiedasaloopbecausetheseconddeltaislocatedon
theonlyrecurvingridge.

[Fig.239]

[Pg59]
Figures240to244,althoughpossessingonedeltaandadeltaformation,areclassifiedasloopsbecause
theobstructionsdonotcrossthelineofflowatrightangles.

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[Figs.240244]

[Pg60]
Figures245to254havetwodeltasandoneormorerecurves,buttheyareclassifiedasloopsbecause
eachrecurveisspoiledbyanappendageconnectedtoitatthepointcrossedbythelineofflow.

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[Figs.245254]

[Pg61]

Doubleloop
Withinthewhorlgroup,thesubclassificationtype"doubleloop"isusedforextensionpurposesonly.In
generalclassificationitisdesignatedbytheletter"W".
Thedoubleloopconsistsoftwoseparateloopformations,withtwoseparateanddistinctsetsofshoulders,
andtwodeltas.
Theword"separate,"asusedhere,doesnotmeanunconnected.Thetwoloopsmaybeconnectedbyan
appendingridgeprovidedthatitdoesnotabutatrightanglesbetweentheshouldersoftheloop
formation.Theappendagerulefortheloopappliesalsotothedoubleloop.Anappendageabuttingupona
loopatrightanglesbetweentheshouldersisconsideredtospoiltheloop,whileanappendagewhichflows
offsmoothlyisconsideredtoleavetherecurveintact.
Thefactthattheremustbetwoseparateloopformationseliminatesfromconsiderationasadoubleloop
the"S"typecore,theinterlockingtypecore,andtheformationwithoneloopinsideanother.
Theloopsofadoubleloopdonothavetoconformtotherequirementsoftheloop.Inotherwords,no
ridgecountisnecessary.
Itisnotessentialthatbothsidesofaloopbeofequallength,northatthetwoloopsbeofthesamesize.
Neitherisitmaterialfromwhichsidetheloopsenter.
ThedistinctionbetweentwinnedloopsandlateralpocketloopsmadebyHenryandadoptedbyother
authorshasbeenabandonedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigationbecauseofthedifficultyinlocating
andtracingtheloops.Bothtypeshavebeenconsolidatedundertheclassification"doubleloop."
Figures255to266aredoubleloops.

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[Pg62]

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[Figs.255266]

[Pg63]
Figure267isaplainwhorl.Itisnotclassifiedasadoubleloopasonesideofoneloopformsthesideof
theother.Figure268isaplainloop.Itisnotadoubleloopbecausealloftherecurvesofthelooponthe
rightarespoiledbyappendages.

[Figs.267268]

[Pg64]

Accidental
Withinthewhorlgroupthesubdivisiontype"accidental"isusedforextensionpurposesonly.Ingeneral
classificationitisdesignatedbytheletter"W"andforextensionpurposesbytheletter"X".
Theaccidentalwhorlisapatternconsistingofacombinationoftwodifferenttypesofpattern,withthe
exceptionoftheplainarch,withtwoormoredeltasorapatternwhichpossessessomeofthe
requirementsfortwoormoredifferenttypesorapatternwhichconformstononeofthedefinitions.It
maybeacombinationofloopandtentedarch,loopandwhorl,loopandcentralpocketloop,doubleloop
andcentralpocketloop,orothersuchcombinations.Theplainarchisexcludedasitisrathertheabsence
ofpatternthanapattern.Underneatheverypatternthereareridgesrunningfromonesidetotheother,
sothatifitwerenotexcludedeverypatternbuttheplainarchwouldbeanaccidentalwhorl.
Thissubclassificationalsoincludesthoseexceedinglyunusualpatternswhichmaynotbeplacedby
definitionintoanyotherclasses.
Figures269to271areaccidentalscombiningaloopwithatentedarch.[Pg66]Figures272to276
combinealoopandaplainwhorlorcentralpocketloop.Figure277combinesaloopandadoubleloop.
Figure278combinesaloopandaplainarch,soitisclassifiedasaloop.Figure279combinesaloopand
atentedarch.

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[Figs.269279]

Somewhorlsmaybefoundwhichcontainridgesconformingtomorethanoneofthewhorlsubdivisions
described.Insuchcases,theorderofpreference(ifanypracticaldistinctionneedbemade)shouldbe:
(1)accidental,(2)doubleloop,(3)centralpocketloop,(4)plainwhorl.

Whorltracing
Thetechniqueofwhorltracingdependsupontheestablishmentofthefocalpointsthedeltas.Everywhorl
hastwoormore.Whenthedeltashavebeenlocated,theridgeemanatingfromthelowersideorpointof
theextremeleftdeltaistraceduntilthepointnearestoroppositetheextremerightdeltaisreached.The
numberofridgesinterveningbetweenthetracingridgeandtherightdeltaarethencounted.Iftheridge
tracedpassesinsideof(above)therightdelta,andthreeormoreridgesintervenebetweenthetracing
ridgeandthedelta,thetracingisdesignatedasan"inner"I(fig.280).Iftheridgetracedpassesoutside
(below)the[Pg67]rightdelta,andthreeormoreridgesintervenebetweenthetracingridgeandtheright
delta,thetracingisdesignatedasan"outer"O(fig.281).Allothertracingsaredesignatedas
"meeting"M(figs.282to287).

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[Figs.280287]

[Pg68]
Tracingbeginsfromtheleftdelta.Innoinstanceisatracingtobeginonatypeline.Infigure288,tracing
beginsattheshortridgewhichistheleftdelta.Itistruethatinasmuchastheshortridgeends
immediatelythetypelineisnextfollowed,butthisisonlybecausethetypelineisthenextlowerridge.
Itsstatusasatypelineisindependentandhasnobearingonthefactthatitisbeingtraced.Thispointis
illustratedfurtherinfigure289.Thispatternshowsaninnertracing.Itwillbenotedthatthedeltaisat
thepointonthefirstrecurvenearesttothecenterofthedivergenceofthetypelines.Itwillbefurther
notedthattracingbeginsatthepointofdeltaontheleftandcontinuestowardtheright,passinginsideof
therightdelta,withthreeridgesinterveningbetweenthetracingridgeandtherightdelta.Thisshowsthe
tracingtobeaninnertracing.If,inthiscase,thetypelineweretraced(whichwouldbetheincorrect
procedure),onlytworidgeswouldintervenebetweenthetracingridgeandtherightdelta,resultinginan
erroneousmeetingtracing.Figure290isanotherexampleoftheapplicationofthisrule.Thisillustrationis
alsoaninnerwhorl.

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[Figs.288290]

Whentheridgetracedendsabruptly,anditisdeterminedthattheridgedefinitelyends,thetracingdrops
downtothepointonthenextlowerridgeimmediatelybeneaththepointwheretheridgeaboveends,
continuingfromthere.Figure291,therefore,isanouterwhorl.

[Fig.291]

Inthisconnectionitshouldbenotedthattherulefordroppingtothenextlowerlineappliesonlywhenthe
ridgedefinitelyends.Shortbreaksinaridgewhichmaybeduetoimproperinking,thepresenceof
foreignmatterontheridges,enlargedpores,disease,orwornridgesshouldnotbeconsideredasdefinite
ridgeendings.Thedeterminationofwhatconstitutesadefiniteendingwilldepend,ofcourse,uponthe
goodjudgmentoftheclassifier.Whenthequestionarisesastowhetherabreakencoun[Pg69]teredinthe
ridgetracingisadefiniteending,orwhethertherehasbeeninterferencewithanaturalimpression,the
wholepatternshouldbeexaminedtoascertainwhethersuchbreaksaregeneralthroughoutthepattern.If
theyarefoundtobecommon,considerationshouldthenbegiventothepossibilitythatthebreakisnota
definiteridgeending.Appropriatereferencetracingshouldbedoneinallsuchcases.
Whenevertheridgetracedbifurcates,therulefortracingrequiresthatthelowerlimborbranch
proceedingfromthebifurcationbefollowed.Thisisillustratedin292.

[Fig.292]

Accidentalsoftenpossessthreeormoredeltas.Intracingthemonlytheextremedeltasareconsidered,
thetracingbeginningattheextremeleftdeltaandproceedingtowardtheextremerightdelta,as
illustratedinfigure293.[Pg70]

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[Fig.293]

Inadoublelooporaccidentaltheproblemofwheretostoptracingissometimespresented.Theruleis,
whenthetracingpassesinsideoftherightdelta,stopatthenearestpointtotherightdeltaontheupward
trend,asinfigure294.Ifnoupwardtrendispresent,continuetracinguntilapointoppositetheright
delta,orthedeltaitself,isreached(figs.295and296).

[Figs.294296]
[Pg71]

CHAPTERIII
QuestionablePatterns

Nomatterhowdefinitefingerprintrulesandpatterndefinitionsaremade,therewillalwaysbepatterns
concerningwhichthereisdoubtastotheclassificationtheyshouldbegiven.Theprimaryreasonforthis
isthefactthatprobablynotwofingerprintswilleverappearwhichareexactlyalike.Otherreasonsare
differencesinthedegreeofjudgmentandinterpretationoftheindividualclassifyingfingerprints,the
differenceintheamountofpressureusedbythepersontakingtheprints,andtheamountorkindofink
used.Nothingcanbedoneaboutfaultyinkingorpressureoncetheprintsaretaken.Thepatternswhich
arequestionablemerelybecausetheyseemtohavecharacteristicsoftwoormoretypescanbeclassified
bystrictadherencetothedefinitionsindeducingapreference.Thefollowingsectionisdevotedtosuch
patternswithanexplanationofeach.
Figure297hastwoloopformations.Theoneontheleft,however,hasanappendageabuttinguponthe
shouldersofitsrecurveatarightangle.Theleftportionoftheimpression,therefore,isofthetentedarch
type.Thecombinationoftwodifferenttypesofpatternswouldbeclassifiedinthewhorlgroup
(accidental),butthisimpressionhasonlytheonedelta.Therightportionofthepatterndetailcontainsa
trueloopwhichfulfillsallthelooprequirements,i.e.,asufficientrecurve,adelta,andaridgecount
acrossaloopingridge.Inthechoiceexistingbetweenatentedarchandaloop,preferenceisgiventothe
loopclassificationandthisimpressionwouldbeclassifiedasaloop.[Pg72]

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[Fig.297]

Figure298,ataglance,seemstofulfilltherequirementsofawhorl(twodeltasandaridgemakinga
completecircuit).Thepartofthecircuitinfrontoftherightdelta,however,cannotbeconstruedasa
recurvingridgebecauseoftheappendageabuttinguponitinthelineofflow.Thispattern,therefore,isa
onecountloop.

[Fig.298]

Figure299isaverydifficultandunusualpattern.Ithascharacteristicsofthreetypes,thewhorl,theloop,
andthetentedarch.Itisgiventhepreferenceofanaccidentaltypeofwhorl(loopoveratentedarch).
Thispatternshouldbereferencedbothasaloopandasatentedarch.

[Fig.299]

Figure300isshownforthepurposeofexplainingthatinthewhorl,asthisprintis,appendagesatthetop
oftherecurvewillnotspoiloraffecttherecurve.Hence,theimpressionisagoodwhorlofthecentral
pocketlooptypeandneedsnoreference.

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[Fig.300]

Figure301isclassifiedasawhorlofthedoublelooptype.Therearepresenttwodistinctloopsandtwo
deltas(therightdeltaisnotpresentastheimpressionwasnotrolledsufficiently).Thepatternisunusual
becausetheloopsaresidebysideandflowinginthesamedirection.Thetracingisaninnertracing.[Pg
73]

[Fig.301]

Figure302shouldpresentnodifficulty.Itisclassifiedasaplainarchforitsridgeconstructionfollowsthe
ruleofaplainarch,i.e.,"enteronesideandflowortendtoflowtotheother."

[Fig.302]

Figure303isaplainarch.Thedotatthecenterisnotelongatedenoughtobeconsideredanupthrust.A
dot,eventhoughasthickandheavyasthesurroundingridges,isnotconsideredforanypurposebutridge
countingorfixingadelta.

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[Fig.303]

Figure304isapatternsomewhatsimilartothepreviousillustration.Asindicatedbefore,dotsare
consideredasridgesonlyinridgecountingandfixingadelta.Thispattern,therefore,mustbeclassified
asaplainarch,ratherthanatentedarchwithtwoendingridgesandadeltaformation.

[Fig.304]

Figure305,althoughshowinganappendageuponeachrecurveontheleftside,isclassifiedasawhorlof
thecentralpocketlooptype,withtwodeltasandarecurveinfrontofeach.Tospoiltherecurveofa
whorltheappendagemustbeconnectedtotherecurveatthepointofcontactwiththelineofflow.

[Fig.305]

[Pg74]Infigure306,theimpressionhastwoequallygoodloopformations.Asithasbutonedelta,it
cannotbeclassifiedasawhorlofthedoublelooptypenorasaloopsinceitwouldbedifficulttomakea
preferentialchoicebetweenthetwoloopingridges.Itisarbitrarilygiventheclassificationofatented
arch.

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[Fig.306]

Infigure307,thedifficultyliesinlocatingthedelta.Theonlyridgesansweringthedefinitionoftypelines
(ridgesrunningparallelandthendivergingtoenclosethepatternarea)havethreeendingridgesbetween
them.Thetypelines,thedelta,andthecorearelocatedasindicated.Thepatternisclassifiedasasix
countloop.

[Fig.307]

Figure308isclassifiedasatentedarch,althoughitappearsatfirstglancetobealoop.Closerinspection
showsthattheloopingridgedoesnottendtogooutthesidefromwhichitenteredbutratherseemsto
proceeddownwardendinginanabutmentformingadefiniteangleof90.

[Fig.308]
[Pg75]

Infigure309,animpressionisshownwhichatfirstappearstobealoop.Closerinspectionwillshowthat
oneoftheelementsofthelooptypeismissing,namely,aridgecountacrossaloopingridgeforitisto
beborneinmindthattherecurveoftheinnermostloopshouldbefreeofappendagesabuttingbetween
theshouldersatrightangles.Thecore,inthisillustration,therefore,isplacedwheretheappendageof
theinnermostlooptouchesthenextridgewhichisagoodrecurve.Ifanimaginarylineisplacedbetween
deltaandcore,itwillbeseenthattherearenointerveningridgeshence,thereisnoridgecount.

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[Fig.309]

Figure310isapatternwhichcontainstwoelementsofaloopbutlacksthethird.Itisclassifiedasa
tentedarch.Thusanimpressionhavingadeltaandarecurve,butnothavingaridgecountacrossa
loopingridge,fallsintothisclassification.

[Fig.310]

Itwillbenoticedthatalthoughthispatternhastheresemblanceofaplainarch,thecenterofthe
impressionactuallycontainsapartiallyformedloop.Arecurvingridgeentersfromtherightsideandexits
inthesamedirection.Adeltaalsoappearsjustbelowtherecurve.Inattempting[Pg76]toobtainaridge
count,itisseenthattheimaginarylinedrawnbetweenthedeltaandthecorerunsdirectlyalongtheridge
emanatingfromtheformerandwhichisjoinedontothesideoftherecurvingridge.Forthisreason,no
ridgecountispossible.
Figure311isatentedarch.Therearethreeloopformations,eachoneofwhichisspoiledbyan
appendageabuttinguponitsrecurvebetweentheshouldersatarightangle.Itcannotbeclassifiedasan
accidentalasthepatternsareallofthesametype,i.e.,tentedarches.Anaccidentaltypeofwhorlisa
combinationoftwoormoredifferenttypesofpatternsexclusiveoftheplainarch.

[Fig.311]

Figure312isaloop.Itcannotbeclassifiedasawhorlofthedoublelooptypebecausetheformation
abovethelowerloopistoopointedanditalsohasanappendageabuttinguponitatarightangle.

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[Fig.312]

Figure313atfirstglanceappearstobeawhorlofthedoublelooptype.Uponcloserinspection,however,
itwillbenoticedthattherearenodeltaformationsotherthanontherecurves.Thereare,then,two
tentedarchformations.Astwopatternsofthesametypecannotformanaccidentalwhorl,theimpression
mustbeclassifiedasatentedarch.[Pg77]

[Fig.313]

Figure314isanaccidentalwhorl,combiningaloopandatentedarch.Thetentedarchisdirectlybeneath
theinnermostloop,andisoftheupthrusttype.

[Fig.314]

Figure315consistsofaloopoveradotwithanapparentseconddelta.Thispatternmustbeclassifiedas
aloop,asadotmaynotbeconsideredanupthrustunlesselongatedvertically.

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[Fig.315]

Eventhoughadotmaybeasthickandheavyasthesurroundingridges,itmaybeconsideredonlyin
ridgecountingorfixingadelta.
Figure316atfirstglanceappearstobeanaccidentalwhorl,butoncloserinspectionitprovestobea
loop.Althoughtherearethreedeltaformationspresent,itshouldbeobservedthatrecurvingridges
appearinfrontofonlyone(D1).

[Fig.316]

Figure317hasthegeneralappearanceofaloop.TheloopingridgeA,atthecenter,hasanappendageB
abuttinguponitsrecurve.Theabutmentisatrightanglesandthereforespoilstherecurve.Thepatternis
atentedarch.[Pg78]

[Fig.317]

Figure318isatentedarchwhichapproachesboththeloopandthewhorltypepatterns.Itcannotbe
consideredawhorl,however,astherecurveontheleftisspoiledbyanappendage(figs.58and59).Nor
canitbealoopbecausethereisnoridgecountacrossaloopingridge.Thepattern,then,isatentedarch
ofthetypepossessingtwoofthebasiccharacteristicsoftheloopandlackingthethird.Thedeltaandthe
sufficientrecurvearepresentbuttheridgecountismissing.

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[Fig.318]

Figure319seemsatfirstglancetobeadoubleloop.Itwillbenoted,however,thattheinnerdelta
formationwouldbelocatedupontheonlyloopingridgeoftheupperloopformation.Sincethedeltawould
belocatedontheonlyrecurve,thisrecurvingridgeiseliminatedfromconsideration.Thepatternis
classifiedasaloop.

[Fig.319]

Figure320isaloopoftwocounts,withthedeltaatB.Thereisaridgemakingacompletecircuitpresent,
butpointAcannotbeusedasadeltabecauseitanswersthedefinitionofatypeline.Itshouldbe
consideredadeltaonlyifitpresentedanangularformation.Placingthedeltaupontherecurvewould
spoilthatrecurve.

[Fig.320]

Figure321showstwoseparateloopingridgeformationsappearingsidebysideanduponthesamesideof
thedelta.Thecoreinsuchcaseisplaceduponthenearershoulderofthefartherloopingridgefromthe
delta,thetwoloopingridgesbeingconsideredasoneloopwithtworodsrisingashighastheshoulder.
Theridgecountwouldbefour(fig.49).

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[Fig.321]

Figure322isanaccidentalwhorl.Itisclassifiedthusbecauseitcontainselementsofthreedifferent
patterns,theloop,thedoubleloop,andtheaccidental.Insuchcasetheorderofpreferencegoverns.The
deltaattheleftispointA.ThedeltaattherightispointC.Thispointbecomesthedeltasinceitisthe
pointnearestthecenterofthedivergenceofthetypelines.PointBiseliminatedfromconsiderationasa
deltasincetypelinesmaynotproceedfromabifurcationunlesstheyflowparallelafterthebifurcation
andbeforediverging.[Pg79]

[Fig.322]
[Pg80]

Figure323isaloop.Therearetwodeltaformationsbutthedotscannotbeconsideredasobstructions
crossingthelineofflowatrightangles.Thisprecludestheclassificationofthecentralpocketlooptypeof
whorl.

[Fig.323]

Figure324isaloop,thetworecurvingridgeshaveappendagesandareconsideredspoiled.Thepattern
cannot,therefore,beawhorleventhoughtwodeltaformationsarepresent.

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[Fig.324]

Figure325isclassifiedasatentedarch.Ifexaminedcloselythepatternwillbeseentohavean
appendageabuttingatarightanglebetweentheshouldersofeachpossiblerecurve.Thusnosufficient
recurveispresent.

[Fig.325]

Figure326isaplainarch.Thereispresentnoanglewhichapproachesarightangle.PointsA,B,andX
aremerelybifurcationsratherthananabutmentoftworidgesatanangle.

[Fig.326]

Figure327isatentedarch,notbecauseofthedot,however,asitcannotbeconsideredanupthrust.The
tentedarchisformedbytheanglemadewhenthecurvingridgeabovethedotabutsupontheridge
immediatelyunderandtotheleftofthedot.[Pg81]

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[Fig.327]

Figure328consistsoftwoseparateloopingridgeformationsinjuxtapositionuponthesamesideofa
commondelta.Thispatterncannotbecalledadoubleloopasthereisnoseconddeltaformation.Inorder
tolocatethecore,thetwoloopingridgesshouldbetreatedasoneloopwithtworodsinthecenter.The
coreisthusplacedonthefarrod(actuallyontheleftshoulderofthefarloop),resultinginaridgecount
offour(fig.49).

[Fig.328]

Figure329isaloopofthreecounts.Itcannotbeclassifiedasawhorlastheonlyrecurveisspoiledby
theappendageabuttinguponitatthepointofcontactwiththelineofflow.

[Fig.329]

Figure330isaplainarchasthereisnoupthrust(anupthrustmustbeanendingridge),nobackward
loopingturn,andnotworidgesabuttinguponeachotheratasufficientangle.

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[Fig.330]

Figure331isaplainarch.Theendingridgeatthecenterdoesnotriseatasufficientangletobe
consideredanupthrust,anditdoesnotquitemeettheridgetowardwhichitisflowingandtherefore
formsnoangle.[Pg82]

[Fig.331]

Figure332isaplainarch.Therearetwoendingridges,butnoseparatedeltaformationispresent.

[Fig.332]

Figure333isaplainarch.Therisingridgeatthecenteriscurvedatthetopformingnoangle,anddoes
notconstituteanupthrustbecauseitisnotanendingridge.

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[Fig.333]

Figure334isawhorlofthedoublelooptype.Twoloopsandtwodeltasarepresent.Itisunusualbecause
theloopsarejuxtaposedinsteadofoneflowingovertheother,andonedeltaisalmostdirectlyoverthe
other.Thetracingisameetingtracing.

[Fig.334]

Figure335isatentedarch.Althoughthereisaloopingridge,noridgecountcanbeobtained.Thecoreis
placedupontheendoftheridgeabuttingupontheinsideoftheloop,andsotheimaginarylinecrossesno
loopingridge,whichisnecessary.

[Fig.335]

Figure336isaplainarch.Theendingridgeatthecentercannotbeconsideredanupthrustbecauseit
doesnotdeviatefromthegeneraldirectionofflowoftheridgesoneitherside.Noangleispresentasthe
endingridgedoesnotabutuponthecurvingridgewhichenvelopesit.[Pg83]

[Fig.336]

Figure337isaplainarchbecausethedotcannotbeconsideredadeltaasitisnotasthickandheavyas
thesurroundingridges.

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[Fig.337]

Figure338isatentedarchconsistingoftwoendingridgesandadelta.Theshortendingridgeis
consideredaridgebecauseitisslightlyelongatedandnotameredot.[Pg84]

[Fig.338]

Infigure339,theonlyquestioninvolvediswheretostoptracing.Theruleis:whentracingonaridge
withanupwardtrend,stopatthepointontheupwardtrendwhichisnearesttotherightdelta.Xisthe
pointinthispattern.

[Fig.339]

Infigure340,thequestioninvolvedisalsooneoftracing.Inthispattern,thetracingisnotonaridge
withanupwardtrend.Thetracing,therefore,iscontinueduntilapointnearesttotherightdelta,orthe
rightdeltaitself,isreached.Thistracingisameetingtracing.

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[Fig.340]

Thereareafewconstantlyrecurringpatternswhich,thoughnotquestionableordoubtfulastheyappear,
presentapeculiarlydifficultprobleminclassifying.Thepatternsreferredtoareusuallydoubleloops,
thoughaccidentalwhorlsandloopssometimespresentthesameproblems.Thedifficultyariseswhena
loopissoelongatedthattherecurvedoesnotappearuntilneartheedgeofafullyrolledimpressionoran
impressionthatisrolledunusuallyfar,asinfigures341to344.

[Figs.341344]

Figure341,ifclassifiedasitappears,wouldbeanaccidentalwhorl.Figures342and343wouldbedouble
loops,andillustration344,aloop.Itwillbeobservedthattheseprintsarerolledmorefullythannormal.
If,however,thenexttimetheprintsaretaken,theyarenotrolledquite[Pg85]sofar,thepatternswould
requireaverydifferentclassification,andwouldshownoindicationofanyneedforreferencingtotheir
trueclassification.Theresultwouldbeafailuretoestablishanidentificationwiththeoriginalprints.The
onlywayinwhichsuchanerrormaybeavoidedistoclassifysuchimpressionsastheywouldappearif
notsofullyrolled,andtoconductareferencesearchintheclassificationwhichwouldbegiventothe

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printswhenrolledtothefullestextent.Applyingthisrule,illustration341isatentedarch,referencedtoa
whorl.Figures342and343areloops,referencedtowhorls.Figure344isaplainarch,referencedtoa
loop.
Nosetrulecanpossiblybedevisedtoenableaclassifiertoknowwithcertaintywheretodrawtheline
whenitisdoubtfulwhichclassificationshouldbegivensuchaprint.Individualjudgmentistheonly
standard.Thetestis:ifthepattern,intheopinionoftheclassifier,isrolledtoonlyanormalwidth,it
shouldbeclassifiedasitappears.Ifitseemstoberolledtoawidthbeyondthenormaldegree,itshould
beclassifiedasifrolledonlytothenormaldegree.Age,weight,sizeoffingers(asseenin[Pg86]the
plainimpressions),heavinessoftheridges,andexperienceofthetechnicianintakingfingerprintsareall
factorsinarrivingatthecorrectconclusion.Thenecessityforexercisingtheutmostcareindealingwith
thistypeofpatterncannotbetoohighlyemphasized.
Thepatternsinfigures345and346alsohaveasecondloopneartheedgeoftheimpression.Inthesetwo
patterns,however,thesecondloopisverynearthedeltaandconsequentlywillalmostinvariablyappear
eventhoughnotrolledtothefullestextent.Theforegoingruleisnotappliedtothistypeofimpression.
Bothareclassifiedasawhorlandreferencedtoalooptotakecareoftherarecontingencyof
nonappearance.

[Figs.345346]
[Pg87]

CHAPTERIV
TheClassificationFormulaandExtensions

Theclassificationformula
Atthispointitisnecessarytomentionthatwhenprintsareclassified,markingsareindicatedatthe
bottomofeachfingerblocktoreflectthetype.Thefollowingsymbolsareused:
Undertheindexfingerstheappropriatecapitallettersshouldbeplacedforeverypatternexceptthe
ulnarloop.
Underallotherfingers,theappropriatesmalllettershouldbeplacedforeverypatternexcepttheulnar
loopandthewhorlasfollows:
Arch

TentedArch t
RadialLoop

Ulnarloopsinanyfingeraredesignatedbyadiagonallineslantinginthedirectionoftheloop.
Whorlsinanyfingeraredesignatedbytheletter"W".Theclassificationformulamaybecomposedof
thefollowingdivisions:
1.Primary

4.Major

2.Secondary

5.Final

3.Subsecondary 6.Key
Thepositionsintheclassificationlineforthesedivisionswhencompletelyappliedareasillustrated:
Key Major

Primary

Secondary

Subsecondary Final

Divisions Classification Classification Classification

20

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Key Major

Primary

Secondary

IOI

Second
subsecondary
classification
Subsecondary Final

Divisions Classification Classification Classification

SLM

MMS
IOI

17

IOI

10

Theprimaryclassification:Forthepurposeofobtainingtheprimaryclassification,numericalvalues
areassignedtoeachoftheten[Pg88]fingerspacesasshowninfigure347.Whereverawhorlappearsit
assumesthevalueofthespaceinwhichitisfound.Spacesinwhichtypesofpatternsotherthanwhorls
arepresentaredisregardedincomputingtheprimary.
Thevaluesareassignedasfollows:
FingersNo.1andNo.2

16

FingersNo.3andNo.4

FingersNo.5andNo.6

FingersNo.7andNo.8

FingersNo.9andNo.10

[Fig.347]
[Enlarge]

Infigure347,itwillbeobservedthattheoddfingers(Nos.1,3,5,7,9)containtheletterD,andthe

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evenfingers(Nos.2,4,6,8,10)containtheletterN.TheDindicatesthatthevaluesofthesefingers
relatetothedenominator,theNthattheyrelatetothenumerator.Thesummationofthenumerical
valuesofthewhorltypepatterns,ifany,appearinginfingers1,3,5,7,9,plusone,isthedenominatorof
theprimary.Thesummationofthevaluesofthewhorls,ifany,infingers2,4,6,8,10,plusone,isthe
numeratoroftheprimary.Wherenowhorlappearsinasetofimpressions,theprimary,therefore,would
be1over1.The1thatis[Pg89]assignedtothenumeratorandthedenominatorwhennowhorlsappear
isalsoadded,forconsistency,tothevalueofthewhorlswhentheydoappear.Itwillbeunderstoodwhy
itwasoriginallyassignedtothenowhorlgroupwhenitisconsideredhoweasilyazeromightbeconfused
withanO,whichisthesymbolusedforanouterwhorltracing.
Toobtaintheprimaryfortheprintsinfigure347,thenumberofwhorlsappearingintheoddfingersis
ascertainedtobe2.Theirpositionsarenoted(1inNo.1and1inNo.7)andthevaluesassignedto
whorlsappearinginthosefingersareaddedtogether(16plus2=18).Tothissumthearbitrary1is
added,givingusthetotalof19,whichconstitutesthedenominatorforthissetofprints.Togetthe
numerator,itisascertainedthatthereare3whorlsappearingintheevenfingers(2,4and6),thevalues
ofwhichareaddedtogether(16plus8plus4=28).Tothissumthe1isadded,givinganumeratorof29,
andacompleteprimaryof29over19.
Bytheword"whorl"ismeantalltypesofwhorls,includingplainwhorls,centralpocketloops,double
loopsandaccidentals.Thetracingofthewhorldoesnotenterintothedeterminationoftheprimary.
Themethodofobtainingtheprimarycanprobablybeshownbestbyillustrations.Forexample,assume
thatthereisawhorlintherightindexfingeronly.Thevalueofawhorlinthisfingeris16.When1over1
isaddedtheresultingprimaryis17over1.Ifawhorlappearsintherightthumbandrightindexfinger,
thevalueis16over16plus1over1givingaprimaryof17over17.Ifwhorlsappearinbothindex
fingers,thevalueis16over2plus1over1givingaprimaryof17over3.Whenwhorlsappearinboth
thumbsandbothindexfingers,theprimaryis21over19andisobtainedbytheaddition16plus4plus1
over16plus2plus1.Ifwhorlsappearinall10fingers,theprimaryis32over32(16plus8plus4plus2
plus1plus1over16plus8plus4plus2plus1plus1).Itwillbenotedthattheprimaryclassifications
extendfrom1over1inthenowhorlgroupto32over32intheallwhorlgroup,providing1,024possible
combinations.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthereare1,024evensubdivisionsofprintsaccordingtothese
primaries.Justasthereisapreponderanceofloopswhenthetypesofpatternsareconsidered,thereis
alsoapreponderanceofcertainprimaries,notably:the1over1primary,ornowhorlgroupthe17
denominatorthe19denominatorthe28denominator,ofwhichthe31over28groupisthelargestand
the32denominator,including2largeprimarygroupsnamely,31over32and32over32.Asamatterof
fact,the1over1group,asawhole,containsover25percentofthetotalnumberofprintsfiledinthe
FBI.Ontheotherhand,thereareanumberofprimarieswhichrarelyappear.Itfollows,therefore,that
whenaprintisclassifiedinoneoftheselargergroupsitisnecessarytocompletetheclassificationtoa
greaterextentthanisnecessaryinthemoreunusualprimaries,sothatthegrouptobesearchedissmall
enoughforconvenience.[Pg90]
Inconnectionwiththecountingofwhorlvaluestoobtaintheprimary,itmightbenotedthatwhenthe
whorlsoutnumbertheotherpatternsmorespeedcanbeachievedbycountingthosepatternsand
subtractingratherthanbyaddingthewhorls.Thisprocedureshouldnotbefolloweduntilenough
experienceisacquiredsothatitmaybenotedataglancewherewhorlsarenotpresent.
Theexperiencedclassifiercantellinwhatfingerswhorlsarepresentbyaglanceataprimary
classification.Forexample,aprimaryof5over17couldmeanthattherearewhorlsinthethumbsonly.

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[Fig.348]
[Enlarge]

Thesecondaryclassification:Aftertheprimaryclassification,thefingerprintsaresubdividedfurtherby
usingasecondaryclassification.Beforegoingintodetail,itshouldbenotedthataftertheprimaryis
obtainedtheentireremainingportionoftheclassificationformulaisbaseduponthearrangementofthe
impressionsappearingintherighthandasthenumeratorovertheimpressionsappearinginthelefthand
asthedenominator.Thearrangementoftheevenovertheunevenfingersisdiscardedaftertheprimary
isobtained.Thesecondaryclassificationappearsjusttotherightofthefractionalnumeralswhich
representtheprimary.Itisshownintheformulabycapitallettersrepresentingthebasictypesof
patternsappearingintheindexfingersofeachhand,that[Pg91]oftherighthandbeingthenumerator
andthatofthelefthandbeingthedenominator(fig.348).Therearefivebasictypesofpatternswhich
canappear.
1.Arch

2.TentedArch

3.RadialLoop

4.UlnarLoop

5.Whorl

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[Fig.349]
[Enlarge]

Secondaryclassification(smalllettergroup):Printswithanarchortentedarchinanyfingerora
radialloopinanyexcepttheindexfingersconstitutethesmalllettergroupofthesecondaryclassification.
Such"smallletters,"withtheexceptionofthoseappearingintheindexfingers,arebroughtupintothe
classificationformulaintheirproperrelativepositionsimmediatelyadjacenttotheindexfingers(fig.
349).Adashisusedtoindicatetheabsenceofeachsmallletterbetweentheindexfingersandanother
smallletterorbetweentwosmallletters,as
1aUat
1Ra1

and

1aUt.
1Ua

Thus,ifaradialloopappearsintherightthumb,[Pg92]thesmallletter"r"wouldbebroughtupinthe
numeratorcolumnoftheclassificationformulaandplacedjusttotheleftofthecapitalletterrepresenting
theindexfinger.Similarly,ifanarchortentedarchoraradialloopwouldappearinthemiddle,ring,or
littlefingerofthehand,thesmallletterrepresentingsuchapatternwouldbeplacedontheclassification
linetotherightofthesecondaryinthenumeratorcolumniftheletterispresentintherighthand,andin
thedenominatorcolumnifinthelefthand.Whentwoormoresmalllettersofthesametypeoccur
immediatelyadjacenttoeachother,theyareindicatedthus:
1rU2a
1tU3a

and

1aTaa.
1tA2at

Thesmalllettergroupsareofvitalimportancetotheclassificationsystem,astheyareofrelatively
infrequentoccurrence,constitutingapproximately7to10percentofallpatterns.Generallyspeaking,
sincethesepatternsareofsuchrareoccurrence,theirverypresenceoftenenablestheclassifierto
dispensewiththeusualsubsecondaryclassificationandthemajordivisionwhichinthemajorityofcases
areusedinthelargergroups.
Thesubsecondaryclassification(groupingofloopsandwhorls):Inclassifyingprintsitis
necessarytosubdividethesecondarygroups.Thisisaccomplishedbygroupingaccordingtotheridge
countsofloopsandtheridgetracingsofwhorls.Thefirstofthegroupsfiledinorder,whichitwillbe
necessarytososubdivide,wouldordinarilybethe
1R
1R
groupwherenosmalllettersappear.TheFederalBureauofInvestigation,however,hasfoundit
necessarytoextendthisdivisiontomanyofthesmalllettergroupswhichbecomecumbersome.The
subsecondaryisplacedontheclassificationlinejusttotherightofthesecondary.Ridgecountsare

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translatedintosmallandlarge,representedbysymbolsIandO.ThewhorltracingsarebroughtupasI,
M,orOdenotinginner,meetingorouterridgetracingsofthewhorltypes.Onlysixfingersmaybe
involvedinthesubsecondarynumbers2,3,4,7,8,and9.
Aridgecountof1to9,inclusive,intheindexfingersisbroughtupintothesubsecondaryformulaasI.A
countof10ormoreisbroughtupasO.Inthemiddlefingersacountoffrom1to10,inclusive,isbrought
upasI,and11ormoreisO.Intheringfingersacountoffrom1to13isbroughtupasI,and14or
moreisO.Aloopsubsecondarycouldappearintheclassificationformulaas
OIO.
IIO
Analyzingthisexampleofasubsecondary,onewillknowthatintheindex,middle,andringfingersofthe
righthandtherearecountsofover9,under11,andover13,whileinthelefthandthereareintheindex,
middle,andringfingers,countsofunder10,under11,over13,respectively.Thesubsecondary
classification,therefore,relatestothegroupingsoftheprints,andnodifficultyshouldbeexperiencedin
ascertainingwhethertheIandOarrangementinthe[Pg93]subsecondaryrelatestoloopsorwhorlswhen
analyzingaclassification,becausethisinformationcanbeobtainedfromtheprimaryclassification.Figure
350isanexampleillustratingthesubsecondaryinadditiontootherdivisionsoftheclassificationformula.

[Fig.350]
[Enlarge]

Thechart,figure351,willillustratethemannerinwhichtheridgecountsaretranslatedintothesymbolsI
andOsotheymaybegroupedandsequencedwiththewhorltracingsI,MandO.

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[Fig.351]
[Enlarge]

Themajordivision:Themajordivisionisplacedjusttotheleftoftheprimaryintheclassification
formula.Wherewhorlsappearinthethumbsthemajordivisionreflectsthewhorltracingsjustasthe
subsecondarydoes.Forexample,amajordivisionofIoverMintheprimary5over17wouldreflectan
innertracedwhorloverameetingtracedwhorlinthethumbs.Whereloopsappearinthethumbs,
however,atableisusedtotranslatetheridgecountsintothesmall,medium,orlargegroups,designated
bythelettersS,M,L.Anexpandingtableisusedfortherightthumbwhenlargecountloopsappearinthe
leftthumb,asshowninthechart(fig.351).Thistableisusedbecauseitaffordsamoreequitable
distributionofprintsasawhole,forfilingpurposeswithinthegroupsindicated.[Pg94]
Tableformajordivisionsofloops:
Leftthumbdenominator

Rightthumbnumerator

1to11,inclusive,S(small)

{1to11,inclusive,S(small).
{12to16,inclusive,M(medium).
{17ormoreridges,L(large).

{1to11,inclusive,S(small).
12to16,inclusive,M(medium) {12to16,inclusive,M(medium).
{17ormoreridges,L(large).
17ormoreridges,L(large)

{1to17,inclusive,S(small).
{18to22,inclusive,M(medium).
{23ormoreridges,L(large).

Thefingerprintcardappearinginfigure352showsamajordivisionofLoverL,whichisobtainedby
countingtheridges(24intherightthumband18intheleftthumb)which,accordingtothetable,is
translatedintoLinboththumbs.
Thefinal:Itis,ofcourse,desirabletohaveadefinitesequenceororderoffilingtheprintswithinthe
subdividedgroups.Thisorderisattainedthroughtheuseofthefinal,whichisbasedupontheridgecount
oftheloopintherightlittlefinger.Itisindicatedattheextremerightofthenumeratorinthe
classification.Notefigure352.Ifaloopdoesnotappearintherightlittlefinger,aloopintheleftlittle
fingermaybeused.Itisthenindicatedattheextremerightofthedenominator(fig.353).Ifnoloops
appearinthelittlefingers,awhorlmaybeusedtoobtainafinal,countingfromleftdeltatocoreifinthe
righthandandfromrightdeltatocoreifinthelefthand.Iftherearetwoormorecores(usuallyapplies
toaccidentalwhorls),theridgecountismadefromleftdelta(righthand)[Pg95]orrightdelta(lefthand)
tothecorewhichistheleastnumberofridgesdistantfromthatdelta.Anexceptionismadeinthecase
ofthedoubleloop.Thedoubleloopiscountedfromthedeltatothecoreoftheuprightloop.Whereloops
ofadoublelooparehorizontal,thenearestcoreisused.Shouldbothlittlefingersbeaort,nofinalis
used.Theuseofawhorlinalittlefingerforafinalisrequiredonlyinconnectionwithalargegroupor
collectionofprints,suchasthe32over32primary.

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[Fig.352]
[Enlarge]

Thekey:Thekeyisobtainedbycountingtheridgesofthefirstloopappearingonthefingerprintcard
(beginningwiththerightthumb),exclusiveofthelittlefingerswhichareneverconsideredforthekeyas
theyarereservedforthefinal.Thekey,nomatterwherefound,isalwaysplacedtotheextremeleftof
thenumeratoroftheclassificationformula(fig.353).

[Fig.353]

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[Enlarge]

Extensions
Thesecondsubsecondaryclassification:Whenagroupoffingerprintsbecomessolargethatitis
cumbersomeandunwieldy,eventhoughfullyextended,itcanbesubdividedfurtherbyusingasecond
subsecondarydivision,whichisbroughtupintotheclassificationformuladirectly[Pg96]abovethe
subsecondary,andforwhichthesymbolsS,MandLareused.Thefollowingtableisused:
Index
1to5,inclusive,S.

Middle
1to8,inclusive,S.

Ring
1to10,inclusive,S.

6to12,inclusive,M. 9to14,inclusive,M. 11to18,inclusive,M.

13ormore,L.

15ormore,L.

19ormore,L.

Ifthistableisreferredto,astudyoffigure352willdemonstratetheuseofthesecondsubsecondary.
WCDXextension:IntheextensionusedintheFederalBureauofInvestigationforthelargewhorl
groups,thetypeofwhorlisdesignatedbythesymbolsW,C,D,orXfortheindexfingersandw,c,d,or
xforallotherfingers,accordingtoitsclassificationasdefinedinfigure354.Thesesymbolsareusedfor
subclassificationpurposesonlyandarebroughtupintotheclassificationformuladirectlyabovethe
subsecondaryintheirrespectivepositions,therighthandbeingthenumerator,thelefthandbeingthe
denominator.

[Fig.354]
[Enlarge]

Specialloopextension:Intheallloopgroup
(1RU)
(1RU),
thefollowingspecialloopextensionmaybeused,utilizingtheridgecountsinfingersNos.2,3,4,7,8,9,
and,ifnecessary,No.10:[Pg97]
RidgeCounts

Value

1to4,inclusive

5to8,inclusive

9to12,inclusive

13to16,inclusive

17to20,inclusive

21to24,inclusive

25andover

Theresultingvaluesinthisextensionarebroughtupintotheclassificationformuladirectlyabovethe
subsecondaryintheirrespectivepositions,therighthandbeingthenumerator,thelefthandbeingthe

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denominator.
Inadditiontotheextensionsalreadymentioned,fingerprintgroupsmaybedividedintomaleandfemale,
andbyage(eitherbyyearorbyarbitrarilysettinganagelimit,beyondwhichaprintbearingsuchanage
wouldbefiledseparatelyina"Reference"ora"PresumptiveDead"file).
InthefilesoftheFederalBureauofInvestigation,allprintsbearinganageof55through74arefiledin
the"Reference"groupandallprintsbearinganageof75yearsormorearefiledinthe"Presumptive
Dead"file.Persons75yearsofageorolder,inregardtocrime,maybeconsideredasgenerallyinactive
andthusarefiledas"PresumptiveDead."Suchagroupprovidesforremovingfromtheotherfilesthe
cardsconcerningthoseofwhomnonoticeiseverreceivedastodeath.
Aseparatefileshouldbemaintainedfordeceasedpersons,forpossiblefuturereference.
Aseparatefileshouldbemaintainedforallprintsbearingamputationsandwhichhaveanunequivocal
statementormarkingfromthecontributortothateffect.
Permanentscarsalsomaybeutilizedforthispurpose,givingthreemoregroupings:thoseprintshaving
permanentscarsintherighthand,thosehavingascarintheleft,andthoseinwhichscarsappearinboth
hands.Aseparatefilemaybemaintainedformutilatedprintswhetherornotthepermanentscardivision
isused.Thisisusuallycomposedofprintssobadlymutilated,orsomutilatedaboutthecoresanddeltas,
thatintentionalmutilationissuspected.
[Pg98]

CHAPTERV
ClassificationofScarredPatternsAmputationsMissingat
Birth

Classificationofscarredpatterns
Emphasisshouldbeplaceduponthenecessityforfullyreferencingallscarredpatterns.Inconnectionwith
theirproperclassification,thefollowingrulesshouldbeobserved:
Whenanimpressionissoscarredthatneitherthegeneraltypeofpatternnortheridgetracingorcount
canbedeterminedwithreasonableaccuracy,theimpressionshouldbegivenboththegeneraltypevalue
andthesubclassificationvalueofthecorrespondingfingeroftheotherhand.
Whenanimpressionispartiallyscarred,i.e.,largescarsaboutthecoresothatthegeneraltypecannot
bedeterminedwithreasonableaccuracy,buttheridgesallowreasonablyaccuratesubclassificationsby
ridgetracingsorcounting,theimpressionshouldbegiventheprimaryvalueofthepatternofthe
correspondingfingerandthesubclassificationvalueasindicatedbytheridgesofpartiallyscarred
impressions.
Whenanimpressionispartiallyscarredandthegeneraltypeofpatterncanbedeterminedwith
reasonableaccuracy,buttheridgescannotbetracedorcountedsoastofallwithintheproper
subsecondaryclassification,theimpressionshouldbegiventheridgecountortracingvalueofthe
correspondingfingeroftheotherhand,ifthecorrespondingfingerisofthesamegeneraltype.Ifthe
correspondingfingerisnotofthesamegeneraltype,thescarredimpressionshouldbegiventheprobable
valueandreferencedtoallotherpossibilities.
Whenanimpressionissoscarredthatneitherthegeneraltypeofpatternnortheridgetracingorcount
canbedeterminedwithreasonableaccuracy,anditsohappensthatthecorrespondingfingeroftheother
handissimilarlyscarred,bothpatternsaregiventhearbitraryvalueofwhorlswithmeetingtracings.
Infigure355,thepatternisentirelyobliterated.Itcouldhavebeenasmallwhorl,asmallulnarorradial
loop,anarch,oratentedarch.Iftheoppositefingerwereanarchortentedarchorwhorl,this
impressionwouldbeclassifiedasarch,tentedarch,orwhorl(withthesametracing).Iftheopposite
fingerwereasmallcountloop,thiswouldbeclassifiedasaloopofthesamecount.Iftheoppositefinger
werealargecountloop,thisimpressionwouldbegiventhecountoftheoppositefingereventhoughit
couldneverhavehadthatcount.Iftheopposite[Pg99]fingerwerescarredinthesamefashionorwere
amputatedormissing,bothimpressionswouldbeclassifiedaswhorlswithmeetingtracings.

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[Fig.355]

Infigure356,thegeneraltypeofthepatterncouldhavebeenloop(ulnarifintherighthand)orwhorl.If
theoppositefingerwereawhorlthiswouldbeclassifiedasawhorl,andwiththesametracing.Ifaradial
loopwereopposite,thiswouldbeclassifiedasanulnarloop(ifintherighthand).Theridgecountcanbe
obtainedwithafairdegreeofaccuracy.Ifanarchortentedarchwereopposite,thisimpressionwouldbe
classifiedasaloopbecauseitlooksasifithadbeenaloop.

[Fig.356]

Infigure357,theridgecountcannotbedeterminedaccuratelybutitwouldbeclassifiedasaloop,no
matterwhattheoppositefingermightbe.Iftheoppositefingerwerealoopwithacountoffrom6to17,
this[Pg100]impressionwouldbegiventhatcount.Ifthecountoftheoppositeloopwerelessormore
than6to17,thecountforthisfingerwouldbegivenIorOinthesubsecondaryclassificationdepending
uponwhethertheoppositefingerwasIorO,butwouldnotbegivenlessthan6normorethan17counts
asitspossibilityislimitedtothosecounts.

[Fig.357]

Apatternwithascarsimilartoeitherscarinfigures358and359wouldalwaysbegivenaloopasitcould
beseenreadilythattherewasnopossibilityofitshavingbeenanyothertypeofpattern.

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[Figs.358359]

Classificationofamputationsandfingersmissingatbirth
Whenoneormoreamputationsappearuponafingerprintcard,itmaybefiledseparatelyfromthose
havingnoamputationsinordertofacilitatesearching.Itistobenotedthatbeforeitmaybefiledinthe
amputationgroup,thecardmustcontainadefiniteandunequivocalstatementormarkingbythe
contributortotheeffectthatacertainfingerorfingershavebeenamputatedorweremissingatbirth.
Thispreventstheappearanceonlatercardsofimpressionsoffingersthoughttohavebeenamputatedbut
whichinrealityweremerelyinjuredandbandagedwhenpreviousprintsweresubmitted.
Ifonefingerisamputated,itisgivenaclassificationidenticalwiththatoftheoppositefinger,including
patternandridgecount,ortracing,andreferencedtoeveryotherpossibleclassification.
Iftwoormorefingersareamputated,theyaregivenclassificationsidenticalwiththefingersopposite,
withnoadditionalreferences.
Iftwoamputatedfingersareoppositeeachother,botharegiventheclassificationofwhorlswithmeeting
tracings.
Whenafingerprintcardbearinganotationoffingersmissingatbirthisclassified,themissingfingers
shouldbetreatedasamputationsinthattheyaregiventheidenticalclassificationsoftheoppositefingers
andarefiledintheamputationgroup.Asthesefingersaremissingfromapre[Pg101]natalcause,they
wouldhavealwaysreceivedtheidenticalclassificationoftheoppositefingeronanypreviousoccasion.
Ifall10fingersareamputatedormissingatbirth,theclassificationwillbe
M32WMMM.
M32WMMM
Ifbothhandsareamputatedormissingatbirth,thefootprintsshouldbetakenasthey,too,bearfriction
ridgeswithdefinitepatterns.AfootprintfileismaintainedbytheFBIforidentificationpurposesin
instanceswherethesubjecthasallfingersamputatedormissingatbirth.
Partiallyamputatedfingersoftenpresentverycomplexproblemsandcarefulconsiderationshouldbe
giventothem.Thequestionoftenarisesastotheappropriategroupsinwhichtheyshouldbefiled,i.e.,
amputationsornonamputations.Asnodefiniterulemaybeapplied,itisamatterofexperienceand
judgmentastotheirpreferredclassification.
Inthoseinstancesinwhichapartiallyamputatedfingerhashalformorethanhalfofthepatternarea
missing,itisgiventheclassificationoftheoppositefinger.Itwillbefiledintheamputationgroupunder
theclassificationoftheoppositefingerandreferencesearchesshouldbeconductedinallpossible
classificationsinthenonamputationgroups.Iftwoormoreofthefingersareamputatedinthismanner,
theyaregiventheclassificationoftheoppositefingersonlyandaregovernedbytherulesconcerning
amputations.
Generally,a"tipamputation,"oronewhichhaslessthanhalfofthefirstjointamputated,willalwaysbe
printedinthefuture.Therefore,apartiallyamputatedfingerwithlessthanhalfofthepatternarea

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missingisclassifiedasitappearsandisreferencedtotheoppositefinger.Itwillbefiledinthe
nonamputationgroupandreferencesearchesshouldbeconductedundertheclassificationoftheopposite
finger,andintheamputationgroup.Itmustbereferencedthiswayeventhoughitnevercouldhave
originallyhadtheclassificationoftheoppositefinger.

Classificationofbandagedorimprintedfingers
Asnotedinthechapterpertainingto"ProblemsintheTakingofInkedFingerprints,"anindicationtothe
effect"recentlyinjured,bandaged"isnotsufficienttofileafingerprintcard.Itisobviousthata
fingerprintcardbearingthesenotationscannotbeproperlyclassifiedorfiled.Iftheinjuryistemporary,
andifpossible,theseprintsshouldnotbetakenuntilafterhealing.
Iffingersareinjuredtotheextentthatitisimpossibletosecureinkedimpressionsbyspecialinking
devices,theunprintedfingersaregivenclassificationsidenticalwiththeclassificationsofthefingers
opposite.Ifonlyonefingerislacking,referencesearchesshouldbeconductedineverypossible
classification.Ifmorethanonefingerislacking,theyshouldbegiventheclassificationsoftheopposite
fingers,butnoreference[Pg102]searchesshouldbeconducted.Iftherearetwolacking,oppositeeach
other,theyshouldbeclassifiedaswhorlswithmeetingtracings.
If,however,inthecaseofaninjuredfinger,observationismadeoftheridgesofthefingeritselfand
indicatedontheprint,thisclassificationshouldbe,insofarasitispossible,utilized.Forexample,a
missingimpressionlabeled"ulnarloopofabout8counts"bytheindividualtakingtheprints,shouldbe
searchedinthesubsecondaryasbothIandObutshouldnotbereferencedasapatternotherthanaloop.
Ifthefingerisusedasthefinal,orkey,itshouldbesearchedenoughcountsoneachsideof8toallow
forpossibleerrorinthecountingbythecontributorusinghisnakedeye.
[Pg103]

CHAPTERVI
FilingSequence

Thesequencemustbearrangedproperlyatalltimestomakepossiblethemostaccuratework.Printsare
sequencedandfiledinthisorder,accordingto:
I.Primary:
1
1

to

32.
32

Intheprimaryclassificationthedenominatorremainsconstantuntilallnumeratorfigureshavebeen
exhaustedfrom1to32.Allprintswiththeprimary1over1arefiledtogether.Thesearefollowedby2
over1,3over1,4over1,etc.,until32over1isreached.Thenextprimaryis1over2,then2over2,
etc.,until32over2isreached.Eventually,throughtheuseofeachdenominatorfigureandthe
eliminationofeachnumeratorovereachdenominator,the32over32primarywillbereached.
Eveninthesmallercollectionsoffingerprints,itwillbefoundthatthegroupswhicharearrangedunder
theindividualprimariesfiledinsequence,from1over1to32over32,willbetoovoluminousfor
expeditioussearching.
II.Secondary:
A.Secondarysmalllettergroup:
Ar
Ar

to

W3r.
W3r

Mostintricateofalltheindividualsequencesisthesmalllettersequence.Itislessdifficultifthefollowing
methodisused:
1.Sequenceaccordingtothepatternsintheindexfingers,grouped
A
A

to

W.
W

Whensmalllettersarepresent,thereare25possiblecombinationswhichcanappearintheindexfingers.
Theyareasfollows:
ATRUW

AAAAA
ATRUW

TTTTT

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ATRUW

RRRRR
ATURW

UUUUU
ATURW

WWWWW
[Pg104]
2.Withineachgroupsequence:
a.Thedenominator,by
(1)Countofthesmallletters(lesserprecedingthegreater).
(2)Positionofthesmallletters(thosetotheleftprecedingthosetotheright).
(3)Typeofsmallletter(sequencea,t,r).
b.Thenumerator,by
(1)Count.
(2)Position.
(3)Type.
Thus
A
A

precedes

T
A

precedes

rAt

A3t

precedes

aA

Aa

A
At

precedes

A
Ar

aA
aAr

precedes

aAa
aAr

rA
aA2a

precedes

Ar
aA2a

aAtat
tA3r

precedes

aAtar
tA3r

[Pg105]
ThefollowingtablerepresentsthefullsequenceofthedenominatorofthegrouphavingAoverAinthe
indexfingers.Thefullsequenceaslistedmaybeusedasthenumeratorforeachdenominatorassetout
below.FollowingthegroupwithAoverAintheindexfingersisthegroupwithToverAintheindex
fingers,thesequencebeingthesameotherwise.ThenRoverA,UoverA,AoverTtorW3roverrW3r.

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A

tAra

aA2at tA2tr

aA

tArt

aA2ar tAtra

tA

tA2r

aAata tAtrt

rA

rA2a aAa2t tAt2r

Aa

rAat

aAatr tAr2a

At

rAar

aAara tArat

Ar

rAta

aAart tArar

aAa

rA2t

aAa2r tArta

aAt

rAtr

aAt2a tAr2t

aAr

rAra

aAtat

tAa

rArt

aAtar tA2ra

tAt

rA2r

aA2ta tA2rt

tAr

A3a

aA3t

rAa

A2at aA2tr rA3a

rAt

A2ar aAtra rA2at

rAr

Aata aAtrt

A2a

Aa2t aAt2r rAata

Aat

Aatr

Aar

Aara aArat rAatr

Ata

Aart

A2t

Aa2r aArta rAart

Atr

At2a aAr2t rAa2r

Ara

Atat

aArtr

Art

Atar

aA2ra rAtat

A2r

A2ta aA2rt rAtar

tArtr

tA3r

rA2ar

aAr2a rAa2t

aArar rAara

rAt2a

aA2a A3t

aA3r

rA2ta

aAat A2tr

tA3a

rA3t

aAar Atra

tA2at

rA2tr

aAta Atrt

tA2ar rAtra

aA2t At2r

tAata

rAtrt

Ar2a tAa2t

rAt2r

aAtr

aAra Arat

tAatr

aArt

tAara rArat

Arar

rAr2a

aA2r Arta

tAart

rArar

tA2a Ar2t

tAa2r rArta

tAat

Artr

tAt2a

rAr2t

tAar

A2ra tAtat

rArtr

tAta

A2rt

tAtar

rA2ra

tA2t

A3r

tA2ta

rA2rt

tAtr

aA3a tA3t

rA3r

[Pg106]

B.Secondaryloopandwhorlgroup:
R
R

to

W.
W

Whennosmalllettersarepresent,thereare9possiblecombinationswhichcanappearintheindex
fingers.Theyareasfollows:
RUW

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RRR
RUW

UUU
RUW

WWW
Atthispointitiswelltonotethatitmaybepreferableinsomeinstanceswheresmallfilesareconcerned
touseonlyaportionoftheclassificationformulainthefilingsequence.Insuchcases,onlythosepartsof
thefilingsequencewhicharenecessaryshouldbeusedalongwiththefinalandkey.
III.Subsecondary:
III
III

to

OOO.
OOO

Thesequenceofthesubsecondaryisasfollows:
IIIIIMIIOIMIIMMIMOIOI

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IOMIOOMIIMIMMIOMMIMMM

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
MMOMOIMOMMOOOIIOIMOIO

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
OMIOMMOMOOOIOOMOOOOOO,
etc.,to
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIOOO
eachnumeratorinturnbecomingthedenominatorforthecompletesequenceofnumeratorsaslisted
above.
IV.Major:
Thefollowingsequenceisusedwhenloopsappearinboththumbs:
SMLSMLSML

SSSMMMLLL
Whenwhorlsappearinboththumbsthesequenceis:
IMOIMOIMO

IIIMMMOOO
Whenawhorlappearsintherightthumbandaloopintheleft,thesequenceis:
IMOIMOIMO

SSSMMMLLL
[Pg107]
Whenaloopappearsintherightthumbandawhorlintheleft,thesequenceis:
SMLSMLSML

IIIMMMOOO
V.SecondSubsecondary:
SSS
SSS

to

LLL.
LLL

Thesequenceforfilingthesecondsubsecondaryisasfollows:
SSSSSMSSLSMSSMMSML

SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SLSSLMSLLMSSMSMMSL

SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS

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MMSMMMMMLMLSMLMMLL

SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
LSSLSMLSLLMSLMMLML

SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
LLSLLMLLL,LLL,
etc.,to
SSSSSSSSSLLL
eachgroupofthenumeratorbecominginturnthedenominatorforthecompletesequenceofnumerators
aslistedabove.
VI.WCDXExtensions:
W
W

to

xX3x.
xX3x

Thesequenceisasfollows:Printswithc,d,orxinanyfingerotherthantheindexfingersconstitutethe
smalllettergroup.Asampleofthesequencefollows:
WcWcxWdWdx
cWcWdxWxWxc
dWcWxW2cWxd
xWdWcWcdW2x
WcdWdWcxcW2c
WddWWdccWcd
WxxWcW2dcWcx
Asmaybereadilyseen,thesequenceproceedsinthesamefashionasthea,t,r,smalllettersequence.
[Pg108]
VII.SpecialLoopExtensionusedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation:
111
111

to

777.
777

Thefollowingisapartialsequenceforfilingthisextension:
111112113114115116117

111111111111111111111
121122123124125126127

111111111111111111111
131132133134135136137

111111111111111111111
141142143144145146147

111111111111111111111
151152153154155156157

111111111111111111111
161162163164165166167

111111111111111111111
171172173174175176177777.
etc.,to
111111111111111111111777
Nomatterhowmanyofthesedivisionsmaybeused,theordershouldremainthesameandnomatter
howmanyofthesedivisionsareused,eachindividualgroupshouldbesequencedby:
VIII.Final:
Filedinnumericalsequencefrom1out.Forexample,assumethatthereare15printsinagrouphavinga
finalof14.Alloftheseshouldbefiledtogetherandfollowedbythoseprintsinthesamegrouphavinga
finalof15,etc.
IX.Key:
Allprintsappearinginadesignatedfinalgrouparearrangedbykeyinnumericalsequencefrom1out.For

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example,assumethatthereare5printsinagrouphavingakeyof14.Alloftheseshouldbefiled
togetherandfollowedbythoseprintsinthesamegrouphavingakeyof15,etc.
[Pg109]

CHAPTERVII
SearchingandReferencing

Searching
Whensearchingaprintthroughthefingerprintfilesinordertoestablishanidentification,itshouldbe
rememberedthatthefingerprintcardsarefiledinsuchawaythatallthoseprintshavingthesame
classificationaretogether.Thus,theprintbeingsearchediscomparedonlywiththegroupshavinga
comparableclassification,ratherthanwiththewholefile.
Afterlocatingthepropergroupclassification,thesearchershouldfixinhismindtheoneortwomost
outstandingcharacteristicsofthepatternsofthecurrentprintandlookforthemamongtheprintsinfile.
Ifaprintisfoundwhichhasacharacteristicresemblingoneuponthecurrentprint,thetwoprintsshould
beexaminedcloselytodetermineifidentical.Toavoidmakinganerroneousidentification,thesearcher
shouldbeexceedinglycarefultoascertainthattheprintsbeingcomparedareidenticalinallrespects
beforeidentifyingoneagainsttheother.
Toestablishidentity,itisnecessarytolocateseveralpointsofidentityamongthecharacteristicsofthe
prints.Thenumberofidenticalcharacteristicsislefttothediscretionoftheindividualbutheshouldbe
absolutelycertainthattheprintsareidenticalbeforetreatingthemassuch.Characteristicsneednot
appearwithinthepatternarea,sinceanyridgeformationisacceptable.Quiteoftenexcellentridgedetail
appearsinthesecondjointofthefinger.Thecharacteristicsusedtoestablishanidentificationareshown
infigure102.
Thefinalandthekeymaybeconsideredcontrolfiguresforsearchingprints.Theylimitthenumberof
printsitisnecessarytosearchinagrouptothoseprintshavingfinalsandkeyscloselyrelatedtothefinal
andkeyoftheprintbeingsearched.
Duetothepossibilityofvisualmisinterpretation,distortionbypressure,orpoorconditionoftheridge
detailoftheprintsinfile,itisadvisabletoallowamarginforsuchdiscrepancies.Exceptincaseswhere
theridgecountofthefinaland/orkeyisquestionableontheprintbeingsearched,thefollowingprocedure
isused:
Oftheprintswithinanygroupclassification,onlythoseprintsareexaminedwhichhaveafinalwithin2
ridgecountsoneachsideofthefinaloftheprintbeingsearched.Forexample,iftheprinttobesearched
hasafinalof17,allprintsbearingafinal15through19willbecomparedwithit.
Withinthefinalofanygroupclassification,onlythoseprintsare[Pg110]examinedwhichhaveakey
within2ridgecountsoneachsideofthekeyoftheprintbeingsearched.Forexample,iftheprinttobe
searchedhasakeyof20,allprintsbearingakeyof18through22willbecomparedwithit.
Infigure352,itwillbenotedthatthereare17ridgecountsappearingintherightlittlefingerandthis
numberisusedasthefinal.Itwillalsobenotedthatthereisaloopof24ridgecountsintherightthumb
andthisnumberisusedasthekeyinasmuchasitisthefirstloop.Inthisexample,theprintissearched
inthegroupclassificationwhichhasfinalsrangingfrom15through19.Withinthisgroupoffinalsthe
printswhichhavekeysrangingfrom22through26areexamined.

Referencing
Toomuchstresscannotbeplaceduponthenecessityofreferencingquestionablepatterns,whetheritbe
intheinterpretationofthetypeofpattern,theridgecount,orthetracing.
Thefactorswhichmakeitnecessaryare:variationinindividualjudgmentandeyesight,theamountofink
used,theamountofpressureusedintakingtheprints,thedifferenceinwidthoftherolledimpressions,
skindiseases,wornridgesduetoageoroccupations,temporaryandpermanentscars,bandagedfingers,
crippledhands,andamputation.
Forthehighestdegreeofaccuracy,allrolledimpressionsshouldbecheckedbytheplainimpressions,
whichgenerallyarenotdistortedbypressure.Thisalsohelpspreventerrorcausedbythereversalor
mixingoftherolledimpressionsoutoftheirproperorder.Forthesamereason,asmuchofthecounting
andtracingshouldbedoneintheplainimpressionsasitispossibletodo.
Ifthereisanydoubtastowhichoftwoormoreclassificationsshouldbeassignedtoagivenpattern,itis
giventhepreferredclassificationandreferencesearchesareconductedinallotherpossible
classifications.Forexample,ifonaprintwiththepreferredclassification
1A
1Aa
itisquestionablewhethertheleftmiddlefingershouldbeaplainarch,atentedarch,oraradialloop,the

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printissearchedinthe
1A
1Aa
group,andreferencesearchesareconductedinthe
1A
1At
and
1A
1Ar
groups.Forfurtherillustration,aprintisgivenapreferredprimaryclassificationof
1,
1
althoughtheridgedetailontherightthumbissoformedasto[Pg111]resembleawhorl.Thesearchis
completedfirstinthepreferred
1
1
primaryclassificationandareferencesearchisthenconductedinthe
1
17
primary.
Allridgecountsthatare"linecounts,"i.e.,whenonemoreoronelesscountwouldchangethedesignation
oftheloopfromItoOorfromStoM,etc.,mustbesearchedinbothgroups.Forexample,inaprint
classified
16M1UIII10,
M1UIII
iftheridgecountoftherightmiddlefingeris10andthecountintherightthumbis16(asindicatedby
thekey),theprintwouldbesearchedfirstasclassified,thenreferencesearcheswouldbeconductedin
thefollowinggroups:
M1UIOI,
M1UIII

L1UIII,
M1UIII

and

L1UIOI
M1UIII

Whenthereisdoubtconcerningthetracingofawhorl,itshouldbetreatedinthesamefashion.For
example,ifintheclassification
O5U
I17U
doubtexistedastowhetherthetracingoftherightthumbmightnotbeameetingtracing,theprintwould
besearchedasclassified,andareferencesearchwouldbeconductedin
M5U.
I17U
Ifthereisnodoubtconcerningtheridgecountusedforthefinal,itisenoughtosearchoutofthegroup
onlythoseprintscontainingafinalwithin2ridgecountsoneachsideofthefinalontheprintbeing
searched.When,however,thereisdoubtconcerningtheridgecountofthefinal,theprintshouldbe
searched2ridgecountsoneachsideofthetwoextremesofpossibility.Forexample,ifitwerepossible
forafinaltobe6,7,8,or9ridgecounts,theprintshouldbesearchedthroughthatpartofthegroup
bearingfinalsoffrom4through11.
Theaboveexplanationpertainingtothefinalalsoappliestothekey.
Allprintsbearingamputationsshouldbereferencedtothenecessaryfilescontainingprintsotherthan
amputationsforreferencesearches.
Ininstanceswhereonlyonefingerisamputated,referencesearchesareconductedinallpossible

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classifications,includingallpossibleridgecountsortracings.Forexample,aprintcontainingthe
classification:
AMP

4S1UIII6
S1UIII
withtherightindexfingeramputated,theleftindexfingerbeinganulnarloop,wouldbesearchedfirstin
theamputationgroupfortheclassification,thenreferencesearcheswouldbeconductedinthefollowing
groupsinthenonamputationfiles:[Pg112]
S1UIII
S1UIII

S1TII

S1UIII

S17WIII
S1UIII

S1UOII
S1UIII

S1RIII

S1UIII

S17WMII
S1UIII

S1AII
S1UIII

S1ROII

S1UIII

S17WOII
S1UIII

Allprintsbearingunprintedorbadlycrippledfingersarefiledinthenonamputationfiles,andreference
searchesareconductedintheamputationgroup.
Forthepurposeofdeterminingifitisfeasibletoconductreferencesearchesinallpossibleclassifications,
themethodofreferencingamputationsisappliedtocompletelyscarredpatterns(Chaptertitled"Scarred
PatternsAmputationsMissingatBirth").Forexample,aprintbearingthepreferredclassification:
13O17WOOO14
L17UOOI
withtheleftmiddlefingercompletelyscarred,therightmiddlefingerbeinganulnarloopwitharidge
countof13,wouldbesearchedfirstinthegroupforthatclassification,thenreferencesearcheswouldbe
conductedinthefollowinggroups:
O17WOOO
L17UOII

O17W
L17Ur

O19WOOO
L17UOOI

O17W
L17Ua

O19WOOO
L17UOII

O17W
L17Ut

O19WOOO
L17UOMI

Thereferencingofpartialscarsisaprobleminwhichmanyfactorsarepresent.Afullexplanationofthe
scars,theirpreferredclassificationsandtheirreferencesismadeinthechapter,"ClassificationofScarred
PatternsAmputationsMissingatBirth."
Whentheageextensionisutilizedanda"Reference"groupanda"PresumptiveDead"filearemaintained,
itissuggestedthatageneralallowanceof5yearsbeconsideredtoallowforadiscrepancyinprints
bearingtheagesof50yearsorolder.
InthefilesoftheFederalBureauofInvestigationthevariousagegroupsareasfollows:
154

"Regular"file.

5574

"Reference"file.

75andover "PresumptiveDead"file.
Referencesearchesfortheprecedinggroupsareconductedinthefollowingmanner:[Pg113]
5054

Referencedto"Reference"file.

7074

Referencedto"PresumptiveDead"fileand"Regular"file.

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7579

Referencedto"Reference"fileand"Regular"file.

80andolder Referencedto"Regular"fileonly.
Ifnoageisgiven,itshouldbesearchedfirstintheregularfileandreferencesearchesshouldbe
conductedinthe"Reference"groupandthe"PresumptiveDead"file.
Whenseparatemaleandfemalefilesaremaintained,theremaybedoubtastothesexofasubjectdue
toadiscrepancybetweenthesexindicatedandthenameandthedescriptionandpicture.Insuchcasetry
todeterminethesexfromthedescriptionandthesizeoftheprints,thenreferencetheprinttotheother
file.APhotostatcopycanbemadeandplacedintheotherfileuntilthetruesexcanbedetermined.
[Pg114]

CHAPTERVIII
HowToTakeInkedFingerprints

Theequipmentrequiredfortakingfingerprintsconsistsofaninkingplate,acardholder,printer'sink
(heavyblackpaste),andaroller.Thisequipmentissimpleandinexpensive.
Inordertoobtainclear,distinctfingerprints,itisnecessarytospreadtheprinter'sinkinathineven
coatingonasmallinkingplate.Arollersimilartothatusedbyprintersinmakinggalleyproofsisbest
adaptedforuseasaspreader.Itssizeisamatterdeterminedbyindividualneedsandpreferences
however,arollerapproximately6incheslongand2inchesindiameterhasbeenfoundtobevery
satisfactory.Theserollersmaybeobtainedfromafingerprintsupplycompanyoraprintingsupplyhouse.
Aninkingplatemaybemadefromahard,rigid,scratchresistantmetalplate6incheswideby14inches
longorbyinlayingablockofwoodwithapieceofglassonefourthofaninchthick,6incheswide,and14
incheslong.Theglassplatebyitselfwouldbesuitable,butitshouldbefixedtoabaseinordertoprevent
breakage.Theinkingsurfaceshouldbeelevatedtoasufficientheighttoallowthesubject'sforearmto
assumeahorizontalpositionwhenthefingersarebeinginked.Forexample,theinkingplatemaybe
placedontheedgeofacounteroratableofcounterheight.Insuchaposi[Pg115]tion,theoperatorhas
greaterassuranceofavoidingaccidentalstrainorpressureonthefingersandshouldbeabletoprocure
moreuniformimpressions.Theinkingplateshouldalsobeplacedsothatthesubject'sfingerswhichare
notbeingprintedcanbemadeto"swing"offthetabletopreventtheirinterferingwiththeinkingprocess.
Afingerprintstandsuchasthatshowninfigure360maybepurchasedfromfingerprintsupplycompanies.
Thestandismadeofhardwoodandmeasuresapproximately2feetinlength,1footinheightandwidth.
Thisstandcontainsacardholderandachromestripwhichisusedastheinkingplate.Twocompartments
usedtostoreblankfingerprintcardsandsuppliescompletethestand.Thisequipmentshouldbe
supplementedbyacleansingfluidandnecessaryclothssothatthesubject'sfingersmaybecleaned
beforerollingandtheinkingplatecleanedafterusing.Denaturedalcoholandcommerciallyavailable
cleaningfluidsaresuitableforthispurpose.

[Fig.360]

Thefingerprintsshouldbetakenon8by8inchcardstock,asthissizehasgenerallybeenadoptedbylaw
enforcementbecauseoffacilityinfilinganddesirabilityofuniformity.Figure361showsfingerprints
properlytakenononeofthestandardpersonnelidentificationcardsfromtheFederalBureau[Pg116]of
Investigation.Fromthisillustration,itisevidenttherearetwotypesofimpressionsinvolvedinthe
processoftakingfingerprints.Theupper10printsaretakenindividuallythumb,index,middle,ring,and
littlefingersofeachhandintheordernamed.Thesearecalled"rolled"impressions,thefingersbeing
rolledfromsidetosideinordertoobtainallavailableridgedetail.Thesmallerimpressionsatthebottom

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ofthecardaretakenbysimultaneouslyprintingallofthefingersofeachhandandthenthethumb
withoutrolling.Thesearecalled"plain"or"fixed"impressionsandareusedasacheckuponthesequence
andaccuracyoftherolledimpressions.Rolledimpressionsmustbetakencarefullyinordertoinsurethat
anaccuratefingerprintclassificationcanbeobtainedbyexaminationofthevariouspatterns.Itisalso
necessarythateachfocalpoint(coresandalldeltas)beclearlyprintedinorderthataccurateridgecounts
andtracingsmaybeobtained.

[Fig.361]
[Enlarge]

Inpreparingtotakeasetoffingerprints,asmalldaubofinkshouldbeplacedontheinkingglassorslab
andthoroughlyrolleduntilaverythin,evenfilmcoverstheentiresurface.Thesubjectshouldstandin
frontofandatforearm'slengthfromtheinkingplate.Intakingtherolledimpressions,thesideofthe
bulbofthefingerisplacedupontheinkingplateandthefingerisrolledtotheothersideuntilitfacesthe
oppositedirection.Careshouldbeexercisedsothebulbofeachfingerisinkedevenlyfromthetipto
belowthefirstjoint.Bypressingthefingerlightlyonthecardandrollinginexactlythesamemanner,a
clearrolledimpressionofthefingersurfacemaybeobtained.Itisbettertoinkandprinteachfinger
separatelybeginningwiththerightthumbandthen,inorder,theindex,middle,ring,andlittlefingers.
(Stamppadink,printingink,ordinarywritingink,orothercoloredinksarenotsuitableforusein
fingerprintworkastheyaretoolightorthinanddonotdryquickly.)
Ifconsiderationisgiventheanatomicalorbonystructureoftheforearmwhentakingrolledimpressions,
moreuniformimpressionswillbeobtained.Thetwoprincipalbonesoftheforearmareknownasthe
radiusandtheulna,theformerbeingonthethumbsideandthelatteronthelittlefingersideofthearm.
Assuggestedbyitsname,theradiusbonerevolvesfreelyabouttheulnaasaspokeofawheelaboutthe
hub.Inordertotakeadvantageofthenaturalmovementinmakingfingerimpressions,thehandshould
berotatedfromtheawkwardtotheeasyposition.Thisrequiresthatthethumbsberolledtowardandthe
fingersawayfromthecenterofthesubject'sbody.Thisprocessrelievesstrainandleavesthefingers
relaxeduponthecompletionofrollingsothattheymaybeliftedeasilyfromthecardwithoutdangerof
slippingwhichsmudgesandblurstheprints.Figures362and363showthepropermethodofholdinga
fingerforinkingandprintingarolledimpression.

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[Figs.362363]

Thedegreeofpressuretobeexertedininkingandtakingrolledimpressionsisimportant,andthismay
bestbedeterminedthroughexperienceandobservation.Itisquiteimportant,however,thatthesubject
becautionedtorelaxandrefrainfromtryingtohelptheoperatorbyexertingpressureasthisprevents
theoperatorfromgagingtheamountneeded.Amethodwhich[Pg117]ishelpfulineffectingthe
relaxationofasubject'shandisthatofinstructinghimtolookatsomedistantobjectandnottolookat
hishands.Thepersontakingthefingerprintsshouldstandtotheleftofthesubjectwhenprintingtheright
hand,andtotherightofthesubjectwhenprintingthelefthand.Inanycase,thepositionsofbothsubject
andoperatorshouldbenaturalandrelaxedifthebestfingerprintsaretobeobtained.
Toobtain"plain"impressions,allthefingersoftherighthandshouldbepressedlightlyupontheinking
plate,thenpressedsimultaneouslyuponthelowerrighthandcornerofthecardinthespaceprovided.
Thelefthandshouldbesimilarlyprinted,andthethumbsofbothhandsshouldbeinkedandprinted,
withoutrolling,inthespaceprovided.Figures364and365showthecorrectmethodoftakingplain
impressionsofthefingersandthumbs.

[Figs.364365]
[Pg118]

CHAPTERIX
ProblemsintheTakingofInkedFingerprints

Fromtimetotimevariousproblemsariseconcerningthetakingofinkedimpressions.Itisbelievedthat
theseproblemscanbedividedintofourphases:
Mechanicaloperation
Temporarydisabilities
Permanentdisabilities

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General

Mechanicaloperation
Inordertotakegoodfingerprints,thenecessaryequipmentshouldbemaintainedinaneatandorderly
manneratalltimes.
Poorimpressionsareusuallycausedbyoneofthefollowingfaults:
1.Theuseofpoor,thin,orcoloredink,resultinginimpressionswhicharetoolightandfaint,orinwhich
theinkhasrun,obliteratingtheridges.Thebestresultswillbeobtainedbyusingheavyblackprinter's
ink,apastewhichshouldnotbethinnedbeforeusing.Thisinkwilldryquicklyandwillnotblurorsmear
withhandling.
2.Failuretocleanthoroughlytheinkingapparatusandthefingersofforeignsubstancesandperspiration,
causingtheappearanceoffalsemarkingsandthedisappearanceofcharacteristics.Windshieldcleaner,
gasoline,benzine,andalcoholaregoodcleansingagents,butanyfluidmaybeused.Inwarmweather
eachfingershouldbewipeddryofperspirationbeforeprinting.
3.Failuretorollthefingersfullyfromonesidetotheotherandtoinkthewholeareafromtiptobelow
thefirstfissure.Theresultofthisisthatthefocalpointsoftheimpressions(thedeltasorcores)donot
appear.Thewholefingersurfacefromjointtotipandfromsidetosideshouldappear.
4.Theuseoftoomuchink,obliteratingorobscuringtheridges.Ifprinter'sinkisused,justatouchofthe
tubeendtotheinkingplatewillsufficeforseveralsetsofprints.Itshouldbespreadtoathin,evenfilm
byrolling.
5.Insufficientink,resultinginridgestoolightandfainttobecountedortraced.[Pg119]
6.Allowingthefingerstosliportwist,resultinginsmears,blurs,andfalseappearingpatterns.The
fingersshouldbeheldlightlywithouttoomuchpressure.Thesubjectshouldbewarnednottotrytohelp
buttoremainpassive.
Theillustrationsnumbered366through377showtheresultsofthesefaultsandshowalsothesame
fingerstakeninthepropermanner.

Illegibleinkedprints
AbriefreviewoftheproblemsofclassifyingandfilingafingerprintcardintheFBIwillhelptoclarifythe
FBI'spolicyconcerningtheprocessingof"bad"inkedfingerprints.
Thecriminalfingerprintfilecontainsthefingerprintsofmillionsofindividuals.Thecompleteclassification
formulaisused.Toobtainit,eachinkedfingermustshowalltheessentialcharacteristics.Becauseofthe
immensevolumeofprintsithasbecomenecessarytoextendthenormalclassificationformula.
Toillustratethispoint:
dWdwc
xCdwc
O32WOOO18
I32WIII
Inordertosubdividethe32over32primarystillfurther,theridgecountofthewhorloftherightlittle
fingerisusedtoobtainafinalclassification.Theextensionabovethenormalclassificationformula
indicatesthateachwhorlisclassifiedastothetypenamely,plainwhorl(W),doubleloop(D),central
pocketloop(C),andaccidental(X).Accordingly,itisnotenoughfortheFBIIdentificationDivisionto
ascertainthegeneralwhorlpatterntype,butthedeltasandcoremustshowinordertoobtaintheridge
tracing,thetypeofwhorl,andalso,insomeinstances,theridgecount.ThecompleteWCDXextensionis
outlinedinChapterVI.
Figures366to377aresomeexamplesofimproperlyandproperlytakeninkedfingerprints.

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[Figs.366377]

Anexaminationoffigure372showsthatitisawhorl.Inordertoclassifytheridgetracingaccurately,
however,sothatthefingerprintcardcanbeplacedinthecorrectclassification,theleftdeltamustshow.
Theapproximateridgetracingforthewhorlinfigure372wouldbeMeeting.Anexaminationofthe
properlytakenfingerprintinfigure373indicatesthatthecorrectridgetracingisInner.Itfollowsthatthe
patterninfigure372wouldnothavebeenplacedintheproperplaceinfile.
[Pg121]
Thecorrectwhorltracingisneededtoobtainthecompletesubsecondaryandthemajorclassifications.

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Itmaybenotedthatbothdeltasarepresentinfigure374.Thiswouldenablethetechnicalexpertto
ascertainthecorrectridgetracing,Outer.Inthecoreofthewhorl,however,thereisaheavyamountof
inkwhichmakesitimpossibletodeterminethetypeofwhorlwithanydegreeofaccuracy.Ifonewereto
hazardaguess,itwouldappeartobeaplainwhorl.Actually,thecorrecttypeofwhorl,adoubleloop,is
clearlyvisibleinfigure375.
Itcanbeascertainedthatthepatterninfigure376isaloop,butanaccurateridgecountcannotbe
obtainedbecausetheleftdeltadoesnot[Pg122]appear.Theapproximateridgecountofthisloopis14to
16.Thisapproximationissufficientforafingerprintexperttoplacethisloopinthe"O"groupofanyfinger
ofthesubsecondary.Thecorrectridgecountofthisloopis19,anditappearsinillustration377.The
approximateridgecountisnotsufficienttoplacethisprintproperlyinthelargefilesoftheFBIbecausein
certaingeneralcompleteclassificationformulastheaccurateridgecountisneededtoobtainanextension.
Theseextensionsuseasmallergroupingofridgecountstoformavaluationtable,andinthisway,differ
fromthelargergroupingofridgecountswhichformthebasisofthesubsecondaryclassification.These
extensionsarecalledthesecondsubsecondaryandthespecialloopextensionandareoutlinedinchapter
VI.
TherearetwoadditionalpointswhichillustratetheFBI'sneedforthedelta,ridges,andcoretoshow
clearlyinloops.Thefirstpointissetforth:theridgecountoftheloopmaybeneededtoobtainthekey
classification.Thekeyclassificationisanactualridgecount,andnovaluationtableisusedtoobtaina
subdivision.Thekeyclassificationisusedasanintegralpartofthefingerprintfilingsystem.Thesecond
pointisasfollows:theridgecountmaybeneededtoobtainthefinalclassification.Thefinalclassification
isanactualridgecount,andnovaluationtableisusedtoobtainasubdivision.Thefinalclassificationis
usedasanintegralpartofthefingerprintfilingsystem.
Thefollowingarejustafewexamplestoillustratethecompletenessoftheclassificationformulausedin
theFBIfingerprintfile:[Pg123]
12

OIO

IOI

11

Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final

17

aW

IIO

OII

Key
Primary SmallLetter Subsecondary Final

Secondary

Ua

II

III

Key Major Primary SmallLetter (Subsecondary Final

Secondary
Extension)

SML
SML

IOO

17

IOO

(Second
Subsecondary)
14

Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary

Final

245
332

(SpecialLoop
Extension)

14

IOO

16

OII

Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary

Final

15

29

IOO

28

OOI

19

Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final

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TheseseveralexamplesshouldhelptoillustratetheFBI'sextendedclassificationformulasforclassifying
andfilingfingerprints.[Pg124]Thelargercollectionoffingerprintsmustofnecessitycallforamore
detailedanalysisofallfingerprintcharacteristicdetails.Thecloserexaminationtoobtainfurther
fingerprintsubdivisionsisdependentontenlegibleinkedimpressions.
Theidentificationofficerwillunderstandtheproblemsofaccuratelyclassifyingandfilingfingerprintcards.
HeknowsthereislittlevalueinplacingafingerprintcardintheFBI'sfileswithonlyanapproximateoran
inaccurateclassification.
EveryfingerprintcardfiledintheFBI'sfileisofvaluetotheparticularlawenforcementagencywhich
forwardedit,aswellastoallotherlawenforcementagencieswhichrelyonitsbeingcorrectlyclassified
andfiled.

Temporarydisabilities
Therearetemporarydisabilitiesaffectinganindividual'shandwhicharesometimesbeyondthecontrolof
theidentificationofficer.Thesecanbefreshcuts,orwounds,bandagedfingersorfinger,occupational
(carpenters,bricklayers,etc.)blisters,andexcessiveperspiration.Children,whoseridgesaresmalland
fine,wouldalsocomeunderthisheading.Extremecareshouldbeexercisedinfingerprintingthe
aforementioned.
Anindicationonthefingerprintcardtotheeffect"freshcut,bandaged"isnotsufficienttofilethe
fingerprintcard.Itisobviousthatafingerprintcardbearingthesenotationscannotbeproperlyclassified
andfiled.Thesamesituationwouldoccuriftherewereablisteronanindividual'sfinger.Theblister
temporarilydisfigurestheridgedetail.Whenaninjuryistemporary,theprints,ifatallpossible,should
notbetakenuntilaftertheinjuryhashealed.
Occupationalproblems(bricklayers,carpenters,etc.)aredefinitelyachallengetotheidentification
officer.Insomeinstances,bymeansofsofteningagents(oilsandcreams),itispossibletoobtainlegible
inkedimpressions.Itisfurthersuggestedthatinthesecasesaverysmallamountofinkshouldbeused
ontheinkingplate.
Excessiveperspirationcanbecontrolledtosomeextentbytheidentificationofficer.Excessive
perspirationcausestheinkedimpressionstobeindistinct.Itissuggestedinthesecasestowipethefinger
withaclothandthenimmediatelyinkthefingerandrollitonthefingerprintcard.Thisprocessshouldbe
followedwitheachfinger.Itisalsosuggestedthatpossiblythefingerscouldbewipedwithalcohol,
benzine,orsimilarfluidwhichwouldactasadryingagent.
Inalltheabovesituations,ifitisnotpossibletoaccuratelyclassifyandfilethefingerprintcard,thename
appearingonthecardwillbesearchedinthealphabeticalfilesandthenreturnedtothelawenforcement
agency.[Pg125]

Permanentdisabilities
Anotherphaseinvolvespermanentdisabilitieswhichcaninmostcasesbecontrolledbytheidentification
officer.Thesecanbelackoffingers(bornwithout),amputations,crippledfingers(bent,broken),
deformities(webbed,extrafingers),andoldage.
Withrespecttolackoffingers,itshouldbenotedthatsomeindividualsarebornwithoutcertainfingers.
Thenotation"missing"isnotsatisfactorybecauseitdoesnotsufficientlyexplainthecorrectsituation.Itis
suggestedthat"missingatbirth"orsomesimilarnotationbemadeintheindividualfingerprintblockon
thecard.Apropernotationconcerningthissituationwillpreventthefingerprintcardfrombeingreturned.
Figures378and379illustratetemporaryandpermanentdisabilities.

[Figs.378379]

Concerningamputations,itissuggestedthatapropernotationtothiseffectappearintheindividual
fingerprintblockorblocks.Itissuggestedthatifaportionofthefirstjointofafingerisamputated,the
fingershouldbeinkedandprinted.Anotationconcerningthisfactshouldbemadeonthefingerprintcard
intheindividualfingerprintblock.
Inthosecaseswhereallofthefingersareamputated,theinkedfootprintsshouldbeobtained.

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Thehandlingofcrippledfingersandcertaindeformitiescanbediscussedinagroupbecausethey
generallypresentthesameproblems.Itisnotsufficientinallcasestoindicate"broken,""bent,"
"crippled."Ifthefingersarebentorcrippledsothattheyaretouchingthepalmandcannotbemoved,a
notationtothiseffectshouldbeonthefingerprintcardintheproperindividualfingerprintblock.However,
itisbelievedthattheseextremecasesarerare.Itissuggestedthatthespecialinkingdevicesusedfor
takingtheprintsofdeceasedindividualsbeusedintakinginkedimpressionsofbentorcrippledfingers.
[Pg126]
Thisequipment,whichwillbediscussedmorefullyinthesectiononprintingdeceasedpersons,consistsof
spatula,smallroller,andacurvedholderfortheindividualfingerblock.Figure380showsthespatula,
roller,andcurvedholder.Itshouldbefurthernotedinfigure380thatthereareastripoftheentirehand
ofthefingerprintcardandalsoindividualfingerblockscutfromthefingerprintcard.Eachofthesetypes
canbeusedinconnectionwiththecurvedholder.

[Fig.380]

Eachcrippledfingeristakenasaseparateunitandthenthefingerblockpastedonafingerprintcard.In
figure381,notetheuseofthespatulaforapplyingtheinktoabentorcrippledfingerandinfigure382,
observetheuseofthecurvedholderfortakingthe"rolled"impressionofabentorcrippledfinger.

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[Figs.381382]

Oldagehasbeenplacedunderpermanentdisabilityonlyfordiscussionpurposes.Theproblemisnot
encounteredfrequentlyintakingthefingerprintsofindividualswhoarearrested.Thesituationofcrippled
fingersduetooldagemaybemet,anditcanbehandledaspreviouslysuggested.Inmostcasesthe
problemsarisebecauseoftheveryfaintridgesofthe[Pg128]individual.Itisbelievedthatinthe
majorityofcases,legiblyinkedprintscanbetakenbyusingaverysmallamountofinkontheinking
plateandbyusinglittlepressureintherollingofthefingers.

Deformities
Ifasubjecthasmorethan10fingers,asoccasionallyhappens,thethumbsandthenext4fingerstothem
shouldbeprinted,andanyfingersleftovershouldbeprintedontheothersideofthecardwithanotation
madetotheeffectthattheyareextrafingers.Whenapersonwithmorethan10fingershasanintentional
amputationperformed,itisinvariablytheextrafingeronthelittlefingersidewhichisamputated.
Italsohappens,notinfrequently,thatasubjectwillhavetwoormorefingerswebbedorgrowntogether,
asinfigures383and384,makingitimpossibletorollsuchfingersontheinside.Suchfingersshouldbe
rolled,however,ascompletelyaspossible,andanotationmadetotheeffectthattheyarejoined.

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[Figs.383384]

Splitthumbs,i.e.,thumbshavingtwonailjoints,asinfigure385,areclassifiedasifthejointtowardthe
outsideofthehandwerenotpresent.Inotherwordstheinnerjointisused,andnoconsideration
whateverisgiventotheouterjoint.[Pg129]

[Fig.385]

General
Theseproblemshavedealtwiththemechanicaloroperationalprocesses.However,thereareother

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problemsdealingwiththecompletingofthedescriptiveinformation.Thefingerprintcardmaybereturned
becauseofthelackofinformationinthespacesprovided,suchasname,sex,race,height,weight,etc.
Anydiscrepanciesinthisinformationmaynecessitatethereturnofthefingerprintcard.
ThesuccessandvalueoftheFBI'sfingerprintfilestoalllawenforcementagenciesaredependent,ina
largemeasure,onthelegiblyinkedfingerprintstakenbylawenforcementagencies.
Figure386showsanenlargedportionofthebulbofafingerrevealingthemicroscopicstructureofthe
frictionskin.Theepidermisconsistsoftwomainlayers,namely,thestratumcorneum,whichcoversthe
surface,andthestratummucosum,whichisjustbeneaththecoveringsurface.Thestratummucosumis
foldedunderthesurfacesoastoformridges[Pg130]whichwillrunlengthwiseandcorrespondtothe
surfaceridges.However,thesearetwiceasnumeroussincethedeeperridgeswhichcorrespondtothe
middleofthesurfaceridgesalternatewithsmalleroneswhichcorrespondtothefurrows.Thesweatpores
runinsinglerowsalongtheridgesandcommunicatethroughthesweatductswiththecoilsweatglands
whicharebelowtheentireepidermis.Thefrictionridgesresultfromthefusioninrowsofseparate
epidermicelements,suchasthedotshownontheleft.Generallyspeaking,whenanindividualbruisesor
slightlycutstheouterlayerorstratumcorneumofthebulbofthefinger,theridgeswillnotbe
permanentlydefaced.However,ifamoreseriousinjuryisinflictedonthebulbofthefinger,thereby
damagingthestratummucosum,thefrictionskinwillheal,butnotinitsoriginalformation.Theserious
injurywillresultinapermanentscarappearingonthebulbofthefinger.

[Fig.386]
[Pg131]

CHAPTERX
ProblemsandPracticesinFingerprintingtheDead

Eachyearnewgravesareopenedinpotter'sfieldsallovertheUnitedStates.Intomanyofthemare
placedtheunknowndeadthosewhohavelivedanonymouslyorwho,throughaccidentorotherwise,lose
theirlivesundersuchcircumstancesthatidentificationseemsimpossible.Inamajorityofsuchcases,
aftertheburialofthebody,nosingleitemorclueremainstoeffectsubsequentidentification.Asaresult,
activeinvestigationusuallyceasesandthecasesareforgotten,unless,ofcourse,itisdefinitely
establishedthatamurderhasbeencommitted.
Relianceistoooftenplacedonvisualinspectioninestablishingtheidentityofthedeceased.Thisincludes
havingtheremainsviewedbyindividualsseekingtolocatealostfriendorrelative.Thebodyisoften
decomposed.Ifdeathwascausedbyburning,thevictimmaybeunrecognizable.Asaresultofmanyfatal
accidentsthedeceasedisoftenmutilated,particularlyabouttheface,sothatvisualidentificationis
impossible.Yet,inmanycases,theonlyattemptatidentificationisbyhavingpersonsviewtheremains
andthepersonaleffects.
Therecordedinstancesoferroneousvisualidentificationsarenumerous.Inonecaseabody,burned
beyondrecognition,wasidentifiedbyrelativesasthatofa21yearoldmanyetfingerprintslaterproved
thatthecorpsewasthatofa55yearoldman.
Fingerprintshavefrequentlybeeninstrumentalinestablishingthecorrectidentityofpersonskilledin
airplanecrashesandincorrectly"identified"bycloserelatives.
Inoneinstanceawomanfounddeadinahotelroomwas"positively"identifiedbyseveralclosefriends.
Thebodywasshippedtothefatheroftheallegeddeceasedinanotherstatewhereagainitwas
"identified"byclosefriends.Burialfollowed.Approximatelyonemonthlaterthepersonswhohadfirst
identifiedthebodyasthatoftheirfriendweresittinginatavernwhenthe"dead"womanwalkedintothe
room.Authoritieswereimmediatelyadvisedoftheerrortheyinturnadvisedtheauthoritiesinthe

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neighboringstateoftheerroneousidentificationandstepsweretakenimmediatelytorectifythemistake.
AfterpermissionhadbeengrantedbytheStateHealthBoardtoexhumethebodyofthedeadwoman,
fingerprintsweretakenandcopieswereforwardedtotheFBIIdentificationDivision.Thefinger
impressionsweresearchedthroughthefingerprintfilesandthetrueidentityofthedeceasedwas
established.
Duringa12monthperiod,theFBIIdentificationDivisionreceivedthe[Pg132]fingerprintsof1,708
unknowndead.Ofthese,1,298,oralmost76percent,wereidentified.Theremaining410werenot
identifiedsimplybecausefingerprintsoftheseindividualswerenotintheFBIfiles.Itshouldbenotedthat
inthese1,708cases,itwaspossibletosecurelegiblefingerprintsofthedeceasedintheusualmannerby
inkingthefingersinthoseinstancesinwhichdecompositionhadnotinjuredtheridgedetail.

[Fig.387]

Inadditiontothefingerprintsof1,708unknowndead,theIdentificationDivisionreceivedthefingers
and/orthehandsof85unknowndeadindividuals.Inthesecases,decompositionwassofaradvancedthat
itwasnotpossibletosecureinkedfingerprintsintheregularmanner.Ofthese,68bodies,or80percent
ofthegroup,wereidentified.Ofthe17unidentified,thefingerprintsof14werenotintheFBIfiles.In
threecasesdecompositionwassofaradvancedthatallridgedetailhadbeendestroyed.
Inordertoemphasizewhatcanbeaccomplished,itispointedoutthatinthosecasesinwhichhandsand
fingersweresubmitted,thetimewhichelapsedfromdeathuntilthespecimenswerereceivedranged
fromaweekto3years.Incredibleasitmayseem,ithasbeenpossibletosecureidentifiableimpressions
3yearsafterdeath.
Thesestatisticsofachievementinthefieldofidentifyingunknowndeadreemphasizethefactthatinall
casesinvolvingtheidentificationofadeceasedperson,fingerprintsshouldbeusedasthemediumfor
establishingaconclusiveandpositiveidentification.[Pg133]
Generallyspeaking,inthecourseoftheirworkfingerprintoperatorsfinditnecessarytotakethe
impressionsofthreeclassesofdeceasedpersons.
Theyare:
Thosewhohavediedrecently,inwhichcasesthetaskisrelativelysimple.
Thosedeadforalongerperiod,inwhichcasesdifficultyisexperiencedduetopronouncedstiffeningof
thefingers,theearlystagesofdecomposition,orboth.
Thosecasesinwhichextremedifficultyisencounteredbecauseofmaceration,desiccation,oradvanced
decayoftheskin.
Theseproblemswillbeconsideredseparately.
1.FingerprintingtheNewlyDead.
Whenthefingersareflexibleitisoftenpossibletosecureinkedfingerprintimpressionsofadeceased
personthroughtheregularinkingprocessonastandardfingerprintcard.Experiencehasprovedthatthis
taskcanbemadeeasierifthedeceasedislaidfacedownandpalmsdownonatable(fig.388).

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[Fig.388]

Inallcaseswhereinkedimpressionsaretobemade,careshouldbeexercisedtoseethatthefingersare
cleananddrybeforeinking.Ifnecessary,washthedigitswithsoapandwateranddrythoroughly.
Intheeventdifficultyisencounteredintryingtoprocurefingerprintsbytheregularmethod,itmayprove
moreconvenienttocutthe10"squares"numberedfortherolledimpressionsfromafingerprintcard.
Afterthefingerisinked,thesquareisrolledaroundthefingerwithoutlettingitslip.Extremecaution
shouldbeexercisedtoseethateachsquarebearsthecorrectfingerprintimpression.Afteralltheinked
impressionsareproperlytaken,thetensquaresbearingtheimpressionsarepastedorstapledtoa
standardfingerprintcardintheirproperpositions,i.e.,rightthumb,rightindex,rightmiddle,etc.
Wheneverpossiblethe"plain"or"simultaneous"impressionsshouldalsobetaken.
Insomecasesitwillbefoundnecessarytoobtainorimproviseatoolsimilartoabroadbladedputty
knifeorspatulatobeusedasaninkinginstrument.Theinkisrolledevenlyandthinlyontheknifeor
spatulaandappliedtothefingerbypassingtheinkedknifeorspatulaaroundit.Thetool,ofcourse,
replacestheusualglassinkingslaborplate,theuseofwhichisextremelydifficultorawkwardwhen
printingadeceasedperson.[Pg134]
2.FingerprintingtheDead,WhereStiffeningoftheFingersand/orEarlyDecompositionArePresent.
Thissecondgroupconsistsofcasesinwhichthehandsofthedeceasedareclenched,orthefingertipsare
wrinkled,ordecompositionhasbegun,and/orwheretherearecombinationsofthesethreeconditions.
Casesofthissortmaynecessitatecuttingofftheskin.Legalauthorityisnecessarybeforecuttinga
corpse.Suchauthoritymaybegrantedbystatelaworbyanofficialhavingauthoritytograntsucha
right.
Incaseswhererigormortis(stiffeningofthemuscles)hassetinandthefingersaretightlyclenched,the
fingersmaybeforciblystraightenedby"breakingtherigor."Thisisdonebyholdingthehandofthe
deceasedpersonfirmlywithonehand,graspingthefingertobestraightenedwiththefourfingersofthe
otherhandandplacingthethumb,whichisusedasalever,ontheknuckleofthefingerandforcingit
straight(fig.389).Theinkingtooland"squares,"aspreviouslyexplained,arethenusedtosecurethe
fingerprint.

[Fig.389]

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Intheeventtherigorcannotbecompletelyovercome,itwillbemosthelpfultoimproviseorsecurea
spoonshapedtoolforholdingthecutsquaresorcutstripswhileprintingthefingers,similartothetool
mentioned[Pg135]brieflyinthediscussionofcrippledfingers.Thistool,somewhatresemblingagouge
withoutthesharpedge,shouldhaveahandle,aconcaveend,andaframeorclamptoholdthecardboard
squaresorstrips.InFigure390,onetypeoftoolisillustrated.Thistooleliminatesthenecessityofrolling
thedeceased'sfinger,sincethe"square"assumestheconcaveshapeofthetool,andthegentlepressure
appliedtotheinkedfingerwhenitisbroughtincontactwiththesquareresultsina"rolled"impression
withoutactuallyrollingthefinger.

[Fig.390]

Anotherproblemencounteredinthissecondgroupincludescasesinwhichthetipsofthefingersarefairly
pliableandintact,yetduetothepresenceofwrinklesintheskin,completeimpressionscannotbe
obtained.Thisconditioncanbecorrectedbytheinjectionofatissuebuilder,procurablefromadealerin
undertaker'ssupplies.Ifthisisnotavailable,glycerinorwatermaybeused.
Themethodissimple.Injectionofthetissuebuilder,glycerin,orwater,isaccomplishedbytheuseofa
hypodermicsyringe.Thehypodermicneedleisinjectedatthejointofthefingerupintothetipofthe
finger,carebeingusedtokeeptheneedlebelowtheskinsurface(fig.391).Thesolutionisinjecteduntil
thefinger"bulbs"areroundedout,afterwhichtheyareinkedandprinted.[Pg136]

[Fig.391]

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Occasionally,instubborncases,entryoftheneedleatthejointandinjectionofthefluidwillnot
completelyfillthefingerbulb.Itmaybenecessary,therefore,toinjectthefluidatotherpointsofthe
fingersuchastheextremetiporsides,untilsuitableresultsareachieved(fig.392).Thetissuebuilder
hasadistinctadvantageoverglycerinorwater,inasmuchasthebuilderhardensafterashorttimeandis
notlost,whereasglycerinandwatersometimesseepoutwhenpressureisappliedinprinting.Tooffset
seepageatthepointwherethehypodermicneedleisinjected,wheneverpossible,tieapieceofstring
tightlyaroundthefingerjustabovethepointofentryoftheneedle.

[Fig.392]

Whenthetissuebuilderispurchased,asolventforcleaningthehypodermicsyringeandneedleshouldbe
acquired,inasmuchasthebuilderwillhardeninthesyringeandneedle.
[Pg138]
Thosecasesinwhichdecompositioninitsearlystageispresentbelonginthisgroupalso.Frequently,the
outerlayerofskinhasbeguntopeelfromthefingers.Acarefulexaminationshouldbemadeto
determineifthepeelingskinisintactorifapartofithasbeenlost.Iftheskinisinonepiece,aneffort
shouldbemadetosecureprintsjustasthoughitwereattachednormallytothefinger.Or,ifitisdeemed
advisable,theskinmaybepeeledoffinonepiece,placedoverthefingeroftheoperator,andinkedand
printedasthoughitwerehisownfinger.
Occasionallythefirstlayerofskinismissing.Thereremainsthedermisorsecondlayerofskinwhichis
alsoofvalueforidentificationpurposes.Thissecondlayerwouldbedealtwithasthoughitwerethe
outsideskin,usingthetechniquesdescribedabove.Theridgedetailofthesecondlayerofskinisless
pronouncedthanthatoftheouterskin,however,andmoreattentionandcareareneededinorderto
obtainsuitableimpressions.
Sofarthisdiscussionhasdealtwiththetakingofimpressionsoffingerswhenthefleshisfairlyfirmand
theridgedetailintact.Adifferentproblemariseswhenthefingersareinvariousstagesofdecay.The
techniquesoftreatingthefingersinsuchcasesvarygreatly,dependingupontheconditionofthefingers
withrespecttodecomposition,desiccation,ormaceration.
3.FingerprintingtheDeadinDifficultCases.
Incasesinvolvingbadlydecomposedbodiesthefirstthingtodoistoexaminethefingerstoseeifallare
present.Iftheyarenot,aneffortshouldbemadetodeterminewhetherthemissingfingerorfingersor
evenahandwasamputatedduringtheperson'slifetime,orwhetherthelosswasduetoothercauses
suchasdestructionbyanimalormarinelife.Deductionsfromthisexaminationshouldbenotedonthe
fingerprintrecord.ThispointismadeinviewofthefactthatinthefingerprintfilesoftheFBIandsome
policedepartments,thefingerprintcardsreflectingamputationsarefiledseparately.Notingamputations
maylessentoagreatextentasearchthroughthefingerprintfiles.
Inmakingtheinitialexamination,attentionshouldbegiventotheremovalofdirt,silt,greaseandother
foreignmatterfromthefingers.Soapandwateraregoodcleansingagents.Soisxylene,achemical
whichwillreadilycleangreaseandfattymatterfromthefingers.Goodresultscanbeachievedby
utilizingachild'ssoftbristledtoothbrushincaseswheretheskinisfairlyfirm.Thebrushingshouldbe
donelightlyandthestrokesshouldfollowtheridgedesigninordertocleannotonlytheridgesbutthe
depressionsaswell.Intheeventthattheskinisnotfirmenoughtousethetoothbrush,acottonswab
maybeused.Thefingersshouldbewipedverylightlywitheithersoapandwaterorxylene,always
followingtheridgecontours.
Atthispointthefingersareagainexaminedtodeterminethecondition[Pg139]theyarein,basedupon

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thecircumstancesinwhichthebodywasfound.Studyandactualexperiencehaveshownthatthereare
threegeneraltypesofconditionstobeconsidered:Decompositionorputrefaction,prevalentinbodies
foundinbrushorburiedinearthdesiccationormummification(thatis,driedout),notedinbodieswhich
havebeenfoundintheopen(ridgedetailnotincontactwiththeground)indryprotectedplaces,or
bodiessubjectedtosevereheatandthegroupinvolvingmaceration(watersoaking),whichordinarily
resultsfrombeingimmersedinwater.
Thedegreeofdecomposition,desiccation,ormacerationvariesfromacomparativelyearlystagetoan
extremelyadvancedstage.Accordingly,eachcasemustbeconsideredindividually.Forexample,whatis
donesuccessfullyinonecaseofdesiccationmaynotshowfavorableresultsinanother.Hence,the
techniquesoutlinedbelowpointoutgenerallywhatcanbedone,andhasbeendone,withsuccess.
Whenabodyisfound,thehandsusuallywillbetightlyclenched.Thefirstproblemwillbetostraighten
thefingers.Ifrigormortishassetinandanefforttostraightenthefingersaspreviouslyexplainedfails,
thedifficultycanbeovercomeeasily.Usingascalpel,makeadeepcutatthesecondjointontheinner
sideofeachofthefourfingers.Theycannowbestraightenedwiththeapplicationofforce(fig.393).The
thumb,ifitiscrampedorbent,cangenerallybestraightenedbymakingadeepcutbetweenthethumb
andtheindexfinger.Theseincisionsaremadefortheobviouspurposeofexaminingthefingersto
determineifthereisanyridgedetail.Beforethisfactcanbedefinitelyascertaineditmaybenecessaryto
cleansethepatternareaswithsoapandwaterorxylene,aspreviouslyexplained.[Pg140]

[Fig.393]

Advanceddecomposition
Ifthecaseisoneinvolvingdecomposition,theoperatorisconfrontedwiththeproblemofdealingwith
fleshwhichisrottedorputrefied.Thefleshmaybesoftorflabbyandveryfragile.Ifthisisso,an
examinationismadeofthefingertipstoseeiftheouterskinispresent.Iftheouterskinispresentand
intact,itmaybepossible,usingextremecare,toinkandprintintheregularmanner.Sometimes,the
outerskin,althoughpresent,willbetoosoftandfragiletoinkandrollintheregularway.Insuchcases,
whentheridgedetailisdiscernible,theskin,ifitiseasilyremovedfromthefinger,orthefingeritself
maybecutoffatthesecondjointandplacedina10to15percentsolutionofformaldehydefor
approximatelyanhourtohardenit.Skinplacedinaformaldehydesolutionusuallyturnsagrayishwhite
andbecomesfirm.However,itwill[Pg141]bebrittleandmaysplitifnothandledcarefully.Theskinis
placedinthesolutiononlyuntilithardenssufficiently,afterwhichitisremovedandcarefullywipeddry
withapieceofcloth.Thentheskin,placedovertheoperator'sownthumborindexfingerandheldin
placebyhisotherhand,isinkedandrolledasthoughtheoperatorwereprintinghisownfinger.Ifa
legibleprintisnotobtainableinthismanner,theoperatorshouldexaminetheundersideoftheskin.
Inmanyinstances,wheretheridgedetailontheoutersurfacehasbeendestroyedorisnotdiscernible,
theridgedetailisclearlyvisibleontheunderside(fig.394).Ifthisisthecase,theskinisinverted
(turnedinsideout)verycarefullytopreventsplittingorbreakingandthenisinkedandprintedinthe
usualway.Itmustbeborneinmind,however,thatwhentheundersideoftheskinisprintedtheresulting
impressionwillbeinreversecolorandpositionthatis,theinkisactuallyadheringtowhatwouldbe
furrowsofthepatternwhenviewedfromtheproperorouterside.Ifitisdeemedinadvisabletotryto
invertorturntheskininsideoutforfearofdamagingit,aphotographoftheinnerridgedetailismade
andthenegativeisprintedtogivean"asis"positionphotographforproperclassificationandcomparison
purposes.Inordertosecuregoodphotographsoftheridgedetailitmaybeadvisabletotrimtheskin,
flattenitoutbetweentwopiecesofglass,andphotographitinthatposition(fig.395).

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[Figs.394395]

Whentheentirefingerisplacedinthesolutionduringthehardeningprocess,theskin,inabsorbingthe
formalinsolution,mayswellandcome[Pg142]loosefromthefinger.Shouldthisoccur,theskinmustbe
removedcarefullyandtheprocedureoutlinedabovefollowed.If,however,theskinstilladherestothe
fingerandisnottoowrinkled,inkisappliedandprintsmade.Shouldtheskinbetoowrinkledtosecurea
satisfactoryimpression,considerationisgiventotheinjectionofthetissuebuilderundertheskinas
previouslymentioned,inordertodistendthepatternarea.Ifsuccessful,thefingerisinkedandprinted.
This,ofcourse,canbedoneonlywhentheskinisintact.
Shouldpartoftheskinbedestroyedtotheextentthattissuebuildercannotbeinjectedeffectively,while
examinationdisclosesthatthepatternareaispresentbutwrinkled,cutofftheentirepatternareafrom
thejointtothetipofthefinger(fig.396).Caremustbeexercisedtoinsuregettingthecomplete
fingerprintpatternaswellascuttingdeepenoughtoavoidinjurytotheskin.

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[Fig.396]

Afterexcision,thefleshiscarefullyandmeticulouslyremovedfromtheinsidebyscraping,cutting,and
trimminguntilonlytheskinremains,oruntilthespecimenissothinitcanbeflattenedouttoremove
mostofthewrinkles.Iftheskinisfairlypliable,theoperatorshouldattempttoplaceitoveroneofhis
ownfingersandtryseveralprints.Iftheprintssecuredarenotsuitable,thepieceofskin(exertcareto
avoidbreakingorsplitting)isflattenedoutbetweentwopiecesofglassandphotographed(figs.397,398,
399).[Pg143]

[Figs.397399]

Theforegoingoutlinecoverstheproceduresfollowedincasesinvolvingdecompositioninwhichtheouter
skinisstillpresent.Inmanyinstancesofdecompositiontheouterskinhasbeendestroyedorisinsucha

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conditionastobeofnovalue.Itmustbeemphasizedagainthatthesecondlayerofskinpossessesthe
sameridgedetailastheouterlayerandthis,thoughfinerandlesspronounced,isjustaseffectivefor
identificationpurposes.
If,fromexamination,itisapparentthattheouterlayerofskinismissingandthesecondlayerisintact,
thefingershouldbecleansed,dried,inked,andprintedintheusualmanner.Ifthespecimeniswrinkled
butpliableitmaybepossibletoinjecttissuebuilder,aspreviouslymentioned,toroundoutthefinger,
theninkandprintit.[Pg144]
Occasionally,someoftheouterskinisstillattachedbutisofnovalue.Thisskinshouldberemovedby
carefullypickingorpryingitoffwithascalpelinsuchamannerasnottodestroyorinjuretheridgedetail
ofthesecondlayer.Aftertheouterfragmentshavebeenremoved,thesecondlayeriscleaned,inked,
andprinted.Intheeventtheresultantimpressionsarenotsuitableforclassificationandidentification
purposes,themostlikelyreasonforitisthattheridgedetailistoofinetoprinteventhoughthereare
fewifanywrinklesinit.Ifthisisthecase,thefingershouldbecutoffatthesecondjointand
photographed.Shouldwrinkleswhichcannotberemovedbyinjectingtissuebuilder,andwhichalso
precludethetakingofsuitablephotographs,bepresent,thepatternareaiscutoffwithascalpelfromthe
firstjointtothetip.Thefleshisthencutandscrapedoutaspreviouslydescribed,untilthespecimenis
thinenoughtoflattenoutbetweentwopiecesofglasswhichmaybeheldtogetherbyscotchtape.The
skinisthenphotographed.
Occasionally,evenaftertheflatteningprocessitwillbenotedinthegroundglassofthecamerathatthe
skinmaybeseenplainlybuttheridgedetailisverypoor.Thisdifficultymaybeduetothepoorcontrast
oftheridgesandfurrowswhenusingdirectlighting.Ifso,itcanbeovercomebyscrapingtheskinto
transparencyandthenphotographingitbytransmittedlight(i.e.,passinglightthroughtheskin).
Sometimes,duetotheconditionoftheskin,eventhoughitistissuethin,itwillnotbetransparent.This
canbeovercomebysoakingtheskininxyleneforafewminutesandthenphotographingitbytransmitted
lightwhileitisstillimpregnatedwiththexylene.Ifthesubstancedriestoofasttopermitproper
photographing,theskinshouldbephotographedwhileimmersedinthexylene.(Seesubtopicofthis
chapterpertainingto"generalphotography.")Ofcourse,aftertheskinhasbeenphotographedthe
negativeshouldbeprintedtogiveareversepositionsothattheprintwillbecomparablewithinked
impressionsonfingerprintcards.

Desiccationandcharring
Theproblemconfrontingthefingerprintexaminerintreatingfingerswhicharedesiccatedordriedand
shriveledisthatofdistendingandsofteningtheskin.Desiccatedfingersaregenerallyfoundtohavethe
outerlayerofskinintactandtheridgedetailfairlyclear.However,duetotheshrinking,numerous
wrinkleswillbepresent,andasthedryingprocesscontinuestheskinandfleshhardenuntilthefingers
becomealmostashardasstone.
Itissometimespossibletodistendorswellthefleshbyutilizinga1to3percentsolutionofsodium
hydroxideorpotassiumhydroxide,sometimesreferredtoascausticpotash.Asamatterofcaution,this
processshouldbetriedwithonefingerbeforeusingitfortheremaining[Pg145]fingers.Thispointof
cautionismadebecauseofthereactionofthepotassiumorsodiumhydroxide,whichisactuallyoneof
destruction.Whileabsorptionandswellingofthefleshoccur,thedisintegratingactionofthefluidmay
resultintotaldestructionoftheflesh.
Thefingertobedistendediscutfromthehandatthesecondjointandplacedinthehydroxide.Whenit
hasresumeditsnormalsizebytheabsorptionofthesolution,itisinkedandprinted.Thereisnosettime
forthisprocess.Theproceduremayrequireafewhoursorasmuchasseveraldaysuntilsuitableresults
areobtained.
Afterthefingerhasbeeninthesolutionforabout30minutes,itshouldberemovedandexaminedin
ordertonotetheextentoftheswellingandthereactionofthefleshtothesolution.Ifnomaterialchange
isnoted,thefingerisreturnedtothesolution.Aclosewatchismaintainedandthefingerisexamined
fromtimetotime.
Thesolutionmaycausethinlayersofskintopeelfromthefinger.Shouldthisoccur,thelooseskinis
carefullyscrapedoffandthefingerrinsedinwaterforafewminutes.Itisthenreturnedtothehydroxide
forcontinuationoftheprocess.
If,duringthecourseofaninspection,itisseenthatthefleshisbecomingtoosoft,thefingershouldbe
placedina1to3percentsolutionofformaldehydeoralcoholforseveralminutesinordertohardenit.
If,afterseveralhoursinthehydroxide,thefingerhasnotreacheditsnormalsize,itshouldbeplacedin
waterforanhourortwo.Thishasatendencytohastentheswelling.Whenthefingerisremoved,itwill
benotedthatafilmhascoatedthesurface.Thiscoatingiscarefullyscrapedoffandthefingerisreplaced
inthehydroxidesolutionforanhourorso,againscrapedifcoated,soakedincleanwater,etc.This
processofalternatingfromsolutiontowater,scraping,andreplacinginhydroxideiscontinueduntil
desirableresultsareobtained.Thefingeristheninkedandprinted.
Theaboveprocesswillsosaturatethefingerwithsolutionthatitmaybetoowettoprintproperly.
Accordingly,thefingermaybedippedintoacetoneforseveralseconds,removed,andbepermittedto
dry,afterwhichitisinkedandprinted.
Thecompleteprocessmaytakefromseveralhourstoasmuchas10daystosecuresuitableresults.If
thefinalresultsoftheaboveprocedurearesatisfactorywiththeonefingerbeingtested,theremaining
fingersaregiventhesametreatment.Caremustbetakentoidentifyeachfingerproperlyastoright
index,rightmiddle,etc.,toavoidanymixup.

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Intheeventthatthereactionofthesolutiononthefirstfingertreatedisnotsatisfactoryandtheoperator
feelsthatitwouldbefutiletocontinuetheprocess,thefingershouldberemovedfromthesolution
immediately,washedcarefullyinwater,andplacedinformaldehydetohardensufficientlyforittobe
handledwithoutcausinginjurytotheridges.The[Pg146]patternareaiscutoffinsuchamannerthat
sufficientsurroundingsurfacepermitstheskintobetrimmed.Thenfromthecutsidetheskiniscarefully
scrapedandcuttoremovetheexcessflesh.Whilethecuttingandscrapingarebeingdone,fromtimeto
timetheskinshouldbesoakedinxyleneandmassagedforpurposesofsofteningtoremovewrinkles.
Whentheskinisthinenoughandsufficientlypliable,theoperatorplacestheskinonhisownfinger,inks
andprintsitintheusualmanner.
Iftheresultsaresatisfactory,thesameprocedureisfollowedwiththeremainingfingers.Intheeventthe
resultantinkedprintsarenotsuitable,theskinshouldbescrapeduntilitissufficientlythintobeflattened
betweentwopiecesofglassandphotographed.
Hereagainitispointedoutthatshouldtherebeapoorcontrastbetweentheridgesandfurrowswhen
usingdirectlighting,theskinisscrapedasthinaspossiblewithouttearinganditisthenphotographedby
transmittedlight.
Therearealsoincluded,ascasesofdesiccation,bodieswhichhavebeenburnedorsubjectedtosevere
heat.Oftentherearecaseswheretheskinhasbecomeloosebutishardandcrisp,orwherethefinger
hasbeenseverelyburnedandisreducedalmosttocarbon,yetisfirm.Intheseinstancestheridgedetail
usuallyhasnotbeendestroyed.
Whenabodywhichhasbeenseverelyburnedislocated,theproblemsofidentificationshouldbe
anticipated.Accordingly,beforethebodyisremoved,acarefulexaminationofthefingersshouldbemade
inordertodetermineiftheremovalwould,inanyway,causedamagetothefingers.Shoulditbefeltthat
becauseoftheconditionofthebodyremovalwouldcauseinjurytotheridgedetail,securingof
fingerprintsatthescene,orpossiblythecuttingoffofthehandsorfingerstoavoiddestructionofthe
skin,shouldbeconsidered.Anexaminationofthefingersmaydisclosethattheouterskinishardenedand
ispartiallyloosenedfromtheflesh.Itissometimespossible,bytwistingbackandforth,toremovethis
outerskinintact.Ifthisisdone,theoperatormayplacetheskinonhisownfinger,inkandprintinthe
usualway.
Iftheskinisintactonthefingerandisnotwrinkled,ofcoursethereisnoproblemandtheusualmethod
isemployedtosecureimpressions.
Shouldwrinklesbepresentandtheskinpliable,tissuebuilderisinjectedintothebulbs,whicharethen
inkedandprinted.
Intheeventthewrinklescannotberemovedinthisfashion,thepatternareaiscutoffandtheexcess
fleshscrapedoutasbefore.Whilethescrapingandcuttingarebeingaccomplished,theskinshouldbe
soakedandmassagedinxylenetosoften.Theskinisthenplacedontheoperator'sfinger,inkedand
printed.Shouldprintsmadeinthismannerbeunsatisfactory,thenextrecourseisphotography.
Insomeinstancesthefingersofburnedbodieswillbecharred.Suchcasesrequireverycarefulhandling
asthereisaprobabilityofdestroying[Pg147]ordisturbingtheridgedetailthroughmistreatment.In
theseinstancestheprocedureisdeterminedbythedegreeofcharring.Inextremecasestheonlymethod
ofrecordingisbyphotographing,usingsidelightingtosecurethepropercontrastofridgesand
depressions.Obviously,noattemptshouldbemadetoinkandrollasthepressurenecessarytosecure
theprintswouldcausetheskintocrumble.
Ininstanceswherethecharringhasnotreachedtheextremestagetheprocedurespreviouslysetforth
shouldbeappliedthatis,treatmentoftheskinbycleaning,softening,inkingandprinting,or,finally,by
photographing(fig.400).

[Fig.400]

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Watersoakedfingers
Thethirdandfinaltypeofcasewhichmayconfronttheidentificationofficerconcernstheproblemof
maceration,thatis,longimmersionofthefingersinwater.
Oneofthecardinalrulesforsecuringlegibleimpressionsisthatthefingersmustbedry.Accordingly,in
thesecasesitbecomesamatterofdryingthefingersinadditiontocontendingwithotherdifficulties.
Usuallytheskinonthefingersabsorbswater,swellsandloosensfromthefleshwithinafewhoursafter
immersion.
Ifanexaminationdisclosestheskintobewatersoaked,wrinkledandpliable,butintact,thefirststepis
tocleansetheskincarefullyaspreviouslydescribed.Next,wipethefingertipwithalcohol,benzineor
acetone,waitingafewsecondsforittodry.Theskinispulledordrawntight[Pg148]acrossthepattern
areasothatalargewrinkleisformedonthebackofthefinger,thenthebulbisinkedandprinted.
Iftheskinisbrokenandhangingloose,butitspatternareaisintact,itshouldberemovedfromthe
finger,cleansedandplacedinalcoholorbenzine(notacetone)foraboutaminute,thenstretched
carefullyovertheoperator'sfingersoastoremoveanywrinkles.Itmaythenbeprinted.
Sometimestheskinisintactonthefingerbutsowrinkledandhardthatitisnotpossibletodrawittight
forinking.Inthiscaseitmaybeadvisabletoinjecttissuebuildertoroundoutthebulbsforinkingand
printing.Shouldthisfail,theridgedetailisphotographedonthefingerortheskiniscutoff,flattened
betweentwopiecesofglassandthenphotographed.Here,again,itmustbepointedoutthatwhenthe
ridgedetaildoesnotshowonthesurfaceoftheouterskintheundersideshouldbeexamined,formany
timesthedetailcanbeseenclearly.Shouldthisbetrue,ofcourse,theundersideisphotographed.
Incaseswhereitisnotedthattheouterskinisgoneandthefingerisnotsaturatedwithwater,itis
possibletodrythesurfacesufficientlyforinkingandprintingpurposesbyrollingthefingeronablotter.If
thisfails,thefingeriswipedoffwithapieceofclothwhichhasbeensaturatedwithalcohol,benzineor
acetone,afterwhichitmaybeinkedandprinted.

Dryingthefingers
Inmanyinstancesitwillbefoundthattheouterskinisgoneandthefingersthemselvesaresaturated
withwater.Aquickmethodofdryingoutthefingersistoplacetheminfullstrengthacetonefor
approximately30minutes.Thefingersarethenplacedinxyleneforaboutanhouroruntilthexylenehas
overcomethereactionoftheacetone.Afterremovalfromthexylenethefingersshouldbeplacedona
blotteruntilthesurfaceofthefingersappearsdry.Theyarethenreadytobeinkedandprinted.
Itwillbenotedinthisprocedurethatwhenthefingersareremovedfromtheacetonetheydryandharden
inamatterofseconds.Thepurposeofthexyleneistoresoftenthefingers.Afterthistreatment,should
theresultinginkedimpressionsbeunsuitableforclassificationpurposes,theridgedetailshouldbe
photographed.

Xrayphotography
TheuseofXrayphotographs(radiography)hasbeenadvocatedbysomeforpurposesofrecordingthe
ridgedetailsindecomposed,desiccated,ormaceratedcases.Briefly,theprocedureinvolvesthecovering
ofthefingerswithheavysaltssuchasbismuthorleadcarbonate,inathin,evenfilmoverthepattern
areaandthen,bytheuseoftheXray,reproducingthe[Pg149]ridgedetail.Thisprocedurenecessitates
theuseofXrayequipmentandatechnicianskilledinmakingradiographs.Itis,therefore,anexpensive
operation.Theresultsoftheradiographinnowaycompensatefortheexpense,time,andskillrequired
inasmuchasinthosecaseswheremanywrinklesandcreasesappearinthefingers,especiallydesiccated
specimens,theresultshavebeenverypoor.Ininstanceswheretherearenowrinklesoronlyafew,and
wherethecreasesarenottoodeep,theridgedetailisreproducedverywellintheradiograph.Inthese
cases,however,itisusuallypossibletosecureimpressionsbyinkingandrollingintheregularwayor,
shouldthisfail,ordinaryphotographywillcertainlygivesatisfactoryresults.Foreconomicalandpractical
purposestheuseoftheXrayisnotrecommended.

Generalphotography
Intheforegoinginstancesinwhichithasbeenimpossibletoobtainsuitableinkedimpressionsitwillbe
notedthatthelastresorthasalwaysbeenphotography.Inallprobabilityinadvancedcasesof
decomposition,desiccation,andmacerationitmaynotbepossibletosecureinkedimpressionswhichcan
beproperlyclassified.Hence,itwillbenecessarytophotographtheridgedetail.Accordingly,thereare
outlinedbelowseveralmethodsofphotographingtheridgeswhichhavebeenusedwithsuccess.
Inphotographingtheridgedetailonfingersithasbeendeterminedtobemostpracticabletophotograph
thefingernatural,or1/1,sizeinasmuchascomparisonswillusuallybemadewithinkedimpressions
whicharenaturalsize.Anycamerabuiltoradjustedtotaking1/1sizepictures,andwithwhichthe
lightingmaybearrangedtobestadvantage,maybeused.
Thereisawidechoiceoffilmwhichcanbeusedforthispurpose.Thesocalledsoftfilmsareallgoodfor
photographingridgedetailonfingers.Processfilmisnotrecommendedinasmuchasthefilmpresentstoo
muchofacontrast.Consequently,ifitisused,someoftheridgedetailwillbelost,especiallyifwrinkles
arepresentintheskin.
Lightingisaccomplishedbytheuseofgoosenecklamps,floodlights,oraspotlight.Ifafingerprintcamera

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isused,itslightsmaybesufficient.
Themanneroflightingmaybebydirectlight,sidelight,transmittedlightorreflectedlight,depending
upontheprevailingconditionofthefingerorskin.
Directlightisusedinthosecasesinwhichtheridgedetailisfairlyclearandtherearenowrinkles
presentor,ifwrinklesarepresent,theyarenotdeepenoughtointerferewithphotographingtheridges.
Sidelightingisusedwhentherearenowrinklesofanyconsequenceandtheridgedetailisclearbut
becauseofdiscolorationtheridges[Pg150]arenotreadilyseeninthegroundglassasthereislackof
contrastbetweenridgesanddepressions.Accordingly,thelights,insteadofbeingfocuseddirectlyonthe
skinorfinger,areplacedtothesideoftheobjectsothatthelightisdirectedacrosstheskinorfinger,
thushighlightingtheridgesandshadingthedepressions.
Insidelighting,twolightsmaybeused.Betterresultsareoftenobtained,however,byusingonlyone
light,suchasaspotlight,thebeamofwhichcanbecontrolledtobestadvantage.
Transmittedlightisusedincasesinwhichtheskinhaspeeledofforinwhichthedermishasbeen
removed,cut,andscrapedthinsothatlightwillgothrough.Thepreparedskinisplacedbetweentwo
piecesofglasspressedtogetherinordertoflattentheskinordermisandremovecreases.Bytrimming
someofthesurplusskinordermis,especiallyatthetop,itmaybemoreeasilyflattened.Aftertheglass
isproperlymountedinfrontofthecamera,thelightsareplacedbehinditandlightisdirectedthroughthe
skin.Theridgedetailisbroughtintofocusonthegroundglass.Beforethepictureisactuallytakenitis
suggestedthatthegroundglassbecheckedbyfirstusingonelightandthentwolightstoseewhichis
moreeffective.
Therewillbeinstancesinwhichthesecondlayerofskin,cutandscrapedthinenoughtoflattenout,fails
whendrytohaveasufficientcontrastbetweenridgesanddepressionsforpurposesofphotographing.The
samepieceofskinwhensoakedinxylenewillshowamarkedcontrast,whichitlosesondrying.This
difficultyisovercomebyphotographingtheskinwhileinsolution,whichcanbedonebyplacingtheskinin
atesttubeorasmallbottleofasizetokeeptheskinuprightandtheridgestowardthecamera.Thetest
tubeorbottleisthenfilledwithxylene.
Iftheskinissufficientlythin,transmittedlightmaybeused.Shoulditbefound,however,that
transmittedlightisnoteffective,thendirectlightmaybetriedandtheresultscheckedinthegroundglass
(fig.401).

[Fig.401]

Whenphotographingasmallcurvedsurfacesuchasatesttube,directlightingwillusuallycreateahigh
light.Ifthehighlightasshowninthegroundglassisovertheridgedetailontheskin,apoorphotograph
willresult.Ifthehighlightcannotberemovedbyrearrangingthelights,thenreflectedlightshouldbe
tried.
Inordertoeffectreflectedlightalargepieceofwhitepaper,cardboard,orsimilarmaterialisused.A
holeiscutinthecenterofthepaperorcardboard.Thismustbebigenoughforthecameralensto
protrudethrough.Theendsofthepaperorboardarecurvedtowardtheskinorfingertobe
photographed.Thelampswhicharetobeusedareplacedfacingthecurvedpaperorcardboardinsuch
fashionthatthelightwillstrikethepaperorboardandbereflectedbythecurvedsurfacetotheobject.
Thelampsshouldbecloseenoughtothepaperorboardtogivethe[Pg151]maximumlight.Careshould
beexercised,however,nottoplacethemtooclose,becauseofthefirehazard.
Anyarrangementoflampsandreflectorsgivingasimilareffectastheaboveshouldprovesuitable.
Fingersorskinwhichhaveamottled,reddishbrowncolorbecauseofdecomposition,exposuretosevere
heat,ordiffusionwithbloodpresentaproblemoflackofcontrastbetweenridgesanddepressionsfor

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photographicpurposes.Thislackofcontrastcanbeovercometoalargeextentbytheuseofayellowor
lightredfilter.Sometimes,inthosecaseswherethediscolorationisduetothediffusionofblood
throughoutthetissues,thebloodcanbewashedoutbysaturatingandrinsingthespecimenina10to20
percentsolutionofcitricacid.If,ofcourse,thebloodisnotremovedsatisfactorily,thephotographing
shouldbedonewiththefilter.
Aspreviouslystated,thefingerprintcameracanbereadilyadaptedtotheuseofphotographingfingersor
skinspecimensforridgedetail.Sometimesitispossibletophotographtheskinorfingerinthesame
mannerasonedoesalatentprint.Therewillbeinstances,however,inwhichthestandarduseofthe
fingerprintcamerawillnotbepossibleoreffective,suchasforsidelight,reflectedlight,andsometimes
transmittedlight,orinstancesinwhichitisnotpossibletogetthefingerorskinflushwiththeopeningof
thecamera.Intheseinstancesthelightsofthecameraarenotused,sothebatteriesshouldberemoved
andgoosenecklampsorother[Pg152]suitablelightingequipmentandgroundglassutilizedwhenthe
fingerorskinispreparedforphotographing(fig.402).

[Fig.402]

Thecameraisopenedeitheratthepointwherethelightsarehousedoratthelenspoint,whicheveris
mosteffective.Then,openingtheshutter,theoperatormovesthecameraeithertowardorawayfromthe
fingerorskintothepointwheretheridgedetailissharpestinthegroundglass.Thecameraisheld
firmly,thegroundglassisremoved,thefilmisinsertedandthephotographtaken.
Withrespecttoexposuretime,itispossibleonlytogeneralizeandpointoutthateachcasewillhaveits
ownindividualaspects.Controllingfeaturesforconsiderationwillbethetypeoffilm,thetypeandsizeof
lights,themethodoflighting(direct,side,transmittedorreflected)andalsowhetherornotfiltersare
used.Accordingly,theremaybeawidevariationofexposuretimeindifferentcases.
Thebestapproachforarrivingattheproperexposuretimeismerelytomakeatestexposure,develop
thefilm,andfromanexaminationdetermineifitisunderexposedoroverexposed.Timethenext
exposureaccordingly,untilsatisfactoryresultsareobtained.
Ashasbeenmentionedpreviously,whenphotographingtheridgesonfingersorskin,theridgedetailwill
beinreverseposition,theoppositefromaninkedimpressionmadefromthesameskinorfinger.(Thisis
trueexceptinthosecasesinwhichtheundersideoftheepidermisisphoto[Pg153]graphed.)Accordingly,
whenthenegativeisprinted,itshouldbeprintedglosssidetosensitivesideofpapertogivetheposition
comparabletoaninkedprintmadefromthesameskinorfinger.Inordertoavoiderrororconfusiona
notationshouldbemadeonthephotographofeachfinger,or,iftheyarecutandmountedonafingerprint
card,pointoutthatthepositionhasbeenreversedandthattheprintsareintheircorrectpositionfor
classifyingandsearching.Otherwise,itispossiblethattherighthandmaybemistakenforthelefthand
andviceversa.
Iftheundersideoftheepidermisorouterskinisbeingphotographed,thenegativeshouldbeprintedin
thenormalmanner,thatis,emulsionsideofnegativetosensitizedsideofpaper.Here,reversalof
positionisnotnecessaryforwhentheridgedetailisviewedfromtheundersideitappearstobeinthe
samepositionastheinkedimpressionnormallyisreflectedonafingerprintcard.
Careshouldbetakentoseethateachphotographislabeledcorrectlytoindicatethefingeritrepresents,
suchasrightthumb,rightindex,rightring,etc.Itisimperativethatnoerroroccursinsuchlabeling,
inasmuchasitishighlyprobablethattheresultantclassificationwouldbeincorrectandfailuretomakean
identificationmightveryeasilyfollow.

Deceasedinfants
Theforegoinghasdealtwiththesecuringoffingerprintsofunknowndeceasedpersonsforidentification
purposes.Thebasisforsuchactionisthepresumptivepossibilitythattheunknownshadbeen
fingerprintedpreviouslyandthroughthismediummightbeidentified.

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Anothertypeofproblem,however,ariseswiththefindingofadeceasedinfant.Itcanbesafelyassumed
thatthepossibilityoftherebeinginexistenceasetofknownfingerprintsoftheinfantisextremely
remote.Nevertheless,inviewofthefactthatmanyhospitalsthroughoutthecountry,aspartofthe
generalroutineofrecordingabirth,securetheinfant'sfootprints,itwouldfollowthattherecouldbea
remotepossibilityofidentifyingthedeceasedinfantthroughitsfootprints.Theforegoingprinciplesand
procedureswouldthenapplyinsecuringthefootimpressionofadeceasedinfant.Itisfullyrealizedthat
inpracticallyallcasesinvolvingthefindingofanabandonedinfantcorpsetheinfantisprobably
illegitimateissueanddeliverydidnotoccurinahospital,buttherehavebeeninstanceswheresuchwas
notthecase.
Theimportanceofsecuringfootprintsofdeceasedinfantskilledinacommondisastercannotbe
overemphasized.Suchdisastersmayinvolvethedeathofinfantsoflawfulissue,andinmanyinstances
therearehospitalfootprintrecordsavailablewhichmayproveofvalueasapositivemeansof
identification.[Pg154]

Technicalconsideration
Themethodsdescribedareintendedtorecord,eitherbyprintingwithinkorbyphotographingaslegibly
aspossible,theridgedetailsofthetipsofthefingersofunknowndeadforidentificationpurposes.The
securingoftheimpressionsenablesthefingerprintexaminertoclassifyandsearchthemthroughafile.
This"search,"ofcourse,meansmerelytomakeacomparisonofthedeceased'sprintswiththeprintsof
knownindividuals.
Itiswelltobearinmindthefactthatthedermisorepidermismayhaveundergonecertainphysical
changesandthatinorderforthefingerprintexaminertomakeapropercomparisonhemustknowthe
changeswhichcananddooccur.Otherwise,hemayfailtomakeanidentification(fig.403).

[Fig.403]

Considerfirsttheepidermisorouterlayerofskinincasesofmaceration(theskiniswatersoaked).
Theremaybeconsiderableswelling.Theridgesbecomebroaderandaremoredistinct.Aninked
impressioninsuchaninstancemayshowapatternlargerinareathanaprintmadefromthesamefinger
whenthepersonwasalive.Also,iftheskinisonthefingerbutisloose,inkingandrollingcoulddistort
theimpressionsothatsomeoftheridgeformationswouldseemtobeinadifferentalignmentfrom
correspondingdetailsinaprintmadeduringlife.Whendecompositioncommences,whatarereallysolid
ridgesmaybebroken,givingrisetothepossibilitythatthereappeartobemorecharacteristicsthanthere
actuallyare(figs.404and405).[Pg155]

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[Figs.404405]

[Pg156]
Theexistenceofwrinklesmayalsocausetheimpressiontoacquireanappearanceofdissimilaritywhen
comparedwiththeoriginalinkedprint.
Withrespecttocasesofdesiccation,therewillprobablybeshrinkage,hence,theimpressionsmademay
appearsmallerthaninlifeandtheridgeswillbefiner.Incasesinwhichtheepidermishasbeenlostand
thereremainsonlythedermisorsecondlayer,therewillusuallybeshrinkagewiththesameresults.
Herealso,wrinkles,ifpresent,maycauseadifferenceinappearancefromthenormalprint.
Inadditiontoshrinkageandwrinklesincasesinvolvingthesecondlayerofskin,thereisaradicalchange
intheappearanceoftheridgesthemselves.Thesecondordermallayerofskiniscomposedofwhatare
calleddermalpapillaewhichhavetheappearanceofminutebluntpegsornipples.Thedermalpapillaeare
arrangedindoublerows(fig.406).Eachdoublerowliesdeepinaridgeofthesurfaceorepidermallayer
andpresentsthesamevariationsofridgecharacteristicsasareontheouterlayerofskinexceptthatthey
aredouble.Accordingly,whenthesecondlayerofskinisprintedorphotographed,theridgedetailwill
appearindouble.Thatis,theridgeswillappearasthoughtheyweresplit.Thismaywellconfusethe
fingerprintexaminerinthatwhatmaybealoophaving10ridgecountsmayappeartobealoophaving
20ridgecounts[Pg157]whentheimpressionismadefromthesecondordermallayerofskin.These
doublerowsofridgesarefinerandnotassharpasthedetailontheouterskin,whichaddstothe
difficultyofarrivingatacorrectclassificationandmakingapropercomparison.

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[Fig.406]

FBIaid
Theabovetechniquesandprocedureshavebeendealtwithuponthebasisthatthelawenforcement
officerswould,whenacorpsehasbeenfound,attempttosecureasetoffingerimpressionsinaneffortto
identifytheunknowndead.If,however,theofficerfeelsthatthejobistoodifficultorisbeyondhis
scope,considerationshouldbegiventocuttingoffthehandsorfingersofthedeceasedandforwarding
themtotheIdentificationDivisionoftheFBIforprocessing.Ifthiscourseisdecidedupon,itisreiterated
thatlocalstatutesgoverningthecuttingofthedeadmustbecompliedwithandproperauthorizationmust
besecured.
InordertofacilitatethetransmissionofsuchspecimenstotheFBIthefollowingsuggestionsaremade:
First,itisdeemedmostdesirable,whenpossible,tohavebothofthehands,severedatthewrist,
forwardedintheirentirety(fig.407).Itis[Pg158]desiredthatthehands,ratherthaneachseparate
finger,besentinasmuchasiteliminatesthepossibilityofgettingthefingersmixeduporincorrectly
labeled.If,however,itisnotpossibletosendthehandsforsomereason,then,ofcourse,thefingers
shouldbecutoffandforwarded.Incutting,thefingersshouldbecutoffatthepalmbeginningwiththe
rightthumb,thentherightindex,ring,etc.,justasthoughtheyweretobeprinted.Assoonaseach
fingeriscutoffitshouldbeplacedinanindividualcontainer,suchasasmallglassjar,andimmediately
markedastowhichparticularfingeritis.

[Fig.407]

Intheeventthatthehandsorfingersofmorethanonedeadarebeingtransmitted,itisabsolutely
necessarythatnotonlythefingersbeproperlylabeledbutthateachbodyalsobegivenanidentifying
numberorsymbolwhichmustbeindicatedonthehandsorfingerscutfromthatbodyaswell,inorderto
avoidtheembarrassingsituationofidentifyingthehandsandnotknowingfromwhichbodytheywerecut.
Inshipping,thehands,fingers,orskinsmaybeplacedinpreservingsolutionssuchas5percentsolution

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offormaldehyde,5percentsolutionofalcohol,orembalmingfluid.Whenhandsorfingersaredesiccated
(driedout),however,itismostdesirablethattheybeplacedinairtightcontainersandsentwithoutany
preservative.Ifglasscontainersareused,thespecimensshouldbepackedinsuchamannerastoavoid
breakage.Dryiceisasuitablepreservativefortransmittingsuchspecimensbutitshouldnotbeused
whenshippingwilltakemorethan24hours.
Inmakingupapackageusingdryice,thehandsorfingers,properlytagged,shouldbeplacedin
cellophaneorpaperbags.Amaterialsuchassawdust,shavingsorsimilarpackingwhichactsasan
insulationisplacedaroundthespecimens.Asufficientamountofdryiceisthenplacedinthepackage
whichisthenpackedtightwithmoresawdustorshavings.Thedryiceshouldnotbeindirectcontactwith
thecellophaneorpaperbagswhichcontainthehandsorfingers.
Alettercoveringtransmittalofthespecimensshouldbepreparedinduplicate.Itshould,ofcourse,
indicatethesender.Thenamesofanyprobablevictims,sex,raceandapproximateageofthedeceased
should,ifsuchinformationisavailable,besecuredfromthecoronerormedicalexaminerandbeincluded
intheletter.Acopyofthelettershouldbeplacedinthepackage.Theoriginalshouldbemailed
separately.Bothletterandpackageshouldbeaddressedasfollows:
Director
FederalBureauofInvestigation
U.S.DepartmentofJustice
Washington25,D.C.
Attention:IdentificationDivisionLatentFingerprintSection.
[Pg159]
Ifthepackagecontainsglassjarsitshouldbemarked"Fragile"toinsurecarefulhandlingintransit.
Thepackageshouldbesentrailwayexpress,prepaid,or,wherethereisneedforspeed,byairexpress,
prepaid.WhentheyarereceivedbytheIdentificationDivision,thespecimenswillundergovarious
treatmentswhichmaynecessitatefurthercutting,scraping,etc.Inallcases,regardlessofcondition,the
specimenswillbereturnedafterexamination.
Alloftheforegoingmatterhasdealtwithinstancesinwhichithasbeenassumedthatalltenfingersare
available,orasufficientnumberofthefingersofadeceasedhavebeensecuredandimpressionssuitable
forsearchingthroughthefingerprintfilesoftheFBIhavebeenrecorded.
Therewillbecases,however,whereonlyafew,orpossiblyonlyone,ofthefingershassufficientridge
detailforidentification.InsuchinstancesasearchthroughtheFBIfileswouldbeimpractical.This,
however,doesnotprecludethepossibilityofmakingapositiveidentificationbytheuseoftheonefinger.
Thoughasearchthroughthefileisnotpossible,acomparisoncanbemadewiththefingerprintsof
individualswhoitisthoughtthedeceasedmaybeor,insomeinstances,withthefingerprintsofmissing
persons.
Inthisconnection,whereoneoronlyafewfingersareforwardedtotheFBI,thenamesofallpossible
victimsshouldalsobesubmitted.Thefingerprintsofthoseindividuals,ifavailable,willthenbetakenout
offileandcomparedwiththeridgedetailonthefingerofthedeceasedinanendeavortoestablisha
positiveidentification.Manysuchidentificationshavebeeneffected.
Inconjunctionwiththeusualservicesaffordedauthorizedlawenforcementagencies,theservicesofan
FBIfingerprintexpertarealsomadeavailableinthosecaseswhereexperttestimonyisnecessaryto
establishtheidentityofthedeceasedthroughfingerprints,providing,ofcourse,suchanidentificationhas
beenmade.
Extremecautionshouldbeexercisedinthecaseofthechemicalspreviouslymentionedinthisarticle.
Acetone,alcohol,benzine,andxylenearehighlyinflammableandshouldneitherbeusednearopen
flamesnorwhiletheoperatorissmoking.Thefumesgivenoffbyacetone,benzine,xylene,and
formaldehydearetoxicandmaycausesickness.Theyshouldbeusedinawellventilatedroomonly.Itis
alsosuggestedthatthefingerprintexaminerwearrubbergloveswhenusingacetone,benzine,xylene,
formaldehyde,potassiumhydroxide,orsodiumhydroxide.Thesechemicalswillcausetheskintopeel.
Strongconcentrationsmaycauseburns.
Inconclusion,itispointedoutthattheproceduresandtechniqueswhichhavebeendescribedarethose
currentlybeingusedbythefingerprintexpertsoftheFBI.Thesemethodsarefastandtheresultshave
beenmostsatisfactory.ThisBureaudoesnotclaim,however,thatsatisfactoryresultscannotbeachieved
throughvariationsthereofordifferentmethods.
[Pg160]

CHAPTERXI
EstablishmentofaLocalFingerprintIdentificationBureau

Fortheinformationandassistanceofofficialswhodesiretoestablishalocalfingerprintidentification
bureau,thefollowingsuggestionsarebeingmadetoindicatetheprincipalmaterialsnecessarytoequip
suchabureau:

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Fingerprintingequipment
Forthepurposeoftakingfingerprintsthereshouldbeastandwithaclampforholdingthefingerprint
cardssteady.Thislatteritemisnecessarytopreventsmudgingtheprints.Atubeofprinter'sinkisused.
Theinkisappliedbyarollertoaglassplateuponwhichthefingersareinkedbeforebeingrolledonthe
cards.Thecompleteequipmentfortheaboveprocessmaybesecuredfromanumberofcommercial
sourcesoritcanbemade.Figure408depictsaninkingstand.

[Fig.408]

Fingerprintfiles
Itissuggestedthatthefingerprintcardbewhite,lightcardboard,8by8inches,slightlyglazed.Thissize
isconvenient,asitallowsallthespacenecessaryforrecordingtheclassificationoftheprintsandgeneral
descriptiveinformationconcerningtheindividual.Intheeventthenewbureaudesirestocontributecopies
ofitsfingerprintstotheFederalBureauofInvestigation,thelatterwill,uponrequest,gladlyfurnish
fingerprintcardsforthepurposetogetherwithenvelopesandinstructionsonhowtotakefingerprints.Itis
suggestedthatthenewbureaudesignitscardssimilartothosefurnishedbytheFederalBureauof
Investigation,asthesehavebeendesignedafterspecialstudyandhavebeenfoundtobesatisfactory
overalongperiodoftime.Figures409and410showthefingerprintsideandreversesideofthecriminal
fingerprintcardusedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation.

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[Fig.409]
[Enlarge]

[Fig.410]
[Enlarge]

Inclassifyingandcomparingfingerprintsitisnecessarytouseamagnifyingorfingerprintglass.Such
instrumentscanbeobtainedfromvariouscommercialsources.Figure411showsthetypeofmagnifying
glassusedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation.[Pg161]

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[Fig.411]

Thefingerprintcardsshouldbefiledaccordingtofingerprintclassificationsequenceincabinets,preferably
steel.Itisfurthersuggestedthatthecabinetsbethreedrawershigh,witheachdrawerdividedintothree
rowsforfiling.Suchcabinetsorsimilaronescanbeobtainedfromvariouscommercialsources.Figure
412showsthetypeoffingerprintcabinetusedintheFederalBureauofInvestigation.

[Fig.412]

Inordertofacilitatethelocationofclassificationgroups,itissuggestedthatguidecardsbeplacedinthe
rowsoffingerprintcardsat[Pg162]frequentintervals.Theseguidecardsshouldbeslightlylongerand
heavierthanthefingerprintcardsandshouldhavesmalltabsonthetoptoholdclassificationidentifying
symbols.Figure413showsthetypeofguidecardusedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation.

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[Fig.413]

ApracticewhichhasbeenoftheutmostbenefitintheFederalBureauofInvestigationisasfollows:When
afingerprintcardistakenoutofitsregularfileforanyreason,asubstitutecardisputinitsplace,to
remainuntilthereturnofthecard.Thissubstitutecard,or"chargeout"card,isofadifferentcolorfrom
thefingerprintcardandslightlylonger.Onitarerecordedthename,theclassificationformula,and
peculiarcharacteristics,suchasscarsandpeculiarpatternformations,appearingontheoriginalcard.By
indicatingthedateandreasonforchargingouttheoriginalcard,theBureauisabletokeepanaccurate
checkonthewhereaboutsofallprintsatalltimes.Itissuggestedthatthelocalbureausadoptapractice
ofthiskindwheneverafingerprintcardisdrawnfromthefilesanditisknownthatitmaybeoutfora
periodof[Pg163]timelongerthantheremainderofthedayonwhichitisdrawn.Figure414showsthe
typeofchargeoutcardusedintheFBI.

[Fig.414]
[Enlarge]

Eachfingerprintcardhandledbythebureaushouldreceiveafingerprintnumberandthesenumberscan
beassignedinconsecutiveorder.
Asthebureauincreasesinsize,itwillbefoundasourceofmuchconveniencetohavefingerprintsof
malesandfemaleskeptinseparatefiles.

Namefiles
Therewillbetimeswhenitmaybenecessarytolocateanindividual'sfingerprintswhennocurrent
fingerprintsareavailable,butthenamewithapolicenumberortheclassificationisknown.Inorderto
facilitateworkofthisnature,aswellastokeepacompleterecordandcheckoneachsetoffingerprints,
itisnecessarythatthefilesbeindexedinamannersimilartothatinwhichbooksinalibraryare
indexed.
Inthisconnection,foreachfingerprintcardthereispreparedanindexcard.Onthisthenameofthe
individualisplaced,withallknownaliases,[Pg165]thefingerprintclassificationformula,thepoliceor
arrestnumber,thedateofarrestorotheraction.Itisdesirable,also,tohaveonthiscardsuchgeneral
informationasage,height,weightandrace.Figure415showsthefrontofasuggestedtypeof3by5
inchindexcard.

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[Fig.415]
[Enlarge]

Figure416showsthereversesideofthe3by5inchindexcard.Thesearefiledalphabeticallyinspecial
cabinets.Anindexcardalsoshouldbemadeforeveryaliaswhichanindividualhasused.Figure417
showsanelectricallyoperatedfilecabinetinwhichtheindexcardsarefiled.Itissuggestedthatthealias
cardsbeofadifferentcolorfromtheonebearingthecorrectname,knownasthe"Master."Eachalias
cardalsoshouldhavetypedonitthecorrectnameoftheindividual,forpurposesofreferenceandcross
checking.Forconvenienceandaccuracythesefiles,asinthefingerprintfiles,shouldalsohavesuitable
guidecards.[Pg166]

[Fig.416]

[Fig.417]

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Itisadvisabletomakeuseofchargeoutcardswhenoriginalindexcardsaredrawnfromthefiles.Figure
418showsachargeoutcard.

[Fig.418]
[Enlarge]

Tosupplantthe3by5inchindexcardsmentionedabove,manylawenforcementagencieshavefoundit
desirabletouseaseparatesheet,[Pg167]sometimesreferredtoasa"HistorySheet"or"Information
Sheet,"containingthecompletecasehistoryofthesubjectinvolved.Theseseparatesheetscanbefiled
byfingerprintnumbersequenceandcontainnotonlythedatasuchastheknownaliases,thefingerprint
classificationformula,thearrestnumber,andotheressentialitemswhicharesetoutonthe3by5inch
cardsasheretoforedescribed,butalsocontainaconcisesummaryofthesubject'sarresthistory,
particularlywithreferencetohiscriminalactivitiesintheparticularcity.Theymayalsocontaina
summarizedcasehistorywithrespecttoeacharrestorcommitment,includingsuchitemsasthedateand
placeofarrest,completehomeaddress,relatives,theessentialfactsconcerningtheprosecutionof
charges,andtheultimatedisposition.

Jacketfolderfile
Whenanidentificationbureaureceivesprintsofindividualsonwhomitalreadyhasprints,itisnot
practicaltokeepmorethanonesetofprintsperpersoninwhatmaybecalledtheactivefingerprintfile.
Inthese[Pg168]instancesthebetterprintshouldbedesignateda"Master"printbyhavingtheword
"Master"stampedthereon.Itshouldbegivenanumber,tobeknownasthemasternumber,which
numbershouldalsobeplacedonallothersetsofprintswhichmaybefoundtobeidenticalwiththe
"Master"print.The"Master"printisplacedintheactivefiles.Theextraprintsareplacedtogetherina
heavyfolderwiththeirmasternumberstampedthereon.Thisjacketfolderisthenfiledinaseparate
cabinet.Also,ifcopiesofallinformationregardinganindividual,photographs,andFBItranscriptof
recordarekeptinthisfolder,hiscompleterecordwillalwaysbeassembledinaneasilyaccessibleunit.
The"Master"numbershouldalsobeplacedontheindexcardandallthealiascardsoftheindividual.
Also,eachnewaliasandarrestnumbershouldbeplacedontheoriginalindexcard.Theadditionalrecords
arekeptinfolderswhicharearrangedinnumericalorder,beginningwithNos.1,2,3,andsoon.
Afurthersuggestioninconnectionwiththemaintenanceofthisfolderfile,besidestheuseofaseparate
"Master"numberingsystem,istheuseofthearrestfingerprintnumber.Asindicatedpreviously,each
personarrestedandfingerprintedisassignedanumber.Thisnumberappearsonthefingerprintcard,
nameindexcard,andphotograph.Thepracticeofhandlingeverynewarrestfingerprintcardinthe
bureaushouldincludesearchingthefingerprintcardinthefingerprintfiletoascertainifthesubjecthasa
previousrecord.Ifthesubjectdoesnothaveapreviousrecord,anewnumbershouldbeassigned.Inthis
connectionitisnotedthatonlyonecopyofthefingerprintcardshouldbemaintainedinthefileby
fingerprintclassification.Toindicatethenewarrestontheold[Pg169]indexcard,thedateofthenew
arrestcanbeshown.Whetherthebureaufollowsthe"Master"numberingsystemorthe"previousarrest"
numberingsystemshouldmakeverylittledifferenceintheultimatepurpose.Allextracopiesof
fingerprintcards,completerecordsheets,photographs,andallinformationpertainingtotheindividualare
filedawayinthefolderfile.Thiscompleterecordisreadilyaccessibleatalltimes.Itwillnowbefound
thatthebureauhasacompleterecordofeachindividualwhohasanarrestrecordonfile,withprovision
madeforaccuratecrossreferencingandcheckingbetweennamesandfingerprints.

Dispositions
Itisimportanttothebureautohavecompleteinformationconcerningtheultimatedispositiononeach
arrestfingerprintcard.Ifthedispositionofachargeisknownatthetimethepersonisfingerprinted,this
factshouldbeindicatedinthespaceprovidedonthefingerprintcard.Forexample,inthecaseofan
individualwhoisarrested,fingerprinted,andturnedovertothecountyjail,thisdispositioncanbe
indicatedonthefingerprintcardwhichisforwardedtotheFederalBureauofInvestigation.Thefingerprint
cardshouldnotbeheldbythebureaupendingfinaldispositionofthecharge.

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Inthosecaseswherethedispositionispendingprosecutiveorcourtaction,aseparate3by5inch
dispositionfilecanbemaintained.Onthesecardsinformationconcerningthename,fingerprintnumber,
race,sex,charge,nameofthearrestingofficers,andthefingerprintclassificationshouldappear.These
cardsarefiledinapendingdispositionfile.The3by5inchdispositioncardsaremadeatthetimethe
fingerprintsofthepersonaretaken.Whenthefinaldispositionisobtaineditshouldbenotedonthecard.
Inthosecaseswherethereisonlyonefingerprintcardinthebureau,thedispositioncanbenotedonthe
nameindexcardorthereversesideofthebureau'sfingerprintcard.Inthosecaseswherethereisa
jacketfolderfilefortheindividualthisdispositioncardcanthenbeplacedinthefolder.
"DispositionSheets"(No.R84)canbeobtainedfromtheFederalBureauofInvestigationforforwarding
thisinformationsothatthefilesoftheFBIwillhavecompleteinformationconcerningthearrests.Atthe
timethefinaldispositionisobtained,thesedispositionsheetscanbecompletedandforwardedtothe
FederalBureauofInvestigation.

Deathnotices
Whenpersonswhosefingerprintsareonfilearereportedasdeceased,theprintsshouldbetakenfrom
theactivefileandassembledwithany[Pg170]otherprintsofthepersonconcerned.Theseshouldbe
plainlymarked"Dead"andfiledinaseparatecabinetorsection.Alltheindexcardsonthisindividual
shouldalsobemarked"Dead"andfiledinaseparatesection.Theseshouldberetainedforpossiblefuture
reference.
Inthisconnection,"DeathNotice"forms(No.R88)canbeobtainedfromtheFederalBureauof
Investigationsothatinformationconcerningthesedeathscanbeproperlynotedinitsfingerprintfile.

Recordofadditionalarrest
ItisnotnecessaryforabureautosendaregularfingerprintcardtotheIdentificationDivisionofthe
FederalBureauofInvestigationonindividualswhohavebeenarrestedrepeatedlyandwhoseprevious
recordsareknowntothelocallawenforcementagency.Insuchcasesthe"RecordofAdditionalArrest"
formshouldbeused.
Completeinformationmustbegivenonthisform.ItisimperativethattheFBInumberandthefinger
impressionsbeplacedonthisform.TheIdentificationDivisionoftheFederalBureauofInvestigationwill
sendnoansweruponreceiptofthisform.
TheformwillbeplacedintheFBInumberfolderontheindividualandlaterwhenaregularfingerprint
cardisreceivedthearrestinformationfromalltheformswillbecompiledandincludedonthesubject's
recordas"supportedbyfingerprints."
"RecordofAdditionalArrest"forms(No.11)canbeobtainedfromtheFederalBureauofInvestigation.

Wantednotices
Allwantednoticescontainingfingerprints,includingthewantednoticesinsertedintheFBILaw
EnforcementBulletin,shouldbefiledinthefingerprintfilebyclassificationformula,andthenames
appearingonthesewantednoticesshouldbeindexedandplacedinthenamefiles.Concerningthesmall
wantednoticesinsertedintheFBILawEnforcementBulletin,asuggestedprocedurewouldbetopaste
eachindividualnoticeonablank8by8inchwhitecard.Thewantednoticesarefiledbythefingerprint
classificationandthenamesindexedandplacedinthenamefile.Whenanapprehensionnoticeisreceived
concerningthewantednotice,apropernotationshouldbemadeonthenamecardandthewantednotice
inthefingerprintfile.Ifthesecanceledwantednoticesendangertheefficiencyofthefile,itissuggested
thatthenameindexcardandthefingerprintwantednoticebedestroyed.Shouldthebureau[Pg171]
adoptthispracticeitissuggestedthatthe8by8inchcardsbeusedagainforotherwantednotices.In
thismanneritwouldbepossibletousetheblankcardforeightofthesenotices.
TheFederalBureauofInvestigationwillmakeavailabletolawenforcementagenciesaspecial"Wanted
Notice"form(No.112)inorderthattheycanplacewantednoticesagainstthefingerprintsinthefilesof
theFBI.

Photographs
Arrangementsshouldbemadetoprocureacamerafortakingphotographsofthepersonsfingerprinted.
Thisisknownasa"mugging"cameraandvarioustypesareonthemarket.Itisbelievedthatthe
photographsshouldincludeafrontandsideviewoftheperson.Inmostinstancesascaleforindicating
heightcanbemadeapartofthepictureeventhoughonlytheupperportionoftheindividual
photographedistaken.Ofcourse,ifthescaleisused,thepersonphotographedshouldbestandingeven
thoughonlytheupperportionofthebodyappearsinthephotograph.Thenecessarylightsshouldbe
providedforobtainingphotographs.Astandardsetofscalesshouldbeobtainedinorderthatthecorrect
weightcanbeascertained.
[Pg172]
Thenegativesandphotographscanbefiledbyfingerprintnumberinaseparatefile.Inthosecaseswhere
theindividualhasmorethanonearrestallthephotographscanbeplacedinthejacketfoldernumberfile.
Thenegatives,intheseinstances,canremaininthephotographfile.

Latentfingerprints
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provided.Thisequipmentincludeslatentfingerprintpowders,brushes,liftingtape,fingerprintcamera,
searchlight,andscissors.Allofthisequipmentcanbeobtainedfromcommercialfingerprintsupply
companies.Figure419showssomeoftheequipmentusedbytheFBI.Thetechniquesofdevelopinglatent
fingerprintsandtheirusesaremorefullyexplainedinthefollowingchapters.

[Fig.419]

Itisbelievedthatbyfollowingthebasicideasoutlined,theofficialsoflawenforcementagenciescanbe
assuredofbestresultsinestablishingandmaintainingasmallidentificationbureau.Forfurther
information,theFederalBureauofInvestigationwillfurnishtodulyconstitutedlawenforcementofficials
anyadditionaldatawhichmaybeofmaterialassistanceinthemaintenanceofsuchabureau.
[Pg173]

CHAPTERXII
LatentImpressions

Eachridgeofthefingers,palms,andsolesbearsarowofsweatporeswhichintheaverageperson
constantlyexudeperspiration.Also,theridgesofthefingersandpalmsareinintermittentcontactwith
otherpartsofthebody,suchasthehairandface,andwithvariousobjects,whichmayleaveafilmof
greaseormoistureontheridges.Intouchinganobject,thefilmofmoistureand/orgreasemaybe
transferredtotheobject,thusleavinganoutlineoftheridgesofthefingersorpalmthereon.Thisprintis
calledalatentimpression,theword"latent"meaninghidden,thatis,theprintmanytimesisnotreadily
visible.
Latentimpressions,regardlessoftheareaoftheridgespresent,areofthegreatestimportancetothe
criminalinvestigatorasidentificationofthemmaysolvethecrimeandresultinsuccessfulprosecutionof
thesubject.Consequently,everyeffortshouldbemadetopreserveandidentifythem.
Visibleprintsinmediumssuchasblood,grease,dirt,ordustareequallyimportanttotheinvestigatorbut,
strictlyspeaking,arenotlatentimpressions.
Asearchofthecrimesceneshouldbeconductedinalogicalmanner.Pointsofentryandexitshouldbe
examined,alongwithsurfacesorobjectsdisturbedorlikelytouchedduringthecommissionofthecrime.
Theexaminershouldwearapairoflightclothglovesandhandleanobjectonlyinsofarasisnecessary
andthenonlybyedgesorsurfaceswhicharenotreceptivetolatentimpressions.Arecordoftheexact
locationofaprintonanobjectandoftheobjectitselfshouldbemade,sincethesefactsmaybeofthe
utmostimportanceinanytrialresultingfromtheinvestigation.Nooneshouldhandleanobjectotherthan
theexaminerhimself.
Portablearticlesremovedshouldbelabeledormarkedsothattheymaybereadilyidentifiedthereafter.
Thebeamofaflashlightplayedoverthesurfaceofanobjectwillfrequentlyshowthelocationoflatent
impressions,althoughthisisnotaninfallibletestfortheirpresence.
Evidenceshouldbeexaminedassoonasfeasibleafteritsdiscovery.
Followingthelocationofanylatentprintsatthesceneofacrime,theprintsofallpersonswhose
presenceattheplaceunderinspectionhasbeenforlegitimatepurposesmustbeexcludedfromfurther
attention.Itisadvisable,therefore,duringtheinitialstagesofaninvestigationwherelatentprintsare
found,tosecuretheinkedprintsofallmembers[Pg174]ofthehousehold,theemployees,andanypolice
orotherofficialswhomayhavetouchedtheobjectsonwhichthelatentimpressionswerefound.Inked

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printstakenforthispurposearereferredtoaseliminationprints.
Duetothefragmentarynatureofmostlatentprintsitisnotpossibletoderiveaclassificationwhich
makesafilesearchpracticable.Alatentimpressionmaybeidentified,however,bycomparisonwiththe
printsofaparticularsuspect.
Inkedfingerprintstakenforcomparisonwithlatentimpressionsshouldbeaslegibleandascompleteas
possible,includingtheareasnotessentialtoclassification,sinceidentificationsareoftenmadewiththese
areas.Inkedpalmprintstakenshouldlikewisebecompleteandclearandshouldincludeimpressionsof
thefingerjoints.Personsnotexperiencedinlatentprintcomparisonsshouldnotattempttoevaluatelatent
fragments,sincetheareanecessaryforanidentificationmaybeextremelysmallcomparedtothatofan
averageinkedfingerprint.
Articleswhicharetobetransportedbymailorexpressshouldbesopackedthatthesurfacesbearing
latentimpressionsarenotincontactwithothersurfaces.Thismaybeaccomplishedbymountingthe
articlesonapieceoffiberboardorplywood.Theboardshouldthenbesecuredinaboxsothatthe
objectswillnottouchorbeshakenagainstthesidesintransit.Thepackageshouldbeplainlymarked
"Evidence,"topreventinadvertenthandlingonopening.Cottonorclothshouldneverbeplacedindirect
contactwithanysurfacebearinglatentprints.
Anynumberofpaperorcardboardspecimensmaybeplacedinasingleprotectivewrapper,sincecontact
withothersurfacesdoesnotharmlatentsonsuchobjects.Lifts,negativesandphotographsarereadily
enclosedwithletters.
Anexplanatorylettershouldaccompanyallevidence.Ifitisnecessarytopacktheevidenceseparately,a
copyofthelettershouldbeplacedineverypackagesothattherecipientwillknowimmediatelythe
importofthecontents.Allitemsofevidenceshouldbemarkedanddescribedexactlyintheaccompanying
lettersothattheywillnotbeconfusedwithpackingmaterialofasimilarnature,andtoprovideacheck
onwhatthepackageshouldcontain.
Inaddition,thelettershouldincludeforrecordpurposesabriefoutlineofthecrime,i.e.,type,dateand
placeofoccurrence,andnamesofvictimsandsubjects.Ifsuspectsarenamedforcomparison,sufficient
descriptivedatashouldbesetouttopermitlocationoftheirfingerprintrecords.Thisinformation,in
preferentialorder,comprisestheindividual'scompletename,aliases,FBInumber,dateofpriorarrestor
fingerprinting,fingerprintclassification,dateandplaceofbirth,andphysicaldescription.
Evidenceispreferablyforwardedbyregisteredmailorrailwayexpress,asthesemeansproviderecords
ofdispatchandreceipt.
Eliminationorsuspectfingerprintsarebestenclosedwiththeevidenceitself,withanotationastothe
typeofprintsforwarded.
[Pg175]

CHAPTERXIII
PowderingandLiftingLatentImpressions

Thesolepurposein"developing"alatentimpressionistomakeitvisiblesothatitmaybepreservedand
compared.Variouspowdersandchemicalsareusedforthispurpose.Whenalatentprintisplainlyvisible,
itshouldbephotographedbeforeanyeffortismadetodevelopit.
Noattemptshouldbemadetobrushorapplypowdertoprintsindust,obviouslygreasyprints,orbloody
prints,asthiswillalmostsurelydestroythem.Objectswhichhavebeenwetorimmersedinwatermay
stillbearidentifiablelatentimpressions.Beforeanyexaminationisattempted,however,theobjectmust
bedried.
Powderbrushedlightlyoveralatentbearingsurfacewillclingtogreaseormoistureintheridgesofa
latentprint,makingitvisibleagainstthebackground.Obviously,apowdershouldbeusedwhichwill
contrastwiththecolorofthesurface.Photographiccontrastsshouldalsobeconsidered.
Agraypowderandablackpowderareadequateforlatentprintwork.Manyfingerprintpowdersof
variouscolorsandcompositionsareavailablefromfingerprintsupplyhousesbutnonearesuperiortothe
grayandblack.
Averysmallamountofpowderisplacedonthebrushforapplicationtothesurface.Oncethecontourofa
printisvisible,thebrushstrokesshouldconformtothedirectionoftheridges.Allexcesspowdershould
bebrushedfrombetweentheridges.Toomuchpowderandtoolittlebrushingarethechieffaultsof
beginners.
Graypowderisusedondarkcoloredsurfaces.Itisalsousedonmirrorsandmetalsurfaceswhichhave
beenpolishedtoamirrorlikefinish,sincethesesurfaceswillphotographblackwiththefingerprint
camera.
Blackpowdershouldbeappliedtowhiteorlightcoloredsurfaces.
Aluminumpowderaffordsthesamecontrastasthegray.Goldandredbronzepowders,althoughofa
glitteringappearance,willphotographdarkandshouldconsequentlybeusedonlightcoloredsurfaces.

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Dragon'sbloodpowderisaphotographicallyneutralpowderandmaybedustedoneitheralightordark
surface.
Oncleartransparentglass,eithergrayorblackpowdermaybeused,itbeingnecessaryonlytousea
contrastingblackorwhitebackgroundwhenphotographing.
Printsshouldbeliftedafterphotographing.Bothrubberandtransparenttapeareavailableforthis
purpose.Rubberliftingtapeisprocurableinblackorwhite4"x9"sheetsandhastheadhesivesurface
protectedwithacelluloidcover.Ablackpowderprintshouldobviouslybeliftedonwhitetapeandagray
powderprintonblacktape.[Pg176]
Goldbronzeandredbronzepowdersshouldbeliftedonwhitetape,aluminumonblack.Dragon'sblood
maybeliftedoneitherblackorwhite.
Aftercuttingapieceoftapesufficientlylargetocovertheentirelatentprint,thecelluloidcoveringis
removedandtheadhesivesideappliedtothelatent.Thetapeshouldbepressedevenlyandfirmlytothe
surface,takingcarenottoshiftitsposition.Itisthenpeeledgentlyfromthesurfaceandthepieceof
celluloidplacedovertheprinttoprotectit.Theoperatorshouldhandletheliftinsuchamannerthathe
willleavenoprintsofhisownontheadhesivesurface.Asmallpaperidentificationtagbearingtheinitials
oftheoperator,date,andobjectfromwhichliftedshouldbeplacedunderonecornerofthecelluloid,or
thisinformationmaybewrittenonthebackoftheliftitselfifitcanbedoneinapermanent,legible
manner.
Ifanexcessiveamountofpowderadherestothelatentprint,amorelegibleprintmaysometimesbe
obtainedbyliftingasecondtime(onanewpieceoftape,ofcourse).
Itshouldbenotedthataprintliftedonrubbertapeisinareverseposition.Consequently,inpreparinga
photographofaprintonsuchalift,itwillbenecessarytoprintthenegativefromthereversesidein
orderfortheprinttoappearinitscorrectpositionforcomparison.Preparationofsuchphotographsshould
notbeattemptedbypersonsofinadequateknowledgeandexperience.
Transparenttapewithadurableadhesivesurfaceisavailablein1"to2"widthsforfingerprintwork.The
commonvarietyoftransparenttapeisnotsuitableduetothedeterioration(drying)oftheadhesive
surface.Theprintonapieceoftransparenttapeisincorrectposition.Transparentliftsshouldbeaffixed
toasmooth,grainless,opaquebackgroundofablackorwhitecolorcontrastingwiththepowderused.
Everyeffortshouldbemadetoavoidairbubblesundersuchlifts.Innoinstanceshouldatransparentlift
everbefoldedbackonitselforstucktoanotherpieceofsuchtapeasabacking,sinceitisgenerallynot
possibletodeterminethecorrectpositionofsuchaprint.
Groupsoflatentimpressions,suchasthoseofadjacentfingersorfingersandpalmswhichappeartohave
beenmadesimultaneously,shouldbeliftedasunits,thatis,onasinglepieceoftape,asthismay
facilitatethetaskofmakingcomparisons.
[Pg177]

CHAPTERXIV
ChemicalDevelopmentofLatentImpressions

Chemicaltreatmentinthedevelopmentoflatentfingerimpressionsonpaper,cardboard,andnewly
finishedorunpaintedwoodmayinvolveaslightlymorecomplicatedtechniquethanthatinwhichpowders
areutilized,buttheresultsjustifytheadditionaleffort.
Itisverystronglyrecommendedthatpowdersnotbeappliedtoarticlesoftheabovetypes.This
recommendationismadeforseveralreasons.First,powderscannotberemovedfrompaperandpossibly
mayinterferewithsometypesofdocumentexaminations.Inthisconnection,theyarelikelytoprevent
restorationofthespecimentoalegiblecondition.Powderswillnotdevelopasmanylatentimpressionsas
chemicalsonpaperorcardboard.Insomecasestheywillobscurelatentimpressionssubsequently
developedchemically.
Neitherscientifictrainingnorcompleteknowledgeofthechemicalprocessesinvolvedisnecessaryforone
tobecomeproficientintheuseofchemicaldevelopers,twoofwhichwillbediscussedmorefully.These
two,iodineandsilvernitrate,arethemostcommonlyused,inasmuchastheyarerelativelyinexpensive,
readilyprocurable,effective,andeasytoapply.
Allspecimenswhicharetreatedshouldbehandledwithtweezersorgloves.
Wheniodinecrystalsaresubjectedtoaslightamountofheattheyvaporizerapidly,producingviolet
fumes.Thesefumesareabsorbedbyfattyoroilymatterwithwhichtheycomeincontact.Ifthespecimen
treatedbearslatentimpressionswhichcontainoilorfat,theprintisdevelopedormadevisiblebythe
absorptionoftheiodinefumesandtheridgesoftheprintappearyellowishbrownagainstthebackground.
Iodineprintsarenotpermanentandbegintofadeoncethefumingisstopped.Itisnecessary,therefore,
fortheoperatortohaveacamerareadytophotographtheprintsimmediately.
Controlofthefumesisachievedbyusingthecrystalsinaniodinegunorfumingcabinet.Theiodinegun
maybeassembledbytheindividualexaminer,byadruggist,oritmaybepurchasedthroughafingerprint
supplyhouse.

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Materialformakingtheiodinegun,aswellasiodinecrystals,maybeprocuredfromachemicalsupply
houseorthroughadruggist.Thegunitselfconsistsessentiallyoftwoparts.Onetube(theendofthegun
throughwhichthebreathisblown)containsadryingagentsuchascalciumchloride,toremovemoisture
fromthebreath.Withoutthis,the[Pg178]moisturefromthebreathandsalivawouldcondenseattheend
ofthegun,dripontothespecimenandcausestainswhichmightproveindelible.Thesecondtubecontains
asmallamountofiodinecrystalswhicharevaporizedbytheheatofthebreath,augmentedbythe
warmthofthehandcuppedaroundthetubecontainingtheiodine.Thisvaporisblownontothespecimen
(fig.420).Glasswoolservestoholdthecalciumchlorideandiodineinplace.

[Fig.420]

Duetotheamountofphysicalexertioninvolved,thegunisgenerallylimitedtotheexaminationofafew
smallspecimens.Wherealargenumberofspecimensaretobetreated,thefumingcabinet,aboxshaped
woodenreceptaclewithaglassfrontandtoppermittingtheoperatortocontroltheamountoffumesin
thecabinetandobservethedevelopmentofthelatentimpressions,isused(fig.421).Thefumesare
generatedbyplacingasmallalcoholburnerunderanevaporatingdishcontainingtheiodinecrystals.This
issetinaholecutinthebottomofthecabinet.Assoonasthefumesbegintoappearinsufficient
amounts,theburnerisremoved.Thespecimensmaybehunginthecabinetbywoodenclothespins
fastenedtoaremovablestickwhichissupportedbywoodenstripsaffixednearthetopedgesofthe
cabinet.Thetopofthecabinetisremovabletopermitaccess.Diagramsfortheconstructionoftheiodine
gunorfumingcabinetwillbefurnishedonrequesttomembersofthelawenforcementprofession.

[Fig.421]

Manyspecimensbearsmall,greasyareaswhich,inadditiontoanylatentimpressionsofagreasynature,
willalsoappearyellowishbrown[Pg179]afterexposuretoiodinefumes.Allthesestainswilleventually
disappearifthespecimenisplacedinacurrentofairfromafanorvent.Alllatentimpressionsonan

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objectwillnotbedevelopedbytheiodineprocessbutonlythosecontainingfatoroil.Duetothisfactand
thefactthatiodineevaporatesfromthesurface,itisusedpriorto(itcannotbeusedafterward),andin
conjunctionwith,thesilvernitrateprocess.
Noilleffectshavebeennotedfromcontactwithsmallamountsofiodinevaporbutprolongedorexcessive
contactwillproduceirritationoftheskinandrespiratorypassages.Topreventgraduallossofthe
chemicalthroughevaporationandthecorrosionofsurroundingmetalsurfaces,iodinecrystalsshouldbe
keptinanairtightcontainerwhennotbeingused.
Thedevelopmentoflatentimpressionswithsilvernitrateisdependentonthefactthatthesodiumchloride
(thesamesubstanceascommontablesalt)presentintheperspirationwhichformstheridgesinmost
latentimpressionsreactswiththesilvernitratesolutiontoformsilverchloride.Silverchlorideiswhite
butisunstableonexposuretolightandbreaksdownintoitscomponents,silverandchlorine.Theridges
ofthefingerprintsdevelopedinthismannerappearreddishbrownagainstthebackground.Immersionin
thesilvernitratesolutionwillwashtracesoffat[Pg180]andoilfromthepaperconsequently,itis
necessarytofumethespecimenforlatentsofsuchanaturepriortotreatmentwithsilvernitrate.
Oncetherequisiteequipmentisassembled,thestepsintheprocessarethese:
Dipthespecimeninthesolution,blotanddryit,exposetolight,andphotographlatentswhencontrastis
good.
Chemicallystandardizedsolutionsarenotrequiredforthesuccessfulapplicationofthisprocess.Ithas
beendeterminedthroughlongpracticethata3percentsolutionofsilvernitrateisadequateforthe
purpose,althoughconcentrationsupto10percentaresometimesused.Asolutionofapproximately3
percentmaybepreparedbydissolving4ouncesofsilvernitratein1gallonofdistilledwater.Smaller
quantitiesof3percentsolutionaremadebyusingthecomponentsinthesameproportion.Forinstance,
onequartofwaterwillrequire1ounceofthecrystals.Fora10percentsolution,use131/3ouncesof
crystalspergallon.
Analcoholsolutionmaybepreferred.Thisispreparedbymixing4ouncesofsilvernitratecrystals,4
ouncesofdistilledwater,and1gallonofgrainalcohol,190proof.Thealcoholicsolutiondriesfaster,and
whentreatingpaperbearingwritinginink,itislesslikelytocausetheinktorun.Ontheotherhand,the
alcoholicsolutionismuchmoreexpensiveandthereissomelossbyevaporationwhileinuse.
Thesolutionsmaybeusedseveraltimesbeforelosingtheirstrengthandwhennotinuseshouldbekept
inbrownbottlesincupboardstoretarddeterioration.Ifthestrengthofthesolutionisdoubtful,the
operatorshouldattempttodeveloptestlatentimpressionsbeforeproceedingonevidence.
Silvernitratecrystalsanddistilledwaterinsmallamountsareobtainablefromdruggistsorinlarge
amountsfromchemicalsupplyhouses.Dealersindistilledwaterarelocatedinmanycommunities.
Tapwatershouldnotbeusedinthepreparationofthesolutionbecauseitgenerallycontainschemicals
whichwillpartiallyneutralizethesilvernitrate.
Itissuggestedthatthesolutionbeplacedinaglassorenamelwaretrayapproximately18by12by5
inchesforuse,asizeusedinphotographicdevelopment.Treatmentwiththissolutioniscalled"silvering."
Thespecimenisimmersedinthesolutionsothatthesurfacesarecompletelymoistened,thentakenout,
placedbetweenblotterstoremovetheexcesssolution,anddried.Thedryingisreadilyaccomplishedwith
anelectrichairdryer.Blottersmaybedriedandusedseveraltimesbeforediscarding.Itisnotnecessary
toworkinadarkroom.Workinanilluminatedroombutnotindirectsunlight.Soakingthespecimenin
thesolutiondoesnotaiddevelopmentandisactuallyundesirableasitrequiresalongerdryingtime.The
specimenshouldbereasonablydrybeforeexposingtothelight,otherwisethelatentprintsmaybe
developed[Pg181]whilethepaperisstillwet,thusnecessitatingdryinginsubduedlighttoprevent
darkening.
Developmentofthelatentimpressionsoccursrapidlywhenthespecimenisexposedtoablueorviolet
lightsource.A1,000wattblueordaylightphotographer'slamp,amercuryarc(mostultravioletlamps
areofthistype),orcarbonarcisexcellentforthepurpose(fig.422).Ifaweakerlightisused,astronger
mixtureofthesolutionshouldbeprepared.Forinstance,ifa300wattbulbisused,the10percent
solutionwouldbepreferable.Directsunlightwillcausethelatentimpressionstoappearveryrapidlyand
ifseveralspecimensareexposedatonceitisnotpossibleforasingleoperatortoproperlycontrolthe
development.Sunlightcomingthroughawindowpanewillservefordevelopment.Wherefingerprints
containingsodiumchloride(normallyexudedfromthesweatporesintheridges)havebeendeposited,the
silverchlorideformedwilldarkenagainstthebackground.

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[Fig.422]

Assoonastheridgedetailoftheprintsisclearlyvisible,thepapershouldberemovedfromthelight.
Continuedexposurewilldarkenthepaperandthecontrastwillbelost.
Papersotreatedshouldbekeptindarknessthatis,inaheavyenvelopeordraweruntilreadyto
photograph.
Immediatephotographing,asinthecaseofiodineprints,isnotalwaysessential,sincetheprintsare
permanentandbecomeillegibleonlythrougheventualcloudingofthebackground.Promptphotographing
isrecom[Pg182]mended,however,as,inexceptionalinstances,silvernitrateprintshavebecome
illegibleinamatterofhours.Darkeningordinarilywilloccurslowlyifthepaperispreservedinabsolute
darkness,andsilvernitrateprintssopreservedmorethan10yearshavebeenobservedtobequiteclear.
Itemssuchascardboardcartons,newspapers,roadmaps,largepiecesofwrappingpaper,orsmooth,
unpaintedwoodsurfaces,toolargefordipping,maybetreatedbybrushingthesolutionoverthesurface
withapaintbrush(fig.423).Brushingdoesnotdamageordestroylatentimpressionsonsurfacesofthis
type.Cardboardboxesmaybeslitdowntheedgesandflattenedouttopermiteasyplacementunderthe
light.

[Fig.423]

Wetpapershouldbehandledwithextremecaretopreventtearing.Intreatingverythintypesofpaper
thesolutionisbestappliedwithacottonswaborbrush.
Photographs,Photostats,andblueprintsofanyvalueshouldnotbetreatedwithsilvernitrate,sincethe
developedprintsorstainscannotberemovedwithoutdestroyingthem.
Inworkingwithsilvernitrate,wearrubberglovesorhandleallspecimenswithtweezersavoidspillingit
onclothing.Itwillcausedarkbrownstainsonclothing,skin,andfingernails.Suchstainsarenoteasily
removed.Areasoftheskinsubjectedtoprolongedcontactaredeadened,willturnblackandpeel.
Ifremovalofsilvernitrateprints(called"desilvering")isdesired,[Pg183]thismaybeaccomplishedby

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placingthespecimenina2percentsolutionofmercuricnitrateinatraysimilartothatusedforthesilver
nitrate.
Toprepareasmallamountofthissolution,dissolvetwothirdsofanounceofmercuricnitratecrystalsin
1quartofdistilledwaterandaddonethirdofafluidounceofnitricacid.Shakewell.Thissolution,too,
maybeusedseveraltimesbeforelosingitsstrengthandisnotnecessarilydiscardedaftereachuse.Itis
notnecessarytokeepitinadarkbottle.
Thespecimenbearingsilvernitrateprintsisimmersedinthissolutionuntilalltracesoftheprints
disappear.Itshouldthenberinsedthoroughlyinwatertoremoveallmercuricnitrate.Ifthisisnotdone
thepaperdeteriorates,becomingbrittleandcrumbly.Atrayofdistilledwatermaybeusedforrinsingor
atrayofordinarytapwaterchangedseveraltimesduringtherinsing.Thespecimenisthenlaidoutflatto
dry.
Wrinkles,suchasareleftinpaperafterordinarydrying,maybepreventedbyironingwithamoderately
hotiron.Anelectricironwithatemperaturecontrolisdesirable.Ifkepttoohotitwillscorchorwrinkle
thepapersomewhat.Thebottomoftheironshouldbecleansothatunremovablesmudgeswillnotbeleft
onthepaper.
Noilleffectshavebeennotedfromworkinginthe2percentmercuricnitratesolutionwithbarehandsfor
veryshortperiods,butitisacausticsolutionanditissuggestedthatthespecimensbehandledwith
tweezersorthatrubberglovesbewornifcontactisprolonged.
[Pg184]

CHAPTERXV
TheUseoftheFingerprintCamera

Ifafingerprintisvisible,aneffortshouldbemadetophotographitbeforeanyattemptismadeto
developit.Ineverycaseaprintdevelopedwithpowdershouldbephotographedbeforelifting.It
sometimeshappensthattheprintdoesnotliftproperlyalthoughitmaybequiteclearafterdevelopment.
Thecamerawhichisespeciallyadaptedtothepurposeandwhichiseasiesttohandleandoperateisthe
fingerprintcamera,onetypeofwhichisshowninfigure424.Thiscamerahasseveraladvantagesin
photographingfingerprints:
Itphotographstheprintsinnaturalsize.
Itcontainsitsownlightsource.
Ithasafixedfocus.

[Fig.424]

Camerasofthistypeareavailableinmodelsoperatedbybatteriesand110voltcurrent.Itisbelieved
thatthebatteryoperatedtypehasthegreaterutility,sincehousecurrentmaynotbeavailableatthe
crimescene.Whennotinusethebatteriesshouldberemovedastheywilleventuallydeteriorateand
corrodethebrasscontactsinthecamera.
[Pg185]
Thecameraisoftheboxtypeandhasthreebuttoncontrolswhichwillopen:(1)Themetalflapcovering
theaperture,(2)thefrontportionoftheframeprovidingaccesstotheselfcontainedlightbulbs,and(3)
thecamerainhalf,providingaccesstothebatteriesandtheshutterasshownbelowinfigure425.

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[Fig.425]

A21/4x31/4filmpackadapterora21/4x31/4cutfilmholderholdsthefilminthecamera.Thefilm
packadapterwillholdapackof12sheetsoffilm,andaccordingly,willpermitthetakingof12pictures.
Thecutfilmholderisaunitwhichholdstwosheetsoffilmutilizingeachsideoftheholder.
ItispointedoutthattheFBIusesthefilmpackexclusivelyinviewofthefactthatpracticallyalllatent
examinationswillnecessitatethetakingofmorethantwopictures.Further,thefilmpackismadesothat
itmaybeloadedintotheadapterintheopenlight.Also,thefilmsarenumbered1through12,whichisa
valuablefeatureinthatinmaintainingnotesconcerningthelatentexaminationsitisasimplematterto
notebythenumberofthenegativewherethelatentimpressionwasdevelopedandphotographed.Should
ithappenthatduringalatentexaminationalltwelveofthefilmsarenotused,thefilmpack,withthe
slideinplace,istakenintothedarkroomandonlythosefilmswhichhavebeenexposedareremovedand
developed.Theunexposedfilmsremaininthefilmpackadapterwiththeslideinandmaybeusedlater.
Aswaspreviouslymentioned,thecamerahasafixedfocusthatis,thecamerawilltakealegiblepicture
onlywhenthelatentprintisatthefocalpoint,orexactlyflushwiththeopeningofthecamera.Thelatent
printmustnotbeinsidetheopenendofthecamera,normustitbebeyondotherwise,thepicturewillbe
blurred.[Pg186]
Sincethecamerahasitsownlightsource,anyleakageofoutsidelightwillcauseoverexposureofthe
film.Consequently,ifthesurfaceoftheobjectbearingthelatentprintwhichistobephotographedis
unevenordoesnotcovertheentirefrontofthecameraopening,itwillbenecessarytousesomeopaque
materialsuchasafocusingclothorheavydarkmaterialtocoverthefrontofthecamerasoastoexclude
alloutsidelight(fig.426).Ifalatentprintonapaneofglassoranautomobilewindowisbeing
photographed,itwillbenecessarytobackupthelatentsothattherewillbenolightleakage.Material
showingapatternorgrainshouldnotbeusedforthispurposeasanysuchpatternwillphotographinthe
backgroundandpossiblyobliteratetheridgesofthelatentprint.

[Fig.426]

Toinsureanequaldistributionofthelightoverthelatentsbeingphotographed,theimpressionsshouldbe
centeredintheopeningofthecamera.Thisisaccomplishedbyopeningtheangularfrontsectionofthe
cameraafterthemetalplatecoveringthefronthasbeenopened,andsettingtheapertureoverthelatent
impressionssothattheywillbeasnearthecenteraspossible.Then,holdingthecamerafirmlyinplace,
itiscarefullyclosed(fig.427).

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[Fig.427]

Duringexposurethecameramustbeheldperfectlystill.Anymovementofthecameraorobjectwill
resultinafuzzyordoubleimage.
Inphotographingasmall,movableobjectsuchasabottleortumbler,thecamerashouldnotbeplacedon
itsendandanattemptmadetobalance[Pg187]theobjectacrosstheopening.Instead,thecamera
shouldbeplacedonitssideandthebottleortumblerbuiltuptotheopeningsothatthereisnonecessity
forholdingtheobject(fig.428).Therewillbe,ofcourse,instanceswherethecamerawillhavetobe
held,suchastothesideofawall,cabinetorautomobile.Hereanextremeeffortshouldbemadetoavoid
movingthecameraorpermittingittoslipduringexposure.

[Fig.428]

Anticipatingthepossibleuseofthephotographicnegativesinacourtproceeding,itbecomesofparamount
importancetobeabletoidentifythem.Thisisdonebyusingwhatiscalledanidentificationtag.Thetag
consistsofasmallpieceofpaperbearingthedate,initialsoftheexaminer,andpossiblyacasenumber,
anditshouldbehandwritten.Thetagisplacednearthelatentprintsbeingphotographedsothatitwill
appearinthepicture.Itshouldbeborneinmindthatconcentrationshouldbeonthelatentimpressions,
whichmustbecentered,andtheidentificationtagshouldbetoonesideandnotcoveringanyofthelatent
prints.Anothermethodofidentification,ifthesurfacepermits,istowritetheabovementioneddataon
thesurfaceoftheobjectbearingthelatentssothattheinformationsetoutwillalsobeapartofthe
picture.Toomuchemphasiscannotbeplacedontheimportanceoftheidentificationtag.[Pg188]Thelack
ofsuchdata,bydiscretionofthecourt,mayexcludethelatentsasevidence,intheabsenceofthe
originalspecimenbearingthelatents.
ThefollowingaresuggestedexposuretimesforTriXfilm(availablein21/4"x31/4"filmpacks)with
batteryoperatedcamerashavinglenseswithoutdiaphragms:
Blackpowderprintonwhiteorlightbackgroundsnapshot
Grayorwhitepowderprintonblackordarkbackground1second
Thesesameexposuretimescanbeusedonsomecamerashavinglenseswithdiaphragms,providedthe
lensopeningissetatf6.3.

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Theaboveexposuretimesareforcameraswithbatteriesinaveragecondition.Ifbatteriesbecomeweak
theexposuresmaybeincreasedslightly.
Inmakingsnapshotstheshuttermechanismshouldbemanipulatedasrapidlyaspossiblesinceslow
motionwillappreciablylengthentheexposure.Inmakingtimeexposuresthecamerashuttermustbe
heldopenforthedesiredtime.Personnelwithphotographicexperiencemaydesiretousecutfilmwith
thefingerprintcamera.Afewtestswilldeterminetheoptimumexposuretimesforanyparticulartypeof
film.
Briefly,theprocedurefortakingphotographsoflatentsisasfollows:Thefilmpackisplacedintothefilm
packadapterwiththesafetypapersideofthefilmpacktotheslidesideoftheadapter,carebeingtaken
toseethatallofthepapertabsareoutsideoftheadapter.Theadapterisplacedonthecamerainits
properpositionbyopeningaslideclampattachedtothecamera,fittingthesideoftheadapterintothe
slotawayfromtheclampandpushingitdownflatintotheopening.Don'ttrytoslidetheadapterintothe
openingfromthetop.Theadapterislockedinpositionbyclosingtheclamp.Nexttheslideisremoved
andthetabmarked"SafetyCover"pulledoutasfarasitwillcomeandtornoff.Thecameraisplacedin
positionandthefirstexposuremadethenthe[Pg189]tabmarked"1"ispulledandthenextfilmisin
positionforexposure.Thisprocedureisfollowedwitheachsucceedingfilmuntilallhavebeenexposed.
Whenthelasttabhasbeenpulledout,thepackcanberemovedfromtheadapterindaylight.Ifallofthe
filmshavenotbeenexposedtheslideisreplacedintotheadapterandthefilmpackremovedfromitina
darkroom,aspreviouslystated.
Asamatterofregularpolicy,itisrecommendedthatmorethanoneexposurebemadeofeachlatent,
varyingthenormalexposuretimetoinsuresatisfactoryresults,especiallywhenthecontrastisnotagood
blackonwhiteorgrayonblack.
Beforestartingtophotograph,notethefollowing:
Checkshutteraction.
Checkbulbs,batteries,andlights.
Centerlatentsinopeningofcamera.
Latentbeingphotographedmustbeflushwithopeningofcamera.
Outsidelightmustbeexcluded.
Includeidentificationtaginphotograph.
Removeslideandpullsafetytaboffilmpackbeforemakingexposure.
Holdcamerastillwhilemakingexposure.
Pullcorrectnumbertabaftereachexposure(becarefulnottopullmorethanone).
Donotusegrainedorunevenmaterialasabackingwhenphotographinglatentsontransparentglass.
Mirrors,polishedchrome,andnickelplatewillphotographblackinthefingerprintcamera.
Theforegoinghasdealtwiththestandarduseofthefingerprintcamerawhenthedirectlightaffordedby
thecameragivessuitableresults.Therewillbecases,however,wheretheresultsfromtheuseofthe
directlightmaynotbeadequate.Suchcasesmayinvolvemoldedorembeddedprints,suchasprintsin
putty,wax,soap,etc.Shoulddirectlightgivepoorresults,sidelightingmayproveeffective.Thiscanbe
donebylooseningtwoofthebulbsononesidesothattheywillnotlight.Thelightgivenbytheothertwo
bulbsisdirectedsoastopassatrightangles,asmuchaspossible,acrosstheridgesoftheembedded
latentprint.Adjustmentoftheexposuretimemustbemadewhenthisisdone.
[Pg190]

CHAPTERXVI
PreparationofFingerprintChartsforCourtTestimony

Intestifyingtofingerprintidentification,theexpertoftenprepareschartstovisuallyaidthecourtandjury
inunderstandingthenatureofhistestimony.Manytimesitisundoubtedlydifficultforthelaymanto
perceive,fromavocalexplanationalone,thefullimportofanexpert'stestimony,duetoitstechnical
natureconsequently,somegraphicrepresentationofthefactspresentedisamplyjustifiedandrewarded.
Thepreparationofthechartsisultimatelythesoleresponsibilityoftheexpertusingthem.Asamatterof
interesttolawenforcementpersonnelengagedinfingerprintwork,abriefexplanationofthepreparation
ofsuchchartsfollows,alongwithsuggestionsandremarksbasedonlongexperienceinthesematters.
Todotheworkconveniently,itwillbenecessarytohaveavailable,inadditiontotheordinary
photographicdevelopingandprintingmaterials,aprojectionenlargerwhichwillenlargepreferablytoat
leasttendiameters.Intheprojectionmethodofenlargement,theimageisprinteddirectlyfromthe
originalnegative,andthepreparationofanenlargednegativeisunnecessary.

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Asidefromthephotographicequipment,theneededmaterialsare:arollofscotchphotographictape1
inchwidetooutlinetheareasofthefingerprintsonthenegativestobeusedsomestiffcardboard
approximately1/32inchthickonwhichtomountthepreparedchartsatubeofrubbercementanda
bottleoftranslucentink,otherthanblackorwhite.
Alightboxonwhichtoviewthenegativeswhileblocking,andaletteringsettodrawthelinesand
numbersuniformlyonthecharts,whilenotabsolutelyessential,arehelpfulconveniences.Alightboxis
basicallyafrostedpaneofglasswithalightbeneathittoproducesoft,even,nonglaringillumination.If
nolightboxisavailable,aclearwindowmaybeutilizedin"blocking"thenegatives.
Iftheexpertfindsitnecessarytohaveanoutsidesourcepreparehisphotographs,heshouldretain
personalcustodyoftheevidenceduringtheoperation.
Theoriginallatentprintandinkedprintwithwhichitisidenticalshouldbephotographedactualsize.This
procedureeliminatesguessworkinenlargingbothtothesamedegree.Whateverareasofthetwoprints
aredeemedrequisitetoillustratethemethodofidentificationarethenoutlined(blocked)onthenegatives
withthemaskingtape,sothatonlythoseareaswillshowinthesubsequentenlargements.Generally,if
the[Pg191]legibleareaofthelatentprintissmall,itiswelltoshowthecompleteprint.Iftheareais
large,however,asinapalmprint,anareawhichwillnotmakethecharttoobulkyorunwieldymaybe
selected.
Inblocking,thenegativeisaffixedtothewindowpaneorlightboxbymeansofstripsofphotographic
tapeacrossthecorners,withthesidetobeblockedup.Thispreventsconstantshiftingofthenegative
whileitisbeingprepared.Thelatentprintshouldbeblockedfirst.Cornersoftheblockedareasshouldbe
square.Careshouldbeexercisedtohaveasnearlyaspossiblethesameridgeformationsshownandthe
ridgeformationsinthesameuprightorhorizontalpositions.Thismaybefacilitatedbyfixinganegative,
bearingruledsquares,betweenthenegativebeingblockedandtheglasstowhichitisattached.
Ifthelatentprintwasdevelopedorphotographedasalightprintonadarkbackground,areversecolor
negativeshouldbepreparedandblockedinorderthatbothprintsmayappearasblackridgesonlight
backgrounds.Thisisdonebyplacingtheoriginalnegativeadjacenttoanewsheetoffilmandexposingit.
Theresultantnegativecontainsthesameimageastheoriginalexceptthatthecoloroftheimagehas
beenreversed.
Ifthenegativeisaphotographofanopaquelift,theprintappearsinreversepositionthatis,asamirror
image,andthenegativewillaccordinglyhavetobeblockedfromthedulloremulsionsideinorderforit
toappearinapositioncomparabletothatoftheinkedprint.
Failuretopresenttheprintsinquestioninthesamecolorandpositionmaypossiblyconfusetheobserver
andnullifythepurposeforwhichthechartismade.
Thedegreeofenlargementisnotimportantinitself,solongastheridgesofthelatentprintarereadily
distinguishablebytheeye.Tendiametershavebeenfoundadequate,althoughanyenlargementfrom5to
30willserve.Itshouldberemembered,however,thatsmallenlargementsaredifficulttoseeafewfeet
awayandthatlargeoneslosesomeofthecontrastbetweenridgesandbackground.Awhiteborderofat
least11/2inchesorawidthequaltoaboutonethirdtheenlargedareashouldbeleftforcharting
purposes.
Anychartpreparedmustbetechnicallycorrectthatis,thecorrespondingridgecharacteristicsinthetwo
printsmustbesimilarlynumberedandindicated.
Severalwaysofpointingoutthesimilarridgeformationshavebeenobserved,buttheonewhichappears
soundestisalsosimplestandconsistsofmerelymarkingthecharacteristicswithlinesandnumbers.
Alloftheridgecharacteristicsintheprintsneednotbecharted.Twelvecharacteristicsareampleto
illustrateanidentification,butitisneitherclaimednorimpliedthatthisnumberisrequired.
Allfingerprintidentificationsaremadebyobservingthattwoimpres[Pg192]sionshaveridge
characteristicsofsimilarshapeswhichoccupythesamerelativepositionsinthepatterns.
Methodsinvolvingsuperimpositionoftheprintsarenotrecommendedbecausesuchaprocedureis
possibleonlyinaveryfewinstances,duetothedistortionofridgesinmostprintsthroughpressureand
twisting.Suchaprocedureisnotnecessarilyatestofidentity.
Likewise,presentingchartswiththeshapesofthecharacteristicsdrawninthemarginisnot
recommended.Individualridgecharacteristicsmayvaryslightlyinactualshapeorphysicalpositiondue
totwisting,pressure,incompleteinking,conditionoflatentprintwhendeveloped,powderadheringto
background,etc.Identificationsarebasedonanumberofcharacteristicsviewedinaunitrelationshipand
notonthemicroscopicappearancesofsinglecharacteristics.
Sincetheenlargedphotographsappearinblackandwhite,aninkotherthanblackorwhiteshouldbeused
tolinethechart.Suchaninkshouldbepreferablytranslucentsothatitwillbepossibletoseetheridges
whichittraverses.Atranslucentcarminedrawinginkserveswell.Inplacingthelinesonthechart,they
shouldbearrangedsothattheydonotcrossortouch.
Thechartwillpresentaclearer,neater,andmorepleasingappearanceifitisnumberedclockwiseandthe
numbersareevenlyspaced(fig.429).Itisnotnecessary,however,toplacethenumbersevenlyaround
thephotograph.

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[Fig.429]

Ordinarily,thenumbersareplacedonthreesidesandthetypeofprint(latentorink)notedatthebottom.
Inanycase,themannerofnumberingshouldbesubservienttoanexplanationofthecharacteristicsinan
orderlysequenceand,ifthesituationwarrantsit,allofthepointsmaybeillustratedonasinglesideof
thephotograph.[Pg193]
Asinglelineshouldbedrawnfromeachcharacteristictoanumberedpointonthemargin.Careshouldbe
takentodrawthelineexactlytothecharacteristicpoint,notshortofit,beyondit,orobscuringit.
Erasuresshouldbeavoided.Iftheinkrunsorblots,itissometimespossibletoremoveitwithacloth
dampenedindenaturedalcohol,withoutdamagingthephotograph.
Iftheenlargementisgreat,thatis,25or30diameters,itmightbewelltodrawasmallcirclearound
eachcharacteristicandthendrawthelinefromthecircletothenumber,sincetheridgewillbemuch
thickerthantheillustratingline.Alllinesandnumbersshouldbecheckedforabsoluteaccuracy.The
expertshouldalsostudytheenlargementsforapparentdiscrepanciesintheprints,whichhemightbe
calledupontoexplain.
Thechartedenlargementsarereadilymountedonstiffcardboardwithrubbercement,whichmaybe
purchasedinsmalltubes.Aftercementingthephotographtothecardboard,itshouldbeplacedundera
heavyflatobjectwhichwillcovertheentiresurfaceuntildrytopreventwarpingandwrinkling.After
drying,trimthetwoenlargementstothesamesquaresizewithheavyscissors,apenknifeorscalpel,
andfastenthemtogether,bookfashion,withstripsofthephotographictapeusedinblockingthe
negatives.Ofcourse,ifchartsarelarge,20to36inchessquare,mountingisunnecessaryandtheywill
havetobesupportedinthecourtroomwiththumbtacksormetalrings.
Somecourtsdonotpermitnumberingorliningofthephotographsandtheenlargementsaloneinthese
caseswillhavetosuffice.Ifthereissomequestionaboutadmissibilityofthechartedenlargements,itis
welltoprepareanextraunchartedset.
[Pg194]

CHAPTERXVII
UnidentifiedLatentFingerprintFile

FromtimetotimetheFBIisrequestedtoconductsurveysandparticipateinconferencesandinpolice
schoolsontheproblemoffingerprintidentification.
Asaresultofitsobservationsinthecourseoftheseactivitiesithasbeenfoundthatmanyidentification
bureausarenotfullyawareoftheimportancewhichlatentfingerimpressionscanhaveinconnectionwith
theordinaryhandlingofarrestfingerprintcards.
Manybureausanddepartmentsspendconsiderabletimeindevelopinglatentimpressionsinaparticular
case.Ifnoimmediateresultsareforthcoming,thelatentimpressionsarefiledforfuturereference.
Singlefingerprintfileshavebeenmaintainedwithsuccessbysomedepartments.Manyothersdonot
attempttokeepafilebecauseofeitherlimitedpersonnelorlackoffunds.Inmanydepartments,
however,wheresuchafileismaintained,toooftenlatentimpressionsaresimplyfiledwithnoregardto
possiblefutureuse.Actually,theseimpressionsshouldbetreatedasevidencedirectlyconnectingthe
subjectwiththecrime.
Activeconsiderationshouldbegiventothelatentimpressionsuntiltheyareidentifiedorthecasehas
beensuccessfullyprosecuted.Itisdefinitelyfeltthatthefollowingsuggestedproceduremighthavesome
decidedadvantages.
Itissuggestedthatinallcaseswherelatentimpressionsaredevelopedatthecrimescene,oronan

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objectusedinconnectionwiththecommissionofacrime,theimpressionsbeproperlyphotographedand
lifted.Theevidence,wherepossibleandpracticable,shouldbeproperlypacked,labeled,andstoredfor
futureuseincourt(fig.430).

[Fig.430]

Usecareinwrappingtheevidencetoseethatthelatentimpressionsontheobjectsarenotdestroyed.If
thespecimensarelaterusedincourt,theimpressionsshouldstillbeclearlyvisible.Inthesamemanner,
allevidencenotofabulkynature,suchasphotographicnegatives,photographs,andliftsoflatent
impressions,shouldbesimilarlypreservedforfuturecourtuse.Itistobeemphasizedthatallmaterialin
onecaseshouldbearacasenumber.Allspecimensnotofabulkynaturecanbeplacedinanenvelope
andfiledbythiscasenumber(fig.431).

[Fig.431]

Theaboveprocedureistheusualonefollowedbythemajorityofidentificationbureausinhandlinglatent
impressions.Inorder,however,tokeepthelatentsinanactivestate,thephotographsofallthelatent
impressionsfoundinaparticularcaseshouldbecutupandpastedona3by5cardbearingthecase
numberandtitleofthecase(fig.432).

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[Fig.432]

Ifnumerouslatentsaredeveloped,severalcardsshouldbeused,all[Pg196][Pg195]havingthesame
numberandtitle.Thesecardsarethenfiledbycasenumberinaregularfilingcabinet.Beforethisstepis
taken,everyeffortshouldbemadetosecureandcomparethefingerprintsofindividualswhomay
legitimatelyhaveplacedtheirprintsontheobjectswhichwereexamined.Inaddition,aspartofthecase
reportbearingthesamecasenumberasthelatentimpressions,thereshouldbeanotationpointingout
thatlatentimpressionsweredevelopedinthecaseandthattheyareonfile.
Fingerprintcomparisonsinthisunidentifiedfilecanbemadeonthebasisoffingerprintstakenfromdayto
dayofindividualsfingerprintedforcriminalidentificationpurposes.Aroutinemaybesetupwherebythe
fingerprintsofindividualsarrestedeachdaywillbecomparedthefollowingdaywiththelatent
fingerprintsfiledintheunidentifiedlatentfile.Itismostimportantthatthisprocedureberigidlyfollowed
fromdaytoday.Itistobeborneinmindthatthecomparisonsaremadewhethertheparticularpersonis
orisnotasuspectinacertaincase.Specialattentionshouldbepaidtofingerprintsofindividualscharged
withburglary,breakingandentering,armedrobbery,andothersimilarcrimes.
Shouldanidentificationbemadeofsomelatentprints,andothersinthesamecaseremainunidentified,
the3by5cardshouldremaininfileuntilthecaseisfullyclosed,inasmuchasmorethanonepersonmay
beinvolvedinthecrime.Ofcourse,ifallthelatentsareidentified,thenthe3by5cardisremovedand
placedwiththenegatives,lifts,etc.[Pg197]
Itmaybedeemedadvisabletoremovetheselatentsfromthefileininstanceswherethestatuteof
limitationscoveringthecrimehasrun.
Iftheaboveprocedureisrigidlyfollowed,identificationinmanyinstanceswillresultmorethanwouldbe
effectedifthedepartmentmaintainedonlyasinglefingerprintfileinwhichthelatentprintsweremerely
filedaway.Veryoftensuchalatentfingerprintfileisasourceofinformationwhenalllogicalinvestigative
leadshavebeenexhausted.
ThisrsumoflatentimpressionshasbeenpreparedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigationinthebelief
thatitmaybeofpossibleinteresttolawenforcementofficersdesiringtoavailthemselvesoflatent
identificationevidenceinconnectionwiththeirinvestigativeactivities.Itshouldbeborneinmindthatthe
commentsandexpressionssetoutinthisbookarenotintendedtoconveythethoughtthattheFederal
BureauofInvestigationbelievesthepointsemphasizedaretheonlyonesofmoment,orthatother
methodsofdevelopinglatentimpressionsarenotequallyacceptable.TheFederalBureauofInvestigation
willbegladtoansweranyquestionsontheforegoingwhichmayoccurtoanylawenforcementofficer
whoreadsthismaterial.

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contactanexpertinthefieldinquestion.

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